Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PTQ VOLUME 3
ISSUE 1
ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION PERSONAL TRAINING QUARTERLY
PTQ
Personal Training Quarterly (PTQ)
publishes basic educational
information for Associate and
Professional Members of the
NSCA specifically focusing on
personal trainers and training
enthusiasts. As a quarterly
publication, this journal’s mission
is to publish peer-reviewed
VOLUME 3
articles that provide basic,
practical information that is
ISSUE 1
research-based and applicable to
personal trainers.
CONTACT
Personal Training Quarterly (PTQ)
1885 Bob Johnson Drive
Colorado Springs, CO 80906
phone: 800-815-6826
email: matthew.sandstead@
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ISSN 2376-0850
PTQ 3.1 | NSCA.COM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10 MANAGEMENT OF MUSCULOSKELETAL
INJURIES—A REVIEW FOR FITNESS
PROFESSIONALS
SCOTT CHEATHAM, DPT, PT, OCS, ATC, CSCS
22 CARNITINE—EFFECTIVE FAT-LOSS
SUPPLEMENT?
DYLAN KLEIN, PHD(C)
26 TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL—
APPLICATIONS TO PERSONAL TRAINING
RYAN ECKERT, CSCS, NSCA-CPT
B
attling rope exercises are increasingly popular amongst than did the single-arm wave consisting of 15 s on each arm (7).
strength and conditioning professionals. A common method It makes sense that the double-arm wave provides a stronger
is to use battling rope exercises as a metabolic training metabolic stimulus than does the single-arm wave, since the
modality following a comprehensive resistance training workout, single-arm wave involves less overall motion of the leg and hip
which is referred to as a “metabolic finisher.” The main idea behind musculature. It is most likely that the increased involvement
using battling rope exercises in this manner is to increase the of the lower body during the double-arm wave leads to the
client’s heart rate and help maximize the metabolic cost of the greater metabolic response.
training session.
2. USE SHORTER REST PERIODS
A 2013 study demonstrated that exercises with battling ropes Rather than using long rest periods between bouts of battling
elicited relatively higher acute metabolic demands than traditional rope exercises, it may be most beneficial to use shorter rest
resistance exercises performed with moderately heavy loads (6). periods. The cardiovascular and metabolic effects that battling
Integrating battling rope exercises along with traditional resistance rope exercises create are increased by using one-minute rest
training allows the client to reap the unique benefits that both intervals compared to two minutes of rest (7).
types of exercise offer, including making the workouts more
comprehensive, diverse, and interesting. This article provides three 3. USE SUPRAMAXIMAL INTERVALS
scientifically founded, practical training strategies that can be High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is currently a hot topic in
immediately implemented in order to help maximize the metabolic fitness and sports training. According to the American College of
cost of performing battling rope exercise. Sports Medicine (ACSM) HIIT was identified as the most popular
fitness trend worldwide for 2014 (9). Unlike most fitness training
1. INVOLVE AS MANY MUSCLES AS POSSIBLE trends, HIIT has been shown in the research to provide improved
The metabolic cost of a given exercise relates directly to the work capacity, glucose metabolism, and fat burning (4,5,8).
amount of muscle worked (3). For instance, when using battling
ropes, the client should allow the entire body to contribute to the While most personal trainers and athletes are familiar with HIIT,
motion of rapidly moving the ropes back and forth in a manner many are less familiar with supramaximal interval training (SMIT).
that is smooth and coordinated. Battling rope exercises can be To better understand how to properly use SMIT and HIIT, one must
beneficial in a workout program because they involve many joints first understand the differences between the two. HIIT involves
moving simultaneously—not just the arms. Therefore, they require interspersing high-intensity work intervals performed at 100%
the client to expend more energy because they require more VO2max with either low-intensity, active-recovery, or passive
muscles to work. recovery phases (e.g., standing or sitting fairly still). SMIT, on the
other hand, involves interspersing maximal-intensity bursts of
Battling rope exercises can be performed as either a single- or physical activity intervals performed at more than 100% VO2max
double-arm exercise. Although both single- and double- arm with the same rest interval.
exercises can be very effective for increasing the metabolic
demand of a workout, double-arm exercises may be more Performing SMIT may even be a more effective method for
effective. A recent study found that 30 s of the double-arm improving fitness and performance. A 2013 study published in the
wave using battling ropes yielded a larger metabolic response European Journal of Sport Science looked at the endurance
Do not allow your back to round when you slam the ropes toward
the ground. Do not just use your arms; allow your entire body to
contribute to rapidly moving the ropes. Move as fast as possible
without pausing at any point until the set is completed.
ROPE PRESS WAVES (FIGURES 7 AND 8) set is completed. Do not just use your arms; allow your entire body
Anchor a heavy rope at its center away from where you are to contribute to the motion of rapidly moving the ropes. Since this
standing and around a stable object. Stand facing the rope with exercise uses the opposite grip than rope tidal waves, the emphasis
your feet hip-width apart, your knees slightly bent, and one end of this exercise is reversed. It emphasizes a pushing action—driving
of the rope in each hand with your arms in front of you at roughly the rope away from you—instead of a pulling action—driving the
waist height.
rope down into the ground—to create the waves.
