Department of Zoology

Mid Term Assignment

Course code: ZOL-508 Course name: D. Biology

Due date: 29/04/2020 Submission date: 29/04/2020
Course teacher: Mam Saira Siddique Student name: Hafsa Yaqoob
Student ID: MZOF19M037 Semester: 2 nd
Program: MSc zoology Main campus
Regular/ self-support: Regular

Assignment cover sheet

Title of the assignment: Post embryonic development in birds
Word count: 3032
Marks awarded by teacher:
Post Embryonic Development in Birds

Contents:

Overview: Morphology of initial nucleus

Embryology of chick egg
Embryology of membranes
 Initial membranes
 Middle membranes
Incubation
Process of cleavage in egg
Blastula formation
Process of gastrulation
 Embryo after 24 hours
 Embryo after 33 hours
 Embryo after 48 hours
Formation of fetal membranes
References
In all birds like amniotes, point of gastrulation is midline construction named primitive
streak. When cell develops, cultivate and reach at one cell-thick epiblast assembly, this
epiblast experience epithelial to mesenchymal change to form maiden. After that, it form to
close two layers as mesoderm and endoderm. Endoderm is inner layer that is bounded by
mesoderm. After this development of embryonic epiblast that covers, numerous thousands of
stirring cells progress on view gastrulation.

Overview: Morphology of initial embryo

The shape of egg at time of placing is obviously modest and not complex. Beginning
is a smooth, consuming fat blastoderm that is 2-3 mm in diameter and cover yolk that is
located at top in egg and is encircled by a vitelline membrane. At that, time blastoderm
comprehends more than 20000 cells. Most of these cells are current as an epithelial
monolayer organization, the epiblast is concerned with and present at peaks of cell and at the
side of the epiblast vitelline sheath is present. If we see the morphology of cell we can see
that the cell have a structure just like a prism. However, the edge of the cell is compressed in
assembly that comprise a disk ascribes to vitelline membrane, and keep this sheath under
stiffness. In birds embryo the epiblast is separated into three characteristic region. We can see
that these all areas upon partition of the embryo due to their dissimilar cellular configuration.

Cell covers edge of blastoderm that is openly divergent to yolk. This yolk cover many
layers of yolk cells due to which it seem like as a murkier area below electron microscope.
The middle part of the blastoderm is not linked to a yolk because here a fluid filld cavity is
existent. This opening makes partition between yolk and blastoderm. Tis opening is called
sub germinal cavity. Here the spot is look like any prismatic material. The cells of area
pellucid are originally small and columnar and make the major percentage of embryo. This
area is lined by several yolky cells that are greater in size than epiblast cells but little in size
than a germ wall.
After that hypoblast layer formed which later form extraembryonic yolk sac. The
germ wall project and lightly committed to epiblast. The assembly of epiblast cells that are
extant beyond the germ wall margin is called marginal zone. The shape of these cells is
cuboidal. At this phase primitive streak development start at subsequent portion of epiblast.
Here, at this stage gastrulation becomes start. Some semicircular fashioned cells become
appears that are called koller’s sickle cells. After start of gastrulation stage the hypoblast cells
becomes smooth and fuse, that form a continuous sheet. This process occur from posterior to
anterior and defines the developmental stage before gastrulation. Roman numerals (Eyal-
Giladi & Kochav, 1976).

An example of post embryonic development in chick egg is cited here.

Embryology of chick egg:

The completely developed and newly laid hen’s egg is medium size. It contain large
amount of yolky material. Such type of egg is called macrolecithal egg. The egg is elliptical
or ovoid in shape. The central part of egg contains a nucleus that is covered by fluid filled
cavity. Here’ no yolk is present. The yolk contains many layers of yellow and white color
cells. These layers are present around latera. Carotenoids produce yellow color of yolk. The
portion of white yolk layer is thin in its appearance and the yellow layer of yolk is tick in its
composition.
Composition of yolk:
Yolk contains:
Water 50%
Phospholipids 30%
Proteins 17%
Small amounts of vitamins and carbohydrates

The chick’s egg contain plasma membrane, which is called plasma lemma. It is composed
chiefly of lipoproteins.

Some membranes are present around ovum that are:

Primary membranes:
Such membranes are formed by follicle cells and are present between oocyte and
follicle. Such membranes are called vitelline membranes. These are originated from two
sources. Their inner part is secreted by ovary and outer part is secreted by fallopian tube.

