Thin–Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Methods and materials for additive manufacturing: A critical review on

advancements and challenges
M Bhuvanesh Kumar *, P Sathiya
Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, 620015, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing (AM) is the significantly progressing field in terms of methods, materials, and perfor­
Additive manufacturing mance of fabricated parts. Periodical evaluation on the understanding of AM processes and its evolution is
3D printing needed since the field is growing rapidly. To address this requirement, this paper presents a detailed review of
Composites
the Additive Manufacturing (AM) methods, materials used, and challenges associated with them. A critical re­
Bioprinting
Rapid prototyping
view of the state of art materials in the categories such as metals and alloys, polymers, ceramics, and biomaterials
Thin-walled structures are presented along with their applications, benefits, and the problems associated with the formation of mi­
crostructures, mechanical properties, and controlling process parameters. The perspectives and the status of
different materials on the fabrication of thin-walled structures using AM techniques have also been discussed.
Additionally, the main challenges with AM techniques such as inaccuracy, surface quality, reinforcement dis­
tribution, and other common problems identified from the literature are presented. On the whole, this paper
provides a comprehensive outlook on AM techniques, challenges, and future research directions.

1. Introduction
To meet the challenging and competitive market, product custom­
ization, augmented product obsolescence, and prolonging demands,
companies are trying to shorten their product design, development, and
processing time to reach the market rapidly. This time compression can
be achieved by implementing rapid prototyping technologies (RPT),
which was the first commercially significant application of additive
manufacturing (AM) [1]. AM uses 3-dimensional (3D) models created in
computer-aided design (CAD) software to produce products quickly,
which may be functional prototypes or batches of parts. AM has been
referred with multiple terms such as layer manufacturing, additive layer
manufacturing, additive fabrication, additive processes, additive tech­
niques, freeform fabrication, and solid freeform fabrication [1]. The
fabrication of 3D products by this technique is achieved by adding
successive layers of materials on each other using direct data from 3D
CAD models. Initially, the method was developed in the name of ster­
eolithography (SLA) [2] later attained many developments in its pro­
cesses, materials, equipment, and applications. As per ISO/ASTM
52900:2015(E), the AM processes are broadly classified into two cate­
gories, such as (i) single-step AM processes and (ii) multi-step AM pro­
cesses. Depending upon the process, the work material may attain its
basic geometry and intended properties in a single step by the fusion of
similar materials. For example, the parts fabricated using metallic,
polymer, ceramic, and composite materials are intended to have their
properties build along with their fabrication. In multi-step AM pro­
cesses, the intended part gets its geometry primarily by applying the
adhesion principle and further gets its desired properties by subsequent
steps. For example, metallic, ceramic, and composite materials may
have joined initially to acquire the geometry. Later, they may undergo
secondary processes such as sintering or infiltration to achieve the
required properties. The development of AM techniques includes fused
deposition modeling (FDM), laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
laser engineered net shaping (LENS), selective laser sintering (SLS), and
so on [3]. The technology is being uplifted since it can lodge various
materials for fabricating highly complex geometrical parts to different
applications, which are not possible to get manufactured using con­
ventional methods as a single component. Metals, alloys and its com­
posites, ceramics, polymers, composites, biomaterials, and concrete are
used to build 3D parts for their applications in engineering, medical,
education, and construction. It also yields a more significant benefit of
material savings. 3D printing applications are limited to the construction
industry due to its slower process but mostly beneficial in all other as­
pects due to automation.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: bhuvanesh85@gmail.com, bhuvanesh@nitt.edu (M. Bhuvanesh Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2020.107228
Received 31 July 2020; Received in revised form 9 October 2020; Accepted 12 October 2020
0263-8231/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: M Bhuvanesh Kumar, P Sathiya, Thin–Walled Structures, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2020.107228
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
The recent developments enable manufacturers to produce 3D
printing machines at a low cost; hence, these devices’ availability is
extended to many research laboratories, educational institutions, and
even in homes [4]. This easy availability of AM equipments helps re­
searchers and engineers to produce products by combining different
materials. The intention is to bring combined mechanical, physical,
electrical, and other engineering properties in their products. But this is
not cost-friendly to be tested in conventional manufacturing methods
since there are many post-processing steps to be carried out [5]. 3D
printing technology, due to its low-cost rapid prototyping capability,
helps designers and researchers to develop new products with combined
material properties. Due to the increasing requirements of
custom-tailored products, manufacturers face difficulty producing these
customized products at a low cost. However, 3D printing technology
also helps manufacturers to create customized products in a single
quantity or small batch of numbers at a relatively lower price. This is
very helpful in medical and engineering fields, in which specific product
shapes with particular properties can be obtained by selecting appro­
priate materials based on the individual requirements at a minimized
cost. According to Berman [6], 3D printing will be the trending tech­
nique to account for 50% of its products to commercial usage along with
the remaining industrial contribution by the year 2020. The growing
needs of 3D printed products worldwide have also brought in the vast
possibility of developing novel materials [7]. Based on the nature of the
material to be developed, size to be produced, and application for which
it is developed, the type of AM process can be selectively used to evade
design and development complications associated with the process [8].
The highly precise operations and design flexibility are the addi­
tional benefits of AM apart from material savings and product custom­
ization. AM techniques’ starting materials are classified into four basics
types as a liquid, filament/paste, powder, and solid sheet [3]. Photo­
sensitive liquid resins, molten wax, ultraviolet (UV) curable resins are
examples of liquid-based starting materials [9,10] for typical applica­
tions such as prototypes, casting patterns, and soft tooling prototypes.
Thermoplastics, waxes, and ceramic pastes are examples of paste-type
starting materials for the applications of functional parts and casting
patterns [11]. The powder form of thermoplastics, ceramics, and metals
are examples of power-based starting materials wherein metals and
ceramics are preferred for more durable applications like functional
parts and tooling parts [12,13]. Paper, plastic, and metal sheets are
examples of a solid sheet based starting materials used for casting
models and prototypes [14,15]. Primarily, the parts produced by AM
techniques are majorly designed to serve functional prototypes and
tooling. For this purpose, deciding the mechanical properties for these
applications is crucial because the fabricated parts have to undergo
considerable mechanical loads and pressure during production and
application [11]. The mechanical properties of the fabricated parts
depend not only on the starting material used but also on the charac­
teristics of AM processes. Much research has been carried out to bring in
the superior properties of fabricated parts for increased performance
aspects, which is an interesting topic for researchers. Tuning the prop­
erties of the materials could be obtained by developing new materials as
a result of combining different materials with different properties.
Recently researchers have tried to add reinforcements to the existing
materials like aluminum (Al) added with scandium (Sc) [16], thermo­
plastics added with carbon fiber [17], and nanocomposites using silver
nano-wire (Ag NW), zinc oxide (ZnO) [18,19].
Though composite materials possess inferior mechanical properties,
few drawbacks such as flaw sensitivity, their anisotropic behavior, and
material cost limit its possible extended uses. These shortcomings can be
controlled by optimizing parameters and enhancing the production
environment. The other aspects like precision, accuracy, surface, and
bonding characteristics will also improve when printing the objects from
micro to macro scales [20]. Another advantage of opting AM techniques
for macro scale production is mass customization. Production of large
components with custom requirements eliminates substantial tooling
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costs, thus resulting in comparatively cost-friendly, eco-friendly pro­
duction. Though designers, researchers, and manufacturers experience
many of the advantages of 3D printing like reduced tooling cost,
post-processing activities compared to traditional fabrication methods,
3D printing is limited by its slower fabrication time and material cost.
Hence, more research works to fetch low-cost materials with superior
properties, and faster production capabilities of 3D printing machines
should be brought in. There are excellent review articles in additive
manufacturing that provided overviews on metallurgical properties,
structures, physical properties, and the relationship between thermal
properties and microstructures. The use of special materials in AM, such
as refractory alloys, compositionally graded alloys, and precious metals
have also been discussed in previous literature [21,22].
This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of existing AM
techniques and their process parameters, materials used in AM processes
along with their properties and applications, microstructural charac­
teristics, and defects associated with materials/methods. Additionally,
the key aspects of fabricating thin-walled structures by AM techniques
have been discussed. Based on the literature study, the major challenges
faced by AM techniques are also summarized. Future directions to carry
out research works in AM and allied processes are provided at the end of
the paper.
2. Characteristics of additive manufacturing and techniques
2.1. Characteristics of AM processes
The widely known AM/RPT exemplifies a unique manufacturing
category as per ASTM F2792 – 10: Standard Terminology for Additive
Manufacturing Technologies [23]. The 3D model created in CAD soft­
ware is sliced into layers, and the layer data in a specific format (usually
standard tessellation language - STL) are given to the AM machine. The
machine then adds material upon the material in a layer by layer fashion
to create the 3D objects based on the STL information. The method of the
AM process is shown in Fig. 1.
There are many distinctive competencies endowed by AM techniques
that cannot be attained by conventional manufacturing processes.
Complex structures and internal geometries of functional components
are usually made with assembled features by traditional manufacturing
processes, which tend to fail at the joints structurally over time. AM
processes eliminate this shortcoming/limitation by fabricating highly
complex parts as a single object [25]. Also, the AM process is addi­
tionally featured with direct fabrication, which involves no tooling and
manufacturing sequences. It can produce multi-functionality features
with higher mechanical characteristics by using functionally gradient
materials and varying material compositions [26]. The AM processes
reduce materials wastes by recycling or re-using the residual materials.
Few common benefits of AM technology are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
2.1.1. Degree of concurrency and fidelity
The traditional manufacturing process involves many steps in
fabricating a product. Here, crucial steps are at the level of passing the
information to the production floor with proper understanding. The
production requires extensive preparation of production drawings,
process sheets, tooling, and a meticulous fabrication to ensure dimen­
sional perfections. Changes in any of these steps will result in the
repetition of the entire process; hence time consumption and resource
consumption increases. AM processes facilitate engineering analysis and
verification concurrently with the use of CAD packages [27]. This yields
a great benefit of achieving the shortest lead time in fabricating pro­
totypes. The highly accurate fabrication techniques promise the exact­
ness in shape and size of fabrication [24]. This degree of concurrency
and fidelity differentiates AM processes from other manufacturing
processes.
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Process of AM techniques (courtesy of Quan et al. [24]).