Extend your legs and explosively drive your arms out in front
of your body at roughly a 45-degree angle. Quickly reverse the
motion, pulling your arms back down and returning to the starting
position. Continue this total-body action, whipping the ropes up
and down as fast as possible without pausing at any point until the
ROPE RAINBOWS (FIGURES 9 – 11) Move the ropes back and forth in a manner that is fast but smooth
Anchor a heavy rope at its center away from where you are and coordinated; do not use a jerking, stop-and-start motion. Use
standing and around a stable object. Stand facing the rope with your legs by allowing your knees to bend as your arms lower to
your feet hip-width apart while holding one end of the rope in each side and by extending your legs each time your arms are
each hand above your head with your elbows bent and your hands overhead when you go back to center.
underneath the rope.
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PTQ 3.1 | NSCA.COM 9
FEATURE ARTICLE
M
ost fitness professionals commonly encounter individuals more severe strains. Table 1 provides a description of the three
with musculoskeletal injuries (MSI). Injuries to the different grades of muscle strains (1).
musculoskeletal system are common in active individuals
who participate in fitness and sport-related activities. Hootman et LIGAMENT SPRAINS
al. surveyed 6,313 active adults aged 20 – 85 years old and found Ligament sprains often occur with trauma such as a fall or collision
that 83% reported exercise-related musculoskeletal injury with during contact sports (e.g., a soccer player collides with another
more than 66% of injuries occurring to the lower extremities (6). player, spraining their knee ligaments). The most common joints
Kaplan et al. reported that one in four women who are physically for sprains include the ankle, knee, thumb/fingers, and shoulder
active experience an exercise-related MSI (7). Having a basic (1). If a sprain occurs, the client often reports hearing a “popping”
understanding of how to manage MSIs is important for fitness sound followed by immediate pain, swelling, instability, decreased
professionals in order to train these clients safely. This article will range of motion (ROM), and loss of function. Table 2 provides a
provide a basic review of three common musculoskeletal injuries, three-level grading system for ligament sprains (1).
the tissue healing process, monitoring post-injury pain, signs of
BONE FRACTURES
overtraining, and reducing injury risk.
A fracture is a break in the bone, which is typically caused by
COMMON MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES some type of trauma or overuse. For example, fractures can
As individuals participate in physical activity, it is possible that occur from a simple fall onto the ground that can cause a minor
they will sustain an MSI. Three common types of MSIs include break, or from a high speed motor vehicle accident that can
muscle strains, ligament sprains, and bone fractures. All present cause multiple, severe fractures (1). Fitness professionals should
distinct signs and symptoms that fitness professionals need to be understand that fractures usually do not occur in isolation but
able to recognize in order to properly manage. rather, are accompanied by damage to the skin, muscles, vessels,
and organs, which can all affect the healing process (1).
MUSCLE STRAINS
Muscle strains often occur as an acute traumatic event that Of particular interest to fitness professionals are stress fractures.
results in a loss of function. When the muscle cannot meet the A stress fracture is a small crack in the bone that is caused by
activity demands and works beyond its physiological capacity, overuse. With overuse, the muscles may become fatigued and
an injury often occurs. With mild strains, the client may report unable to absorb the repetitive forces which eventually transfer
a “pulling sensation” with pain. In more severe cases, the straight to the bone. If the bone cannot repair itself fast enough,
client may report feeling a “pop” followed by pain, swelling, it may result in a stress fracture (11). The majority of stress
and discoloration (1). Loss of function typically occurs with fractures occur in the weight bearing bones of the foot (e.g.,
ACUTE PAIN
FIGURE 1. PHASES OF TISSUE HEALING Acute or immediate pain often signals tissue damage and elicits
a “fight or flight” response. Symptoms often include anxiety,
INFLAMMATORY PHASE increased blood pressure, increased muscle tension, and guarding of
The inflammatory phase begins immediately after an injury. the injured area (1,9). A good example would be a basketball player
The local blood vessels constrict at the injury site to control who lands on an opponent’s foot and sprains an ankle.
bleeding. Special cells called platelets rush to the area to control
CHRONIC PAIN
bleeding and signal other important cells such as neutrophils and
Chronic pain is considered pain that lasts longer than three
macrophages to the area (7,8). Neutrophils fight infection while
months (1,9). This often results in depression, a preoccupation with
macrophages begin to clean up the damaged tissue. This phase
symptoms, and trouble sleeping and eating. An example would be a
can last up to six days as the body attempts to protect the injured
client with multiple low-back surgeries who has not fully recovered
area, remove damaged tissue, and start the healing process.
and is experiencing chronic pain.
