36 Sample Chapter

CHAPTER
Laws of Thermodynamics 2
2.1 SIGNIFICANCE AND SCOPE OF LAWS
Thermodynamics is based on the following four laws. These laws cannot be proved
mathematically. Their validity stems from the fact that these laws have not been
violated. These laws are based on experimental results and observations of common
experience.
2.1.1 Zeroth Law

When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with body B, and also separately with body
C, then bodies B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is known
as the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
B C
Fig. 2.1 Zeroth law
If, TA = TB and also

TA = TC, then
TB = TC
where, T = Temperature.
This law deals with thermal equilibrium, concept of equality of temperature and
forms the basis for all temperature measurements.
Example: If body C is the thermometer, body B is the reference temperature (i.e.,
triple point of water), body A is the unknown temperature, the thermometer com-
pares the unknown temperature with the known reference temperature.
70 Basics of Mechanical Engineering
2.1.2 First Law

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is always conserved. However, it can
change from one form to another.
The first law deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept
of internal energy. In general, all thermal machines are designed from first law of
thermodynamics,
Q1–2 – W1–2 = dU = U2 – U1
For a closed system where changes in kinetic energy and potential are negli-
gible, the difference in heat supplied and work done is stored as internal energy.
2.1.3 Second Law

It is the directional law of energy and also the law of degradation of energy. It is
based on the following statements.
(a) Kelvin-Planck statement

“It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process, whose sole
purpose is to convert heat energy from a single reservoir into an equivalent amount
of work.” No cyclic engine can convert whole of heat into equivalent work. Second
law dictates limits on the conversion of heat into work.
Source Source
T1 T1
Q1 Q1
HE W HE W = Q1
Q2
Sink
T2
Engine, possible PM M–II, impossible
Fig. 2.2 Kelvin-Planck statement
(b) Clausius statement

“It is impossible for a self-acting machine, working in a cyclic process, to transfer
heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without
the aid of an external energy”.
Heat cannot flow itself from a cold body to a hot body without expenditure of
mechanical work. Second law deals with the direction of flow of heat energy.
(c) Carnot statement
“No heat engine operating in a cycle between two given thermal reservoirs, with
fixed temperatures, can be more efficient than a reversible engine operating be-
tween the same thermal reservoirs”.
T1 T1 > T2 T1 T1 > T2
Q1 Q1
HP W HP W=o
Q2 Q2
T2 T2
Heat pump, possible PM M–II, impossible
Fig. 2.3 Clausius statement
Second law provides a yardstick to evaluate the performance of an engine or a

device. The portion of heat energy which is not available for conversion into work is
measured by entropy.
Source
T1
Q1 Q1
W RHE HE W RHE >HE
Q2 Q2
Sink
T2
Fig. 2.4 Carnot statement
2.1.4 Third Law

Entropy has zero value at absolute zero temperature. The third law defines the abso-
lute zero of entropy.
“At absolute zero temperature, the entropy of all homogeneous crystalline
(condensed) substances in a state of equilibrium becomes zero”.
This law is used in chemical engineering for measurement of chemical affinity,
analysis of chemical equilibrium and study of behaviour of solids at very low tem-
peratures.
As T 0, S 0.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

The thermodynamic processes are grouped into:
2.2.1 Non-flow Processes

The processes occurring in a closed system where there is no transfer of mass across
the boundary are called non-flow processes. In such processes, the energy in the
form of heat and work crosses the boundary of the system.
The heating (or cooling) and expansion (or compression) of a gas may be per-
formed in the following ways:
(a) Reversible non-flow processes

(i) Constant volume process (or isochoric process)
(ii) Constant pressure process (or isoberic process)
(iii) Hyperbolic process (pv = c)
(iv) Constant temperature process (or isothermal process)
(v) Adiabatic process (or isotropic process), and
(vi) Polytropic process.
(b) Irreversible non-flow process

Free expansion process (or unrestricted process)
2.2.2 Flow Processes

The processes in open systems permit the transfer of mass to and from the system.
Such processes are called flow processes. The mass enters the system and leaves
after exchanging energy.
The flow processes may:
(a) Steady flow process

The mass flow rate, heat flow rate, workflow rate through the system remain con-
stant and there is no change in any properties or chemical composition of the
working fluid at any given point within the system. Nozzles, turbines, compressors
and other thermal machines operate as steady flow process.
(b) Unsteady flow process
The filling and evacuation of vessels are unsteady flow processes.
The complete classification of thermodynamic processes is illustrated in
Fig. 2.4. The governing equations are also given in the diagram.
2.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics was formulated on the basis of Paddle Wheel
Experiment conducted by Joule. A number of experiments ware conducted by him
wherein a paddle wheel was rotated by different forms of inputs. His findings were
that the work expended was proportional to increase in thermal energy.
Q W
W
or Q=
J
where, J = proportionality constant called mechanical equivalent.
In SI system,
J=1
Thermodynamic Processes
Non-flow processes Flow processes

• Constant mass process • Control volume process
• Closed system • Open system
• dq – dw = du • dq – dw = dh
Reversible processes Irreversible processes

• Isochoric process, v = c Free expansion process
• Isobaric process, p = c dq = 0
• Hyperbolic process, pV = c dw = 0
• Isothermal process, t = c dh = 0

• Adiabatic process, pV = c
n
• Polytropic process, pV = c
Steady flow processes Unsteady flow processes

• Nozzles, turbines, compressors, etc. • Filling and evacuation
• Steady flow energy equation of vessels
dq – dw = dh + d(ke) + d(pe)
Reversible flow processes Irreversible flow processes

• Isochoric process, v = c • Throttling process
• Isobaric process, p = c h=c
• Isothermal process, t = c

• Adiabatic process, pV = c
n
• Polytropic process, pV = c
Fig. 2.5 Classification of thermodynamic processes
W
TI
h
Paddle wheel Water
Fig. 2.6 Joule’s paddle wheel experiment
The first law of thermodynamics states that work and heat are mutually con-
vertible. The present tendency is to include all forms of energy.
The first law can be stated in many ways:
1. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is always conserved. How-
ever, it can change from one form to another.
2. All energy that goes into a system comes out in some form or the other.
Energy does not vanish and has the ability to be converted into any other
form of energy.
3. If the system is carried through a cycle, the summation of work delivered to
the surroundings is equal to summation of heat taken
from the surrounding. Source
T1
4. Total energy of an isolated system, in all its forms,
remains constant. Q1
5. No machine can produce energy without correspond-
HE W
ing expenditure of energy. It is impossible to construct
PM M–I, impossible
a perpetual motion machine of the first kind.
Q1 0 Fig. 2.7 PMM-1
2.3.1 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

There are some important limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics.
1. When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat trans-
fer is equal to the net work transfer.
Q = W
i
i
i
i
The cyclic integral of heat transfer is equal to cyclic integral of work trans-
fer.
Q = W
where stands for cyclic integral (integral around complete cycle), Q and
W are small elements of heat and work transfer and have same units.
The law neither specifies the direction of flow of heat and work nor gives any
conditions under which energy transfers can take place.
2. The heat energy and mechanical work are mutually convertible. The me-
chanical energy can be fully converted into heat energy but only a part of
heat energy can be converted into mechanical work. Therefore, there is a
limitation on the amount of conversion of one form of energy into another
form.
2.3.2 Applications of First Law to Thermodynamic Processes

According to First law, when a system undergoes a thermodynamic process (change
of state) both heat and work transfer takes place. The net (difference) energy trans-
fer is stored within the system and is called stored energy or total energy of he
system.
Q – W = dE.
where, E is the extensive property and represents the total energy of the system at a
given state.
Q1–2 – W1–2 = E2 – E1
Q, W and E have same units.
For a unit mass,
q1–2 – w1–2 = e2 – e1
where, Q1 –2 = Heat transferred to the system during the process 1-2. It is positive
when supplied to the system and negative when rejected by the
system.
W1–2 = Work done by the system on the surrounding during the pro-
cess 1-2.
E1 = Total energy of the system at state 1.
= PE1 + KE1 + U1 + FE1
m1 V12
= mgz1 + + U1 + p1 V1
2
E2 = total energy of the system at state 2.
= PE2 + KE2 + U2 + FE2
= mgz2 + KE2 + U2 + p2 V2
Q1–2 – W1–2 = E2 – E1
= (PE2 + KE2 + U2 + FE2) – (PE1 + KE1 + U1 + FE1)
= (PE2 – PE1) + (KE2 – KE1) – (H2 – H1) H = U + FE]
m
= mg (Z2 – Z1) + (V22 – V12) + (H2 – H1)
2
For unit mass,
V22 V12
q1–2 – w1–2 = g(Z2 – Z1) + + (h2 – h1)
2
Case I For a closed system, there is no flow energy (FE)
V22 V12
q1–2 – w1–2 = g(Z2 – Z1) + + (u2 – u1)
2
This is called non-flow energy equation.
Case II When there is no change in the potential energy of a closed system, i.e.,
PE2 = PE1
V22 V12
q1–2 – w1–2 = (KE2 – KE1) + (u2 – u1) = + (u2 – u1)
2
Case III Closed or non-flow thermodynamic system, when there is no change of

PE and also there is no flow of mass into or out of a system, i.e.,
PE2 = PE1 and KE2 = KE1
q1–2 – w1–2 = u2 – u1
Case IV Isolated system,
q1 –2 = 0 ; w1–2 = 0
e 2 = e1 and u2 = u1
This shows that the first law of thermodynamics is law of conservation of
energy.
Case V Cyclic process
There is no change in the internal energy and stored energy is zero.

q = w.
2.4 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GAS

For an ideal gas,
du = Cv dT
dh = Cp dT
pv = RT.
These equations are valid for all processes.
2.4.1 Constant Volume Process

The first law equation for a non-flow process when kinetic energy and potential
energy are negligible:
q – w = du.
For a reversible process,
w = p dv and du = Cv dT
q – p dv = Cv dT
For constant volume process
w = p dv = 0
q = Cv dT = du
2
or
q1 –2 = u2 – u1 = Cv dT
1
If the value of Cv as a function of T is known, integral can be evaluated.
2.4.2 Constant Pressure Process

The first law equation is:
q – w = du
or q = du + p dv
= d(u + pv) [ p = constant]
= dh = Cp dT
2

q1 –2 = Cp dT = h2 – h1
1
If the value of Cp as a function of temperature is known, integral can be evalu-

ated.
2.4.3 Constant Temperature Process

The first law equation is:
q – w = du
du = Cv dT = 0 ( T is constant)
q = p dv
2
q1 –2 =
1
p dv
For an ideal gas,

pv = RT
RT
p=
v
2
RT
q1–2 = w1–2 =
1
v
dv
v2
= RT ln
v1
v2
= p1 v1 ln
v1
p1
Also, w1 –2 = p1 v1 ln ( p1 v1 = p2 v2)
p2
2.4.4 Adiabatic Process

The first law equation is,
q – q = du.
No heat leaves or enters the system.

