M.P. Gen.

Resources Chap 38 13/11/01 9:40 AM Page 413

38 In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic

Resources at Regional Level:
Two Complementary Programmes Using
GIS Approach

K.N. Ganeshaiah,1 R. Uma Shaanker,2 N. Barve,3

M.C. Kiran,3 K.S. Bawa3,4 and V. Ramanatha Rao5
1Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding and 2Department of Crop Physiology,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India; 3Ashoka Trust for Research in

Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Hebbal, Bangalore, India; 4University of
Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; 5IPGRI Regional Office for Asia, the
Pacific and Oceania, Serdang, Malaysia

Introduction the ‘Genetic Diversity Hot Spots’ (GDHSs) for

Conservation of genetic resources began strongly as
an ex situ programme and there have been several
suggestions of ex situ conservation of forest genetic
resources as well (FAO, 1992; Yang and Yeh, 1992;
Singh, 1996). Ex situ conservation of genetic diversity
of the forest species requires that we have a good
knowledge of their breeding behaviour, population
structure, genetic differentiation of the provenances,
pollination systems, seed storage requirements, life
history details and so on (Marshall and Brown, 1998;
Brown and Hardner, 1999). For most of the forest
species these are hardly understood and even if these
details are available, ex situ conservation of these
species is difficult because of the vast areas required
and prohibitive costs involved in maintaining and
evaluating their populations (Shands, 1991). Thus in
situ conservation of genetic resources of the forest
species is emerging as a predominant strategy (Smith
and Schultes, 1990; Bawa et al., 1991; Ledig, 1992).
In situ conservation of genetic resources, espe-
cially of the forest species, requires identification of
each of the species such that we protect these areas
for conserving their genetic diversity (Uma
Shaanker and Ganeshaiah, 1997; Ganeshaiah and
Uma Shaanker, 1998, 1999). Such GDHSs and
genetically diverse populations are identified for a
number of species and conservation strategies are
formulated accordingly (e.g. for sandalwood,
Phyllanthus species and Bambusa spp.) at our centre.
However, while this approach could be very effective
for the conservation of genetic diversity of certain
targeted species, it may not be an appropriate and
useful protocol for conserving the entire plant
genetic resources of a target region, or of a country.
Forest genetic resources of a region or of a coun-
try, constitute the total pool of genetic diversity at
several layers from intraspecific to inter-community
and to that at the ecosystem level (Fig. 38.1).
Conserving this entire range of genetic diversity
requires a pyramiding of the conservation efforts of
all the individual species. Such an approach calls for
identifying the genetic hotspots for all or most of
the important species of the area (or the country)

© IPGRI 2002. Managing Plant Genetic Diversity

(eds J.M.M. Engels, V. Ramanatha Rao, A.H.D. Brown and M.T. Jackson) 413
M.P. Gen. Resources Chap 38 13/11/01 9:40 AM Page 414

414 K.N. Ganeshaiah et al.

I)
) gyI Ecosystem
yI ate
teg Str
(entire
tra ( genetic
n(
S -up
w tom resources)
p-do Bo
t
To
Interspecific (species group)

Intraspecific (species)

Genes (e.g. high vitamin)

Fig. 38.1. The pyramid of the different hierarchies of the genetic resources of a region or of an
ecosystem. The present approach focuses on each species and begins at the base of the pyramid. The
two new strategies suggested focus the conservation efforts at the ecosystem level and proceed
downwards (strategy I) or at a group of related species and proceed upwards (strategy II).

