Composite Materials

1.0 Introduction
Tensile testing is among many basic tests to determine stress and strain
relationships. A simple uniaxial test consists of slowly pulling a sample of
material in tension until it breaks. Test specimens for tensile testing are generally
either circular or rectangular as our experiment with larger ends to facilitate
gripping the sample.
For the stress the material undergoes deformation under uniaxial tensile force,
elastic deformation will occur and it is when the material returns to its original
dimension after tensile force is removed. And for the plastic deformation: when
the material is deformed to such an extent such that it cannot return to its original
dimension.
One of the principles is the analysis of materials used in structural applications.
The term structure refers to any design that utilizes materials that support loads
and keeps deformation within acceptable limits. Designing machines, structures,
and vehicles, which are reliable as well as safe and cost effective, requires a
proper knowledge of engineering as well as material selection.
Elementary mechanics of materials or strength of materials is the physical
science that looks at the reaction of a body to movement and deformation due to
mechanical, thermal, or other loads. The basis of virtually all mechanical design
lies in how the material reacts to outside forces. Mechanics is the core of
engineering analysis and is one of the oldest of the physical sciences. An in-
depth understanding of material properties as well as how certain materials react
to outside stimulus is paramount to an engineering education.
The basis of structural design is simply to design a component where the stress
does not exceed the strength of the material, causing failure. These failures may
include additional complexities such as stresses that act in more than one
direction, where the state of stress may be biaxial or triaxial. Failure may also be
due to components or materials containing flaws and / or cracks that will
propagate failure. Still other failure mechanisms may involve stresses applied for
extended periods of time causing Creep, or stresses that are repeatedly applied
and removed leading to cyclical type failure.
Material failures may be time dependent such as creep or fatigue failure due to
rectangular loading, or failures may be time independent where static loading
causes rapid fracturing of the material. Time independent fracture or failure due
to static loading may be brittle, where very little deformation in the material takes
place, or ductile, where significant plastic deformation takes place before failure.
Elastic and Plastic deformations are quantified in terms of normal and shear
strain in elementary strength of materials studies. The effects of strains in a
component are due to deformations such as stretching, bending or twisting.
Some members rely on deformations to function, such as a spring, but excessive
amounts causing permanent changes are typically avoided. Materials capable of
sustaining large amounts of plastic deformation are said to behave in a ductile
manner, those that fracture without much plastic deformation are said to behave
in a brittle manner.
In this laboratory, students will have the opportunity to apply loads to various
materials under different equilibrium conditions. The student will perform tests on
materials in tension, torsion, bending, and buckling. These conditions and/or
constraints are designed to reinforce classroom theory by having the student
perform required tests, analyze subsequent data, and present the results in a
professionally prepared report.
The machines and equipment used to determine experimental data include
several universal testing machines, simply supported as well as cantilever beams
with static weights and hangers, presses, and torsion equipment. Data will be
collected using Dial indicators, extensometers, strain gages and strain indicator
equipment, as well as load and strain readouts on the machinery and graphing
capabilities to print relevant plots for analysis.

It is important to recognize that much of the testing performed in a typical

mechanics lab involves a great deal of visual interpretation. Material behavior
can be clearly observed during testing and for any type of destructive testing,
fracture zone and material behavior observations are key elements.

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2.0 Literature review:
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with
symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal.
Aluminum is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon, and
the most abundant metal, in the Earth'scrust. It is a naturally occurring substance
and is found under the earth’s surface, usually in ore such as bauxite ore, which
must be heated to 1900 - 2000 degrees Celsius, with the aid of carbon, to
release the aluminum. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid
surface. Aluminum metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare
and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in
over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminum is bauxite.

Aluminum is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to

resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components
made from aluminum and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are
important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most
useful compounds of aluminum, at least on a weight basis, are
the oxides and sulfates.
Aluminum key properties:
 Low energy plastic deformation.
 Low density lightweight.
 Highly recyclable.
Aluminum alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering
structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names
indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO).
The strength and durability of aluminum alloys vary widely, not only as a result of
the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and
manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to
time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminum a bad
reputation.
One important structural limitation of aluminum alloys is their fatigue strength.
Unlike steels, aluminum alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that
fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. This
implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a fixed life rather
than an infinite life.
One important structural limitation of aluminum alloys is their fatigue strength.
Unlike steels, aluminum alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that
fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. This
implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a fixed life rather
than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminum alloys is their sensitivity to heat.
Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that
aluminum, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Forming operations where
a blow torch is used therefore require some expertise, since no visual signs
reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminum alloys, like all structural
alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as
welding and casting. The problem with aluminum alloys in this regard is their
low melting point, which make them more susceptible to distortions from
thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during
manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling
—in effect annealing the stresses.
The low melting point of aluminum alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry;
even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach
3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminum
design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.
Zinc is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30.
It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is made up of thirty
five neutrons and thirty protons. It is an elemental metal that is listed on the
periodic table as Zn. It has a gray colour but can be polished to give it a shiny
luster. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because
its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th
most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes.

 Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major

application for zinc. Other applications are inbatteries, small non-structural
castings, and alloys, such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly
used, such as zinc carbonate andzinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc
chloride (in deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in
luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.

Zinc is an essential mineral of "exceptional biologic and public health

importance".[5] Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing
world and is associated with many diseases.
The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral.
Zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 12th century in India, while
the metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. The largest
mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc
production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and
final extraction using electricity.
Steel is an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon. Carbon is the primary
alloying element, and its content in the steel is between 0.002% and 2.1% by
weight. Alloy steel is steel to which additional alloying elements have been
intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Too little carbon content
leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than
those of steel make an alloy commonly called pig iron that is brittle and not
malleable.

Material application:
Steel: steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other
infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such
as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel
skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. In
addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars due to high
stiffness and strength.
Despite growth the usage of other materials such as Aluminum Steel is still the
main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of
other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws.

Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining, offshore

construction, aerospace, white goods . for example washing machines. And
heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools,
and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour well known as rolled
homogeneous armour in this role. 
Super glue, or cyanoacrylate, is the general name for a family of fast-
acting adhesives with industrial, medical and household uses. It usually comes in
a small tube, and is often sold as "Super Glue" or "Krazy Glue".
They are extremely strong glues. Seven drops of super glue is enough to lift
a car. However, the glue is not so good at resisting shear (sideways stress).
There are different versions for medical and veterinary use, developed to be non-
toxic and less irritating to skin tissue.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives are sometimes known as instant glues
Cyanoacrylate adhesives are sometimes known generically as instant
glues orsuperglues although "Super Glue" is a trade name. Octyl cyanoacrylate
was developed to address toxicity concerns and to reduce skin irritation and
allergic response. The abbreviation "CA" is commonly used for industrial grades.
In its liquid form, cyanoacrylate consists of monomers of cyanoacrylate
molecules. Methyl-2-cyanoacrylate (CH2=C(CN)COOCH3 or C5H5NO2) has a
molecular weight equal to 111.1, a flashpoint of 79 °C, and a density of 1.1 g/ml.
[4]
 Ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate (C6H7NO2) has a molecular weight equal to 125 and a
flashpoint of >75 °C. To facilitate easy handling, a cyanoacrylate adhesive is
frequently formulated with an ingredient such as fumed silica to make it
more viscous or gel-like. More recently, formulations are available with additives
to increase shear strength, creating a more impact resistant bond. Such additives
may include rubber, as in Loctite's Ultra Gel, or others which are not specified.
In general, cyanoacrylate is an acrylic resin that rapidly polymerises in the
presence of water (specifically hydroxide ions), forming long, strong chains,
joining the bonded surfaces together. Because the presence of moisture causes
the glue to set, exposure to normal levels of humidity in the air causes a thin skin
to start to form within seconds, which very greatly slows the reaction. Because of
this cyanoacrylate is applied thinly, to ensure that the reaction proceeds rapidly
and a strong bond is formed within a reasonable time.
Melting points of some Metals, Zinc and Aluminums are indicated in the
table below:

Melting Point
Metal
(oC) (oF)

Aluminum 660 1220

Aluminum Alloy 463 - 671 865 - 1240

Aluminum Bronze 600 - 655 1190 - 1215

Steel, Carbon 1425 - 1540 2600 - 2800

Steel, Stainless 1510 2750

Zinc 419.5 787

The typical testing procedure is to deform or “stretch” the material at a constant

speed.
The required load that must be applied to achieve this displacement will vary as
the test proceeds.
During testing, the stress in the sample can be calculated at any time by dividing
the load over the cross-sectional area σ =P/A The displacement in the sample
can be measured at any section where the cross-sectional area is constant and
the strain calculated by taking this change in length and dividing it by the original
or initial length ε=∆L/L0 The stress and strain measurements and calculations
discussed so far assume a fixed cross sectional area and a change in length that
is measured within the constant cross sectional test area of the sample. These
stress and strain values are known as engineering stress and engineering strain.
The actual stress and strain in the materials for this type of test are higher than
the engineering stress and strain; this is obvious when considering that as the
tension and elongation increase, the volume of the section of material being
tested decreases.

