Hypothesis Testing – is the process of making an inference or generalization on a population based on the Formatted: Font: 11 pt

results of
the study on samples. Formatted: Indent: First line: 0 cm
Statistical Hypothesis – is a guess or prediction made by a researcher regarding the possible outcome of the
study. Formatted: Font: 11 pt

Example of a Research Problem: Formatted: Font: 11 pt

The performance in Mathematics of the first-born and last-born children.
Formatted: Font: 11 pt

Specific question: Is there a significant difference in the performance in Mathematics of the first- Formatted: Indent: First line: 1.27 cm
born and last-born children? Formatted: Font: 11 pt, Bold, Italic
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Two Types of Statistical Hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis (Ho): It shows equality or no significant difference or no relationship between variables. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0 cm
Ex. There is no significant difference in the performance in Mathematics of the first-born and last-born
children. Formatted: Font: 11 pt
Formatted: Font: Bold
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): It generally represents the idea which the researcher wants to prove.
Ex. There is significant difference in the performance in Mathematics of the first-born and last-born Formatted: Font: Bold
children. Formatted: Font: Bold
Formatted: Font: Bold
Commonly used Inferential Statistics
1. Independent Samples t-test (ISTT)- used when you compare two groups of cases for a single variable. Formatted: Font: Bold
Ex. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level (tested variable)of the participants in terms of
Formatted: Font: Bold
gender (male and female) after taking the mineral supplement?
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
2. Paired Samples t-test (PSTT) - used when means of two variables are considered for a single group.
Formatted: Font: Bold
Ex. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the male respondents before and after taking
the mineral supplement? Formatted: Font: Bold

3. One Way Anova or F-test – used to compare more than two groups of cases for a single variable. Note: Formatted: Font: Bold
Use TUKEY to determine which pair has significant difference or if sig.(P-value) is less than α. Formatted: Font: Bold
Ex. Is there a significant difference in the mean monthly salary of the respondents when grouped
according to position? Formatted: Font: Bold
Formatted: Font: Bold
4. Chi-Square – used when you compare more than two groups of cases for two or more than variables.
– test of significant difference Formatted: Font: Bold
- test of goodness Formatted: Font: Bold
- test of dependence
Ex. Is there a significant difference in the response between male and female respondents? Formatted: Font: Bold

5. Correlation ( Pearson Moment Correlation)Bivariate rxy – used to determine the linear relationship/ Formatted: Font: Bold
association between two variables. (Bivariate)
Ex. Is there a significant relationship between the age and cholesterol level before taking the mineral Formatted: Font: Bold
supplement?

The use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

It is easier faster and economical if statistical tool is computed with the use of the computer due to wink of an eye
the results are attained. Hence, it saves time and effort in computing on the different statistical tools.

Steps;
1. Input data
2. Click or unclick value labels

Criterion for evaluating the sample evidence

Two methods : Formatted: Font: Bold
1. Compare the calculated value and the critical value.
2. Compare the data-based p-value against a preset point on the 0-1 scale on which the p must fall.(level of
significance). Statistically significant difference is obtained.

When the level of significance is set at 0.05, this means the chance of a type 1 error becomes equal to 1 out of 20.
When the level of significance is set at 0.01, this means the chance of a type 1 error becomes equal to 1 out of 100.

Significance level or alpha level – serves as a scientific cut off point that determines
what decisions will be made concerning the null hypothesis.

Type 1 error designates the mistake of rejecting the Ho when it is actually true.

Guiding Principles: Formatted: Font: 12 pt

• Reject Ho if the p-value is less than the established level of significance. Formatted: Indent: Hanging: 0.13 cm, Tab stops: 0.75
• Retain/ accept Ho if the p-value is greater than the established level of significance. cm, Left

REJECTION of Ho implies ACCEPTANCE of Ha. Formatted: Font: 11 pt

ACCEPTANCE of Ho implies is REJECTION of Ha.
Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5 cm

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing: Formatted: Font: 12 pt

1. Ho: (state)
Ha: (state)
2. Statistical Tool:
 3. Significance level : Alpha level (α) = 0.05
- serves as a scientific cut off point that determines what decisions will be made concerning the null
hypothesis.
4. P-value (2 sig/2tailed) ( collect and summarize the sample data) Criterion for evaluating the sample
evidence.(two methods)
5. Compare and Make a decision: (To reject or to retain Ho) Use the criterion for evaluating the sample
evidence.
6. Summary/ Conclusion: ( There is no … / There is significant difference or relationship)
Note: State its implication.