and pooling these hotspots to arrive at a final map
depicting areas for protection. For instance, conserva-
tion of genetic resources of the entire Western Ghats
requires that we develop such independent plans for
about 4000–6000 species and join them meaning-
fully! Such a task, besides being Herculean and time
consuming, might not be cost-effective: several over-
lapping areas are likely to be identified for different
species and the final map may consist of several small,
disjointed areas, conservation of all of which will be
problematic if not impossible. Hence this approach
may not be an effective and useful strategy especially
considering the rapid rate at which we are losing our
forest genetic resources. We obviously need an
altogether different approach to conserve the forest
genetic resources of a region or of a country.
Alternative Suggestions for in situ
Conservation
Several methods are being proposed for in situ con-
servation of biological resources in general and of
genetic diversity in particular. These range from
identifying a network of the reserves that comple-
mentarily constitute most of the biological diversity
of the region for conservation (Rebelo and Siegfried,
1992), use of landscape approach for identifying
distinct habitat elements for conservation (Menon
and Bawa, 1997) and prioritizing the conservation
sites based on the alternative species (Peterson and
Navarro-Sigüenza, 1999). While continued concern
with species is essential, landscape-level issues also
need much greater attention. Franklin (1993), for
instance, argued that efforts to preserve biological
diversity must focus increasingly at the ecosystem
level because of the immense number of species, the
majority of which are currently unknown. An
ecosystem approach is also the only way to conserve
processes and habitats (such as forest canopies,
below ground habitats and hyporheic zones) that,
with their constituent species, are poorly known.
Similarly, our incomplete knowledge of the func-
tioning of the habitats of various sizes has led to the
continued debate on whether or not to conserve the
species as part of the large ecosystem or as a part of
several small habitats (Rebelo and Siegfried, 1992).
However, in these suggestions, two issues do not
receive simultaneous and serious attention: (i) the
possibility of augmenting the efforts to conserve the
genetic resources with those to conserve the biolog-
ical diversity; and (ii) the possible approaches and
techniques to be employed to conserve the genetic
resources at an ecosystem level. In what follows we
have attempted to combine the elements of the sug-
gestions by earlier workers but with a special focus
on in situ conservation of the genetic resources
along with the biological diversity of the target area.
M.P. Gen. Resources Chap 38 13/11/01 9:40 AM
In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources at Regional Level
Two Modified Approaches for
Conserving the Forest Genetic
Resources of a Target Region
An effective and comprehensive strategy for the
conservation of the entire forest genetic resources of
a target area needs to be essentially based more on
identification of the genetic hotspots for the spe-
cific groups of plants and/or for the habitats, than
for individual species. Hotspots thus identified
could be combined together to arrive at a regional
or national conservation plan which could help us
to conserve the most diversity with least effort and
cost. Accordingly, we propose two independent but
complementary approaches for addressing the
national or regional level conservation of the forest
genetic resources. These two, ‘top-down’ and
‘bottom-up’ approaches, which aim at identifying
the areas to be conserved at the ecosystem level and
for specific groups of plants respectively, together
offer the complementary sets of areas to be conserved.
Top-down approach
Consider a biodiversity rich region, for example the
Western Ghats, one of the 18 (now 25) hotspots of
diversity in the world, spread along the west coast
of India along about a 1500 km stretch of moun-
tain range (Myers, 1990). This area harbours about
4000 to 6000 species of angiosperms, almost a
third of their richness in India, in diverse types of
vegetation spread over a range of altitudes from
900 m to about 2000 m above sea level. It hosts at
least about 1000 plant species that are economically
very important for their medicinal purposes, timber
and non-timber value, for their ornamental poten-
tial and/or industrial use (Gadgil et al., 1997;
Subhash Chandran, 1997). Thus, even if we aim at
the conservation of the genetic diversity of merely
the economically important species of this area, we
need to have about 500 independent programmes.
Even if such an effort is possible, it will not be able
to address the conservation needs of the other plant
species with less known or yet unknown potential.
Obviously such species-based plans cannot be
appropriate strategies. On the other hand, conser-
vation of the entire genetic resources of these areas
could be addressed by identifying the genetically
diverse habitats and areas for conservation within
them. We propose the following steps for this.
Page 415
415
1. Stratification of the region
In the top-down approach we suggest a geographi-
cal information system (GIS) based stratification
of the area to identify distinct bio-geographic
habitats that are likely to harbour diverse genetic
resources. The process of stratification can be
based on a set of important climatic, physical, bio-
logical and stress factors that might together shape
the structure of the genetic resources. For
instance, we have attempted to stratify the
Western Ghats based on different layers such as
rainfall, temperature regimes, altitude range, vege-
tation types, soil types, diversity of plants in
general and of the threatened species in particular
and other social and economic threats (Figs
38.2–38.4; see the legends for details). Among
these, however, some parameters such as tempera-
ture and altitude were found to be either highly
correlated and or were found redundant. While
we still are exploring the possibilities of incorpo-
rating other parameters, we found that stratifica-
tion of the Western Ghats using even a subset of
these parameters offers ecologically meaningful
habitats.
2. Culling the minor habitats and filtering the
large viable patches
Based on the three layers, namely rainfall, vegeta-
tion and density of threatened species, we identi-
fied 45 distinct habitats. Some of these, however,
were very small, occupying less than 500 km2.
These small patches were culled as unimportant
in the context of the conservation of the genetic
diversity of the entire region and hence we were
eventually left with 16 distinct types (Table 38.1).
Though this culling process is likely to eliminate
certain small but unique habitats (e.g. swamps),
as a first approximation of distinct forest types we
retained the minimal set containing representa-
tives of the large forest types. Within each of
these 16 habitats, however, a large number of
patches were very small and hence are unlikely to
hold viable sizes of populations of different
species, especially of the rare and threatened
species. We hence constructed the frequency
distribution of the sizes of the patches (Fig. 38.5)
for each of these habitats and identified those in
the top 5% of the size category. These constituted
the areas for further sampling for genetic conser-
vation (Table 38.1).
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416 K.N. Ganeshaiah et al.