0 – w = du
0 – p dv = Cv dT
pdv
dT = ...(a)
Cv
But, pv = RT
Differentiating,
pdv + vdp = RdT
pdv vdp pdv vdp
dT = = [ R = Cp – Cv] ...(b)
R ( Cp Cv )
Equating (a) and (b) for dT
pdv pdv vdp
=
Cv ( Cp Cv )
(Cp Cv ) pdv vdp vdp

= = –1 –
Cv pdv pdv

Cp
–1=–1–
v dp

Cv dv p
or =–
v dp Cp
Cv
dv p

dv = – dp
v p
dv dp
or + =0
v p
Integrating,
ln v + ln p = constant
ln pv = ln (constant)
p1 v1 = p2 v2 = pv = constant

p1 v
= 2
p2 v1
1
v1 p
= 2
v2 p1
p1 v1 p v
But = 2 2
T1 T2
v1 T p
or = 1 2
v2 T2 p1
1
p2 T1 p2
p = T p
1 2 1
1
T1 p p
or = 2 2
T2 p
1 p1
1
1
p
= 1
p2
1
T1 p
= 1
T2 p2
2.4.5 Polytropic Process

The first law equation is
q – w = du
q1–2 – w1–2 = (u2 – u1)
q – pdv = du
For polytropic process,
p1 v1 p2 v2 R(T1 T2 )
w1–2 = =
n 1 n 1
R(T1 T2 )
q1–2 = + Cv(T2 – T1)
n 1
R(T1 T2 ) R R
= + (T2 – T1) Cv
n 1 1 1
1. The work done is zero as there is no expansion of boundary

W1 –2 = 0
2. The system is insulated and there is no exchange of heat with the surround-
ing.
Q1 –2 = 0
3. Applying first law of thermodynamics to the closed system,
Q1–2 – W1–2 = U2 – U1
0 – 0 = U2 – U1
U 2 = U1
The internal energy of the system during free expansion remains constant.
4. U2 – U1 = m Cv (T2 – T1) = 0
T2 = T1.
The process of free expansion is isothermal process.
5. H2 – H1 = m Cp (T2 – T1) = 0
The enthalpy of the system remains constant.
2.5 SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS FOR

NON-FLOW PROCESSES
The thermodynamic relations for ideal gas in different non-flow processes are
summarised in Table 2.1. The following relationships have been tabulated:
1. Governing equation or p-v-T relationship
2. Work done
3. Change of internal energy
4. Change of enthalpy
5. Heat exchanged.
The values given are for unit mass.
Example 2.1: 5 m3 of air at 2 bar and 27°C is compressed upto 6 bar pressure
following pv1.3 = constant. It is subsequently expanded adiabatically to 2 bar. Con-
sidering the two processes to be revesrsible, determine the net work. Also plot the
process on T-s diagram. [U.P.T.U. I sem, 2002-03].
Solution:
1. Draw T-s diagram to show the following process:
(i) Process 1–2: Reversible polytropic.
(ii) Process 2–3: Reversible adiabatic
p2 V2 p3 V3 6 105 2.1476 2 105 4.7

W2–3 = = = 8.714 105 N/m
1 0.4
5. Total work done
W1–3 = W1–2 + W2–3 = –9.62 105 + 8.714 105 = –0.906 105 N/m
= –90.6 kJ
The work is done on the system.
Example 2.2: Two kg of an ideal gas is compressed adiabatically from pressure
100 kPa and temperature 220 K to a final pressure of 400 kPa. Calculate:
(i) Initial volume
(ii) Final volume and temperature
(iii) Heat exchanged
(iv) Change in internal energy.
Take Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K and Cv = 0.707 kJ/kg-K.
Solution:
(i) Initial volume
p1 = 100 kPa = 100 103 N/m2
T1 = 220 K
m = 2 kg
R = Cp – Cv = 1 – 0.707 = 0.293 kJ/kg-K
= 293 J/kg-K.
Now, p1 V1 = m RT1
m RT1 2 293 220

V1 = = = 1.29 m3
p1 100 103
(ii) Final volume and temperature
Cp 1
= = = 1.414
Cv 0.707
p2 = 400 103 N/m2
Now, p1 V1 = p2 V2
1 1
p 100 1.414
V2 = V1 1 = 1.29
p2 400
= 0.484 m3
p2 V2 = m RT2
p2 V2 400 103 0.484

T2 = = = 330.4 K
mR 2 293
(iii) Work performed
p1 V1 p2 V2 100 103 1.29 400 103 0.484

W1 –2 = =
1 1.414 1
= –156 103 J
= 156 kJ.
Work is done on the system during compression process.
(iv) Heat exchanged
During adiabatic process, no heat is exchanged
Q1 –2 = 0
(v) Change in internal energy
From first law of thermodynamics
dU = dQ – dW = 0 – (–156)
= 156 kJ (increase)
Example 2.3: The internal energy of a certain substance is expressed by the
equation:
u = 3.62 pv + 86
where, u is given in kJ/kg
p is given in kPa and
v is in m3/kg.
A system composed of 5 kg of this substance expands from an initial pressure
of 550 kPa and a volume of 0.25 m3/kg to a final pressure of 125 kPa, in a process in
which pressure and volume are related by pv 1.2 = constant. If the expansion process
is quasi-static, determine Q, u and W for this process.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2005-06]
Solution:
m = 5 kg
p1 = 550 kPa
v 1 = 0.25 m3/kg
p2 = 125 kPa
n = 1.2
V1 = mv1 = 5 0.25 = 1.25 m3

p1 v1n = p2 v2n
1 1
p n 550 1.2
v 2 = v1 1 = 0.25 = 0.859 m3/kg.
p2 125
V2 = mv2 = 5 0.859 = 4.295 m3

(i) Work done
p1 V1 p2 V2 550 1.25 125 4.295

W1 –2 = =
n 1 1.2 1
687.5 536.875
= = 753.125 kJ Ans.
0.2
(ii) Change of internal energy
u1 = 3.62 p1 v1 + 86
u2 = 362 p2 v2 + 86
u2 – u1 = 3.62 (p2 v2 – p1 v1)
= 3.62 (125 0.859 – 550 0.25)
= 3.62 (107.375 – 137.5) = –109 kJ/kg
U = m (u2 – u1) = 5 109 = 545 kJ (decrease) Ans.
(iii) Heat exchange
Q1 –2 = W1–2 + (U2 – U1)
= 753.125 – 545 = 208.125 kJ Ans.
Example 2.4: A cylinder contains 0.5 m3 of air at 1.5 bar and 100°C. It is com-
pressed polytropically to a volume of 0.125 m3 and final pressure is 9.0 bar.
Determine:
(i) The mass of air
(ii) The value of index ‘n’ for pv n = constant
(iii) Work done, and
(iv) Heat supplied [U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2003-04]
Solution:
Data given,
V1 = 0.5 m3
p1 = 1.5 bar = 150 kPa
T1 = 100° + 273 = 373 K

V2 = 0.125 m3
p2 = 9 bar = 900 kPa.
(i) Mass of air
Assume R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K for air
p1 V1 = m RT1
p1 V1 150 0.5
m= = = 0.7 kg. Ans.
RT1 0.287 373
(ii) Value of index
p1 V1n = p2 V2n
n
V1 p2
V = p
2 1
V p
n ln 1 = ln 2
V2 p1
p 900
ln 2 ln
p1 150 1.7917595
n= = =
V1 0.5 1.3862944
ln ln
V2 0.125
= 1.29 Ans.
(iii) Work done
p1 V1 p2 V2 150 0.5 900 0.125 75 112.5