Table 1
Outline on the majorly used AM techniques and their working materials.
State of Materials AM techniques Working principle Benefits Drawbacks Applications References
starting
material

Liquid Photopolymer, SLA based 3D photopolymerization low volume shrinkage, slow polymerization architecture, bio- [30]
hydrogel printing, low oxygen inhibition, speed, high engineering, jewelry
Nonlithography 3D excellent thermal solidification speed industry, dental &
printing resistance education
Acrylate based Multi-jet Fluid photopolymerization multicolored deposition jewelry making, [31]
photopolymers, Dispensing, 3D configuration of parts, complexity due to patterns for precision
inert urethane wax Printing smoother surface surface tension, casting
texture, cheaper viscosity of part
material
Filament/ thermoplastics FDM continuous extrusion greater mechanical surface quality issue automobile, aerospace [32]
paste properties during large scale applications
production
ceramics FDM continuous extrusion integration of different the necessity of post- solid ceramic [33]
materials, a high processing, prototypes, laboratory
degree of geometric anisotropic equipment, piezo-
independence mechanical actuators, micro-
properties of batteries
fabricated parts
polymer integrated FDM continuous extrusion increased thermal weak mechanical 3D printed circuits, [34]
with metal conductivity of parts, properties, electromagnetic
particles reduced deformation maintaining particle structures
during fabrication distribution
Powder metals, ceramics, SLS, Laser-based powder bed fusion superior dimensional entrapment of design prototype, [35]
polymers AM processes (PBF), direct energy accuracy, smooth powder in cellular structural components
deposition (DED) surface finish, higher structures, limited in aircraft, satellites,
deposition rate, part size, particle micro pumps
efficient resource sizes
consumption
magnetic alloys LENS DED integration of different controlling electrical applications [36]
materials, the parameter, like sensors, inductive
formation of near net distribution of devices, transformers,
shape, proper particles electrical motors, etc.,
magnetization &
coercive properties
Solid sheet metal, ceramics, LOM jet cutting, laser cutting the reduced cost, complications in metallic prototypes, [37]
metals reduced operation laminating metallic composite parts,
time, higher materials, post-
mechanical properties processing steps
thermoplastics LOM cut out with blade or good flexural behavior building orientation prototypes, casting [38]
laser of printed parts patterns