BELGAUM

DHARWAD

HAVERI
KARWAR

SHIMOGA

Rainfall ranges

CHIKMAGALUR 470–1070 mm
UDUPI

1070–1900 mm
HASSAN
1900–2340 mm
MANGALORE
2340–3700 mm

MADIKERI 3700–8380 mm

Fig. 38.2. Zones of five different ranges of rainfall in the central Western Ghats. The data for about 50
years have been procured from 70 stations distributed in the study area. From this dataset isoclines of
equal rainfall regimes were developed.

3. Sampling sites and estimating their
conservation worthiness
We propose that within these identified large
patches, a certain number of sites or plots are iden-
tified across the altitude and latitude ranges for
evaluating the floral diversity, population sizes or
densities of economically important species and
their genetic diversity. The genetic conservation
value (GCVal) of a site can be computed as a func-
tion of the population size and the extent of genetic
diversity of the populations. Since for most species,
the minimum viable populations are not known,
we suggest that the genetic conservation value of a
site be computed as a sum of the genetic diversity,
GDi, weighted with the population size Pi of the
species (i) as given below.
S
GCValj = ∑ Gdi  Pi ,
i =1
where S = number of species in the jth plot.
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In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources at Regional Level 417

BELGAUM

DHARWAD

HAVERI
KARWAR

SHIMOGA

UDUPI CHIKMAGALUR Vegetation types

Evergreen
HASSAN

MANGALORE
Deciduous

Scrub
MADIKERI

Fig. 38.3. Vegetation classes of the study area derived by a supervised classification of the satellite data
from IRS 1C and IRS 1D for the year 1998. The ground data for the forest types (vegetation classes)
were obtained from the forest survey done by the Forest Survey of India for the area during 1995–1997
(Shivaraj et al., 2000) and from the vegetation maps prepared by the French Institute, Pondicherry, India,
and published during the late 1980s.

The conservation worthiness of a site can be Bottom-up approach

expressed as a direct function of the genetic
conservation value and the species richness.
Accordingly, plotting the sites sampled on these
two estimates helps to identify the best set of sites
for conservation. Those with the highest species
diversity and genetic diversity index can be priori-
tized for conserving the genetic resources of the
area (Fig. 38.6).
In this approach, we propose that in situ conserva-
tion sites are selected together for a set of species
that are either taxonomically related and/or share
common use profiles. For example, the group-based
approach can aim at identifying common sites for
conservation of medicinally important plants or
bamboos and/or rattans or a set of economically
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418 K.N. Ganeshaiah et al.

BELGAUM

DHARWAD

HAVERI
KARWAR

SHIMOGA

Threatened species
richness

UDUPI Low
CHIKMAGALUR

HASSAN
Medium
MANGALORE

High
MADIKERI

Fig. 38.4. Three regimes of the threatened species density in the study area. The threatened species data
were obtained by an independent study done by the Karnataka Department of Forests during 1995 for the
distribution of 400 threatened species in the Western Ghats (Ananda Rao, 1995). These data have been
compiled from both flora records and field visits. To this, the distribution of the endemic species has also
been added from Ahmedullah and Nayar (1986). The data from these two have been combined, the
richness of the threatened and endemic species has been computed for different places and contours
drawn. The three regimes identified from these contours indicate the sensitivity or vulnerability of an area for
some of the unique species and perhaps also represent the extent of threat experienced.

important but endemic species. More often the
species with common use profiles are likely to be
taxonomically related to varied degree (as in bam-
boos and rattans). Even in the groups that contain
taxonomically diverse ranges of species there are
species subgroups that might be taxonomically
related and/or share common habitats. For example,
the Triphala (meaning three fruits) species complex,
composed of Terminalia bellerica and Terminalia
chebula along with Phyllanthus emblica, which forms
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In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources at Regional Level 419

Table 38.1. Features of the 16 stratified habitats after removinga the small patches.