W1 –2 = = =
n 1 1.29 1 0.29
= – 129.3 kJ
Work is done on the system during compression.
(iv) Heat supplied
n 1.4 1.29
Q1 –2 = W1–2 = – (129.3)
1 1.4 1
= –35.56 kJ.
Heat is rejected by the system. Ans.
V1 V2
KE1 = KE2
Applying steady flow energy equation to unit mass flow
v12 v2
h1 + + gz1 + q1–2 = h2 + 2 + gz2 + w1–2
2 2
h1 = h2
Therefore, throttling process is a constant enthalpy process
h1 = h2 = h3 = h4 = h5 = ...
p3T3 p2 T
p 4T 4 2 Inlet Condition
p1T1
p5T5
Fig. 2.10 Constant enthalpy process
If the readings of pressure and temperature of the experiment are plotted on T-p
diagram, a constant enthalpy line is obtained.
The slope of the constant enthalpy curve is called Joule-Thomson coefficient
dT
=
dp h
For perfect gas, = 0.
Applications of Throttling
Although throttling is a energy loss process, it is used for the following.
1. To find out the dryness fraction of steam in a throttling calorimeter.
2. The speed of steam turbine is controlled in throttle governing.
3. Refrigeration effect (cooling) is obtained by throttling the refrigerant in a
valve or capillary tube at inlet to evaporator.
h1 = h2
h1 – h2 = 0
Cp(T1 – T2) = 0
T1 = T2
Cv(T1 – T2) = 0
u1 = u2
For an ideal gas, throttling takes place at

1. Constant enthalpy
2. Constant internal energy
3. Constant temperature.
However, in a real gas or fluid (refrigerant),
T1 T2.
2.8 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the total energy entering a system
must be equal to total energy leaving the system. For unit mass,
e 1 = e2
V12 V2
u1 + p1 v1 + + gz1 + q1–2 = u2 + p2 v2 + 2 + gz2 + w1–2
2 2
q1–2 System boundary
A2
V2
System x2
A1
Inlet V1 Z2
x1
Z1 w1–2
Datum level
Fig. 2.11 Steady flow process
where, suffix 1 is for inlet and 2 for outlet.

u = specific internal energy
pv = Flow work
V = Fluid velocity
Z = Height
q1 – 2 = Heat exchange
w1 – 2 = Work exchange
Now, h = u + pv
V12 V2
h1 + + qz1 + q1 – 2 = h2 + 2 + qz2 + w1 – 2
2 2
This is called steady flow energy equation. This equation may also be written as
follows:
V22 V12
q1–2 – w1–2 = (h2 – h1) + + q(z2 – z1)
2
In differential form,
dq – dw = dh + d(ke) + d(pe)
Case I. If the effect of gravity can be neglected, i.e., z2 z1
d ( pe) = 0
dq – dw = dh + (dke)
V 2 V12
or q1 – 2 – w1 – 2 = (h2 – h1) + 2
2
Case II. If gravity can be neglected and the change in velocity is negligible, i.e.,
V2 V1
d(pe) = 0
d(ke) = 0
q1 – 2 – w1 – 2 = (h2 – h1).
Case III. Applying the steady flow energy equation to a closed system (non-flow
process)
d(pe) = 0
d(ke) = 0
p1v 1 = 0 (Flow energy or displacement energy at
inlet and outlet is zero)
p2 v2 = 0
h1 = u1
h2 = u2
q1 – 2 – w1 – 2 = u2 – u1
This is called energy equation for a non-flow process.
2.8.1 Equation of Continuity

The mass flow rate ( m ) of the working substance entering the system is same as
leaving the system. The steady flow energy equation will be:
2 2
V V
m h1 1 qZ1 q1 2 = m h2 2 qZ 2 W1 2
2 2
m
or Q1 2 – W1 2 = m (h2 – h1) + (V12 V12 ) + m g(z2 – z1)
2
A1 V1 AV
where, m = = 2 2 (kg/s)
v1 v2
This is called equation of continuity.
Example 2.6: 0.5 kg/s of a fluid flows in a steady state process. The properties of
fluid at entrance are measured as p1 = 1.4 bar, density = 2.5 kg/m3, u1 = 920 kJ/kg
while at exit the properties are p2 = 5.6 bar, density = 5 kg/m3 and u2 = 720 kJ/kg.
The velocity at entrance is 200 m/s while at exit is 180 m/s. It rejects 60 kW of heat
and rises through 60 m during the flow. Find the change of enthalpy and the rate of
work done. [U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2002-03]
Solution: The data given,
m = 0.5 kg/s
p1 = 1.4 bar = 140 kPa
1
1 = 2.5 kg/m3 v1 = = 0.4 m3/kg
1
u1 = 920 kJ/kg
p2 = 5.2 bar = 560 kPa
1 1
2 = 5 kg/m3 v2 = = = 0.25 m3/kg
2 5
u2 = 720 kJ/kg
V1 = 200 m/s
V2 = 180 m/s
Q1 – 2 = 60 kW = 60 kJ/s
Z2 – Z1 = 60 m
(i) Change of enthalpy
H = m (h2 – h1) = m [(u2 + p2v2) – (u1 + p1v1)]
= 0.5 [(720 + 560 0.25) – (920 + 140 0.4)]
= 0.5 [860 – 976] = – 58 kJ
There is a decrease in the enthalpy.
(ii) Rate of work done
Apply steady flow energy equation to the system
V 2 V12 g ( Z 2 Z1 )
Q 1 – 2 – W1 2 = m (h2 h1 ) 2
2 103 103
1802 2002 9.81 60

– 60 – W1 2 = 0.5 (860 976)
2 103 103
= 0.5 [– 116 – 3.8 + 0.5886] = – 59.6
W1 2 = – 60 + 59.6 = 0.4 kW Ans.

Work is done on the system.
2.9 APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

The steady flow energy equation can be applied to various energy systems and de-
vices such as boilers, condensers, evaporators, nozzles, turbines, compressors etc.
2.9.1 Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
There are two steady flow streams, one of heating fluid and other fluid to be
heated. The flow through a heat exchanger is characterized by,
1. No work exchange,
W1 – 2 = 0
2. No change in potential energy
Z2 = Z1
3. No change in kinetic energy
V2 V1
4. Normally no external heat interaction, if heat exchanger is insulated.
Heat gained by cold fluid = Heat lost by hot fluid
m c(h1 – h2) = m h(h4 – h3)
where, m c and m h are flow rate of cold fluid and hot fluid respectively.
. 3 4 .
mh mh
. .
mc mc
1 2
Fig. 2.12 Heat exchanger
The boiler, condenser, evaporator, etc. are designed in a similar manner by us-
ing steady flow energy equation. The heat supplied or removed is equal to change of
enthalpy,
q1 – 2 = (h2 – h1)
Example 2.7: In a heat exchanger, 50 kg of water is heated per minute from

50°C to 110°C by hot gases which enter the heat exchanger at 250°C. If the
flow rate of gases is 100 kg/min, estimate the net change of enthalpy. For water
Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg-K and for air, Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K.
Solution:
m w = 50 kg/min
tw1 = 50°C
tw2 = 110°C
m g = 100 kg/min
tg1 = 250°C
Cpw = 4.186 kJ/kg-K
Cpg = 1 kJ/kg-K
Using energy balance,
Heat gained by water = Heat lost by hot gas
m w Cpw (tw2 – tw1) = m g Cpg(tg1 – tg2)
50 4.186 (110 – 50) = 100 1 (250 – tg2)
tg2 = 125°C
Net change of enthalpy of gas = 100 1 (250 – 125)
= 12500 kJ/min
2.9.2 Compressor
Rotary and reciprocating compressors are used to increase the pressure of air and
other gases. These are rotated by electric motor or engines. The main characteristics
of the system are:
1. Work is done on the system and, hence, it is negative.
W 1 – 2 is –ve.
Q1–2
2
.
C W1–2
Fig. 2.13 Compressor

2. Potential energy and kinetic energy can normally be neglected.

Z2 Z1
V2 V1
3. Heat is lost from the compressor either by radiation or through a coolant (air
or water).
The heat exchange is –ve.
Q 1–2 is –ve or zero.
– Q1 2 – (– W1 2 ) = m (h2 – h1)
W1 2 = Q1 2 + m (h2 – h1)

Therefore, work is done on the system to increase the enthalpy of the fluid.
Example 2.8: 0.8 kg of air flows through a compressor under steady state condi-
tions. The properties of air at entry are: pressure 1 bar, velocity 10 m/s, specific
volume 0.95 m3/kg and internal energy 30 kJ/kg. The corresponding values at exit
are: 8 bar, 6 m/s, 0.2 m3/kg and 124 kJ/kg. Neglecting the change in potental energy,
determine the power input and pipe diameter at entry and exit.
[U.P.T.U. CO. 2005-06]
Solution: The data given,
m = 0.8 kg/s .
Q1–2
p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
2
V1 = 10 m/s
.
v 1 = 0.95 m3/kg C W1–2
u1 = 0.9 kJ/kg
p2 = 8 bar = 800 kPa
V2 = 6 m/s 1
3
v 2 = 0.2 m /kg
u2 = 124 kJ/kg
h1 = u1 + p1v1 = 30 + 100 0.95 = 125 kJ/kg
h2 = u2 + p2v2 = 124 + 800 0.2 = 284 kJ/kg
(i) Apply steady flow energy equation to the compressor,
2 2
(h2 h1 ) V2 V13 g3 (Z 2 Z1 )