Since it is difficult to measure the actual cross section area during testing to
obtain the actual stress values, the testing performed and evaluated in the
following experiments will be based on the initial unrestrained geometry of the
test sample and calculations will be performed to find the engineering stress and
strain rather than the actual stress and strain.
Engineering material properties that can be found from simple tensile testing
include the elastic modulus (modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus), Poisson’s
ratio, ultimate tensile strength (tensile strength), yield strength, fracture strength,
resilience, toughness, % reduction in area, and % elongations. These values are
typically calculated in tension experimentation and compared to published
values.
Most of these engineering values are found by graphing the stress and strain
values from testing. The modulus of elasticity can be calculated by finding the
slope of the stress strain curve where it remains linear and constant. For the
materials being tested in this lab, there will be an easily recognizable linear
portion of the curve to calculate the elasticity value.
Where the stress strain curve starts to become nonlinear, this is known as the
proportional limit. The proportional limit is also the point where yielding occurs in
the material At this point, the material no longer exhibits elastic behavior and
permanent deformation occurs. This onset of inelastic behavior is defined as the
yield stress or yield strength. Some materials such as the mild steel used in this
lab will have a well-defined yield point that can be easily identified on the stress
strain curve. Other materials will not have a discernable yield point and other
methods must be employed to estimate the yield stress. One common method is
the offset method, where a straight line is drawn parallel to the elastic slope and
offset an arbitrary amount, most commonly for engineering metals, 0.2%.
The highest stress or load the material is capable of will be the highest
measurable stress on the graph. This is termed the ultimate strength or tensile
strength. The point at which the material actually fractures is termed the fracture
stress. For ductile materials, the
Ultimate stress is greater than the fracture stress, but for brittle materials, the
ultimate stress is equal the fracture stress. Ductility is the materials ability to
stretch or accommodate inelastic deformation without breaking. Another
phenomenon that can be observed of a ductile material undergoing tensile
testing is necking. The deformation is initially uniform along the length but tends
to concentrate in one region as the testing progresses. This can be observed
during testing, the cross sectional area of the highest stress region will visibly
reduce.
Two final values are determined from the stress strain curve are a measure of
energy capacity the amount of energy the material can absorb while still in the
elastic region of the curve is known as the modulus of resilience. The total
amount of energy absorbed to the point of fracture is known as the modulus of
toughness. These values can be calculated by estimating the respective areas
under the stress strain curve.
These values are measure of energy capacity, when finding the values under the
curve, note that energy is work done per unit volume; therefore the units should
be kept in terms of energy, or sometimes in-lb per cubic inch.

Data Reduction:
Determine and tabulate the following:
• % Elongation
• Reduction in Area (%)
• Modulus of Elasticity
• Yield Strength
• Ultimate Tensile Strength
• Modulus of Resilience
• Modulus of Toughness
Generate two stress-strain graphs for each sample, one showing the linear
portion of the curve to just after the yield point and the other showing the entire
response curve from initial loading to failure. On these graphs, clearly label
important regions, areas and/or points on the plot that correspond to the data that
were calculated. The graphs that were generated in the lab are raw data and are
attached with the data sheets at the back of the report.
3.0 Methodology:
Regarding this project about making or compiling a composite material with
specific requirements listed as follows:
1- It should consist three different materials.
2- It should consist eight layers.
3- Each layer should be 0.25 mm or less.
4- Maximum height of the plate is 2mm.
5- The composite plate with length of 200m.
6- The width of the plate should not exceed 20mm.
7- The modulus of elasticity should be minimum E= 10 Gpa.

3.1 choosing the materials:

Depending on many discussion regarding the issue of choosing the material
we tried to get it approximately from the modulus of elasticity of each material
separately.
We also consulted engineers in the mechanics of materials field regarding the
issue of choosing the material. Also many researches in the internet about
composite materials and the behavior of each material when reacting with others.
We have got many results and suggestions:
1- Reinforced carbon fiber composed with steel.
2- Carbon Nano tube.
3- Graphine.
4- Tungsten.
5- Silicon and
carbide.
6- Basalt fiber.
7- Fiber wreck wall.
8- Aluminum.
9- Steel.
10-Zinc.
11-Steel cables.