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

Example 1. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the respondents in terms of gender after
taking the mineral supplement using 0.01 level of significance? ( 1 VARIBLE IS TESTED IN 2
GROUPS, CLA -- male and female)

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Ho: There is no a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the respondents in terms of gender after
taking the mineral supplement.

Ha: There is significant difference ….

2. ST: ISTT
3. (α) level of significance = 0.01
4. P-value (2 sig/tailed)=0.399
5. The P-value, 0.399 is greater than the significance level, 0.01, therefore, accept Ho.
6. There is NO significant difference in the cholesterol level of the respondents in terms of gender after
taking the mineral supplement. This implies that the mineral supplement is effective to both male
and female..

Example 2. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the male respondents before and after
taking the mineral supplement? ( 2 VARIBLES are TESTED IN 1 GROUP, CLB & CLA ---- -
male)

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Ho: There is no significant difference in the cholesterol level of the male respondents before and after
taking the mineral supplement.
Ha: There is significant difference …
2. Statistical Tool: PSTT
3. Significance level: α = 0.01
4. P-value (2 sig/tailed)=0.000
5. The P-value 0.000 is less than the significance level, 0.01, Therefore, reject the Ho.
6. There is a significant … This implies that the mineral supplement is effective to male respondents.

Example 3. Is there a significant difference in the mean monthly salary of the respondents when grouped
according to position? ( 1 VARIABLE IS TESTED IN more than 2 GROUPS, MS –
POSITION,’ admin, faclty, staff, maintenance)

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean monthly salary of the respondents when grouped
according to position using 0.05 level of significance?.
Ha: There is significant difference in the …..
2. Statistical Tool: One way anova
3. Significance level: α = 0.05
4. P-value (2 sig/tailed):0.000
5. The P-value 0.000 is less than the significance level, 0.05, Therefore, Reject the Ho.
6. There is a significant difference in…
This implies that the monthly salary depends on the position of the respondents.

Example 4. Is there a significant difference in the response between male and female respondents? ( 2 or more
VARIBLES are TESTED IN 2 or more GROUPs – responses---male & female)

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Ho: There is no a significant difference in the …
Ha: There is significant difference in …
2. Statistical Tool: Chi-square
3. Significance level: α = 0.05
4. P-value (2 sig/tailed): .155
5. The P-value 0.155is greater than the significance level, 0.05, Therefore, accept the Ho.
6. There is no significant difference …. This implies that the gender has no bearing to their responses.

Example 5. Is there a significant relationship between the age and cholesterol level before taking the mineral
supplement?

Six Sequential Steps of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Ho: There is no significant relations between age and before taking the mineral supplement.
Ha: There is significant relationship ….
2. ST: correlation
3. α = 0.01
4. P-value : 0.000
 5. The P-value 0.000 is less than the significance level, 0.01, Therefore, Reject the Ho.
6. There is a significant relationship … before taking the mineral supplement. This implies that the age
affects CLB of the respondents,

Steps on how to access SPSS when the following statistical tools are used:

A. INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T- TEST

1. Click ANALIZE menu on the menu bar, select COMPARE MEANS option on the pull-
down menu and click Independent Samples T- Test option to display the its dialog
box.
2. Enter the desired variables into the test variable and grouping variable boxes. After
which, click the Define Groups… button to enter the assigned values to the different
groups (ex. 1 for admin and 3 for staff). Then, click options button to enter
confidence level or level of significance.
3. To confirm you choice, click continue and OK buttons as well to display the output.

B. PAIRED SAMPLES T- TEST

1. Click ANALIZE menu on the menu bar, select COMPARE MEANS option on the pull-
down menu and click Paired Samples T- Test option to display its dialog box.
2. Enter the desired variables into the Paired Variables box. After which, click options
button to enter the confidence level or level of significance.
3. To confirm you choice, click continue and OK buttons as well to display the output.

C. ONE WAY ANOVA OR F-RATIO

1. Click ANALIZE menu on the menu bar, select COMPARE MEANS option on the pull-
down menu and click One Way Anova or F-Ratio option to display its dialog box.
2. Enter the desired variables into the Dependent list and Factor boxes. After which, click
Post Hoc… button to enter level of significance.
3. Click OK button to confirm you choice and to display the output.
(Note: If there is a significant difference and you wish to investigate further which among
the pairs has a significant difference then, use TUKEY option on the dialog box.)

D. CHI-SQUARE
1. Click ANALIZE menu on the menu bar, select Descriptive Statistics option on the pull-
down menu and click Crosstabs… option to display its dialog box.
2. Enter the desired variables into the Rows and Columns boxes. After which, click Statistics
button to select Chi-Square.
3. To confirm you choice, click continue and OK buttons as well to display the output.