3
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
2.1.2. Cognizance of complex architecture
AM techniques make objects by finely adding constitution materials,
which helps in attaining very complex structures with desirable struc­
tural parameters. Nook and minute internal features that are not
possible to fabricate through conventional techniques can be easily built
through AM techniques by providing appropriate parameters.
2.1.3. Prediction of properties
Prediction of essential mechanical and physical properties (varying
or uniform) of an entire object is a bit difficult task in traditional
manufacturing methods. However, AM techniques allow the design and
manufacturing team to precisely deposit different feedstock material
compositions with varying properties that enable precise prediction of
mechanical and physical properties of objects. These characteristics
elevate AM techniques’ viability by many research and development
community of the manufacturing and biomedical industries [28,29].
2.2. AM processes
The research community demands AM techniques for printing real/
physical parts from 3D models. AM techniques are capable of printing
small to large complex structures with good resolution, significantly
lower defect rates, and enhanced mechanical properties. Though AM
uses various techniques to exercise layer-by-layer material addition
principle, FDM, LOM, SLA, SLS, LENS, and inkjet 3D printing are well-
enacted techniques while others are still used by a limited number of
investigators and practitioners. These techniques are selected based on
the applications and starting materials used. Table 1 summarizes the
inferences obtained from the literature regarding the type of materials
used by established AM techniques, their working principles, benefits,
drawbacks, and applications with appropriate references. The following
sections discuss the working principles of majorly adapted AM tech­
niques and their applications. Apart from these established AM tech­
niques, other AM techniques recently being investigated by researchers
are also discussed.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the FDM process (courtesy of Wang et al. [42]).
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2.3. Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
FDM is an important AM technique developed by Stratasys to
fabricate parts using thermoplastic materials such as acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), and polylactic acid (PLA)
[39–41]. The starting material in the form of filament is supplied into an
extrusion chamber where the material is liquefied by heating it few
degrees above its melting temperature. The liquefied material is
extruded by continuously feeding the upstream filament, thus laid on
the platform layer by layer consistently [40,41], as shown in Fig. 2.
FDM needs support materials for over-hanging features of the build
part. After the part is built, support materials should be removed or
washed away. The support materials must be easily breakable or water/
solvent-soluble. After completing the printing process, the part can be
carefully removed, and the support material can be wiped by breaking,
washing, or dissolving using solvents [43], ensuring the solvent or water
should not react with printed parts. Mostly water-soluble support
structures are preferred for a nook, tiny and in-depth features. A con­
trolling system controls FDM’s entire working system and its parame­
ters, such as extrusion rate, laying speed, extrusion width, and layer
thickness. The combination of all parameters together decides the speed
of fabrication in the FDM machine [44]. The effect of print parameters
on mechanical behaviors of fused filament fabrication (FFF) printed
objects have been discussed by a few articles [45–47]. Other parameters,
such as the air gap between adjacent layers and orientation of filament,
account for the mechanical properties of fabricated parts [48]. The
distortion between layers is a significant reason for the mechanical
weakness of fabricated parts [34,49]. Simple working process, low-cost
and quicker fabrication, the capability of combining different materials,
degree of geometric independence are the benefits of FDM. In contrast,
the mechanical weakness of parts, poor surface texture, and
post-processing are the drawbacks of FDM [32,33,49,50]. The recent
developments in FDM brought the opportunity of adding reinforcement
elements into the fabrication to strengthen the parts [51]. Still, chal­
lenges associated with fabricating these composite materials are
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
controlling the fiber orientation, particle distribution, and void forma­
tion [50,51].
2.4. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
The LOM uses cutting blades or laser to precisely cut the shapes
possessed by layers from the sheet of various materials. After cutting,
each layer of the sheet is bonded one after one either by heating roller or
pre-applied glue. This method is the type of form-then-bond, whereas
another way called bond-then-form initially bond the layers together
and is cut to the required shape. The later is very useful for printing parts
of ceramic and metal-based materials by progressing the heating roller.
For supporting overhanging features, the excess portions of sheets after
the cut are retained without removal until the entire part is fabricated
[52]. Fig. 3 presents the schematic diagram of the LOM process.
LOM is capable of processing a diverse range of materials such as
papers, polymers & their composites, ceramics, and metal-crammed
tapes. Still, post-processing of LOM fabricated parts may require high-
temperature processes depend on the material characteristics. There
are advancements found in the LOM process by combining CNC milling
and ultrasonic AM (UAM) processes during lamination [54]. UAM
technique is considered to be a sub-class of LOM processes highly effi­
cient in bonding metal foils one on the other. The unique aspect of this
advancement is, it allows the integration of different metals to create
composite materials, and the processing temperature is only lesser than
half of melting temperatures. The applications of LOM can be seen in
paper production industries, foundry industries, and electrical in­
dustries. Further, low-temperature metal bonding advancements
possibly extended the applications of LOM in electronics industries and
fabrication of large parts in construction industries [55,56]. Specific
electronics applications include pre-packaged electronic systems [57],
optical fibers [58,59], electro-active PVDF films [60], magnetostrictive
elements [60–62] and nickel-titanium (NiTi) made electrical switches
[63]. Reduced tooling cost and fabrication time are the identical benefits
of LOM when producing large structures. On the other hand, LOM also
has drawbacks such as poor surface quality and dimensional accuracy
and consumes more time for post-processing hence not advised for
complex parts.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of LOM process (courtesy of Ahn et al. [53]).
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2.5. Stereolithography (SLA)
Stereolithography is one of the oldest techniques introduced by
Charles Hull in the year of 1986 [64]. SLA uses photopolymer­
s/photocurable resins as work materials for fabrication. Their capacity
to get cured under UV light or laser is utilized for building 3D parts of
complex shapes. Precisely directed and pointed UV light on the photo­
polymer resin creates a solid layer of the desired shape by photo­
polymerization. After creating a first layer, the platform or build table is
lowered to a height equivalent to layer thickness, and uncured resin is
spread over the initially created layer. Repetition of polymerization for
subsequent layers of the desired shape builds up a 3D component on the
build table [65]. After printing, the uncured polymers/resins are wiped
out to get the finished part, which is cured about only 95% [66]. To
complete the entire curing process, the part is further heat-treated in an
oven or photocuring process to enhance the mechanical properties. The
schematic representation of the SLA process is shown in Fig. 4.
Dimensional inaccuracy and the warping of printed parts are
important errors in the SLA process [67]. These errors are caused due to
shrinkage of acrylate-based resins during fabrication. There are two
kinds of shrinkage happens during polymerization. First is the formation
of polymer bond between high dense solid polymer (after photo­
polymerization) and less dense liquid polymer. The second is a chemical
reaction (exothermic) during photopolymerization due to which certain
expansion in polymer happens with a temperature rise. Upon cooling,
there is a notable shrinkage which causes dimensional inaccuracy. These
two forms of causes together create internal stress that leads to a
warping error. A careful post-processing step is required to get accu­
rately finished parts to avoid errors and improve mechanical properties.
Heating and photocuring may be used as post-processing techniques for
SLA printed parts [4]. To eliminate these errors and enhance mechanical
properties, composite materials can be created using ceramic particles
with monomers [33,68]. Printing parts with higher resolution as low as
10 μm can be a great advantage [42]. Still, some limitations are asso­
ciated with SLA processes such as low printing speed, comparatively
expensive process, and a relatively limited range of work materials.
Since controlling the light energy and exposure can precisely influence
the layer thickness [69], SLA applications can be extended to fabricate
nanocomposite parts [70].
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the SLA process (courtesy of Wang et al. [42]).
2.6. Selective laser sintering (SLS)
The supplied material for SLS is powder and heated using a laser to
get their particles bonded at surfaces. As shown in Fig. 5, before starting
the sintering process, the powder bed is initially heated just below the
starting material’s melting temperature to avoid distortion and expedite
the bonding between the previous layers of laid material [71]. The laser
beam is then accurately directed to the desired path of the respective
layer through the optical scanning system to get the particles sintered,
resulting in a solid layer. Further, the powder bed is lowered to layer
thickness, and the powder is evenly spread over the bed for the required
thickness by raising the feed chamber. The sintering process is repeated
for consecutive layers of the part to be built until the whole part’s
printing process gets over. During the sintering process, the unsintered
powder is retained in place to act as a support for the part and its
overhanging features. After completion of printing, the powders are
cleaned away and re-used.
The strength and density of printed parts depend on particle size and
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the SLS process (courtesy of CustomPartNet [72]).
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Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
distribution, which is an important factor associated with SLS [73].
Laser scanning strategies are experimentally studied to influence the
thermo-mechanical performance of the build part. Optimizing the
scanning paths may be the possible way to control the distribution of
heat intensity for minimizing the residual stresses and deformations
[74]. The most commonly used laser scanning strategies are meander,
stripe, chessboard, and spiral. Meander strategy is used generally for
smaller and homogeneous cross-sections of build area. Chessboard and
tripe strategies are used for large cross-sections whereas inhomogeneous
sections use spiral scanning strategy [75]. Additionally, raster scanning
paths could yield a clear directional effect than the contour-offset
scanning paths [74]. Further, laser exposure time, point distance, con­
touring method, upskin and downskin parameters are the other pa­
rameters that influence part qualities such as density, fatigue strength,
hardness, surface microstructure, and roughness. While fabricating the
parts, these parameters should be controlled in order to get fair me­
chanical and surface qualities [76]. After the part is printed, cleaning,
infiltration, coating, and sintering may be carried out as post-processing
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
operations if needed. The technique is under the category of PBF, where
SLS uses powdered polymers, metals, and a variety of alloy materials. In
contrast, selective laser melting (SLM) uses only a few bound metals
such as steel and Al. The major difference between SLS and SLM is the
level of heating during printing. Unlike SLS, SLM heats the powders to
melt and fuse, resulting in a stronger bond and higher mechanical
properties than SLS [77]. Since laser-based AM techniques involve the
application of heat, the thermal properties of the work materials are also
considered to be the influencing factors for the desired properties of
build part. Materials with higher thermal diffusivity transfers heat
rapidly therefore the thermal stresses are reduced to the lowest so as the
residual stresses on the final part. Similarly, experimental studies show
that reduced coefficient of thermal expansion reduces the residual
stresses considerably [78–81].
2.7. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS)
LENS is a solid freeform fabrication (SFF) process that uses metal and
ceramic powders to fabricate parts of either functional use or prototype
[82]. The layer by layer deposition of material starts by focusing a laser
beam on the metal substrate from build table controlled by a computer
numerical control (CNC) system. When the laser beam melts the metal
substrate, a molten metal pool is created; meanwhile, the
pre-determined metal powder is delivered using concentric injection
nozzles. The movement of the build table controls the path of metal
deposition, and the continuous volumetric addition of metal decides the
thickness of the layer and speed of printing. Rapid solidification of metal
on the substrate creates a solid layer. After completing the first layer, the
injecting head assembly upraised to layer thickness and starts printing
the next layer of material; thus, the formation of 3D part builds up. The
printing of components is carried out in a closed environment filled with