The glues:
1- epoxy glue
2- Super glue.
3.2 The meeting regarding the project:
We have made four meeting for the project discussion.
First meeting was an orientation for the group members regarding the project
and the requirements we have to achieve. We have talked about the idea of the
project because it was new comparing to any other project we have done before
and even for our seniors. We have surfed the internet looking for information that
can become in handy for our project.
After a full understanding of the idea of the project and the requirement
meeting was dismissed.
The second meeting was conducted to discuss about the suggestions that we
got. Since some of the materials were expensive and hard to get such as:
1- Carbon Nano tube.
2- Reinforced carbon fiber.
3- Graphine.
So we decided a cheap materials that has high modulus of elasticity for
instance;
1- Steel
2- Aluminum
3- Zinc
4- Steel cables
After searching the internet we have found that steel cables can handle so
much tensile stress based on the information we got while reading about
previous mega structures like, Millau bridge which the steel cables lifted a big
percentage of the load. In this meeting we also chose cotton to be another
material to use with steel cables and steel plates.
Epoxy glue was our choice to be used to bind the layers.
After we agreed on the idea of the cables, cotton and steel plates the meeting
dismissed.

The third meeting:

We discussed about the first experiment and the mistake that we did such as:
1- The thickness of the plate was more than 2mm.
2- The steel layers was not bond tightly. Since its surface was too smooth.
3- The arrangement of the steel cables was not as perfect as it should have to
be.

Since we were still believe that cables can handle so much tensile stress, we
decided to carry on with our idea with making some corrections. We decided to
reduce the thickness of the plate by using cables that have smaller diameter. To
settle down the problem which caused by the smooth surface, we polished the
steel plates by emery cloth to make the surface rough enough to hold the glue
with the layers.

The meeting was dismissed after confirming every single step for the next
experiment.

The fourth meeting:

Unfortunately the plate did not reached the modulus of elasticity that was
required, so we conducted our fourth meeting to discuss a totally different idea
from the previous one, which was to use plates of:
1- Steel.
2- Zinc.
3- Aluminum.
with a binding material of super glue. These four materials were suggested after
a long discussion and also was suggested who has a good background about
composite materials. We have discussed the methodology to do this experiment,
we also discussed about the arrangement of the layers and also the binding glue.

In this meeting we have divided the tasks among the group members to write
the report that will be attached with the specimen that achieved all requirements,
and it was as follow:
1- Introduction and conclusion ( Muslih)
2- Methodology and Discussion ( Tariq and Mohammed)
3- The data analysis ( Hussam and Ahmad)

After everybody agreed we have dismissed the meeting.

3.3 The cost of the material used:

1- Steel cables:
The kind of cables we could find is the bicycle break cables and also the
motorbike break cables. The difference was only the size of the cables diameter
but the material is the same. It is not cheap when buying new ones but we looked
in so many workshops and collected used ones and got it for free.
2 – Cotton:
We have used a cotton T–shirt of one of the members and it was for free.

3 – Steel plates:
We have bought a new plate from a hardware shop since we couldn’t h=find a
used one of thickness of 0.25mm.
1 meter squared of steel can be bought for 5 RM.
Since each layer is 200x20 mm2.
Layer = 0.004 m2
The area of the layer = 0.004 m2
Counting how many layers that 1 m2 of steel plate can make:
1 m2 / 0.004 m2 = 250 layers of steel.
The cost of each layer will equal to:
Since 1 m2 costs 5 RM
1 m2 = 250 layers
250 layers = 5 RM dividing both sides by 250
1 layer = 0.02 RM x 100 to change into cents.
1 layer = 2 cents.

4 – Aluminum plates:
1 m2 of Aluminum costs 30 RM
1 m2 of aluminum = 250 layers of 200x20 mm2
250 layers = 30 RM
1 layer = 0.12 RM x 100 to change into cents
1 layer = 12 cents
Each aluminum layers costs 12 cents.
5 – Zinc plates:
1 m2 = 250 layers of 200 x 20 mm2
1 m2 of zinc costs 7 RM
1 m2 = 250 layers
250 layers = 7 RM
1 layer = 0.028 RM x 100 to change into cents
1 layer = 2.8 cents
Each layer of Zinc costs 2.8 cents.
6 – Glues:
a- Epoxy glue was provided in the lab.
b- Super glue costs 2.8 RM.