This phase of healing is often characterized by redness, warmth,
swelling, pain, and dysfunction (1,7). REFERRED PAIN
Referred pain is pain that is transferred to an area away from the
FIBROBLASTIC/PROLIFERATION PHASE
site of the injury. The pain may have a specific pathway or may be
The fibroblastic/proliferation phase begins as the inflammatory
diffused to several areas. Numbness and tingling may accompany
phase comes to an end. Scar formations begin as the fibroblast
the pain if nerve involvement is present (1,9). For example, a
cells enter the area and produce large amounts of collagen
pinched nerve from a damaged lumbar disc can result in referred
and proteoglycans, which are key components to the scar
pain in the leg. Table 3 provides examples of some of the different
formation process (1,7,8). The scar can resist normal stresses
types of pain elicited by various tissues of the body.
within 2 – 3 weeks and will continue to strengthen for several
months. This phase typically lasts from three days to six weeks. Using an 11-point numerical pain rating scale to measure pain, where
During this phase, the body is filling in the injured area with a “0” means no pain and “10” equates to the worst pain imaginable,
scar and restoring function to the tissues. This phase is typically is a great way for the client to communicate what they are feeling
characterized by a slow return to function, decreased pain, and before, during, and after activity (3). Using a pain scale may
swelling with activity (1,7). enhance the safety of the training sessions and offer a simple way
for clients to communicate to the fitness professional.
PTQ 3.1 | NSCA.COM 11
MANAGEMENT OF MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES—
A REVIEW FOR FITNESS PROFESSIONALS
L
et’s take this scenario: You are a personal trainer, certified states offer certain limited exemptions. Virtually all states offer
by the National Strength and Conditioning Association an exemption of some kind for retailers and others who sell
(NSCA) as a Certified Personal Trainer (NSCA-CPT®). You supplements or food, allowing them to make explanations as to
are thoroughly knowledgeable about the latest research and their preparation or use (4).
theories on healthy eating. One of your clients, Bob, asks you
what and how to eat in order to lose his spare tire and build But not all states are quite so limiting. Currently, in six states—
strength and muscle. You tell Bob to reduce his calories, eat Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, and New Mexico—
more protein and less sugary cereal, and cut back on the six- and the District of Columbia, it is illegal to provide individualized
pack of beer he drinks twice a week. Maybe you even write nutrition counseling without a license or exemption. However, RDs
him up a custom diet plan, meal by meal. Everything you offer are not the only ones eligible for licensing. While the specifics
Bob is sound advice and complies with accepted nutritional vary by state, these states offer greater flexibility in permitting
principles. How, then, could anyone accuse you of doing anything certain non-RDs to become licensed.
wrong? It depends upon the state in which you are located.
Yet another 15 states—Arkansas, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana,
What is legal and what is not when it comes to giving nutrition
Kentucky, Nevada, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, South Carolina,
recommendations is based on individual state laws, not federal
Texas, Utah, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin—focus not on
law. Moreover, these laws may change from year to year.
giving the advice itself, but on what you call yourself (3). These
No matter how wonderful your recommendations were, in 16 states make it legal for all to provide individualized nutrition
states as of writing this article—Alabama, Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, counseling as long as you are not using a protected title. Only
Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Carolina, RDs can use the title—meaning that others cannot call themselves
North Dakota, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, and a “dietitian” or even a “nutritionist,” depending on the state
Wyoming—your advice to Bob may have run afoul of the law. (5,6). So, while you can provide the counseling to Bob, not being
In these restrictive states there are laws that make it illegal to able to use the title may deprive you of certain advantages (e.g.,
provide individualized nutrition counseling without a license, and insurance reimbursement eligibility).
licenses are limited almost exclusively to Registered Dietitians
In nine other states—Alaska, Connecticut, Massachusetts,
(RDs) with the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (1). In effect,
Minnesota, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
non-RD nutritionists and personal trainers in these states are
Washington—you can provide nutrition counseling to Bob as long
generally barred from providing individualized nutritional
as you do not use the protected title. However, the title is offered
counseling regardless of their knowledge or expertise. Some
not only to RDs but also to some non-RDs, such as nutritionists.
T
he base level of education developed by a certified personal Over time, a rookie trainer can increase the reach of their clientele
trainer can be acquired in many different ways. Some earn by utilizing three avenues. The first avenue is the commitment
four-year degrees in kinesiology, others attend specialty to continue their education through scientific and evidence-
schools, and some implement a self-study plan featuring a based research (1). The personal training industry is growing
textbook and study materials on their own. Collectively, their at a rapid rate with a large amount of research studies being
first focus is to prepare and earn an accredited certification. conducted. These studies produce a massive amount of content
Once certified, they begin the process of building a clientele (1). which a trainer can use to build more efficient program designs,
To accomplish this task, the trainer must focus on continuing learn appropriate cues, and develop progressions that are more
their work experience, developing their education, and expanding productive for their clientele.
their knowledge base to work with a larger and more diverse
range of clientele. Second, through hands-on education in a practical format.
Attending and participating in conferences, clinics, seminars,
All personal trainers start in the fitness industry at an entry level mentorships, internships, certification programs, and certificate
position in which the majority, if not all, of their knowledge is programs provides a trainer the opportunity to connect with their
theoretical. Gradually, their knowledge base increases through peers and learn from some of the best teachers and researchers
hands-on experience and exposure to clients during shadowing in the industry. A trainer can participate and learn to perform
sessions, internships, or mentorships. From this point on, the movements correctly through hands-on practical experience
trainer must troubleshoot new challenges that arise as clients’ and earn secondary certifications or certificates to add to their
goals change, physical limitations occur, and the number of clients credibility and expertise.
increases.