E. CORRELATION
1. Click ANALIZE menu on the menu bar, select Correlate option on the pull-down menu
and click Bivariate option to display its dialog box.
2. Enter the desired variables into the Variables box. After which, click Option button to
select Means and Standard Deviations option..
3. To confirm you choice, click continue and OK buttons as well to display the output.

How to determine the P-value in the table output.

Choose the value corresponding to sig. (2tailed) such as below.
Correlations

CLB AGE
Pearson Correlation 1 .900**
CLB Formatted: Centered
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 70 70
Formatted: Centered
Pearson Correlation .900** 1
AGE
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 Formatted: Centered
Formatted: Centered
N 70 70
Formatted: Centered
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
SAMPLE SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:
1. Is there a significant difference in the mean monthly salary of the respondents when grouped according to
gender?
2. Is there a significant relationship between the age of the respondents and their cholesterol level before
taking the mineral supplement?
3. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the respondents before and after taking the
mineral supplement?
4. Is there a significant difference in the cholesterol level of the male respondents before and after taking the
mineral supplement?
5. Is there a significant difference in the mean salary of the respondents when grouped according to
position?
6. Is there a significant difference in the response between male and female?
7. Is there a significant difference in the mean monthly salary between the faculty and staff?
8. What is the respondents’ profile in terms of
a. Civil status
b. Gender
c. Position
d. Age bracket

Research Problem

The Effectiveness of the Concrete-Language-Symbol (CLS) Model in the Teaching of Probability and Statistics
Among Second Year College Students of the School of Information Technology and Engineering (SITE).

Specific Problem

Is there a significant difference in the pretest and posttest mean scores of the subjects in the experimental group at
0.01 level of significance?

Null Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest mean performance scores of the students in
the experimental group.

Alternative Hypothesis
Ha: There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest mean performance scores of the students in
the experimental group.

Decision:
Level of significance ( ) = o.o1
P-vlalue = 0.00
The level of significance ( ), o.o1 is less than the obtained P-vlalue, 0.00. Thus, the null hypohtises is rejected and
accept the alternative hypothesis.

Interpretation
There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest mean performance scores of the students in the
experimental group. The posttest mean performance score of the students is significantly higher than that of their
pretest mean performance score. This means that the use of CLS model enhanced students’ performance or
achievement in Probability and statistics.

Table 4
T-test for Significant Difference between Pre-test
and Post-test Mean Scores of the
Experimental Group

MEAN P-
VARIABLES MEAN DF t-VALUE REMARKS
DIFFERENCE VALUE
Pre-test 14.73
-18.97 29 -19.27 0.00 Significant
Post-test 33.70

Table 4 shows that the pretest mean score of the subjects in the experimental group is 14.73, while their
post-test mean score is 33.70. The computed t-value of -19.27 and the probability value of 0.000 which is less than
the 0.01 level of significance indicate that the mean difference is statistically significant. This means that the post-
test mean score of the experimental group is

This study attempted to investigate the effectiveness of the Concrete-Language-Symbol (CLS) model in the
teaching of Probability and Statistics among second year college students of the School of Information Technology
and Engineering (SITE).

Specifically, it sought to find answers to the following questions:

1. What are the pretest and posttest mean scores of the control and experimental groups in Probability and
Statistics?
2. Is there a significant difference in the pretest mean scores of the control and experimental groups?
3. Is there a significant difference in the posttest mean scores of the control and experimental groups?
4. Is there a significant difference in the pretest and posttest mean scores of the subjects in the
experimental group?
 Appendix D
Raw Scores of Students in Pretest/Posttest

Student Experimental Control

Number Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest
1. 15 30 16 30
2. 16 32 13 31
3. 14 34 18 25
4. 18 37 12 25
5. 12 30 19 31
6. 10 29 20 35
7. 25 33 9 22
8. 13 30 12 26
9. 13 42 9 21
10. 10 29 21 39
11. 9 26 13 34
12. 18 34 20 28
13. 23 48 10 22
14. 12 29 20 35
15. 14 32 15 25
16. 14 44 12 27
17. 18 33 16 29
18. 16 26 23 34
19. 14 38 14 27
20. 18 29 9 20
21. 13 33 2 35
22. 15 30 14 30
23. 14 35 20 33
24. 14 36 14 29
25. 16 45 19 25
26. 21 30 12 29
27. 12 37 20 32
28. 18 39 16 30
29. 17 38 17 24
30. 16 33 11 23