3.4 The design:

First experiment:
First, we got all the materials needed:
1- Steel plates
2- Steel cables
3- Cotton
 Then we prepared the tools we need to cut with and the emery cloth to polish
with.
After cutting the steel into two plates of 200 x 20 mm2 we polished the steel
plates with emery cloth to make the plates’ rough enough to hold the glue.
We reduced the diameter of the cables to fit the thickness we were required to
achieve and cut it into parts of 200mm length.
We cut the cotton T-shirt into three layers of 200 x 20 mm2 by seizures.
The order of layers was as follows:
1- Steel
2- Cotton
3- Cables
4- Cotton
5- Cotton
6- Cables
7- Cotton
8- Steel

The second experiment:

It was almost the same materials we used in the previous experiment. We got
rid of the steel plates and used only three layers of cotton. The order of the layers
as follows:
1- Cotton
2- Cables
3- Cotton
 4- Cables
5- Cotton
*note: each cotton layer considered as two because of the way it was woven.

The third experiment:

First we have cut the plates of steel, zinc and aluminum into 200 x 20 mm2
layers, then polished all layers with emery cloth in order to make them rough and
able to hold the glue.
 We used super glue in this experiment. The layers order was as follow:
1- Zinc
2- aluminum
3- Zinc
4- Zinc
5- Zinc
6- Zinc
7- Aluminum
8- Zinc

4.2 Discussion:
The first experiment:
Compiling the specimen:
It consisted eight layers ordered as follows:
 1- Steel
2- Cotton
3- Cables
4- Cotton
5- Cotton
6- Cables
7- Cotton
8- Steel

We have put the first layer of steel and covered it with glue, then we have put the
first layer of cotton and covered it with glue. After that we put first layer of cables
and covered it with glue, then se put another cotton layer and covered it with glue
and repeated the same with the rest layers until the top layer which was made of
steel.
We have leaved it for 30 minutes in order for the glue to hold the layers
together. We covered two plates of steel were provided in the lap with wax to
take off the specimen easily after compression. We have put the specimen
between the plates and subjected it for a compression load of 500 kg for a time
period of 90 minutes.
After the compression some glue and cables spread out of the specimen limit
due to the compression, so we cut it to reach 20mm width and 200 mm length.
Even though the compression was too great the thickness was more than 2mm
and that was the first problem we have faced during the journey of achieving the
requirements of our project.

The second experiment:

 After reducing the thickness to match the thickness required, by changing the
number of layers and the order of layers and the result was as follows:
1- Cotton
2- Cables
3- Cotton
4- Cables
5- cotton
*note: every cotton layer considered as two layers because of the way it was
woven in.

Repeating the same procedure of gluing and compressing in the first

experiment the specimen was ready to be tested.

After taking the permission to use the machine in the lab. The result was as
follows:
 1- We heard cracking sound which was a sign of the failure of the glue.
2- The layers separated then we lost the transferring of the load.
3- The specimen split into two parts and the elasticity was E= 6.8 Gpa.

The third experiment:

After we switched the idea of the cables to the idea of the three different
metals method. we managed to prepare a specimen consisted eight layers of :
1- Zinc
2- Aluminum
And the order of the layers was as follows:
1- Zinc
2- Aluminum
3- Zinc
4- Zinc
5- Zinc
6- aluminum
7- Zinc
 We polished each layer with emery cloth to make the surfaces of the layers
rough enough to hold together with the glue as one plate and we used super glue
to achieve that point.
We put the first layer of aluminum and covered it with superglue then the
second layer and the rest were glued in the same way.
We subjected the specimen to a compression and let the glue dry up then the
specimen was ready to be tested.
In the lab the technician put the specimen in the machine and entered the
data and area of the plate and the speed of testing. The failure in specimen was
the split of the two fist layers then the elastic curve in the graph has been cut also
there were not any failures in the glue or any of the other layers and achieve a
modulus of elasticity E = 10.9 Gpa.

The group member’s parts

Dear Dr. Hilton

After we have been required to do the project I have called for an orientation
meeting about the project and many other meetings regarding every experiment
we have done and all members showed cooperation and passion in doing the
project and work as a team.

The tasks have been divided equally with considering the schedule of every
member and his ability to do what he was assigned to do.
The tasks was divided as follows after everybody agreed:
1- Tariq Fadl: buying the zinc and aluminum plates.
2- Mohammed Mohsen: buying the steel plate and sacrificing his cotton T-
shirt.
3- Moslih: buying the glue.
4- Hussam and Ahmad: looking for used motorbike’s break cables.

Everyone has been their while compiling and testing the composite plates.
Tasks in writing the report:
 1- Tariq and Muhammed : Methodology and discussion.
2- Muslih: the introduction, literature review and conclusion.
3- Hussam and Ahmad: data analysis and comparison with other group’s
results.
The report was compiled and edited by the group leader.

Tariq Fadl Al-wesabi