argon gas to prevent oxidation of metal parts hence ensures the purity of
parts. Fig. 6 depicts the schematic diagram of the LENS process.
LENS process yields a benefit of higher flexibility in integrating
metals to develop composites with tailored microstructures and porosity
by controlling different parameters such as feed rate of metal powders,
scan speed, layer thickness, and power of laser [84]. Additionally, high
heating and cooling rates help in the formation of non-equilibrium fine
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the LENS process (courtesy of Bhavar et al. [83]).
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grain structure. The capability of integrating different metals extends its
potential to develop new materials for extensive applications.
2.8. Inkjet 3D printing/binder jetting
The inkjet 3D printing is developed by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) as a freeform powder bed-based production process in
the early 1990s [85]. Similar to other techniques, 2D sections of a 3D
model created by CAD software are used directly to print the object in
inkjet 3D printing. In this technique, powders, binders, or solvents are
used as working materials [86]. The liquid binders or solvents in the
form of droplets are deposited on the powder bed using a printer head
consist of a binder liquid cartridge. Instead of moving the platform, the
printer head is moved in X and Y directions, as shown in Fig. 7. After
creating each layer, the fabrication platform is lowered, and powder is
spread over the platform evenly for the required thickness by a rotating
roller. After printing the whole part, the powder material is cleaned
away, and the finished part is post-processed by sintering. The main
advantage of this inkjet 3D printing technology is the requirement of low
energy/power input [52].
There are two types of inkjet printing available as drop-on-demand
(DOD) printing and continuous inkjet (CIJ) printing [87,88]. In DOD,
binder droplets are deposited only when it is required using an electrical
signal resulting from a piezoelectric or thermal effect, whereas CIJ
continuously extrudes the binder liquid as a jet, but they are broken into
droplets due to Rayleigh instability. Though both systems need pulsed
ejectors from printing head and typical electrical components, they are
comparatively affordable than other techniques. Inkjet printing allows
fabricating porous parts by letting binder material as a porous or space
holder [89,90], regulating the size of powder, shape, time, sintering
temperature [91,92] and by adding fugitive material as space fillers [92,
93]. There can be micro and macropores in parts as required.
Printing using binder jetting or solvent jetting and post-processing
techniques like annealing, sintering, post-curing, de-binding, and de-
powdering are considered to be critical steps in this technique [93,95]
in the inkjet 3D printing process.
2.9. Other AM techniques
Advanced AM techniques are intentionally designed to print high-
performance materials for advanced applications. DED methods have
been extensively used for printing high-performance materials such as
composite metals and superalloys. DED’s principle is focusing the high
energy sources such as a laser beam or electron beam on to work ma­
terial and on a substrate to get it melted and deposited to form a layer.
The deposited metal is then solidified as soon as the energy beam passes
over [52]. Unlike SLM, DED melts the feed metal before it is deposited
on a substrate, which is similar to the working principle of the FDM
technique. Though the deposition method is similar to FDM, DED uses
very high density, the energy source to melt and deposit the feed metal
in a layer by layer manner. Hence this technique allows printing metals
of different types simultaneously [96] and can be used for repairing
works like crack filling in structural components [97], which cannot be
done by PBF techniques. The examples for DED techniques are LENS,
laser direct metal deposition (LDMD), selective electron beam melting
(SEBM), laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT), laser solid forming (LSF),
and wire-arc AM (WAAM). DED is widely used in aerospace industries
for materials such as Al alloys, Inconel, titanium (Ti), stainless steel (SS),
and other related alloy materials and is characterized by high-speed
printing processes. LENS can deposit materials at a rate of 0.5 kg per
hour [98], and WAAM can deposit 10 kg per hour [99]. They can
fabricate parts using large working space in commercial printers as up to
6 m × 1.4 m × 1.4 m [4]. DED can be used in repairing large components
in aerospace and automotive industries with controlled microstructure,
superior mechanical properties, perfect material compositions with
reduced cost and time [97]. But there are limitations associated with
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the inkjet 3D printing process (courtesy of Jang et al. [94]).
DED, such as poor surface quality and lesser potential to print complex
structures [52].
Projection micro stereolithography (PμSLA), more commonly known
as the digital light processing (DLP) technique under SLA classification,
is capable of printing micro-level objects. A High-resolution PμSLA
printing technique is developed in the University of California Los
Angeles, which uses a dynamic mask (digital micromirror) to project the
print area [100]. The fabrication principle in this method is photo­
polymerization but with an effective 0.1 μm layer translation [101]. The
generated UV light beam is passed over a dynamic mask creator to get it
shaped based on the layer image and are precisely focused by a
computer-controlled optical system to create a successful layer. The
shutter device in the projection system cuts the beam for each layer
generation. Similar to the other AM techniques, layer-by-layer creation
of solid sections build up a whole 3D part. Since PμSLA prints the
complete layer at the same time, it is faster than the other scanning
techniques. Similarly, for smaller, micro, and nano-fabrication of 3D
complex structures, the two-photon polymerization (TPP) technique is
used in recent years [102]. Fabrication of microfluidic devices [103],
biological supporting structures (for bones) [104], photonic crystals
[105] and templates for meta-materials [106]. Photochemical change or
two-photon polymerization is initiated by exciting a photon by a pulsed
laser. The photons are excited in two different ways, such as simulta­
neous excitation and sequential excitation using femtosecond pulsed
laser. The excited photons, when precisely focused by the lens into a
photocurable polymer of definite volume, the photopolymerization
starts [107]. The constant number of photon absorption by resins creates
solid volumes, resulting in a layer of a part to be fabricated. Lee et al.
[107] have investigated the theoretical aspects of TTP mechanisms in
detail for both 2D and 3D printing processes. TTP can print minuscule
structures with the least feature sizes close to 100 nm [108]. However,
PμSLA and TTP are limited to photosensitive polymers, and their
expensive optical system stops from expanding applications.
Electrohydrodynamic printing (EHDP) is an alternative technique to
print extensive and customized micro features, patterns, and parts at low
cost, which has created interest among the researchers [109]. EHDP
works with a principle similar to the conventional electrospinning
method. This involves the ejection of polymers in the form of fibers or
droplets at higher resolution due to electric force [110]. Due to surface
tension, electric force, and gravity, Taylor cone of the liquid polymer
melt is formed and is stretched when electric force dominates surface
tension; hence the ejection of polymer happens [111]. Further, after a
8
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
short period of time, the polymer is bent, dried, and deposited over the
built table [112]. The deposition of polymer creates layers of solids to
build parts. To avoid the drawbacks of conventional electro spinning like
instability, no control over the fiber deposition and orientation, there
are two modes by which material is deposited in EHDP. First is the EHDP
system with a stable cone-jet mode in which the distance between the
nozzle and collector plate varies from 500 μm to 3 mm. Second is the
EHDP system with a micro dripping mode in which nozzle to collector
distance varies from few microns to 100 μm [109]. The applications of
EHDP include micro-optical electronic systems (MOES) [113],
micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) [114], and tissue engineering
applications [115]. The features or parts can be printed at the sizes vary
from micrometers to tens of nanometers by properly controlling
different process parameters such as interaction forces, speed of injec­
tion, and nozzle head movement speed. The attempts to these techniques
are often preliminary studies and proofs-of-concept. Still, research
works are being carried out to demonstrate their potential [116,117].
Contour crafting is the other layering technique majorly used for
building concrete structures with the help of computer and robotic
control [118]. Contour crafting integrates CAD with computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) through design software and robotic technology
for building layers. The work materials are generally concrete [119],
ceramic, and polymers [120] of slurry form extruded through the
desired shape nozzle in the layer by layer fashion. The bonding between
the adjacent layers usually happens by the widely called adhesion
principles may be in the form of chemical bonding, mechanical inter­
action, or thermodynamic linkage [121]. The bonding characteristic
between layers depends upon either chemical forces (for micro scales),
layer configurations (for macro scale) such as surface roughness, inter­
locking, etc. However, the bonding strength also depends upon fabri­
cation parameters such as the rate of extrusion, width, and thickness of
layer and composition percentages.
Multi-jet fusion (MJF) printing is developed by HP, which uses PBF
technique. In this process, initially the polyamide powder is deposited as
a layer on a build platform. A black ink capable of obsorbing infrared
called a fusing agent is applied to the previously deposited powder layer.
Additionally, a detailing agent is deposited along the contours of the
layer shape for enhancing the resolution. When infrared is passed over
the bed, it is absorbed by the agent and produces heat sufficient enough
to fuse the polyamide powders. Thus a solid layer is formed. The process
is repeated continuously to build the 3D object layer by layer by
lowering the bed. Comparing to SLS and other powder bed-based
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
techniques, infrared-based MJF is more rapid in building 3D objects
[122].
3. Materials and their progress
It is essential to critically review the materials and their applications
on AM techniques since AM is being transformed into rapid
manufacturing from RPT [123]. AM techniques use a variety of mate­
rials for a wide range of applications. The materials under major cate­
gories such as metals, alloys, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
biomaterials are meticulously presented in the following sections, along
with their applications.
3.1. Metals, alloys, and composites
AM technique is gaining attention in manufacturing products than
creating prototypes. Therefore, numerous developments have evolved to
print superior quality materials. Due to their superior strength, stability,
and extensive applications, Printing metal products are now the primary
concerns by the AM machine manufacturers. According to Akinsowon
[124], metal printing machines account for the largest (47.8%) in the
hardware manufacturers segment and 27.3% of the overall AM ma­
chines manufacturer landscape. Metal printing techniques are primarily
used in automobiles, aerospace applications, and importantly research
organizations to develop new materials [125]. Printing of customized
metal products is effectively used by biomedical applications as well, e.
g., human implants [126]. One of the difficulties associated with the
conventional manufacturing process is the development of functional
metal components. Metal printing techniques offer freedom to manu­
facture functional components conveniently. Generally, metal printing
involves PBF techniques enabled with DED principles. There are also
other metal printing techniques used to achieve higher printing speeds
and accuracy very recently, such as direct metal writing [127], binder
jetting [128], cold spraying [129,130], and direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS) [131]. Numerous metallic materials can be used in AM tech­
niques such as steels, Al, and magnesium (Mg) alloys, Ti, and its alloys,
and Ni-based alloys [132]. The various metallic parts produced by AM
techniques are shown in Fig. 8.
Laser based AM is very effective in producing metallic parts [134].
The metallic parts produced by AM techniques own fine microstructure
and comparatively dense than conventionally manufactured parts and
possess great mechanical properties such as ultimate and yield strengths
[132]. Porosity and anisotropic microstructures of AM produced parts
Fig. 8. Metallic materials printed using AM techniques (a) AlSi10Mg, (b) Cobalt Chrome CoCrMo, (c) Copper C18150, (d) Ni Alloy 718, (e) SS 316 L, and (f) Ti64
(courtesy of Stratasys [133]).
9
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
should be seriously reviewed since porosity leads to crack propagation,
and anisotropic microstructure on the building direction yields great
tensile strength [135,136]. Porosity can be controlled by regulating the
feedstock quality [137] and applied energy [132]. Regular shaped
(usually spherical) finer particles improve the feedstock quality through
increased homogeneity and flowability [137]. Volume energy deposited
should be maintained at appropriate levels since low levels lead to
irregularly shaped voids, and high levels lead to spherical pores [136,
138]. Also, scanning strategies can minimize the pores and void defects
by optimizing beam size, hatch spacing, and scanning speed. The defects
like keyhole-mode melting, incomplete melting of powders, powder
denudation, and gas entrapments can negatively influence the printed