Approximate area
after removal of
Threatened patches less than Average
species mean patch size patch size
Class Vegetation richness Rainfall (km2) (km2)

1 Scrub low very low 720.5065 0.2354

2 Scrub medium very low 462.7655 0.0863
3 Deciduous medium low 972.7485 0.3580
4 Deciduous medium medium 560.1004 0.2442
5 Deciduous low high 819.4231 0.1414
6 Evergreen low medium 1074.486 0.9019
7 Deciduous high low 1411.193 0.4641
8 Evergreen medium medium 704.3603 0.4589
9 Deciduous medium high 711.9055 0.2825
10 Deciduous high medium 1027.277 0.3521
11 Evergreen low high 1301.937 0.2909
12 Evergreen low very high 696.3894 0.3457
13 Evergreen medium high 708.979 0.1849
14 Evergreen high medium 912.1208 0.6417
15 Deciduous high high 922.3078 0.3800
16 Evergreen high high 567.0536 0.2302

aClasses less than 500 km2 removed.

Patches less than average patch size also removed.

50

45

40
Percentage of patches

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0.5 1 5 10 50 100 250 500 1000
2
Area (km )

Fig. 38.5. Distribution of the patch sizes in all the layers. This analysis was performed for each of the
stratified habitats and the largest areas were chosen for further studies.
M.P. Gen. Resources Chap 38 13/11/01 9:40 AM
420 K.N. Ganeshaiah et al.
GCVal
SDp
Fig. 38.6. A protocol for prioritizing sites for conservation at the ecosystem level. Those located on the
top right-hand corner are those with high species richness as well as high genetic conservation value.
the important ingredients of Ayurvedic medicinal
formulations, generally occur together in most of
the Combretaceae rich deciduous habitats of South
India. Thus, identifying a set of common conserva-
tion sites for such species might be not only a
possibility but could be an effective method of
conserving their genetic resources. Therefore we
propose that conservation sites be identified for
groups of such plant species that could be later com-
bined to arrive at the regional sites for conservation.
We propose the following steps in this approach.
1. Identifying the hotspots and locating the
viable patches
In executing such an approach, the first step could
be to identify the contours of diversity of the species
richness of the target groups. Contours of diversity
could be constructed based on a range of datasets on
the occurrence and abundance of the species such as
forest working plans, flora, forest officers’ datasets
and the herbaria collections. Protocols for these
steps using the GIS software have been standardized
at our centre (Ganeshaiah and Uma Shaanker,
1998, 1999; Ravikanth et al., 1999) Typically, infor-
mation on the spatial distribution of different
species of the group chosen is collated in a spatial
database system, the study region is divided into
grids of suitable sizes and the density of species in
each grid counted. From these density data,
contours of different species densities are drawn and
hotspots of species richness are identified. From
Page 420
within these identified hotspots of species diversity,
patches containing the viable populations of a
reasonably large set of species need to be located for
estimating the genetic diversity of the species.
2. Estimating the genetic diversity and
identifying the genetic hotspots for
conservation
This step involves sampling the populations of a set
of species that demand immediate conservation of
the genetic diversity. The species chosen could be on
the basis of: (i) their economic importance; (ii)
human threats and stresses being faced by them; and
(iii) endemism and rarity of the species. The genetic
diversity of the chosen species in these patches is esti-
mated for further prioritization. Patches with high
genetic diversity and reasonably large populations of
species shall be the candidates for conservation and
hence shall be identified as the ‘genetic hotspots’ for
conserving the genetic resources of the target group
in situ. Such genetic hotspots for a different group of
plants can be integrated to eventually arrive at a net-
work of sites for conserving the plant genetic
resources of the target area.
In the Western Ghats, we have located such hot-
spots of species diversity for a few groups of plants
such as bamboos, rattans, dipterocarps, and Triphala
(see above) and a few other medicinal plants. The
species richness contours thus drawn for rattans for
instance, suggest that there are two distinct areas
where the rattan species are highly concentrated:
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In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources at Regional Level 421