Secondary membranes:
A tube like structure called oviduct secretes these membranes. In upper position of
primary membrane albumin is present. Albumin contains whole portion of water and
proteins. The outer portion of albumin is white in color and is called thin albumin. Middle
portion is thick and is called thick albumin. The innermost portion of albumin is more thick
and rich in its compositions. After developments of these, all layers the innermost albumin
converts into a structure called chalazae. These work as balancers in egg that keep the ovum
in the center.

Shell membranes:
Beyond the albumen, two membranes are present that protects the inner material of
egg. These membranes are called shell membranes.
At major portion of egg in between the two shell layers air space is present. This air space
formed when egg is laid at cooled temperature. Above the shell membranes, shell is present.

Shell of egg:
Shell is composed of calcium components. It is porous and contains many pores that
are involved in exchange of gases between outer environment and inner egg. Fresh and newly
egg contains soft shell but after facing humidity and temperature of outer environment, shell
becomes hard.

Egg laying process:

Egg is released out from cloaca. Endoderm formation is complete in body of mother
and for post embryonic development process of incubation is required.

Incubation:
After hatching, 21 days are required for development of remaining portion of egg through a
process called incubation. Because after egg laying developmental processes becomes
stopped. Now the development needs proper temperature. Therefore, process of incubation is
naturally present in all birds in their consciousness.

Fertilized egg:
Before releasing of egg, it has to be fertilized. Process of fertilization occur in upper portion
of oviduct. Sperm from male is inserted into female body through using female cloaca. Sperm
enter into female oviduct and fertilize the egg. The early development off egg occur in
oviduct of female.

Cleavage:
Process of cleavage is occur only in blast disc portion. Yolk of egg remains
uncleaved. Cleavage in such egg is called meroblastic or discoidal cleavage. Middle portion
of blastodisc is white in color and round in nature. A layer called epiblast surrounds it.
Periblast is connected to yolk of the egg.
Cleavage 1 will occur after 5 hours of fertilization. It is meridional and only present in middle
of blastodisc. Here division does not occur completely and blastomeres are not formed.
Cleavage 2 occurs after cleavage I. but fully divide blastomeres are not produced even here.
It is present at right angle to first cleavage.
Cleavage 3 is perpendicular and equivalent to I division. Eight blastomeres are formed after
third cleavage but these do not have outer boundaries.
Cleavage 4 occurs and fourteen blastomeres are formed. Eight becomes central and other
eight surround these. After this many other cleavages occur and blatomeres becomes fully
developed.
The blastoderm cells grows in cells mass and becomes nutritive in nature that provide
nutrition to growing embryo. Many divisions occurs alternatively and blastocoel formation
takes place. This makes difference between upper layer and lower layer.
Blastula:
Continuous divisions occur rapidly. Because of these divisions marginal zone appear
that contains marginal cells. These cells contain complete layers or margins. These cells
remains attached with the yolk.

Area Pellucida & Area opaca:

Central portion of yolk have no contact with yolk. It contains several layers and
detached from yolk and becomes opaque in nature. This is called area pellicida. It grows to
become embryo. Another portion called area opaca that is connected with marginal zone and
have many embryonic layers.
Many other divisions occur in area opaca that forms other zones and here germ wall becomes
appear from blastomeres that recently developed from periblast. Now the fine boundaries
develops around every structure but inner area of germ wall have no fine limitations. This
area is called junction of zone. Formation of epiblast and hypoblast occur at this stage.
Bladtoderm contains two types of cells. One form of these cells contain more amount of yolk
and other one contains less amount of yolk cells. Separation occurs between these two type of
blastomeres, and the rich one leads to inner portion leaving the poor yolk on margin. These
marginal cells become epiblast and inner cells grows to form hypoblast. Blastocoel forms in
between epiblast and hypoblast. Later these two layers become separated and forms disc
shape structure called disco blastula

Process of gastrulation in chick embryo:

After four to five hours of incubation, process of gastrulation becomes start. This
process take 22 hours to complete. After this process many changes becomes occur in
embryo of chick.

Gastrulation is divided into two steps:

1. Formation of endoderm
2. Formation of primitive streak

Formation of endoderm:
After formation of hypoblast cells from blastocoel, these single layer cells becomes
incorporated to endoderm. Many scientists that explains the formation of endoderm give
many theories.
These theories are listed below:
Involution theory:
Peterson gave this theory in 1909. It explains that in back cells of blastoderm slit like
the one opening is produced. At this opening primary blastocoel forms that give rise to
endoderm.

Infiltration theory:
Peter gave this theory in 1923. This theory explains that from backside of blastoderm,
some yolk rich cells come into contact with blastocoel. These cells joined each other in a
random fashion and develop into endoderm.