As a personal trainer continues to grow their clientele they will
Every personal trainer has a professional scope of practice in be presented with a variety of new goals, physical limitations,
which their current clientele can be categorized (2). The personal and diseases. These challenges can range from fat loss, sports
training industry is made up of many different clienteles with performance, muscle gain (hypertrophy), nutritional guidance,
different fitness goals, physical limitations, and diseases in which lower back pain, frozen shoulder, tissue and joint repairs, joint
they want to pursue, improve, or defeat. It is the trainer’s task to replacements, cosmetic surgery, cancer surgery/treatment,
obtain this information through the initial interview, consultation, scoliosis, diabetes, and arthritis just to name a few (1). All of these
and evaluation of a client (2). Based on the information acquired physical limitations can be intimidating for a personal trainer to
during that process, the trainer must decide if their knowledge take on, however, with a network of health and fitness professionals
base and experience can safely and efficiently train the client to pull information from, a trainer can progress a client accordingly.
appropriately (4). If the trainer feels that they are unable to meet It is considered a responsible step for a personal trainer to consult
the requirements of the client, it is their professional responsibility with a colleague, mentor, or associate (or with the professional in
to refer the client to an individual with a scope of practice that which their client was referred) to confirm that the progressions for
does meet the requirements (i.e., physical therapist, medical their client are safe, efficient, and appropriate (5).
doctor, registered dietitian, etc.).
Shoulder Injury:
Speed and Power Production:
Special Populations: Older Adults Chronic or Acute Shoulder Pain,
Olympic Lifts, Plyometrics,
Daily Life Activities and Injury Prevention Frozen Shoulder, Bursitis,
Agility and Speed Drills, etc.
Tendonitis, Rotator Cuff Injury, etc.
I
t is well known that epidemics of obesity and diabetes components for obtaining and maintaining a healthy lifestyle (7).
have grown at an alarming rate among adults and children, The World Health Organization (WHO) defines overweight and
throughout the entire world (15,21). It is likely that the health obese people as having abnormal or excessive fat accumulation
and fitness industry will play a major role regarding the prevention that presents a risk to health based on the body mass index (BMI)
and rehabilitation of these widespread issues (14). The modern (27). A person who is overweight has a BMI greater than or equal
way of living has, in some cases, eliminated or reduced the to 25 and obesity is categorized as someone with a BMI greater
amount of regular physical activity as a fundamental stimuli from than or equal to 30 (27). On the other hand, diabetes mellitus
many people’s daily lives. The growth of obesity and diabetes is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by abnormal levels
suggests that there is an imbalance between the modern lifestyle of fasting blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and
and physical requirements. Physical inactivity has become a major relative insulin deficiency (2). People who are overweight or
risk factor for chronic non-communicable diseases in certain obese, or have diabetes mellitus type 2 are at a major risk for a
populations (5). In fact, opportunities to be physically active tend number of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease,
to decrease at the onset of adulthood and recent lifestyle changes metabolic syndrome, and cancer (2). Once considered a problem
(e.g., cell phones, advanced computers, and high resolution only in high income populations, overweight/obesity and diabetes
televisions) have reinforced this phenomenon (11). According are now dramatically on the rise in low and middle income
to the European Commission, 40 – 60% of the European Union populations, particularly in urban settings (14). Additionally, recent
population can be categorized as living a sedentary lifestyle, statistics indicate that approximately 1.5 billion adults 20 years and
while roughly 31% are able to complete the European Union older are overweight, and of these individuals, approximately 500
guidelines of 30 min of moderate physical activity per day (12). million are obese (14). Based on the latest available data, more
Unfortunately, similar statistics can be found in the United States, than half (52%) of the adult population in the European Union is
Canada, and Australia, where approximately only about 48%, 54%, overweight or obese (14). On average, across the European Union,
and 33% of the population is physically active, respectively (8,10). 17% of the adult population is obese, with more than one-third
(35%) of United States adults considered obese (25). In addition,
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL OVERVIEW the global prevalence of diabetes is estimated to be 9% among
In Europe, a startling 35% of people over the age of 15 did not adults aged 18 years or older and the WHO projects that diabetes
reach the minimum recommended levels of regular physical will be the 7th leading cause of death in 2030 as the rates of
activity (26). The latest research findings clearly show that type 2 diabetes have increased markedly over the last 50 years in
regularly engaging in exercise and activity are two key parallel with obesity (25).
prevention and control. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ Pietro, L, et al. How much physical activity is enough to prevent
workplacehealthpromotion/implementation/topics/obesity.html. unhealthy weight gain? Outcome of the IASO 1st Stock Conference
and consensus statement. Obesity Reviews 4: 101-114, 2003.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State indicator
report on physical activity. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health 22. Thompson, WR. Worldwide survey reveals fitness trends for
and Human Services, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ 2012. ACSM’s Health Fitness Journal 15(6): 9-18, 2011.
physicalactivity/downloads/PA_State_Indicator_Report_2010.pdf. 23. Thompson, WR. Worldwide survey reveals fitness trends for
9. CNN Money. Best jobs in America: 18. personal trainer. 2015. ACSM’s Health Fitness Journal 18(6): 8-17, 2014.
2012. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/pf/best-jobs/2012/ 24. Ward, BW, and Schiller, JS. Prevalence of multiple chronic
snapshots/18.html. conditions among US adults: Estimates from the National Health
10. Colley, RC, Garriguet, D, Janssen, I, Craig, CL, Clarke, J, and Interview Survey, 2010. Preventing Chronic Disease 10, 2013.