Q1 – 2 – W 1 – 2 = m
2 10 10
Q1 – 2 = 0
W1 – 2 is –ve.
Z2 = Z1
6 2 10 2
W1 – 2 = 0.8 (284 125) = 127 kW Ans.
2 103
(ii) Apply equation of continuity,
AV
1 1 AV
m = = 2 2
v1 v2
2 m v1
A1 = D1 =
4 V1
4 m v1 4 0.8 0.95
D1 = = = 0.311 m
V1 10
= 311 mm Ans.
4 m v2 4 0.8 0.2
D2 = = = 0.184 m
V2 6
= 184 mm Ans.
Example 2.9: An air compressor compresses atmospheric air at 0.1 MPa and
27°C by ten times of inlet pressure. During compression, the heat loss to the sur-
rounding is estimated to be 5% of compression work. Air enters the compressor with
a velocity of 40 m/s and leaves with 100 m/s. Inlet and exit cross- sectional areas are
100 cm2 and 20 cm2 respectively. Estimate the temperature of air at exit from com-
pressor and power input to the compressor.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2001-02]
Solution:
– Q1–2
C W1–2
1. Inlet conditions
p1 = 0.1 MPa = 0.1 103 kN/m2
T1 = 27°C + 273 = 300 K
V1 = 40 m/s
A1 = 100 cm2 = 100 10–4 m2
2. Outlet conditions
p2 = 10 0.1 103 kN/m2 = 103 kN/m2
V2 = 100 m/s
A2 = 20 cm2 = 20 10–4 m2
3. Equation of continuity
The equation of state,
p1V1 = mRT1
or p1v 1 = RT1
RT1 0.287 300

v1 = =
p1 100
= 0.861 m3/kg [R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K for air]
AV (100 10 4 ) 40
m = 1 1 = = 0.4646 kg/s
v1 0.861
AV
m = 2 2
v2
A2 V2 (20 10 4 ) 100

v2 = = = 0.43 m3/kg
m 0.4646
p2v 2 = RT2
p2 v2 103 0.43
T2 = = = 1498 K
R 0.287
4. Steady flow energy equation
V 2 V12 g
Q1 – 2 – W1 – 2 = m (h2 h1 ) 2 3
3 (Z 2 Z1 )
2 10 10
(100) 2 (40) 2
–0.05W1 – 2 – W1 – 2 = 0.43 1.005(1498 300) 3
0
2 10
W1 – 2 = 546.86 kW Ans.
2.9.3 Gas Turbine

A gas turbine converts the heat energy of hot gases into mechanical work. A com-
pressor driven by the gas turbine compresses air or gas to a higher pressure. The
high pressure air or gas is heated by combustion of fuel. The high pressure and high
temperature air or gas is admitted to a gas turbine. Power is produced in the turbine
at the expense of enthalpy drop of the gas. The main characteristics of the system
are:
1. The heat loss by radiation to the surrounding is –ve.
2. Normally, ke and pe are neglected.
V2 V1
Z2 = Z1
W 1 – 2 = Q1 – 2 + m (h1 – h2)
Q1–2
Hot Air/Gas
1 W1–2
GT
Fig. 2.14 Gas turbine
Example 2.10: Air passes through a gas turbine system at the rate of 4.5 kg/s. It
enters the turbine system with a velocity of 90 m/s and a specific volume of
0.85 m3/kg. It leaves the turbine system with a specific volume of 1.45 m3/kg. The
exit area of the turbine system is 0.38 m2. In its passage through the turbine, the
specific enthalpy of air is reduced by 200 kJ/kg and there is a heat loss of 40 kJ/kg.
Determine:
(i) The inlet area of turbine
(ii) The exit velocity of air in m/s.
(iii) Power developed by the turbine system in kW.
Solution:
1. Inlet conditions
m = 4.5 kg/s
V1 = 90 m/s
V 2 V12
–W1 – 2 = m (h2 h1 ) 2
2 103
(150) 2 (100) 2
= 1 (1600 2900)
2 103
= – 1300 + 6.25
W1 – 2 = 1293.75 kW
Example 2.12: A steam turbine operating under steady flow conditions receives
3600 kg of steam per hour. The steam enters the turbine at a velocity of 80 m/s an
elevation of 10 m and specific enthalpy of 3276 kJ/kg. It leaves the turbine at a
velocity of 150 m/sec, an elevation of 3 m and a specific enthalpy of 2465 kJ/kg.
Heat losses from the turbine to the surrounding amount to 36 MJ/hr. Estimate the
power output of turbine. [U.P.T.U. I/II Sem., 2001-02]
Solution:
1. Inlet Data, Q1–2
m = 3600 kg/hour = 1 kg/sec

V1 = 80 m/s 1
Z1 = 10 m
ST W1–2
h1 = 3276 kJ/kg
36 103
Q1 – 2 = –36 MJ/hour = – kJ/sec
3600
2
= – 10 kJ/sec
2. Outlet conditions,
V2 = 150 m/sec
Z2 = 3 m
h2 = 2465 kJ/kg
3. Steady flow energy equation,
V 2 V12 g
Q1– 2 – W1 – 2 = m (h2 h1 ) 2 3
3 (Z 2 Z1 )
2 10 10
(150) 2 (80) 2 9.81

–10 – W1–2 = 1 (2465 3276) 3
3 (3 10)
2 10 10
–10 – W1–2 = – 811 + 8.05 – 0.06867

W1 –2 = 793 kW Ans.
Example 2.13: The steam supply to an engine comprises two streams which mix
before entering the engine. One stream is supplied at the rate of 0.01 kg/s with an
enthalpy of 2950 kJ/kg and a velocity of 20 m/s. The other stream is supplied at the
rate of 0.1 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2665 kJ/kg and a velocity of 120 m/s. At the exit
from the engine the fluid leaves as two streams, one of water at the rate of 0.001 kg/s
with an enthalpy of 421 kJ/kg and the other of steam. The fluid velocities at the exit
are negligible. The engine develops a shaft power of 25 kW. The heat transfer is
negligible. Evaluate the enthalpy of the second exit stream.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2004-05]
Solution:
Q1–2 = 0
m1 h1 V1
ENGINE W1–2
m2 h2 V2
Water Steam
m3 m4
h3 h4
V3 V4
1. Inlet data,
m1 = 0.01 kg/s
h1 = 2950 kJ/kg
V1 = 20 m/s
m2 = 0.1 kg/s
h2 = 2665 kJ/kg
V2 = 120 m/s
Total inlet energy
m1 V12 g m1 V22 g
Ei = m1h1 + 3
+ 3
Z1 + Q 1 – 2 + m 2 h2 + 3
+ 3 Z2
2 10 10 2 10 10
0.01 (20) 2 0.1 1202

= 0.01 2950 + + 0 + 0 + 0.1 2665 + +0
2 103 2 103
Ei = 29.5 + 0.002 + 266.5 + 0.72 = 296.722 kJ
mi =1 0.01 + 0.1 = 0.11 kg/s
3. The change of potential energy is negligible,

Z2 = Z1
4. The steady flow energy equation,
V22 V12
= (h1 – h2)
2
V2 = 2( h1 h2 ) V12
If V2 >> V1 and V1 can be neglected,
V2 = 2( h1 h2 )
The mass flow rate,
AV AV
m = 1 1 = 2 2
v1 v2
The area of nozzle at the inlet and outlet can be estimated.
Example 2.14: In an isentropic flow through a nozzle, air flows at the rate of 600
kg/hr. At inlet to nozzle, pressure is 2 MPa and temperature is 127°C. The exit
pressure is 0.5 MPa. If the initial air velocity is 300 m/s, determine:
(i) Exit velocity of air, and
(ii) Inlet and exit area of nozzle. (U.P.T.U. I Sem., 2000-01)
Solution:
1. Inlet conditions,
p1 = 2 MPa = 2 103 kPa
2
T1 = 127°C + 273 = 400 K
1
600 1
m = 600 kg/hr = = kg/s
3600 6
V1 = 300 m/s
Q1– 2 = 0
2. Outlet conditions,
p2 = 0.5 MPa = 0.5 103 kPa
The flow through nozzle is isentropic,
1
T2 p
= 2
T1 p1
For air = 1.4
1.4 1
0.5 1.4
T2 = 400 = 269.18 K
2
W1 – 2 = 0
V 2 V12 g
Q1 –2 – W1 – 2 = m (h2 h1 ) 2 3
3 (Z 2 Z1 )
2 10 10
h2 – h1 = Cp(T2 – T1)
1 V22 (300) 2
0–0= 1.005(400 269.18) 3
0
6 2 10
V22 (300) 2
0 = 131.474 +
2 103
V2 = 131.474 2 103 3002
= 594 m/s Ans.

4. Equation of continuity
AV AV
m = 1 1 = 2 2
v1 v2
From equation of state,
p1v 1 = RT1
RT1 0.287 400

v1 = = = 0.0574 m3/kg
p1 2 103
For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
1
0.0574
mV
= 6
1
A1 = = 3.1888 10–5 m2
v1 300
= 31.88 mm2
RT2 0.287 269.18

v2 = = = 0.1545 m3/kg
p2 0.5 103
1
0.1545
m v2 6
A2 = = = 4.335 10–5 m2
V2 594
= 43.35 mm2 Ans.
The exit area of the nozzle is more than inlet area. Therefore, the nozzle is a
convergent-divergent nozzle.
2.9.6 Diffuser
A diffuser has varying cross-section and reduces the velocity of the flowing fluid.
There are two types of diffusers:
1. Subsonic Diffuser
The velocity of the fluid is less then sonic speed and the area of cross-section
of diffuser increases from inlet to exit.
2. Supersonic Diffuser
The velocity of fluid is more than sonic velocity and the area of diffuser
decreases.
The operating characteristics of a diffuser are similar to that for a nozzle.
Example 2.15: Water vapour at 90 kPa and 150°C enters a subsonic diffuser with
a velocity of 150 m/s and leaves the diffuser at 190 kPa with a velocity of 55 m/s and
during the process 1.5 kJ/kg of heat is lost to the surrounding. Determine:
(i) The final temperature
(ii) The mass flow rate
(iii) The exit diameter, assuming the inlet diameter as 10 cm and steady flow.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2001-02]
Solution:
1. Inlet condition,
p1 = 90 kN/m2
T1 = 150°C + 273 = 423 K 2
V1 = 150 m/s 1
2. Outlet condition,
p2 = 190 kN/m2
V2 = 55 m/s
For water vapours take Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg-K
V21 V12 g
Q1 –2 – W1 – 2 = (h2 – h1) + 3
+ 3 (Z2 – Z1)
2 10 10
For the given diffuser,
W1 – 2 = 0
Z2 = Z1
V21 V12
q1 –2 = (h2 – h1) +
2 103
(55) 2 (150) 2
–1.5 = Cp(T2 – T1) +
2 103
Cp(T2 – T1) = – 1.5 + 9.7375 = 8.2375
8.2375
T2 = + 423 = 427 K
2.1
or t2 = 427 – 273 = 154°C Ans.
4. Mass flow rate,
p1v 1 = RT1
R 8.314
Take, R= = = 0.4619 kJ/kg-K
M 18
0.4619 423
v1 = = 2.17 m3/kg
90
0.4619 427
v2 = = 1.038 m3/kg
190