Invagination theory:
Jacobson 1938 gave this. This theory explains that back end of blastoderm protrude
inward and make a little pocket into blastocoel. This later develop into endoderm.
Delamination theory:
Spratt gave this in 1946. It describes that blastoderm contains two to three layers.
After some divisions these layers separated by each other. The inner layer of these give rise
to endoderm, the outer develops into ectoderm and between these two layers third one forms
blastocoel.
Formation of primitive streak:
After formation of endoderm, primitive streak formation takes place gastrulation
process. Blastoderm cells protrude toward center and thickening becomes appear. This
thickening develops into primitive streak. This occurs after eight hours of incubation. Initially
primitive streak is small and not fully developed. However, gradually its size increases after
nineteen to twenty hours of incubation. It is called well-developed primitive streak. In center
of primitive streak, a gully is formed that is called primitive grooves.
The ends of these grooves are thick. In back, side of these grooves bulk of cells is present.
This is called Hansen’s node. In middle of these knobs, a cavity is present that is called
primitive cavity. This primitive streak later forms the neural cells of chick bird. It forms
precordial plate, notochord and mesoderm.
Head will develop at site of proamnion. Proamnion is area that lack mesoderm.
Notochordal cells arranged themselves to form notochordal process. After its growth
primitive streak becomes gradually decrease. At the end of gastrulation, primitive streak
develops into tail bud. After 24 hours of incubations somites are formed.
After every one hour, one somite will added. Intermediate mesoderm merge with outer and
inner mesoderm and give rise to kidneys. The outer mesoderm divides into two layers. Upper
layer forms somatic mesoderm and inner forms splanchnic mesoderm. Somatic mesoderm
and ectoderm joins together to form somatopleure. Splanchnic layer and endoderm join
together to form splanchnopleure. Space is present between two layers that is called coelome.

Embryo at different stages:

24-hour embryo structure

Embryo is oval shaped primitive streak is fully formed, notochord extend toward
Hansen’s node head becomes processed. Head becomes folded and fore gut is developed.
Four pairs of somites are formed from mesoderm and coelom becomes develop in space
present between mesoderm and endoderm. Blood vessels also developed at this stage.
Pericardial region develops heart. Modifications occurs into area opaca and forms vascular
and vitelline area. Mid region develops from fusion of neural folds.
33-hour embryo structure

Length of foregut and subcephalic pocket becomes increase. Neural tubes formation
occur and sinus rhomboidal is develops. Primary division in encephalon occurs that develop
into prosencephelon, mesencephalon and rhomb encephalon. Infundibulum arises as a form
of middle ventral protrusion. Here 13 pairs of somites appears and heart development occur
as tubular structure and blood vessels produced in form of extraembryonic and
intraembryonic vessels. Primitive streak becomes disappear at this stage.

48-hours embryo structure

Here formation of eleven neuromeres occur. Brain got its secondary development.
Circulatory system also becomes fully developed. Chamber formation occur in heart at aortic
arches develops. Physiology of eye also completed. Optic cup along with lens vesicle forms.
28 of somites produced and auditory vesicles develops. Pronephros formation occur in
kidneys.

Formation of foetal membranes:

In every individual, some tissues do not participate in formation of embryo. These
tissues leads to play a role a mantaince and care of embryo and provide nourishment to
embryo. These are called extraembryonic membranes. In birds these membranes also fully
developed. These forms from blastoderm and active to do their function.
Amnion & Chorion:
Amnion is covering that surrounds the embryo. It separates embryo from outer
environment to reduce harshness of outer environment over embryo. Amnion contains
amniotic fluid that protect embryo from mechanical shocks and nourishes the embryo. It
provides an artificial environment for growth of embryo. Chorion also contain protective
fluid. It provides space to developing allantois. Chorion and allantois join to form respiratory
organ.

Yolk sac:
It appears after 16 hours of incubation. Yolk sac is connected to mid gut through a
stalk called umbilical stalk. Yolk sac contains mesoderm and endoderm layers. A canal is
associated with yolk stalk that is called yolk duct.
Yolk sac provides nutritive material to developing embryo by digesting yolk. This
digested material flows along with blood toward embryo. Yolk sac also perform function of
respiration during initial stages.

Allantois:
It produce from ventral part of hindgut. At third day of incubation, region of hindgut
protrude out that forms allantois. It attaches with yolk sac and penetrate into extraembryonic
coelom. During growth of embryo, the allantois and yolk stalk join together to form umbilical
stalk. It works respiratory organ because it is rich in vessels. It stores nitrogenous waste of the
embryo. Allantois perform a main role in development of embryo, as it absorbs calcium from
shell. This calcium is used in building and maintained bones. After absorption of calcium,
shell becomes thin and can easily rupture when development becomes completed.

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