Tremblay, MS. Physical activity of Canadian adults: Accelerometer 25. World Health Organization. Global status report on non-
results from the 2007 to 2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey. communicable diseases 2014. WHO Publishing: Geneva (CH); 208-
Health Reports 22(1): 7-14, 2011. 271, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/nmh/publications/
11. Donnelly, JE, Blair, SN, Jakicic, JM, Manore, MM, Rankin, JW, ncd-status-report-2014/en/.
and Smith, BK. American College of Sports Medicine. American 26. World Health Organization. Obesity and overweight. Media
College of Sports Medicine position stand: Appropriate physical Centre. 2015. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/
activity intervention strategies for weight loss and prevention factsheets/fs311/en/.
of weight regain for adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise 41(2): 459-471, 2009. 27. World Health Organization. Physical activity and health in
Europe: Evidence for action. WHO Publishing: Copenhagen (DK);
12. European Commission. Sport and physical activity. Special 8-10, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.euro.who.int/__data/
Eurobarometer. 2014. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/public_ assets/pdf_file/0011/87545/E89490.pdf.
opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_412_fact_uk_en.pdf.
13. European Union. Physical activity guidelines: Recommended
policy actions in support of health-enhancing physical activity. ABOUT THE AUTHOR
European Commission. 2008. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/ Alexis Batrakoulis holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Physical
sport/library/documents/c1/eu-physical-activity-guidelines-2008_ Education and Sport Science with specialization in fitness
en.pdf. and a Master of Science degree in Exercise and Health with
14. Flegal, KM, Kit, BK, Orpana, H, and Graubard, BI. Association specialization in chronic diseases. He also holds 13 primary and
of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard specialty certifications through National Strength and Conditioning
body mass index categories: A systematic review and meta- Association (NSCA), American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM),
analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 309(1): 71-82, National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), American Council on
2013. Exercises (ACE), and Aerobics and Fitness Association of America
(AFAA). He is a member of the Standards Council of EuropeActive
15. Hallal, PC, Andersen, LB, Bull, FC, Guthold, R, Haskell, W, and
(formerly the European Health and Fitness Association [EHFA])
Ekelund, WU. Global physical activity levels: Surveillance progress,
and has served as a member or leader of technical experts groups
pitfalls, and prospects. The Lancet 380(9838): 247-257, 2012.
for the development of educational standards regarding the Pre-
16. Hossain, P, Kawar, B, and El Nahas, M. Obesity and diabetes in Diabetes Exercise Specialist and Weight Management Exercise
the developing world – A growing challenge. New England Journal Specialist at the vocational level in Europe. He has 21 years of
of Medicine 356(3): 213-215, 2007. experience in commercial fitness clubs, personal training, athletic
17. International Health, Racquet and SportsClub Association. preparation, and fitness education. Additionally, he is the Education
The 2013 IHRSA Global Report: The state of the health and club Director of Personal Training Certification at Greek Aerobics and
industry. Boston, MA; 14-16, 2013. Fitness Training School (GRAFTS), which is the largest training
provider in Greece and Cyprus.
18. LaMonte, MJ, Barlow, CE, Jurca, R, Kampert, JB, Church, TS,
and Blair, SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness is inversely associated with
the incidence of metabolic syndrome: a prospective study of men
and women. Circulation 112(4): 505-512, 2005.
19. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion. The Power of Prevention: Chronic disease… the public
health challenge of the 21st century. 2009. Retrieved from http://
www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/pdf/2009-power-of-prevention.pdf.
20. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Health at a glance 2013. OECD Publishing; 48-59, 2013.
21. Saris, WH, Blair, SN, van Baak, MA, Eaton, SB, Davies, PS, Di
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odybuilders, fitness enthusiasts, and even scientific during exercise (at 80% VO2max), with no concomitant increases
researchers are constantly trying to discover new ways in skeletal muscle carnitine, the muscle still oxidizes more fat (4).
to improve fat loss and overall health. A very popular This evidence suggests that carnitine translocation may not be
supplement believed to aid in this process is carnitine. Carnitine the rate-limiting step during fat oxidation. Therefore, increasing
is a nutrient found in meat, dairy, and eggs, and is intimately muscle carnitine levels may not amount to further increases in fat
involved in fat metabolism. In theory, if one can transport more fat oxidation. This is because maximal rates may already be achieved
into the mitochondria, then more fat can be broken down, thereby with lower levels of muscle carnitine and that artificially high levels
decreasing body fat. While this may seem logical on the surface, of fatty acids in the blood are easily handled without additional
the truth is that there is more to the story than is commonly stated carnitine. Nevertheless, is there still a role for increasing muscle
when hearing about carnitine to improve fat loss. This article will levels of carnitine, and if so, is it even possible?
review the literature to see if carnitine truly has a role in fat loss, or
if it is ineffective as a fat-loss supplement.