(0.10) 2 150
A1 V1 4
m = = = 0.543 kg/s Ans.
v1 2.17
5. Exit diameter,
m v2 0.543 1.038
A2 = = = 0.010248 m2
V2 55
If T is the atmospheric temperature and T1 is the temperature of space to be

heated, then
T = T2
T < T1
From 1st law of thermodynamics,
W = Q 1 – Q 2
The schematic diagram of a heat pump is shown in Fig. 2.18. It operates as
follows:
1. Heat pump receives heat Q 2 for atmosphere which is at a temperature T2
equal to atmospheric temperature, T.
2. It receives external work, W and transfers heat from low temperature to a
higher temperature.
3. It supplies heat Q 1 to the space to be heated which is maintained at a tem-
perature T1 which is higher than atmospheric temperature.
Coefficient of performance (COP)
The performance of a heat pump is measured by its coefficient of performance. COP
is the ratio of amount of heat supplied to the space and mechanical work received.
Q Q Q
(COP)HP = 1 = 1 = 1 + 2
W Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
For a heat pump working as reversible reversed heat engine.
T1
COP =
T1 T2
2.10.4 Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a reversed heat engine which removes heat from a body at low
temperature and transfers heat to a body at higher temperature. The objective of the
system is to produce refrigeration effect and is used to preserve food and drugs by
storing at low temperatures.
The schematic diagram of a refrigerator is shown in Fig. 2.20.
T1 = T
T > T2
W = Q1 – Q2 as per 1st law of thermodynamics.
The refrigerator works as follows:
1. It removes heat Q 2 from space being cooled at low temperature T2 which is
lower than atmospheric temperature, T.
Surroundings
T 1 = T
Q1
REF W
Q2
Space being
Cooled
T 2 < T
Fig. 2.20 Refrigerator
2. It rejects heat Q 1 to the surrounding at temperature T1 which is equal to

atmospheric temperature, T.
3. It receives power in the form of work, W to transfer heat from a lower
temperature to higher temperature.
Coefficient of performance (COP)
The performance of a refrigerator is measured by its coefficient of performance.
COP is the ratio of amount of heat extracted called refrigerated effect and work
input
Q Q 2
(CPO)REF = 2 =
W Q1 Q 2
Observation,
Q1 Q 2
(COP)HP = =1+
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q 2
Q
(COP)REF = 2
Q1 Q2
(COP)HP = 1 + (COP)REF.
T2
If refrigerator works as reversible reversed heat engine, COP = .
T1 T 2
Example 2.16: A reversible heat engine operates between reservoirs at 420 K

and 280 K. If the output from the engine is 2.5 kJ, determine the efficiency of the
engine and its heat interactions with the two heat reservoirs.
Subsequently, the engine is reversed and made to operate as heat pump between
the same reservoirs. Calculate the coefficient of the heat pump and the power input
required when the heat transfer rate from the 280 K reservoir is 5 kW.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., (CO) 2003-04]
Solution:
1. Draw the schematic diagram of heat engine,
T1 = 420 K Source
T1
T2 = 280 K
Q1
W = 2.5 kJ HE W
T1 T2 420 280 Q2
= =
T1 420 Sink
T2
= 0.3333 = 33.33%
Heat Engine
W
=
Q1
W 2.5
Q1 = = = 7.5 kJ
0.3333
W = Q1 – Q2
Q2 = Q1 – W = 7.5 – 2.5 = 5 kJ
2. Draw the schematic diagram of heat pump
T1
T T2 420 280 Space to
COP = 1 = be heated
T1 420
=3 Q1
Q2 = 5 kW = 5 kJ/s HP W
Q2
Q1 Q
= 2
T1 T2 T2
T1 420
Q1 = Q2 = 5 = 7.5 kJ/s
T2 280 Heat Pump
W = Q1 – Q2 = 7.5 – 5
= 2.5 kJ/s = 2.5 kW
Example 2.17: A reversed Carnot engine is used for heating a building. It sup-
plies 210 103 kJ/hr of heat to the building at 20°C. The outside air is at –5°C. Find
the heat taken from the outside air per hour and power of the driving motor.
Solution:
1. Draw the schematic diagram.
2. Given data,
T1 = 20°C + 273 = 293 K
T2 = –5°C + 273 = 268 K
210 103
Q1 = 210 103 kJ/hr = = 58.33 kJ/sec
3600
T1 Q1 Q
3. (COP)HP = = = 1
T1 T2 Q1 Q2 W
T1
T T2
W = Q1 1 Q1
T1 HP W
Q2
293 268
= 58.33
293 T 2 = T
= 4.98 kW Heat Pump
4. Heat taken from outside air,

Q2 = Q1 – W = 58.33 – 4.98 = 53.33 kJ/sec
= 53.35 3600 = 192060 kJ/hr Ans.
Example 2.18: A domestic food refrigerator maintains a temperature of –15°C.
The air temperature is 30°C. If heat leaks into the freezer is 1.75 kJ/sec. continu-
ously, then what is the least power necessary to pump the heat out continuously.
Solution:
1. Draw the schematic diagram of refrigerator.
T1 = T
2. The refrigerator must work as reversible device so that
power required is minimum. Q1
3. Given data, REF W
Q2
T1 = 30°C + 273 = 303 K
T2 = – 15 + 273 = 258 K T2
Q2 = 1.75 kJ/sec Refrigerator

T1
Q1
E1 W1
Q2
T2
Q2
E2 W2
Q3
T3
Composite Engine
T2
1 – 1 = ...(1)
T1
T3
Similarly, 1 – 2 = ...(2)
T2
Multiply equations (1) and (2),
T2 T3 T
(1 – 1) (1 – 2) = . = 3 ...(3)
T1 T2 T1
T1 T3 T
But, 3 = =1– 3
T1 T1
T3
1 – 3 = ...(4)
T1
From equations (3) and (4),
T3
1 – 3 = (1 – 1) (1 – 2) =
T1
= 1 – 2 – 1 + 12
3 = 1 + 2 – 12.
Example 2.21: A cold storage of 100 tonnes of refrigeration capacity runs at 1/
4th of its Carnot COP. Inside temperature is –15°C and atmosphesic temperature is
35°C. Determine the power required to run the plant. Take one tonne of refrigera-
tion as 3.52 kW. [U.P.T.U. I Sem., (CO), 2003]
Solution:
T1 = 35°C + 273 = 308 K
T1
T2 = – 15°C + 273 = 258 K
Q1
T2 258
(COP)Carnot = = REP W
T1 T2 308 258 Q2
= 5.16 T2
COP of actual refrigeration plant,
1
(COP)REF = 5.16 = 1.25
4
Refrigeration load,
Q2 = 3.52 100 = 352 kW = 352 kJ/s
Q2 Q
(COP)REF = = 2
Q1 Q2 W
Q2 352
W= = = 281.6 kW Ans.
(COP) REF 1.25
Example 2.22: Show that the minimum work needed by the heat pump for the
heat transfer between two bodies at temperature T1 initially, such that one body
cools down to temperature T2 shall be:
T 2
W = Cp 1 T2 2T1
T2
Consider the specific heat of the two bodies as Cp.
[U.P.T.U. I Sem., 2002-03]
Solution: Draw the schematic diagram of heat pump.
To satisfy the condition of minimum work requirement, the heat pump must be
reversible.
T2 T1
COP =
T1 T2
Q1
For a unit mass, the heat to be extracted will be HP W
Q2
Q2 = Cp (T1 – T2)
T2
Q2
Now, COP =
W Heat Pump
Example 2.24: Using an engine of 30% thermal efficiency to drive a refrigerator

having a COP of 5, what is the heat input into the engine for each MJ removed
from the cold body by the refrigerant. If the system is used as heat pump, how
many MJ of heat would be available for heating for each MJ of heat input to the
engine.
Solution:
(i) Engine-Refrigerator system,
T1 T4
The schematic diagram is shown.
The thermal efficiency of engine, Q1
W
Q4
HE REF
W
= = 0.3 Q2 Q3
Q1
T2 T3
Q
(COP)REF = 3 = 5 Engine-Refrigerator System
W
W = 0.3Q1
Q3
Also, W=
5
Q3
0.3Q1 =
5
Q3
Q1 =
5 0.3
For Q3 = 1 MJ
1
Q1 = = 0.67 MJ Ans.
5 0.3
(ii) Engine-Heat Pump system,
(COP)HP = (COP)REF + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6
Q4
=
W T1 T4
But from engine efficiency,
Q1 Q4
W = 0.3 Q1 HE
W
HP
If Q1 = 1 MJ Q2 Q3
W = 0.3 MJ T2 T3
Q4 = W(COP)HP = 0.3 6
Engine-Heat Pump system
= 1.8 MJ Ans.
Example 2.25: Heat pump is used for heating the premises in winter and cooling
the same in summer such that temperature inside remains 25°C. Heat transfer across
the walls and roof is found 2 MJ per hour per degree temperature difference between
interior and exterior. Determine the minimum power required for operating the
pump in winter when outside temperature is 1°C and also give the maximum tem-
perature in summer for which the device shall be capable of maintaining the
premises at desired temperature for same power input.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2001-02]
Solution:
(i) In winter, the device works as heat pump.
T1
T1 = 25°C + 273 = 298 K
T2 = 1°C + 273 = 274 K Q1
HP W
For a reversible heat pump, Q2
T1 298
(COP)HP = = = 12.4 T2
T1 T2 298 274
Heat Pump
Q
Also, COP = 1
W
2 106
Q1 = (298 – 274) = 13333.33 J = 13.33 kJ
3600
13.33
W= = 1.074 kW Ans.
12.42
(ii) In summer, the device works as air-conditioner,
T2 Q T1
(COP)REF = = 2
T1 T2 W Q1
REF W
2 106
(298 T2 ) Q2
298
= 3600
(298 T2 ) 1.074 T2
298 1.074 3600 Refrigerator (Air-conditioner)