one just north of and other immediately south of
the Palghat gap along the Western Ghats (Fig. 38.7).
From the northern patch, several locations with rea-
sonably large populations of rattans located in fairly
well protected forest zones were identified. Samples
of Calamus strictus were drawn from these sites and
their genetic diversity estimated using the isozymes
of leaf samples. The data on the presence or absence
of the bands of different isozymes of nine different
enzymes were coded in a binary system and the
extent of genetic diversity of different populations
and hence of different areas estimated. From these
datasets, we have identified specific sites with high
genetic diversity for the conservation of the rattan
genetic resources in the Western Ghats.
Complementation of the bottom-up with
top-down approach: merits and problems
For an in situ conservation agenda of a small set of
forest species, the current approach based on indi-
vidual species is perhaps the most effective. But the
list of species for which the genetic resources need
to be conserved in situ is becoming larger and for
this reason, an ecosystem-based approach that
addresses most of the species of the habitat is per-
haps the best strategy. Though this approach com-
promises on the details of the individual species, it
does provide an economically and logistically effec-
tive conservation programme of the entire genetic
resources at the ecosystem level. Nevertheless, the

KARNATAKA
GOA

ANDHRA PRADESH

Honnavar 1

Charmudi 2

Sampaje TalKaveri
4
Kollyholla 8
Coorg

Kozhikode Nilambur

8
1
KERALA TAMIL NADU
Palghat 4 Nilgiris
9
Trichur

Arippa
Thirunelvelly

Fig. 38.7. Contours of rattan species diversity in the Western Ghats. Note that the two areas enclaved by the
contours depicting high species diversity (near Coorg-Kozhikode and Trichur Nilambur) are the candidate
areas for conservation of the genetic resources of the rattans. These were further sampled for the genetic
diversity of focal species. Values attached to the contour lines indicate number of species of rattans in the
area.
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422 K.N. Ganeshaiah et al.

ecosystem approach does not ensure the conservation
of the entire range of the genetic diversity of the
species, a possibility that can be attained with the
species-based approach. Similarly, it does not ensure
the conservation of the rare alleles or genes that might
be very important for the survival of the species dur-
ing extreme and stress situations. These limitations of
the ecosystem-based approach can be partially over-
come by suitably combining the top-down with the
specific group-based or bottom-up approach. By
combining the sites identified through the two
approaches and marking the overlaps, it might be
possible to evolve a network of genetic conservation
sites for a region or for a country. In this sense, we see
the two approaches suggested here complementing
each other and serving as an effective, economic and
comprehensive strategy of conserving forest genetic
resources of a region and/or a country.
Concluding Remarks
The importance of conservation of the genetic
diversity of forest species is well recognized.
Currently there are a number of attempts being
made for the conservation of forest genetic
resources and, in many cases, the species-based
approach is being followed. However, when the
task at hand is to conserve the genetic resources of a
region or of a country, the species-based approach
may not be very relevant and it could also be time-
consuming and costly. Rather, such regional pro-
grammes of genetic conservation could become
cost-effective by adopting an ecosystem approach
and by amalgamating them with those of conserv-
ing the biological diversity of the area. We accord-
ingly propose two complementary strategies to
prioritize the areas and the biological material for in
situ conservation of forest genetic resources of a
region or of a country. First of these, the ‘top-down’
or ecosystem-based approach aims to identify the
sites that could contain the genetic diversity of a
wide range of forest species from diverse habitat
types of the entire ecosystem; conserving such sites
would conserve genetic diversity contained in
them. This approach, based on the stratification of
the entire target region, also attempts to amalga-
mate the programmes of conserving genetic diver-
sity with those aimed at conserving the biological
diversity of the area. The second, ‘bottom-up’ or
group-based approach targets the groups of species
that are economically or taxonomically linked. This
approach aims to identify common areas for con-
servation of the genetic resources of a range of
related species and serves as a cost-effective replace-
ment for the existing species-based approach. It is
also argued that by combining the top-down and
bottom-up approaches described here, some of the
problems that are encountered in the ecosystem
approach can be overcome and such a combination
is an efficient and cost-effective approach for the
conservation of forest genetic resources.

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