part’s mechanical properties. The non-equilibrium phase of material,
and residual stresses are the other concerns which degrade the perfor­
mance of printed parts. Keyhole defects are raised due to strong
vaporization. The incomplete melting of powders is the kind of lack of
fusion defects due to low power and higher scanning speeds [139].
Denudation of powders is also known as apparent clearing of powders
around the melt track caused due to the particle movements during
melting. Controlling the gas pressure in PBF process can reduce the
defects caused by denudation [140]. Gas entrapped pores are closely
related to the quality of feedstock material and are the real concerns of
components with fatigue criticality [141]. Similarly other metallurgical
issues such as porosity, balling/liquid spheroidisation, lack of fusion,
delamination and cracking, distortion due to residual stresses etc., have
been reported in the previous studies [21,81].
Additionally, internal defects and surface roughness attributes to
stress concentration and premature failure under fatigue loading. Post-
processing techniques can help the parts to overcome these shortcom­
ings and improve fatigue performance [142]. Polishing, buffing, and
chemical etching can reduce the surface roughness, that minimize the
stress concentrations [143]. Similarly, heat treatments like hot isostatic
pressing (HIP) can decrease the porosity and residual stresses present in
part, which improves the mechanical strength and resistance to fatigue
[144,145]. The usability and applicability of metallic materials make it
possible to meet most industrial and commercial requirements. Focus on
the development of metallic materials has gained the attraction of re­
searchers in recent years. Studies are being carried out to realize
high-entropy alloys, high-strength alloys, magnetic alloys, bulk metallic
glasses (BMG), and functionally graded materials (FGM). The insights of
the materials used in AM processes are discussed in the following
sections.
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
3.1.1. Steels
Different steel materials such as SS, austenitic stainless steel, mar­
aging steel, and tool steel are generally used in the steel category. These
materials are used in both general and tooling applications where high
hardness and strength involves. Steels such as hardenable SS and
austenitic steels are sensitive upon the parameters of AM techniques
[146]. 34CrNiMo6 steel with high strength, toughness, and hardness
property is used for machine elements, fasteners, and tools. When this
material is processed with rapid forming utilizing a laser, significant
changes in its microstructure and mechanical properties are found
[147]. Since the metal printing process involves elevated temperatures,
adequate cooling methods are adapted to avoid distortion and to get
dimensionally fit components. The printed component using a
metal-cooling state possesses the least tensile strength while
water-cooling brings up a high brittle property. But when it is air-cooled,
it yields good plasticity property with the least tensile strength [147].
The processing of AISI 420 SS under the LSF process shows the occur­
rence of purification when partial pressure drops below a certain
threshold [148]. This is mainly due to the deposition of original oxygen
takes place when the metal is at the molten stage. Another study
revealed that reduced partial pressure of oxygen reduces the oxide for­
mation on the created layer [149]. After processing 300 M steel by LSF
process, as-deposited martensite and coarse bainite turn to be uniform
during heat treatment. Uniform transition of tempered martensite and
bainite retains a small amount of austenite. Due to which microstruc­
tural change happens and manifests fatigue crack growth on the mate­
rial [150].
Wang et al. [152] have fabricated 304 L austenitic SS walls using a
laser-based DED AM technique. They have studied the microstructural
and mechanical properties by changing linear heat input. Anisotropic
elongation of grain growth is found higher in the longitudinally printed
specimen than the transversely printed specimen. The component made
by lower liner heat input showed higher tensile strength due to its finer
microstructure than the other made by higher linear heat input, which
showed a coarse grain structure. The SS316L belongs to the austenitic
Fig. 9. TEM images of EBM printed SS316L specimen (a) sub-grains, (b) boundary of sub-grains in as-deposited specimen, (c) dislocations of grains, and (d) visible
precipitates (courtesy of Zhong et al. [151]).
10
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
steel family developed a few decades ago. It was found to possess
excellent mechanical properties, machinability, weldability, and high
corrosion resistance. Due to these superior properties, they have been
used in several critical applications structural material for vacuum
vessels [153], nuclear fusion applications [151], aerospace, biomedical
applications [154], and other mechanical applications [155]. Micro­
structural characterization of SSS16L reveals unique forms of a hierar­
chical structure having solidified melt pool and columnar grain
structures with non-uniform sub-grain structures, thus resulting in
higher ductility, toughness, and yield. Transmission electron micro­
scopy (TEM) images of electron beam melted (EBM) SS316L specimen is
shown in Fig. 9 [151]. 17-4 PH stainless steel formed by laser-based AM
techniques is investigated by Lin et al. [156]. The microstructure of 17-4
PH SS contained martensite laths and little amount of M7C3 and NbC
carbides which acts as strengthening elements. This makes the laser
formed and repaired 17-4 PH SS to hold comprehensively equal me­
chanical properties except for ductility properties [156].
3.1.2. Al and Mg alloys
A limited number of Al alloys only used in AM techniques due to
several reasons., Al alloys are available at low cost [157] and possess
high thermal conductivity, enabling quicker fabrication and reducing
thermal stresses to the most extent compared to other metallic materials.
But there are various reasons Al and its alloys are restricted only to a
limited number of AM processes. High-performance Al alloys possess
poor weldability due to their volatility caused by its elements such as Zn
[158]. Also, these alloys highly reflective in nature for laser wavelengths
[157]. Generally, PBF techniques are preferred rather than DED tech­
niques because their lower viscosity restricts the formation of the large
melt pool. AlSi10 and AlSi12 are the commonly used Al alloys [159,
160]. The lightweight and appreciable mechanical properties of Al al­
loys are still the need of the hour in aerospace engineering. The Al alloy
added with scandium beyond its eutectic point makes it possible to be
highly demanded material for aerospace applications. Schmidt et al.
[35] have prepared an Al alloy by adding scandium through the
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
laser-based AM process. The material yields the highest tensile strength
of 530 MPa when tested along with the build orientation. Also, the
hardness of the specimen is elevated remarkably after aging treatment.
Plasticity due to ductile behavior also reported at high levels (reduction
in cross-sectional area of 20% and elongation of 14%) compared to other
high-performance Al alloys due to grain refinement [35].
The issues related to printing alloys are sporadic cracks, irregular
microstructure, and bulky columnar grains due to the dynamics and
solidification during melting [161]. Martin et al. [162] have tried to
control the solidification by introducing nano-sized nucleants to Al al­
loys to address these issues. They were found that the introduction of
nanoparticles to these alloys enabled them to successfully print using the
SLM technique, which was a previously incompatible process to these
alloys. The resulted fine-grained, equiaxed, roughly equal-sized grains
and crack-free microstructure yields excellent mechanical properties
similar to wrought material. The advancements may help these mate­
rials to be used extensively in industries by other DED techniques also.
Wen et al. [163] have performed a microstructural examination and
studied the mechanical properties of TiB2 nanoparticles decorated
2024Al alloy samples manufactured by LSF. Fig. 10 illustrates the SEM
images of 2024 Al powder embedded with TiB2 nanoparticles. After
fabrication by LSF, the microstructural images at the bottom, middle,
and boundary regions exhibited an equiaxed columnar grain structure
grown along the deposition direction, as shown in Fig. 11. The me­
chanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength, microhard­
ness and elongation have shown excellent improvement than pure
alloys.
Due to the lightweight and promising strength characteristics, Mg
and its alloys are used by aeronautical industries [164,165]. They are
used to replace heavier Al alloys due to its low density of 1.73 gm/cm3.
Recent findings revealed that Mg alloy AZ31 posses resistance to low
and high cycle fatigue under 150 Mpa compared to Al alloy 2017A
[166]. Mg alloys are also used as an alternative replacement for plastics
since it has more stiffness and comparable density with plastics [167].
When Mg alloys are doped with rare earth elements, it shows good
resistance to corrosion as well [168]. But Mg alloys are flexible to be
modified for their higher mechanical properties by several means such
as conversion into composites, heat treatments, changing grain sizes,
and modifying surface layers [167,169]. Apart from Mg alloys’ benefits,
their hexagonal crystallographic packed structure is highly oxidizable
and vulnerable due to which there are a lot of processing issues reported
by studies. Processing of Mg alloys brings the risk of firing when the
material is loose (chips, powders) or at higher temperature levels [170].
This behavior hampers the extensive use of Mg alloys in aerospace in­
dustries than the electronics and automotive industries. Many applica­
tions and processing techniques of Mg alloys have been presented by
Kurzynowski et al. [171]. Another field of application of Mg alloys is
biomedical due to the biodegradability and elastic behavior [172–174].
Mg–Zn composites are much suitable for the biomedical field since Zn
promotes bone mineralization [175,176]. However, their
bio-degradability is very rapid and not ideal for the cases with slow
newborn formation [177,178], which is a major drawback of Mg–Zn
Fig. 10. Nanoparticles assembled feedstock materials (a) SEM image of 2024Al powder, (b) TiB2 nanoparticles added 2024Al powder, and (c) enlarged image of
2024Al powder added with TiB2 nanoparticles (courtesy of Wen et al. [163]).
11
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
alloy. Shuai et al. [179] have attempted to incorporate hydroxyapatite
(HA) into Mg–Zn alloy to slow down the bio-degradation using the SLM
process. A formation of a bone-like apatite layer was formed with fine
grains, which have shown very encouraging results in terms of degra­
dation. The percentage of the inclusion of HA content positively
decreased the grain size and increased the bone-like apatite due to
heterogeneous nucleation. On the other hand, the excessive content of
HA leads to pores’ formation, which again accelerated the
bio-degradation. The microstructure of Mg–Zn composites with different
HA inclusions by weight and bio-degradation mechanism of a prepared
alloy is shown in Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. Another study has
explored different AM techniques adapted for fabricating customized
biomedical magnesium implants by overcoming the ignition risk such as
PBF, WAAM, paste extrusion deposition, friction stir AM, and binder
jetting [180].
3.1.3. Ti and its alloys
Ti alloys are fast progressing materials in aerospace and biomedical
applications due to their predominant properties, such as higher specific
strength and outstanding corrosion resistance [181]. These superior
mechanical and chemical properties enable Ti alloys to be used for high
temperature and strength applications such as blades and cases of steam
turbine and turbo engines [182]. Manufacturing Ti alloy components
using conventional manufacturing techniques are challenging due to
their affinity with cutting tool materials and lower thermal conductivity
[183,184]. Laser-based techniques for manufacturing and polishing of
Ti alloy components are the effective and advanced methods among the
manufacturers of such applications [185]. EBM can produce higher part
densities compared to SLM, particularly for Ti alloys [186]. There are
few Ti-based alloys recently being the interest on the researchers such as
Ti6Al4V, Ti8Al1Er, TC11, TC21, and Ti5553 [125].
Ti6Al4V alloy, furthermore identified as Ti64 alloy, is α+β Ti alloy is
a widely accepted material and accounts for nearly half of the Ti market
share around the world [187]. Elevated levels of strength, fracture
toughness, corrosion resistance, and greater biocompatibility with low
density prompts the use of these materials in aerospace, marine,
biomedical, chemical, energy, and automobile sectors. Due to a lack of
thermal conductivity [188], affinity to strain hardening [189,190], and
chemical reactivity, the manufacturing of Ti6Al4V alloys are very tricky.
Earlier, the manufacturing of this material depends on some conven­
tional manufacturing processes such as casting, forming, and other
metal removal processes. These methods are invariably lead to material
waste, loss due to higher manufacturing cost, and higher lead times;
hence AM techniques are used as efficient methods considering all these
aspects [191] along with an additional benefit of producing complex
structures. The density of as-deposited Ti alloys by AM techniques is
slightly higher than conventional production methods. Brandl et al.
[192] have stated that laser deposited Ti6Al4V wires can achieve similar
mechanical properties of wrought Ti6Al4V (AMS 4928). Some of the
applications of Ti6Al4V alloy printed by different AM processes are
shown in Fig. 14.
Bush and Brice [193] have studied the characteristics of Ti alloy
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 11. SEM images of LSF produced 2024Al alloy added with TiB2 nanoparticles at (a) the bottom region, (b) the middle region, (c) the top and boundary region,
and (d) magnified middle region shows columnar grains (courtesy of Wen et al. [163]).