(298 – T2)2 =
2 106
= 576
298 – T2 = 576 = 24
T2 = 298 + 24 = 322 K
= 49°C Ans.
2.11 EQUIVALENCE OF SECOND LAW STATEMENTS

The Kelvin-Planck statement and Clausius statements are two statements of second
law of thermodynamics (see para 2.1). These statements look different but these are
two parallel statements and are equivalent in all respects. The equivalence of these
statements will be proved by the logic that violation of one statement leads to viola-
tion of second statement and vice-versa.
2.11.1 Violation of Clausius Statement

A cyclic heat engine (HE) operates between two reservoirs drawing heat Q1 and
producing work, W as shown in Fig. 2.20(a).
Heat Heat Heat

Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir
T1 T1 T1
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1
W = Q1 – Q 2 W=0 W=0 W
HE HP HP HE
Q2 + Q1 = Q1 Q2
Cold Cold
Reservoir Reservoir Cold
T2 T2 Reservoir
(a) Heat Engine (b) Heat Pump Violating (c) Heat Engine system violating
Clausius Statement Kelvin-Planck statement
Fig. 2.21 Violation of Clausius statement
A cyclic heat pump (HP) is shown in Fig. 2.21(b) which is transferring heat
from cold reservoir (T2 ) to a hot reservoir (T1) with no work input (W = 0). This
violates Clausius statement as heat cannot flow from a cold temperature to a
higher temperature without any external work input.
Figure 2.21(c) shows a heat engine (HE) and heat pump (HP) combined to form
a heat engine system. The heat pump is supplying heat Q1 to hot reservoir which is
the requirement of heat engine. Therefore, hot reservoir can be by-passed. The heat
pump and heat engine T form a system operating in cycles and producing work W
continuously while exchanging heat with one reservoir (cold) only. Thus, the
Kelvin-Planck statement is violated. Hence, when Clausius statement is violated,
simultaneously, Kelvin-Plank statement is also violated.
2.11.2 Violation of Kelvin-Planck Statement

A heat pump (HP) is extracting heat Q1 from low temperature reservoir (T2) and
discharging heat to high temperature reservoir (T1) getting work from outside.
A heat engine (HE) is producing work W by exchanging heat with one reser-
voir at temperature T1 only. The Kelvin-Planck statement is violated which requires
two heat reservoirs for an engine to produce work continuously.
Heat Heat Heat

Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir
T1 T1 T1
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1 +Q2
W = Q1
W W = Q1 =
HP + HE HE HP
Q2 Q2 = 0 Q2 = 0 Q2
Cold Cold
Reservoir Reservoir
T2 T2
(a) Heat Pump (b) Heat Engine violating (c) Heat Pump system violating
Kelvin-Planck statement Clausius statement
Fig. 2.22 Violation of Kelvin-Planck statement
The heat pump and heat engine are combined in Fig. 2.22(c) to create a heat
pump system. The heat pump is getting work W from heat engine. Therefore, heat
pump system is transferring heat from a lower temperature (T2) to a higher tempera-
ture (T1) without any external work. Therefore, the Clausius statement is also
violated.
From the above two cases, it is clear that when one of the statements of second
law is violated, the other statement is also violated. Therefore, the two statements
are equivalent.
2.12 CARNOT CYCLE

Sadi Carnot proposed the concept of Carnot engine in 1824 which works on revers-
ible cycle called Carnot cycle.
The Carnot engine has air enclosed in a cylinder. The cylinder receives heat Q1
from hot reservoir and rejects heat Q2 to cold reservoir. The cylinder head can be
covered with insulating cap at will. The following assumptions are made:
1. The working substance is air.
2. Piston-cylinder arrangement is weightless and frictionless.
V3
Q3 – 4 = W3 – 4 = p3V3 ln
V4
V3
= mRT3 ln [ pV = mRT]
V4
= mRT3 ln r
V3 V
where, r = compression ratio = = 2
V4 V1
Also, Q3 – 4 = T3(S3 – S4).
4. Process 4–1: Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Compression
The cylinder head is disconnected from cold reservoir and covered with insulating
cap. The air is allowed to be compressed isentropically from V4 to V1.
Q4 – 1 = 0
Applying 1st law of thermodynamics,
Q4 – 1 = (U4 – U1) + W4 – 1
p1 V1 p2 V2
(U4 – U1) =
1
mR(T1 T2 )
=
1
But, T3 = T4
mR(T1 T3 )
U4 – U1 =
1
U3 – U2 = U4 – U1
Also, S4 = S1.
2.12.2 Efficiency of Carnot Cycle

Work done,
W = Heat supplied – Heat rejected
= mRT1 ln r – mRT3 ln r
= mR ln r(T1 – T3)
Efficiency,
Work done mR ln r (T1 T3 ) T T3
= = = 1
Heat supplied mR ln rT1 T1
From T-s diagram,

W = T1(S2 – S1) – T3 (S3 – S4)
T1 ( S 2 S1 ) T3 ( S3 S 4 )
=
T1 ( S 2 S1 )
But, S3 = S2 and S1 = S4
T1 T3
=
T1
1
T2 V
For process 2–3, = 3
T3 V2
But, T2 = T1
1
T1 V
= 3
T3 V2
1
T1 V
For process 4–1, = 4
T4 V1
But, T4 = T3
1
T1 V
= 4
T3 V1
V3 V
= 4
V2 V1
V2 V
or = 3 =r
V1 V4
T1
= (r) – 1
T3
1
T 1
= 1 – 3 = 1 –
T1 r
1
=1– 1
r
2.12.3 Observations
T2
1. Carnot efficiency, = 1 – .
T1
Work done W Q Q2 Q
Thermal efficiency, = = = 1 =1– 2 .
Heat supplied Q1 Q1 Q1
Q2 T
= 2
Q1 T1
Q1 Q
or = 2 = constant.
T1 T2
The heat transfer from a heat reservoir is proportional to its temperature.
This is called Carnot principle.
2. Carnot efficiency is independent of working fluid.
3. It is a function of absolute temperature of heat reservoirs.
4. Carnot efficiency increases with the decrease of sink temperature T2.
If T2 = 0, is 100%. It violates Kelvin-Planck statement as no cold reservoir
is required.
5. The sink temperature T2 cannot be lower than atmospheric temperature or
temperature of sea or river or lake which can act as heat sink.
6. Carnot efficieny increases with the increase of source temperature T1. This
requires high temperature resisting materials which are very costly and not
easily available. Therefore, T1 is restricted by metallurgical considerations
and is called metallurgical limitation.
7. Carnot efficiecy depends upon temperature difference (T1 – T2). Higher the
temperature difference between source and sink, higher the Carnot effi-
ciency.
8. For same degree increase of source temperature or decrease in sink tempera-
ture, Carnot efficiency is more sensitive to change in sink temperature.
2.12.4 Impracticability of Carnot Engine (Carnot Cycle)

Although Carnot cycle is most efficient, it is not practical and Carnot engine is only
a hypothetical device. The main reasons for impracticability of Carnot cycle are
listed bolow:
1. All the processes are taken as reversible in a Carnot cycle. Practically pro-
cesses are not reversible due to the presence of internal fluid friction of
working substance and mechanical friction between piston and cylinder.
2. There is also irreversibility due to heat absorption and rejection taking place
with finite temperature difference between reservoir and working substance.
WA W
> B
Q1 Q1
or WA > WB
2. Reverse Engine EB
The engine EB is reversible. Reverse the engine B so that all input and output
energy values are same but directions are reversed. Since WA is more than
WB, therefore, part of WA (equal to WB) may be used to drive the reversed
heat engine B.
The heat Q1B discharged by B may be supplied to EA. The source can be
eliminated.
Source
T1
Q1A Q1B
WA WB
EA B
Q2A Q2B
Sink
T2
Fig. 2.28 Engine EB is reversed
3. Combined Engines (EA + B)
Source
T1
Q1A = Q1 Q2A = Q1
WA
EA WB B
WA – WB
Q1A Q2B
Sink
T2
Fig. 2.29 Combined operation of EA + B

The combined engines EA + B constitute a heat engine system operating on a

single reservoir (T2) and still produces work equal to WA – WB. This system
violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics.
Therefore, our assumption that A > B is wrong.
B A
The efficiency of an irreversible engine cannot be greater than that of the
reversible engine if both operate between same thermal reservoirs with fixed
temperatures.
Example 2.26: A Carnot engine operates between source and sink temperature of
260°C and –17.8°C. If the system receives 100 kJ from the source, find the net work
transfer, heat rejected to sink and efficiency of the system.
Solution: The schematic diagram of the Carnot engine is shown.
T1 = 260°C + 273 = 533 K
T2 = –17.8 + 273 = 255.2 K T1
Q1 = 100 kJ
Q1
From Carnot principle,
W
HE
Q1 Q
= 2 Q2
T1 T2
T2
T
Q 2 = 2 Q1
T1 Carnot Engine
255.2
= 100 = 47.88 kJ Ans.
533
The net work transfer,
W = Q1 – Q2 = 100 – 47.88 = 52.12 kJ
The Carnot efficiency,
T2 255.2
= 1 – =1– = 0.5212
T1 533
= 52.12% Ans.
Exampe 2.27: A carnot engine operates between temperatures 500 K and 100 K.
Its efficiency may be increased by increasing the source temperature to 600 K.
Determine the reduction in sink temperature necessary to affect the same improve-
ment in efficiency holding the source temperature at 500 K. On the basis of these
calculations, which method appears more effective for increasing the effficiency of
Carnot cycle.
Solution: The schematic diagram of Carnot engine is shown.