CARNITINE INGESTION
Many studies show that chronic ingestion of carnitine does very
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF CARNITINE little to augment intramuscular stores. In 1994, Barnett and
Carnitine is a vitamin-like, water-soluble amine obtained through colleagues showed that two weeks of carnitine supplementation
dietary intake or by synthesis in both the liver and kidneys. at 4 g per day did not significantly affect muscle levels of carnitine
Almost all (about 95 – 98%) of the bodily stores of carnitine are (1). Similarly, Vukovich et al. investigated the effects of carnitine
in skeletal muscle and the heart, with the remaining 2 – 5% in the supplementation on muscle carnitine concentrations and glycogen
liver, kidneys, and blood (11). Carnitine plays a pivotal role in fat content during submaximal exercise, in which subjects ingested
metabolism by transporting fatty acids within the mitochondria to 6 g per day of carnitine and still did not show any increases
be oxidized and generate ATP (11). Without carnitine, this process in muscle levels of carnitine (12). Using a longer study design,
could not take place and fat oxidation in skeletal muscle would be Wächter et al. gave subjects 4 g of carnitine per day for three
greatly hindered (6). months and still did not see any increases in muscle levels of
carnitine (13). Based on these findings, oral ingestion of carnitine
The theory behind carnitine supplementation is that more alone appears to have virtually no effect on intramuscular levels.
intramuscular carnitine equates to greater fatty acid transport Even direct intravenous infusion of carnitine has been shown
and oxidation, leading to improvements in fat loss. This theory, to be unsuccessful (2,7). In addition, performance parameters
however, operates under some assumptions: that carnitine such as perceived exertion, exercise performance, VO2max, and
translocation is the rate-limiting step in fatty acid oxidation, markers of muscle substrate usage such as respiratory exchange
meaning that increasing free carnitine levels will equate to greater ratio, fatty acid turnover across the leg, and post-exercise muscle
transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria and more fat glycogen content were all shown to be unaffected by the ingestion
oxidation; and, that you can increase muscle levels of carnitine of 2 – 5 g of carnitine per day (anywhere from one week up to
through dietary means. If all these assumptions are true, there three months) (6). The majority of evidence shows that intake of
may be a reasonable case for carnitine supplementation. carnitine alone fails to increase intramuscular levels and therefore
will not likely increase fat burning.
INTRAMUSCULAR CARNITINE AND FATTY ACID
TRANSPORT AND OXIDATION INSULIN, CARBOHYDRATES, AND CHOLINE
It is assumed that carnitine translocation is the rate-limiting step While intake of carnitine alone has proved unsuccessful at increasing
in fat oxidation. However data suggest that fat oxidation actually intramuscular levels, combining carnitine with other substances has
occurs when carnitine levels are well below resting levels (10). been shown to increase the level of skeletal muscle carnitine.
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FEATURE ARTICLE
TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL—
APPLICATIONS TO PERSONAL TRAINING
RYAN ECKERT, CSCS, NSCA-CPT
T
he certified personal trainer (CPT), as defined by the characterizing this theory (4). The social ecological model
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), describes the many different variables that influence behavior,
is an individual who assesses, motivates, and educates ranging from the intrapersonal level to the public policy level
clients regarding their health/fitness needs (1). The CPT uses (4). The TTM, on the other hand, proposes stages of change
an individualized approach, designs safe and effective exercise that individuals progress through as behaviors are modified
programs, responds appropriately in emergency situations, and (4). While all three of these models and theories have been
refers clients to other healthcare professionals when necessary successfully utilized within exercise interventions, the purpose
(1). A CPT may also provide general nutritional advice and of this brief review will be to discuss the application of the TTM
facilitate healthy behavior changes. Among the many aspects and its constructs in modifying exercise behavior in the personal
of the CPT’s duties, facilitating behavior change may perhaps training setting. The TTM was chosen for this review as it is a well-
be the most crucial element in promoting overall client success. established model for facilitating exercise behavior change (4).
Long-term client progress is dependent on a variety of factors, Therefore, a summary of the model and its application to personal
but healthy behavior change provides the foundation upon which training can be useful for the fitness professional.
success is realized.
THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL
In order to facilitate healthy behavior change, models and theories The TTM was introduced in the early 1980s and has been applied
are often used as guiding frameworks from which to develop an to many health behaviors since its conception (6). The model
evidence-based intervention. There are a variety of such models was originally applied to smoking cessation, but its application
to choose from when attempting to change a client’s behavior, has expanded to address many other health behaviors, including
and some models might be better suited for certain behaviors. The exercise. As stated previously, this model proposes stages of
most common behaviors that CPTs will be working with include change that individuals progress through as they attempt to
diet and exercise. This article will deal specifically with exercise- change a specific behavior (4). However, these stages are only
related change. one construct within the model. Other constructs included within
the TTM include processes of change, decisional balance, and
Many different theories and models have been successfully used to self-efficacy (2). All of the constructs that characterize the TTM
facilitate exercise behavior change, including the transtheoretical have been applied to exercise behavior (6). This review will focus
model (TTM), social cognitive theory (SCT), and social ecological mainly on the “stages of change” model and how it relates to
model (4). The SCT model identifies a variety of factors that exercise behavior. The other constructs and their application to
influence behaviors, with self-efficacy being the key concept exercise behavior will be discussed briefly.
1. Are you currently physically active (i.e., accumulating 150 minutes or more of moderate-intensity activity or 75 minutes or more of
vigorous-intensity activity each week)? If yes, in action or maintenance stage and go to question 2; if no, go to question 3.
2. Have you been regularly physically active for at least the past 6 months? If yes, in maintenance stage and stop questions; if no, go
to question 3.
3. Are you doing any physical activity? If yes, in action stage and stop questions; if no, go to question 4.
4. Have you made any actions and/or concrete plans to increase your physical activity (e.g., gym membership, purchase exercise
equipment, hire a personal trainer)? If yes, in preparation stage and stop questions; if no, go to question 5.
5. Do you plan on becoming more physically active within the next 6 months? If yes, in contemplation stage; if no, in
precontemplation stage.
Precontemplation - may have made several failed attempts in the past - provide motivation to consider
and are discouraged to begin exercising again increasing physical activity level
through positive encouragement
- may have low exercise-related
self-esteem and/or self-confidence - discuss the pros and cons of
starting a regular exercise program
- active, and have maintained a physically - educate on skills needed for long-term
active lifestyle for at least 6 months maintenance of physical activity
- maintaining activity level may be easier - monitor on a less regular basis
for client once in this stage in order to monitor progress
Maintenance
- exercise-related self-esteem and/or - develop plan to overcome
self-confidence may increase with successful new barriers as they arise
maintenance of physical activity level - allow more autonomy and responsibility
for physical activity over time
Maria Mountain, Revolution Sport Conditioning | The Essential Eight for Goalie Health and Performance
Brijesh Patel, Quinnipiac University | Understanding and Implementing Special Strength Training Exercises
sponsored by
TOP WAYS TO DRIVE TRAFFIC TO A FITNESS
BUSINESS
JOSH LEVE
M
arketing, when dissected to its most basic element, is thrown for almost any occasion, including welcome to the
nothing more than storytelling. When telling a story, neighborhood parties, baby-showers, anniversary parties,
information is shared that the storyteller believes will be and holiday parties. It is a good idea to always have an
entertaining, important, interesting, or relevant to the listener. For offer at these events, especially one that is appropriate
fitness business owners, marketing is understanding the audience for the event and that can tie in with the theme. The offer
and being able to craft stories that capture their attention. should also make sense in that moment and in the bigger
picture. For instance, the offer could be an upcoming
WHAT IS MARKETING? bootcamp and one person could win a free six-week long
It is important to not confuse marketing with sales. A useful way bootcamp.
to think of the difference between marketing and sales is that
marketing makes the phone ring, whereas, sales is answering the • Raffle prizes: raffle prizes can be used as a way to drive
phone call. Regardless of the type of marketing effort chosen, the sales. For example, giving away a 30-day upgrade to
following recommendations should be carefully considered: an “unlimited sessions” option or a free nutritional
consultation can expose non-using clients to new services.
• Keep it precise and simple: consumers want you to get It may also be nice to make sure that everyone wins some
directly to the point. sort of prize.
• Make it pop: consumers’ mailboxes, both physical and • Simple and sincere gestures are sometimes the best:
virtual, are constantly inundated with promotions. The practice random acts of kindness such as bringing cold
goal is to grab their attention immediately, before the water into a cycling class, providing fresh towels to a
message gets moved to the trash. yoga session, passing out smoothie samples after training
sessions, or putting refreshments and snacks in the lobby.
• Make it personal: nothing shows you care more than
Quiet expressions of gratitude are noticed, appreciated,
making it personal. Hand written notes and using the
and can go a long way, especially to potential clients.
person’s name in a message can go a long way.
• Do not underestimate the social aspect of fitness:
• Extend an offer and have a deadline: for example, if the
celebrate client successes, culminate challenges, and
offer is a complimentary 30-min training session, indicate
acknowledge milestones. For example, if a client reaches a
how long the offer is good for before it expires. There is
certain goal or milestone, then they receive a free t-shirt.
nothing like a deadline to get people to respond, usually
People are more apt to provide positive feedback or
on the last day of the offer.
referrals when they are in a heightened emotional state.