Fig. 12. Microstructure of Mg–3Zn/xHA composites (a) pure Mg–3Zn alloy, (b) Mg–3Zn added with 2.5% HA, (c) Mg–3Zn added with 5% HA, (d) Mg–3Zn added
with 7.5% HA, (e) Mg–3Zn added with 10% HA and (f) average size of grains with respect to inclusion percentage (courtesy of Shuai et al. [179]).

added with 8% of Al and 1% of erbium (Er). Al within the alloy
composition attributes to the strengthening of solid solution and stabi­
lization of α-phase, whereas Er and residual oxygen interaction resulted
in dispersoid Er2O3. The formation of dispersoid was found helpful in
having control over grains, mechanical strength at elevated
temperature, and creep strength. The typical properties of EBM printed
Ti8Al1Er alloy is compared with other commercially used alloys. There
is a significant difference in the microstructures of Ti6Al4V and
Ti8Al1Er is found. As shown in Fig. 15, the microstructure of Ti6Al4V
confirms the acicular transformed β morphology resulted from the usual

12
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. Illustration of Mg–3Zn/xHA composites bio-degradation mechanism when exposed to simulated body fluid (SBF) (courtesy of Shuai et al. [179]).

Fig. 14. Applications of 3D printed Ti6Al4V alloy (a) EBM built 3D mesh of mandibular prosthesis (b) SLM produced Ti6Al4V air duct (c) EMB built medical part and
(d) DED built turbine blade (courtesy of Liu and Shin [187]).

cooling of the β phase, whereas the microstructure of Ti8Al1Er shows forms and other materials. Yakout et al. [194] have studied the rela­
the combined equiaxed grains and lamellar α plates microstructure tionship between residual stresses and thermal expansion while pro­
originated from grain boundary. The temperature properties, tensile ducing Ti–6Al–4V using SLM. The process parameters on the coefficient
strength, corrosion resistance, and creep are comparable to wrought of thermal expansion to minimize the manufacturing flaws are

13
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 15. Microstructures of EBM deposited Ti6Al4V and Ti8Al1Er alloys (a) acicular structure of Ti6Al4V (b) Ti8Al1Er-microstructure and (c) SEM image of Ti8Al1Er
showing parallel lines of dispersoids (courtesy of Bush and Brice [193]).
investigated. It is found that stable melting of Ti–6Al–4V under optimal
process parameters yielded homogeneous microstructure, maximum
density up to 99.9%, and a coefficient of thermal expansion close to the
wrought material. At optimal levels of parameters the residual stresses
were found minimum.
Another alloy Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si referred to as TC11 in
china widely used in compressor disk and other aerospace applications
due to their capacity to withstand high strains during loading [195,196].
Zong et al. [197] have fabricated TC11 alloy through lased-based AM to
check its high strain response. They have investigated the strain
behavior at both as-deposited and heated state. At the as-deposited state,
the grain structure was good in the combination of both equiaxed coarse
and fine grains hence provided excellent yield strength with poor plas­
ticity. On the other hand, test results at heat-treated state showed
reduced yield strength due to ultrafine α lamellas, but there was a
notable improvement in plasticity. Similarly, another study explored the
strong tensile strength of the same material printed via laser AM due to
its columnar grains and texture along the deposition direction [198].
Further, annealing has increased the other mechanical properties such
as strength and ductility higher than the levels of alloys. While the in­
vestigations on Ti–6Al–2Zr–2Sn–3Mo-1.5Cr–2Nb called TC21 and
Ti–5Al–5Mo–5V–3Cr called Ti5553 alloys are in progress [199]. Zhang
et al. [200] have examined the tensile properties of laser AM printed
specimens of TC21. Testing after heat-treated horizontal, vertical sam­
ples has shown different results. Horizontal samples exhibit superior
strength characteristics, whereas vertical samples exhibited higher
elongation behavior.
Ti–5Al–5V–5Mo–3Cr (Ti5553) alloys show greater mechanical
properties such as tensile strength of 1400 MPa and yield strength of
1250 MPa [201] than other Ti-based alloys. Hence the applications of
Ti5553 are very suitable for too stressed components such as landing
gears of aircraft, fuselage, wings, and rotor of helicopters, etc., [202].
Zopp et al. [201] have investigated the manufacturability of Ti5553
using the SLM process. The optimization in process parameters and grain
sizes were analyzed to obtain the highest density and surface quality.
14
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
They reported that it is possible to obtain 99.9% of its original density by
optimizing process parameters. On the other hand, the higher surface
quality can be obtained by maintaining grain sizes between 25 and 32
μm.
3.1.4. Ni/co-based superalloys
Ni-based alloys exhibit ‘γ’ phased microstructures, which lead to
higher yield strength and higher working temperatures. Ni-based alloys
are primarily used to fabricate critical components that regularly un­
dergo high temperatures and stresses such as gas-turbine engines and
compressors [125]. Ni-based superalloys such as Inconel 625 [203] and
718 [135] have been used for these applications, whereas Co-based al­
loys (CoCr) are used for dental and other biomedical applications [204].
Murr et al. [205] have investigated the microstructural and mechanical
characteristics of Inconel 625 alloy fabricated by the EBM process. The
test specimens were prepared using hot-isostatic pressing at 1120 ◦ C and
showed columnar architecture with the ‘γ’ phase along the building
orientation direction. The microstructures are analyzed using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray (energy dispersive) spectrometry,
x-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
Upon hot-isostatic pressing, these columnar grain structures trans­
formed into an equiaxed grain structure containing NbCr2 precipitates.
Though the yield strength of test components slightly decreased from
0.41 to 0.35 GPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) has shown improve­
ment from 0.75 GPa to 0.77 GPa, and elongation also increased by about
25%. Invar is the other Ni-based alloy used in the applications where
minimum dimensional changes due to temperature variation are
necessary, such as electronics, optical and laser systems, aircraft con­
trols, etc. Research works have exhibited the AM based fabrication of
Invar alloys. Yakout et al. [206] have studied the density, and me­
chanical characteristics of SLM fabricated Invar 36. They have reported
that stable melting was obtained within the range of optimal laser en­
ergy densities. Stable melting of alloys helps to the formation of good
mechanical properties such as tensile strength, toughness, yield
strength, resilience, and elongation. Also, the part densities are reported
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
to be maximum, eliminating the residual stresses. The effect of process
parameters is important concerns while fabricating these alloys using
laser-based AM techniques. Void formation and vaporization of alloying
elements are the other aspects to be focused while fabricating Invar 36
alloy using SLM [22].
There are research attempts made to improve further the tempera­
ture and strength characteristics of Ni-based alloys such as precipitation
hardening [207], grain refinement hardening [208], and solution
hardening [209]. Yet few drawbacks have been identified with these
strengthening methods such as oxidation at grain boundary [210],
element segregation [211,212], and stress concentration [213] results in
reduced plasticity. Precipitation hardening may lead to an increase in ‘γ’
phase contents more than 50%; thus, drastically reduced plasticity fails
at reliability aspects [214]. The strength and plasticity of Ni-based alloys
can be improved by lowering stacking fault energy (SFE) [215,216].
Hence Yang et al. [217] have experimented to see the influence of SFE
on the strength and plasticity behavior at high temperatures. They have
produced different compositions of Ni-based alloys with increasing Co
percentage by weight (since Co decreases SFE). Specimens fabricated
with different compositions are tested for mechanical behavior and
using laser scanning confocal microscope, the microstructures were
examined. The primary phase of ‘γ’ contents are the same for all the
compositions, and the second phase of ‘γ’ contents increased with Co%.
The microstructure characterization of prepared NI–Co based alloys is
shown in Fig. 16. The investigation reports the synchronous improve­
ments in both microstructure and mechanical properties with Co in­
clusion. There is still a scope of research investigations related to
fabrication of these alloy compositions using different AM techniques.
Inconel alloy 718, due to its good metallurgical properties, negligible
defects, and fine grains of the dendritic structure formed through the
SLM process, attracted many researchers [218]. According to one liter­
ature study [219], Inconel 718 using the LSF method is done by two
different scanning paths as single and cross direction raster-scanning
paths. The cross direction raster-scanned sample has shown fine grain
structures of as-deposited material than that of a single direction
raster-scanned specimen. The ductility of the cross raster-scanned
specimen was also higher compared to the other. However UTS of
both specimens is similar. Similarly, Inconel 718 alloy fabricated using
the EBM process has been examined by Tayon et al. [220] on its
microstructure evolution, crystallography, and mechanical properties.
Fig. 16. Microstructures characterization of solution annealed Ni–Co based alloys at 1050 ◦ C (a)–(c) metallography of prepared superalloys (d)–(e) ‘γ’ phased
contents in the prepared superalloys (courtesy of Yang et al. [217]).
15
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
The microstructure of as-deposited grains on the direction of deposition
has shown a mostly rich and strong texture. Heat treatment, like solution
aging of the specimen, formed a recrystallization on its microstructure,
which resulted in decreased texture concentration. Mechanical testing
results reported higher levels of tensile strength and yield strength than
that of cast specimens.
Currently, there is no standard design and fabrication description
involved in the fabrication of Inconel 718 alloy using binder jetting 3D
printing method. Nandwana et al. [221] have attempted to present
design guidelines for 3D binder jetting of Inconel 718 alloy. The aspects
to be considered to fabricate near-net shaped parts through 3D binder
jetting are designing the part geometry, powder size distribution, pow­
der chemistry, choice of binder, the thickness of the layer, spread speed,
binder saturation, dry time and binder burnout, and sintering.
AM of Ni-based shape memory alloys (SMAs) is another exciting field
among researchers. SMAs are the novel materials that can remember its
pre-deformed shape. These alloys can be deformed in cold conditions,
but when they are subjected to heat, it regains its pre-deformed shape.
Transformation of phase induced by heat is the primary reason for
reversed deformation. NiTi and Cu–Al–Ni are considered to be the most
common SMAs used in aerospace applications, biomedical applications,
and conventional actuators for pneumatic, hydraulic, and motor-based
systems [222,223]. Wang et al. [224] have fabricated and compared
the properties of NiTi alloys manufactured using different AM processes
such as DED, SLM, and selective EBM techniques. DED printed SMAs
exhibited excellent characteristics such as phase transformation and
interlayer fusion. SLM printed SMAs have shown difficulty in bringing
desired phases and produced keyhole defects due to varying energy
levels. Selective EBM is found to be not suitable for printing NiTi SMAs.
LENs can be used to fabricate NiTi SMAs, but intense knowledge on
process parameters and its effect on microstructure and phase stability is
required [225]. Manufacturing of SMAs using AM techniques requires
post-processing heat treatment to lower the temperature of martensitic
transformations, leading to deformation [226].
3.1.5. High-entropy alloys (HEAs)
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are such alloys made up of combining
five or more metallic elements with equal atomic percentages or more
proportions [227]. Usually, the proportion is varied from 5 to 35%
[228]. Due to the presence of more elements, there is a wide possibility
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
to develop more number of alloys with different properties. These alloys
possess superior properties such as strength to weight ratio, UTS, frac­
ture resistance, and other chemical properties like corrosion and
oxidation resistance than any other commercially used alloys. The
advanced applications of high-entropy alloys include nuclear fusion
[229], cryogenics [230], medical [231], etc. The phases of grains pre­
sent in high-entropy alloys highly depend on the fabrication methods.
Dendritic and interdendritic phases were reported from the copper mold
cast specimens (1–4). There has been limited attention paid to the
research works related to interfaces between phases. The mechanical
properties and deformation behavior of high-entropy alloys depend on
the microstructure and their interfaces. Welk et al. [232] have studied
the nature of interfaces between grains of CoCrCuFeNiAl super alloy
printed by LENS. The printed samples were characterized using optical
metallography, SEM, conventional TEM and abrasion corrected TEM.
They have reported that, dendritic grains have two main phases as or­
dered B2 phase and disordered bcc phase as shown in Fig. 17. High angle
annular dark-field (HAAD) imaging shows that B2 phase emerge to be
stoichiometry form.
Choudhuri et al. [233] have investigated the phases and as-deposited
microstructures of LENS produced CoCrCuFeNiAlTi superalloy. They
have presented the results of experiments, computations, approximate
phase evaluation sequence, and microstructural characteristics. The
primary product of solidification is the supersaturated Ti-stabilized α
phase. The higher-order of the α phase in the microstructure shows that
it has formed earlier to the β phase. The β phase consists of Fe and Cr,
whereas the α phase is enriched to have Ni, Al, and Ti. Typically
fine-scale Cu formation is found at the direction of elastically soft α
phase. Another study on LENS produced Al–CoCrFeNi superalloys
revealed that, upon cooling superalloys, formation of dendritic structure
occurs [234]. Microstructural examination proves that the presence of
disordered bcc (Fe, Cr) is found in the ordered B2 (presence of Al, Ni).
The experiment works also revealed that increasing scanning speeds
reduces grain sizes. At the outset, the average microhardness of sample
Fig. 17. (a) SEM images of LENS printed Co1Cr1Cu1Fe1Ni1Al1.5 showing granular dendritic structure with little quantity of intergranular interdendritic product (b)
Higher magnified SEM images of LENS printed Co1Cr1Cu1Fe1Ni1Al1.5 showing intragranular microstructure (c) higher magnified and tilted HAAD image of interface
region connects B2 phase and disordered bcc phase (courtesy of Welk et al. [232]).
16
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
specimens (543 HV0.5) is approximately 13% higher than that of the
other fabricated by casting. Superalloys made using AM techniques are
comparatively higher in mechanical properties than manufactured by
other conventional methods.
Apart from microstructural characterization and analysis of me­
chanical properties, researchers have also extended their studies on
superalloys’ chemical characteristics. Alloys with bcc and laves phases
show promising applications in hydrogen storage applications [235,
236]. But critical challenges faced by conventional manufacturing
techniques are bringing the required microstructural characteristics.
Research works have shown favorable compatibility of LENS printed
HEAs such as ZrTiVCrFeNi [228] and TiZrNbMoV [237] for hydrogen
storage applications. Laser-basted AM techniques produced improved
results compared to the other methods of fabrication.
3.1.6. Magnetic alloys
Magnetic alloys are capable of exposing the magnetic field for a more
extended period. Since they are generally used for functional compo­
nents, they have a wide range of applications such as automobile,
aerospace, biomedical, electrical and electronics, information technol­
ogy, etc. AM techniques have also been studied for fabricating magnetic
alloys such as Ni–Fe–V, Ni-Fe-Mo [36], Fe–30%Ni [238], and
Fe–Si–B–Cu–Nb [239]. This is due to its potential of fabricating complex
geometries in the energy area. Périgo et al. [240] have presented the
performance and the challenges in preparing functional magnetic ma­
terials in four different categories, such as permanent magnets, soft
magnetic materials, magnetocaloric compounds, and magnetic SMAs.
The summary of AM techniques used for different magnetic materials
are shown in Table 2.
Mikler et al. [36] have presented three case studies of magnetic al­
loys (Ni–Fe–V, Ni–Fe–Mo, and Fe–Si–B–Cu–Nb) fabricated by LENS
process. Fine powders of elemental materials derived from Finemet with
proper proportions are used as feedstock, and the resulted microstruc­
tures, phase transformations, and magnetic characteristics are analyzed.
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Status of different AM techniques in the fabrication of magnetic materials.
Magnet type Technology Feedstock type Material Remarks Ref.