T1 = 500 K
T2 = 100 K T1
T2 100
c = 1 – =1– = 80% Q1
T1 500
W
HE
Case I. T2 = 100 K
Q2
T1 = 600 K
T2 100 T2
c = 1 – =1– = 83.33%
T1 600
Carnot Engine
Case II. T1 = 500 K
c = 0.8333
T2
c = 1 –
T1
T2 = (1 – c)T1 = (1 – 0.8333)500 = 83.35 K
In order to achieve an increase in efficiency to 83.33%, either increase the
source temperature by 100 K or decrease the sink temperature by 16.65 K, i.e., (100
– 83.35) K. Therefore, decreasing the sink temperature is more effective to increase
the Carnot efficiency as we have to decrease it only by 16.65 K against 100 K
increase in source temperature.
2.14 CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

The clausius theorem states: “Whenever a closed system undergoes a cyclic pro-
dQ
cess, the cyclic integral is less than zero (i.e., negative) for an irreversible
T
cyclic process and equal to zero for a reversible cyclic process”.
Mathematically
dQ
< 0 for an irreversible process
T
dQ
= 0 for reversible process
T
Combining the equations for reversible and irreversible processes
dQ
0
T
Solution: The schematic diagram of the engine is shown,

T1
T1 = 650°C + 273 = 923 K
T2 = 100°C + 273 = 373 K Q1
Q1 = 2512 kJ/min HE
W
(i) Q2 = 867 kJ/min Q2

Applying Clausius inequality,
T2
Q1 Q 2512 867
– 2 = – = 0.34770 > 0
T1 T2 923 373
The cycle is not possible.
(ii) Q2 = 1015 kJ/min
2512 1015
– =0
923 373
The cycle is reversible.
(iii) Q2 = 1494 kJ/min
2512 1494
– = –1.284 < 0
923 373
The cycle is irreversible and possible.
Example 2.29: A reversible heat engine receives heat from two thermal reser-
voirs at 750 K and 500 K. The engine develops 100 kW and rejects 3600 kJ/min of
heat to the sink at 250 K. Determine thermal efficiency of the engine and heat sup-
plied by each thermal reservoir.
Solution: The schematic diagram of the engine is shown,
T1 = 750 K
T2 = 500 K
T3 = 250 K
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
Q1 + Q2
W
HE
Q3
T3
W = 100 kW = 100 60 = 6000 kJ/min

Q3 = 3600 kJ/min
As per 1st law of thermodynamics,
Q1 + Q2 = W + Q3 = 6000 + 3600
= 9600 kJ/mm
Q2 = 9600 – Q1
As per Clausius theorem,
Q1 Q Q
+ 2 – 3 =0 (for a reversible heat engine)
T1 T2 T3
Q1 (9600 Q1 ) 3600
+ – =0
750 500 250
Q1 + 14400 – 1.5Q1 – 10800 = 0
Q1 = 7200 kJ/min
Q2 = 9600 – 7200 = 2400 kJ/min
Example 2.30: A heat engine working on Carnot cycle absorbs heat from three
reservoirs at 1000 K, 800 K and 600 K. The engine does 10 kW of net work and
rejects 400 kJ/min of heat to a heat sink at 300 K. If heat supplied by the reservoir at
1000 K is 60% of the heat supplied by reservoir at 600 K. Calculate the quantity of
heat absorbed from each reservoir.
Solution: The schematic diagram of engine is shown,
T1 = 600 K
T2 = 800 K
T3 = 1000 K
T4 = 300 K
T1 T2 T3
Q1 Q2 Q3
Q
W
HE
Q4
T4
Q4 = 400 kJ/min
W = 10 kW = 10 60 = 600 kJ/min
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = W + Q4
= 600 + 400
= 1000 kJ/min
Q3 = 0.6Q1
Q2 = Q – (Q1 + Q3) = 1000 – Q1 – 0.6Q1
= 1000 – 1.6Q1
Apply Clausius theorem,
Q1 Q Q Q
+ 2 + 3 – 4 =0
T1 T2 T3 T4
Q1 (1000 1.6Q1 ) 0.6Q1 400

+ + – =0
600 800 1000 300
Q1 = 312.5 kJ/min
Q2 = 1000 – 1.6(312.5) = 500 kJ/min
Q3 = 0.6 (312.5) = 187.5 kJ/min Ans.
2.15 CONCEPT OF ENTROPY

Entropy is a thermodynamic property of a working substance which increases with
the addition of heat and decreases with its removal. Heat absorbed by the working
substance can be expressed as:
dQ = TdS
where, T = Absolute temperature
dS = Change in entropy.
The units of entropy are kJ/kg-K. It is an extensive property.
The datum for zero entropy is OK.
2.15.1 Entropy: A Thermodynamic Property

Entropy is a point function and not a path function. Therefore, it is a property of the
system.
In Fig. 2.31, 1A2B1 is a reversible cyclic process consisting of two reversible
processes 1A2 and 2B1. As per Clausius theorem,
2A 1B
dQ dQ
+ =0 ...(1)
1A
T 2B
T
T
T2 2
Temperature
C
V=
T1
1
s
s1 s2
Entropy
Fig. 2.33 Constant volume process
Integrating between limits 1 and 2,

S2 T2
dT
ds = mCv
S1 T1
T
T2
S2 – S1 = mCv ln
T1
T2 p
For V = C, = 2
T1 p1
p
S2 – S1 = mCv ln 2
p1
dT
Again, dS = mCv
T
dT T
=
dS mCv
This equation gives the shape (or slope) of process 1–2 on T-s diagram. Equa-
tions are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes.
2. Constant pressure process
A constant pressure process is plotted on T-s diagram. For a constant pressure pro-
cess,
dQ = mCpdT
dQ dT
= mCp
T T
T
T2 2 2
Temperature
C
=
=
V
P
T2
1
s
s1 s2
Entropy
Fig. 2.34 Constant pressure process
dT
dS = mCp
T
S2 T2
dT
dS = mCp
S1 T1
T
T2
S2 – S1 = m Cp ln
T1
T2 V
For p = C, = 2
T1 V1
V
S2 – S1 = mCp ln 2
V1
This equation is valid for both reversible and irreversible processes.
dT
Again, dS = mCp
T
dT T
= = slope of process line 1–2
dS Cp
For constant volume process,
dT T
=
dS Cv
Cv < Cp
1 1
>
Cv Cp
T T
>
Cv Cp
The slope of constant volume process is higher than that for constant pressure pro-
cess.
3. Isothermal process
An isothermal process 1–2 is shown on T-s diagram. For isothermal process,
T
1 2
T1 = T2
Temperature
s
s1 s2
Entropy
Fig. 2.35 Isothermal process
V
Q1 – 2 = W1 – 2 = mRT ln 2
V1
mRT V2
S2 – S1 = ln
T V1
V
= mR ln 2
V1
V
= m(Cp – Cv) ln 2
V1
V2 p
For T = C, = 1
V1 p2
p
S2 – S1 = mR ln 1
p2
p
or S2 – S1 = m(Cp – Cv) ln 1
p2
The equation is valid for reversible and irreversible processes.
Work done during cycle,

W = Q1 – Q2 = (T1 – T2) (s2 – s1)
Thermal efficiency,
W (T T2 )( s2 s1 ) T T2
= = 1 = 1
Q1 T1 ( s2 s1 ) T1
2.15.3 Entropy Change for Ideal Gases

Changes of entropy of a certain quantity, m of a perfect gas during heating by any
thermodynamic process from state 1 (p1V2T1) to state 2 (p2V2 T2) can be found out
as follows:
1. In terms of volume and temperature
General energy equation of 1st law of thermodynamics:
dQ = dU + dW = mCv dT + pdV
dQ dT pdV
= m Cv +
T T T
From equation of state, pV = mRT
p mR
=
T V
dQ dT dV
= dS = mCv + mR
T T V
s2 T2 V2
dT dV
dS = mCv + mR
T V
s1 T1 V1
T V
S2 – S1 = mCv ln 2 + mR ln 2
T1 V1
T V
= m Cv ln 2 (Cp Cv ) ln 2
T1 V1
2. In terms of pressure and temperature

p1 V1 p V
= 2 2
T1 T2
V2 pT
= 1 2
V1 p2 T1
T p T
S2 – S1 = mCv ln 2 + mR 1 2
T
1 2 T1
p
T p T
= mCv ln 2 + mR ln 1 + mR ln 2
T1 p2 T1
T p
= m(Cv + R) ln 2 + mR ln 1
T1 p2
Now, R = Cp – Cv
Cv + R = Cp
T p
S2 – S1 = m Cp ln 2 + m(Cp – Cv) ln 1
T1 p2
T p
= m Cp ln 2 (Cp Cv )ln 1
T1 p2
3. In terms of pressure and volume

p1 V1 p V
= 2 2
T1 T2
T2 p V
= 2 2
T1 p1 V1
T V
S2 – S1 = mCv ln 2 + mR ln 2
T1 V1
p V V
= mCv ln 2 2 + m(Cp – Cv) ln 2
p1 V1 V1
p V V
= mCv ln 2 + mCv ln 2 + m(Cp – Cv) ln 2
p1 V1 V1
p V V V
= mCv ln 2 + mCv ln 2 + mCp ln 2 – mCv ln 2
p1 V1 V1 V1
p V
S2 – S1 = m Cv ln 2 Cp ln 2
p1 V1
2.15.4 Entropy Change during Steam Generation