One aspect of marketing is to give information to an audience For instance, right after becoming a client or reaching a
who otherwise has not heard of the business before, but another specific goal may be an ideal time to ask them to refer
part of a successful marketing campaign is to keep the name and their friends.
reputation in high esteem to those who are already members or
• Have a wall of fame: most people love to see themselves
consumers. The following are some recommendations of ways to
or others having fun. Using event photographs can be
get current clients/members more engaged:
a great way to reinforce the positive experiences and
• Throw a party: there are many types of events that can be encourage more participation. Ideally, the pictures can
put together that, when done well, can drive the necessary be posted in high-traffic areas as well as on social media
traffic to see a return on investment. Parties can be websites. They can create more interaction as clients are
CONCLUSION
It is important to remember that setting up and maintaining
a successful fitness business is a long process. Marketing, like
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
As Co-Founder and President of the Association of Fitness
branding, does not have a starting point and an ending point.
Studios (AFS), Josh Leve is responsible for strategic business
Rather, marketing is an ongoing process of seeking to understand
operations of AFS. Leve has over 10 years of sales, consulting,
the audience and focusing on creating and sending messages that
advertising, marketing, operations, and retail fitness experience.
encourage people to try the business’s services.
Prior to AFS, Leve successfully turned around the financial
performance of three different big box facilities in Chicago, IL
while providing consultative services for smaller fitness studios.
Prior to his health club experience, Leve worked with Corbett
Accel—the largest healthcare communications/advertising
company in the United States—where he launched products for
major pharmaceutical companies such as Merck, Bristol Myers
Squibb, and Sanofi-Aventis. Leve holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in
Journalism from the University of Kansas.
D
ifferent terms exist to define a training method where movement for any exercise. Jerky movement performance and
a partner provides manual resistance during strength range of motion (ROM) can be easily monitored and corrected
training. Some of the most common terms for this during the performance.
are assisted training, partner-resistance training, and manual
resistance training (MRT). In the last decade, MRT methods have PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MRT
become more commonly accepted in the research literature as It is well established that free weight resistance training cannot
well as among strength and conditioning professionals. Although provide equal muscular torque and force throughout the full ROM
some sort of equipment can be helpful during MRT (e.g., sticks, due to changes in the moment arm of the external resistance
towels, benches, bars, etc.), this training modality is generally during the movement (2). Compared to free weights or exercise
considered as training without equipment, contrary to traditional machines, where the external resistance is constant (not including
resistance trainings that involve equipment such as free weights, machines with accommodating resistance technology), during
exercise machines, resistance bands, and tubes (3). Some of the MRT the external resistance can be variable and adjusted at
most common stated advantages of utilizing MRT methods are low each joint position. This allows for maximal effort of the muscle
cost, minimal equipment, and small space requirements (4). through the entire ROM. For example, a person can perform
bench press with 80 kg (176 lb) for 10 repetitions. The first
APPLICATION few repetitions they perform will be relatively easy but as the
Even though MRT is mostly used for single-joint movements, person approaches the 10th repetition, they are likely to become
there are also several multi-joint exercises in which the MRT more fatigued, making each repetition harder than the last.
modality can be employed (e.g., push-ups, lat pulldowns, row The size principle of muscle fiber recruitment states that the
pulls, military presses, bench presses, etc.). All three types of last repetitions of a set are important due to motor unit (MU)
contraction (i.e., concentric, eccentric, and isometric) can be exhaustion and activation of additional MUs (7). As fatigue of
accentuated separately or at the same time during MRT training, the muscle fibers advances, only the last repetitions can be
whereas this may not always be possible with other strength considered to be performed with maximal muscular effort (7).
training modalities. This is particularly true if maximal force is a Performing MRT with controlled, low speed movement can
main emphasis during each phase of the movement. For example, provoke maximum effort of the muscle throughout the entire
isometric contraction can be performed at any joint angle during ROM for each single repetition (5). As muscle fatigue is increased,
different exercises (e.g., abduction, adduction, elbow flexion/ the partner can adjust the external resistance in order to preserve
extension, shoulder/pectoralis flies, etc.). The same is true if maximal contraction in each repetition and consequently maximal
performing only the concentric or eccentric components of a exertion in each set. If performed properly, the result is maximal
FIGURE 15. BICEPS CURLS WITH BAR FIGURE 16. BICEPS CURLS WITH BAR
FIGURE 17. SITTING SIDE BICEPS CURLS FIGURE 18. SITTING SIDE BICEPS CURLS
FIGURE 19. SITTING LEG CURLS FIGURE 20. SITTING LEG CURLS
FIGURE 21. LYING LEG CURLS FIGURE 22. LYING LEG CURLS
FIGURE 29. SITTING LEG EXTENSIONS FIGURE 30. SITTING LEG EXTENSIONS
FIGURE 31. LYING LEG EXTENSIONS FIGURE 32. LYING LEG EXTENSIONS
FIGURE 33. LATERAL LEG EXTENSIONS FIGURE 34. LATERAL LEG EXTENSIONS
FIGURE 35. LATERAL SHOULDER FLIES FIGURE 36. LATERAL SHOULDER FLIES
FIGURE 39. SITTING SIDE TRICEPS EXTENSIONS FIGURE 40. SITTING SIDE TRICEPS EXTENSIONS