Permanent magnets Inkjet printing Powder Nd2Fe14B Presence of polymer binders influences the density of final part [241]
Big area AM Powder Nd-Fe-B Weaker bonding between matrix and filler leads to mechanical failure [242]
Powder, pellets Nd-Fe-B, Post-processing is responsible for maximum magnetization [243]
Sm-Fe-N
Binder jetting Powder Nd-Fe-B Presence of polymeric binders reduces the remanence of magnets [244]
SLM Powder (spherical) Nd2Fe14B High magnet density was reported [245]
FDM Powder BaCO3, Anisotropic magnet comparable with traditional Fe sintered parts are [246]
Fe2O3 reported
Soft magnetic materials SLM Powder (spherical) Fe–Ni Microstructural variations responsible for magnetic property are influenced [238]
by scanning speeds
Powder Fe–Si Magnetic performance is mainly affected by porosity and texture. [247]
LENS Powder Ni–Fe–V, Superior magnetic properties [36]
Ni–Fe–Mo
Powder Fe–Co-1.5 V Annealing post-fabrication maximizes relative magnetic permeability [248]
Magneto-caloric 3D screen powder/binder La–Fe–Co–Mn–Si Difficult to produce complex geometries [249]
compounds printing slurry
SLM Powder La–Fe–Co–Si Complex reformation of the magnetocaloric after melting lead to many [250]
disadvantages.
SLS Powder Mn–Fe–P-Ge Processing parameters are major influential factors for printing [251]
Magnetic SMA Binder jetting Powder Ni–Mn-Ga Sintering is a crucial step which may affect the composition and [252,
microstructure 253]
DED Powder Ni–Mn-Ga Post-processing is necessary to diminish energy loss [254]

With all processing conditions, these alloys have shown a metastable
austenitic bcc phase with columnar grains. However, in some processing
conditions, martensite plates derived from the transformation of the
martensitic phase resulted in residual stresses. Fe–Si–B–Nb–Cu alloys,
fabricated by LENS, presents the dendritic phase of α-Fe3Si and little
amount of Fe3B and Fe23B6 as by-products contained by inter-dendritic
regions. But within the α-Fe3Si dendritic region, a small fraction of Cu
clustering was also identified. As a result, coercivities and magnetization
of LENS printed samples are comparable to other specimens manufac­
tured by conventional methods with same composition. The feasibility
of AM techniques is acknowledged for processing magnetic alloys by this
study.
Li et al. [244] have employed binder jetting AM technique to fabri­
cate NdFeB isotropic bonded magnets. After fabrication, the specimens
were infiltrated using eutectic alloys of a low-melting-point such as
NdCuCo and PrCuCo. The authors have reported that the density and
mechanical strength of magnets are improved than as-deposited porous
magnets. On the other hand, intrinsic coercivity has shown improve­
ment from 732 kA/m to 1345 kA/m. Caputo et al. [255] have fabricated
near net-shaped Ni–Mn-Ga magnetic parts from pre-alloyed SMAs using
binder jetting technique. Ni–Mn-Ga powders, which are spark eroded
from liquid nitrogen (LN2) and liquid argon (LAr) and ball milled, are
used for investigation. Net shaped porous structure resulted from sin­
tering, curing after printing ensures the feasibility of AM techniques in
processing SMAs. Suitable morphologies with apparent porosities were
obtained, as shown in Fig. 18, and these parts were able to go through
reversible martensitic transformation upon heating and cooling. These
parts are referred as thermo-magneto-mechanical trained 3D fabricated
parts. The parts fabricated in this study are shown in Fig. 19.
Another study on the magnetic samples fabricated from SMA using
binder jetting technique discovered that increasing sintering tempera­
ture from 1000 ◦ C to 1100 ◦ C for 2 h increases densities from 45% to
99% [256]. Different densities were found during solid-state and
liquid-state sintering temperatures. At the highest sintering temperature

Fig. 18. SEM images of Ni–Mn-Ga powders (a) Spark eroded particles from LN2 (b) Spark eroded particles from LAr (c) morphology of ball-milled particles (d) & (e)
Spark eroded particles from LN2 and LAr respectively and (f) Foam-resembling structure associated with spark eroded particles (courtesy of Caputo et al. [255]).

17
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 19. Post-cured Ni–Mn-Ga parts printed from binder jet printing (a) Part from LN2 eroded (b) Parts from LAr eroded (c)& (d) Parts from ball-milled powders
(courtesy of Caputo et al. [255]).

Fig. 20. (a)–(e) Progression of sintering regimes upon increasing sintering temperature (courtesy of Mostafaei et al. [256]).