(i) 1 kg of water at temperature T1 is heated to boiling temperature T2.
Heat supplied,
Q1–2 = hf – h1 = Cw (T2 – T1)
where, hf = enthalpy of saturated water,
Cw = specific heat of water
= 4.186 kJ/kg-K
T
T4 4
Temperature
T 2 = Ts
2 3
T1 1
h
h1 hf hg h4
Entropy
Fig. 2.39 T-h diagram
Change of entropy,
T2 T2
dQ Cw dT T
S2 – S1 = = = Cw ln 2
T1
T T1
T T1
(ii) During process 2–3 there is evaporation of water. The temperature is con-
stant at saturation temperature Ts.
3
dQ Q2 3 h fg
S3 – S2 = = =
T TS TS
2
(iii) During process 3–4, the steam is superheated. The heat added
dQ = mCS dT
where, CS = specific heat of steam
= 2.1 kJ/kg-K
2.15.9 Important Mathematical Relations of Entropy
dQ
1. dS =
T
2. dQ = TdS
3. TdS = dU + pdV
4. Unavailable heat energy, UHE = T dS.
where, T = Ambient temperature
dQ
5. For reversible process, dS =
T
dQ
6. For irreversible process, dS >
T
7. For universe (isolated system), ds 0
8. For reversible cyclic process, ds = 0
9. For irreversible cyclic process, ds > 0
10. For a constant pressure process,
V2 T
S2 – S1 = mCp ln = mCp ln 2
V1 T1
Example 2.31: 10 m3 of air at 175°C and 5 bar is expanded to a pressure of 1 bar

while temperature is 36°C. Calculate the entropy change for the process.
[U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2003-04]
Solution: Initial conditions,
V1 = 10 m3
T1 = 175°C + 273 = 448 K
p1 = 5 bar = 500 kPa
Assume R for air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
p1V1 = mRT1
p1 V1 500 10
m= = = 38.8875 kg
RT1 0.287 448
Final conditions,
p2 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
T2 = 36°C + 273 = 309 K
Total heat transfer, Q1–2 = mCi (TS – T1) + mhfusion

= 5 2.093(273 – 263) + 5 335
= 104.65 + 1675
= 1779.65 kJ
Change of entropy of the surrounding at constant temperature 303 K,
Q1 2 1779.65
(S )surrounding = – = = –5.8734 kJ
303 303
Change of entropy of the system,
T mh fusion
= mCi ln S +
T1 TS
273 5 335
= 5 2.093 ln +
263 273
= 0.39 + 6.1355
= 6.5255 kJ
(S)universe = (S)surrounding + (S)system
= – 5.8734 + 6.5255 = 0.652 kJ Ans.
Example 2.34: 0.25 kg/s of water is heated from 30°C to 60°C by hot gases that
enter at 180° and leave at 80°C. Calculate the mass flow rate of gases when its
Cp = 1.08 kJ/kg-K. Find the entropy change of water and of hot gases. Take the
specific heat of water as 4.186 kJ/kg-K. Also find the increase of unavailable en-
ergy if the ambient temperature is 27°C. [U.P.T.U. II Sem., 2002-03]
Solution:
Data on water,
m w = 0.25 kg/s
Tw1 = 30°C + 273 = 303 K
Tw2 = 60°C + 273 = 333 K
Cw = 4.186 kJ/kg-K
Data on gas
Tg1 = 180°C + 273 = 453 K
Tg2 = 80°C + 273 = 353 K
Cg = 1.08 kJ/kg-K
T = 27°C + 273 = 300 K
9. Classify different types of thermodynamic processes. Compare the work

done in non-flow and flow processes.
10. Prove that work done for a steady flow adiabatic process is given by:

W1 – 2 = (p1V1 – p2V2)
1
11. Estimate the work done for an isothermal process.
12. Define engine efficiency and COP of a heat pump and a refrigerator. Prove
that COP of heat pump is more than COP of refrigerator.
13. State and explain the second law of thermodynamics.
14. Write short note on “Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statement
of second law of thermodynamics”.
15. Explain Carnot cycle on p-V and T-s diagrams.
16. State and prove Carnot theorem.
17. Explain available and unavailable energy.
18. Show that the entropy change in a process when a perfect gas changes form
state 1 to state 2 is given by:
T2 p
s2 – s1 = Cp ln + R ln 2 .
T1 p1
19. Are the following statements true or false?
(i) The process that violates the second law also violates the first law of
thermodynamics.
(ii) No process in a closed system is possible in which it exchanges heat
with a single reservoir and produces an equal amount of work.
(iii) The change in entropy of a closed system must be greater than or equal
to zero.
(iv) The entropy of an isolated system always increases.
(v) Entropy increases in the process of mixing hot water with cold water.
20. Show that the work, W in non-flow processe for polytropic process, i.e.,
pV n = constant, is given by:
W = (p1V1 – p2V2)/n – 1.

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CHAPTER

2.1.1 Zeroth Law

Fig. 2.1 Zeroth law

If, TA = TB and also

2.1.2 First Law

2.1.3 Second Law

(a) Kelvin-Planck statement

Engine, possible PM M–II, impossible

Fig. 2.2 Kelvin-Planck statement

(b) Clausius statement

Heat pump, possible PM M–II, impossible

Fig. 2.3 Clausius statement

Second law provides a yardstick to evaluate the performance of an engine or a

Fig. 2.4 Carnot statement

2.1.4 Third Law

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

2.2.1 Non-flow Processes

(a) Reversible non-flow processes

(b) Irreversible non-flow process

2.2.2 Flow Processes

(a) Steady flow process

2.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Non-flow processes Flow processes

Reversible processes Irreversible processes

Steady flow processes Unsteady flow processes

Reversible flow processes Irreversible flow processes

Fig. 2.5 Classification of thermodynamic processes

Fig. 2.6 Joule’s paddle wheel experiment

2.3.1 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

2.3.2 Applications of First Law to Thermodynamic Processes

Case III Closed or non-flow thermodynamic system, when there is no change of

2.4 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GAS

2.4.1 Constant Volume Process

If the value of Cv as a function of T is known, integral can be evaluated.

2.4.2 Constant Pressure Process

If the value of Cp as a function of temperature is known, integral can be evalu-

2.4.3 Constant Temperature Process

For an ideal gas,

2.4.4 Adiabatic Process

No heat leaves or enters the system.

(Cp  Cv ) pdv  vdp vdp

2.4.5 Polytropic Process

1. The work done is zero as there is no expansion of boundary

2.5 SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS FOR

p2 V2  p3 V3 6  105  2.1476  2  105  4.7

m RT1 2  293  220

p2 V2 400  103  0.484

p1 V1  p2 V2 100  103  1.29  400  103  0.484

V1 = mv1 = 5  0.25 = 1.25 m3

V2 = mv2 = 5  0.859 = 4.295 m3

p1 V1  p2 V2 550  1.25  125  4.295

T1 = 100° + 273 = 373 K

p1 V1  p2 V2 150  0.5  900  0.125 75  112.5

Fig. 2.10 Constant enthalpy process

For an ideal gas, throttling takes place at

2.8 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

Fig. 2.11 Steady flow process

where, suffix 1 is for inlet and 2 for outlet.

2.8.1 Equation of Continuity

 1802  2002 9.81  60 

 W1  2 = – 60 + 59.6 = 0.4 kW Ans.

2.9 APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

2.9.1 Heat Exchanger

Fig. 2.12 Heat exchanger

(Cp Cv ) pdv vdp vdp

p2 V2 p3 V3 6 105 2.1476 2 105 4.7

m RT1 2 293 220

p2 V2 400 103 0.484

p1 V1 p2 V2 100 103 1.29 400 103 0.484

V1 = mv1 = 5 0.25 = 1.25 m3

V2 = mv2 = 5 0.859 = 4.295 m3

p1 V1 p2 V2 550 1.25 125 4.295

p1 V1 p2 V2 150 0.5 900 0.125 75 112.5

1802 2002 9.81 60

W1 2 = – 60 + 59.6 = 0.4 kW Ans.

– Q1 2 – (– W1 2 ) = m (h2 – h1)

W1 2 = Q1 2 + m (h2 – h1)

RT1 0.287 300

A2 V2 (20 10 4 ) 100

m = 3600 kg/hour = 1 kg/sec

(150) 2 (80) 2 9.81

0.01 (20) 2 0.1 1202

V2 = 131.474 2 103 3002

RT1 0.287 400

RT2 0.287 269.18

If T is the atmospheric temperature and T1 is the temperature of space to be

2. It rejects heat Q 1 to the surrounding at temperature T1 which is equal to

298 1.074 3600 Refrigerator (Air-conditioner)

3. Combined Engines (EA + B)

Fig. 2.29 Combined operation of EA + B

The combined engines EA + B constitute a heat engine system operating on a

W = 100 kW = 100 60 = 6000 kJ/min

Q1 (1000 1.6Q1 ) 0.6Q1 400