18
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
(i.e., 1100 ◦ C), partial melting of elemental particles found at the
boundary regions causes increased densities. The progression of
microstructural changes with increasing sintering temperature is illus­
trated in Fig. 20. Yang et al. [257] prepared Fe–Co-based magnetic alloy
parts with excellent mechanical and magnetization properties using
laser-based AM techniques. Upon re-melting of such alloys, the bcc
dominated microstructure becomes denser with homogeneous den­
drites. Significant improvements in microhardness and wear resistance
were also reported. Similarly, there are more number of research works
have been done to confirm the feasibility of AM techniques on magnetic
alloys such as (Mn, Fe)2(P, Si) magnetocaloric alloys [258] and
SrFe12O19 bonded NdFeB alloys [259].
3.1.7. Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs)
BMGs or bulk amorphous alloys (BAAs) are solid amorphous metallic
materials whose atomic-scale structure is disordered and amorphous
[260]. They have a randomly oriented pattern of microstructures rather
than regular patterns of other conventional alloy materials. Similar to
other superalloys, BMGs possess superior mechanical properties like
other crystalline alloys but also with soft-magnetic characteristics. There
are few characteristics by which BMGs are partially connected to both
metallic and glass materials, as presented in Table 3. High cooling rates
of approximately 100 K/s is necessary and at least require a conven­
tional method of manufacturing these amorphous materials. Due to this,
BMGs are produced in the form of rods and sheets earlier, but the
application of AM techniques plausibly justified for manufacturing
complex 3D shapes of BMGs. Axinte [261] presented a detailed review of
the history, properties, and applications of BMGs and stated BMGs as the
future advanced materials in structural applications. Research works
have given detailed insights into the properties of the materials due to
the manufacturing processes of BMGs, such as conventional casting and
thermoplastic forming processes [262]. Since BMGs are directly con­
nected to the amorphous structure, it is essential to control the levels of
heating and cooling during processing.
Many researchers have presented applications of laser processing
due to high heating and cooling cycles of laser-based techniques. Rapid
cooling is necessary to avoid the formation of crystalline structures. Zr-
based BMGs are formed into 3D components using Nd: YAG laser-based
AM technique by Yang et al. [264]. The scanning speed of 3 m/s and the
input power of 300 W is set for the experiment. An important conclusion
made by them is the heat generated between subsequent laser pulses
should be low enough to maintain the amorphous structure. Another
detailed investigation by Pauly et al. [265] on the fabrication of
Fe-based BMG using Ytterbium fiber laser with operating parameters of
3470 mm/s scanning speed and 320 W power input found that the
printed specimen was not 100% amorphous. The printed part using
Fe-based BMG is presented in Fig. 21 (a). The author claimed that,
though the final structure was not fully amorphous, there was no dif­
ference between the feedstock and the product. Li et al. [266] have used
a laser-based AM process with four different powers of laser vary from
80 W to 200 W to print Al-based BMGs. The investigation was carried
out to report the relationship between laser parameters and
Table 3
Properties of BMGs compared to metallic and glass materials (adapted from
Williams and Lavery [263]).
Property Metal Glass BMGs
Structure Crystalline Amorphous Amorphous
Inter-atomic bonding Metallic Covalent Metallic
Yield stress Non-ideal Almost-ideal Almost-ideal
Hardness Various Very high Very high
Optical nature Opaque Transparent Opaque
Conductivity Good Poor Very good
Resistance Low High Very low
Corrosion resistance Various Very good Very good
Magnetic properties Various None Various
19
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
microstructures of BMGs. The faster heating and cooling rates have been
applied to a low volume of materials to reduce the thermal effects on the
printed material nearer to printing zones. Higher laser power leaves
thermal stresses within the printed material, creating cracks, and lower
power is not sufficient to melt the material. The power has a major in­
fluence on the morphological aspects and mechanical characteristics of
laser-printed BMGs [266]. To overcome these drawbacks, the re-melting
of AM printed cubes in a similar way of Pauly et al. [265] using lasers
have been investigated by Li et al. [267]. After printing each layer of
BMGs, they were re-scanned by lasers again with low power of 80 W.
Re-melting of layers have shown reduced residual stresses and increased
super-plasticity properties over glass transition temperatures. With
these positive results of re-melting, authors have fabricated micro-sized
gears using Al-based BMGs and compared the crack propagation before
and after re-scanning as shown in Fig. 21 (b) & (c). It is noticed that the
crack is halted after re-scanned.
Liang et al. [268] have experimentally investigated the functional
properties of SLM fabricated Fe-based porous metallic glass matrix
composites. They have reported that SLM fabricated parts have shown
excellent functional characteristics such as catalytic activity and reus­
ability up to 45 times higher without any decay in its functional effi­
ciency. Balla and Bandyopadhyay [269] have demonstrated the
formation of Fe–Cr–Mo–W–C–Mn–Si–B BMG using LENS process
without losing the partial amorphous structure of feedstock. No differ­
ence in the microstructures of successive layers was reported using XRD,
SEM, and DSC analysis. Between the scanning of successive layers, lower
pre-deposit temperature was maintained through a short delay to ach­
ieve the glass stability. Under these experimental conditions, full
amorphization was achieved by experiencing faster cooling rates than
required. Potential applications using BGMs can be effectively printed
by optimizing the parameters. There are many recent works related to
the processing of BMG materials by other AM techniques include UAM of
Ni-based BMG [270], laser foil printing AM of Zr-based BMG parts
[271], thermal spray AM of bio-inspired BMGs [272], laser PBF of
Zr-based BMGs [273] and so on. On the whole, there is still scope for
detailed investigations in AM processing of BMGs and its composite
materials.
3.1.8. Metal matrix composites
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are preferred over other conven­
tional materials due to their excellent mechanical properties like high
strength to weight ratio, compact material requirements, higher levels of
hardness and corrosion resistance [274,275]. There are many viable
conventional manufacturing methods available to fabricate MMCs, but
they are limited in terms of producing complex structures. A lot of
research works have been carried out to investigate the feasibility of AM
techniques to bring excellent properties of 3D complex MMCs parts. Al,
Ag, Mg, Cu, Ti, Ni, and Fe are the commonly used matrix materials
wherein e Al2O3, B4C, BeO, graphite, Mo, SiC, NbC, TaC, TiB, TiC, W,
and WC [276] are used as reinforcements.
The preparation of Al-based MMCs is an interesting topic for aero­
space applications [277]. Xie et al. [130] have used the cold spray (CS)
AM technique to print Al7075 composites reinforced with TiB2 nano­
particles. The experimental work is carried out to investigate mechani­
cal properties, porosity, and microstructures. The full dense component
was successfully fabricated using the CS AM technique. Comparing to
pure Al7075 components, the CS AM printed components have shown
greater micro-hardness and tensile strength. Fine grains are the primary
reasons for these elevated properties; on the other hand, fracture mor­
phologies revealed brittle fracture due to limited bonding between
highly deformed grains at the boundaries. Hence it is inferred that
post-heat treatment is necessary to improve the mechanical properties
completely. Hu et al. [278] have prepared Al MMCs using borate
whisker (Al18B4O3) with average length and diameter of 10–30 μm and
0.5–1 μm as reinforcing elements through laser-based AM. Comparing to
the microhardness of Al, the prepared MMC showed a 65% improvement
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 21. (a) Fe-based BMG part on 316 base plate using laser-based AM (courtesy of Pauly et al. [265]) (b) & (c) crack propagation in the printed BMG part without
and with re-laser scanning respectively (courtesy of Li et al. [267]).
(i.e.294 HV). Rapid quenching following the laser grain refinement of
Al2O3 particles is the primary reason for this attainment. After laser
melting, γ- Al2O3 has appeared on the surface. Riquelme et al. [279]
have investigated the effect of LDMD parameters on the 3D printing of in
situ Al/AlN composites. The power of laser and scanning speed are the
main parameters considered. The effective fabrication by laser melting
was obtained between 1050 and 1150 W power and 5–15 mm/s scan­
ning speeds. Higher power ranges resulted in re-melting of the previous
layer that caused distorting, and lower power was insufficient to melt
the material, leading to porous parts. They have also checked the effect
of carrier gas. The samples produced using N2 gas resulted in higher
micro-hardness levels compared to argon due to the chemical formation
of AlN at higher temperatures. This higher harness values obtained at
lower scanning speeds since slower the scanning time provides more
reaction time between nitrogen and Al.
The properties of Ti-based materials can be tailored to the required
properties and microstructures by varying the reinforcement materials
and process parameter optimization. Vrancken et al. [280] have used
SLM to print a powder mixer of 6.5% Mo, 3.5% Mo2C by weight added to
Cp Ti. The process parameter optimization study was carried out to
attain full-density, crack-free components. During laser melting of
powders, decomposition of Mo2C takes place, and formed TiC particles
of sub-micrometer are evenly dispersed into the matrix, thus forming a
homogeneous β-phased microstructure. The resulting material has
shown great yield stress of around 1164 MPa and a hardness value of
550 HV. By varying the process parameters constrained to high-density
limits and by post-processing techniques, the properties and micro­
structure can be maneuvered, as shown in Fig. 22. The SEM images of
Fig. 22. (a) The powder mixture of CP Ti (Spherical grey particles), Mo + Mo2C (tiny white particles) (b) process parameters between high and low levels of power
and scanning speed (courtesy of Vrancken et al. [280]).
20
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
samples printed with different parameters are shown in Fig. 23. Cai et al.
[281] have prepared in situ synthesized Ti–6Al–4V with TiB MMCs using
the SLM process. On investigation, TiB2 particles are transformed into
nanoscale TiB particles hence produced a formation of microstructure
with parallel strips wherein TiB particles are not evenly present
throughout the focusing zone. The final sample exhibited greater
nanohardness of 6.0 GPa which is superior compared to a counterpart
made by traditional manufacturing. Additionally, fabricated samples’
wear resistance was found to be double that of its traditionally manu­
factured counterpart. Ti is not only used as a matrix material but also
being used as reinforcements while preparing high-performance MMCs.
From recent studies, it is found that Ti-based reinforcements have been
used to prepare MMCs of AISI SS 420 using SLM [282], 316 L SS
nanocomposites using SLM [283], Inconel 625 MMCs using LDMD
[284], and so on.
Industrial applications are also demanding MMCs derived from
Ni–Co-based alloys for its highly competitive performance compared
with other superalloys. Gu et al. [285] have examined the microstruc­
tural formation and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 composites
reinforced with nano-TiC particles while controlling the energy levels of
SLM. Fully dense composites were obtained at the energy level of 300
J/m. Agglomeration of reinforcement at the boundary and inside of
grains are transformed into to uniformly distributed reinforcements
while increasing energy from 225 to 300 J/m. Meanwhile, irregular
polygonal nano-particles are transformed into near-spherical shape. TiC
nanoparticles are found to accelerate the formation of columnar den­
drites in the ‘γ’ phase. At a higher energy level of 300 J/m, superior
properties were observed as 4.48 GP nano-hardness and very lower
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 23. SEM images of printed samples at different parameters (a) Incomplete dissolution due to low power (b) Homogeneous distribution at higher power (c)
Homogeneous dispersing of fine precipitates at moderate power (d) High energy lead to coarse TiC precipitates (courtesy of Vrancken et al. [280]).

levels of coefficient of friction and wear rate of 0.36 and 3.83 ×
10− 4mm3/Nm, respectively, which are excellent results compared with
unreinforced Ni-based alloys. Zhang et al. [286] compared two different
reinforcements to Inconel 625 made through laser AM. Microstructural
investigations through SEM, EDS, micro-Raman techniques, and tensile
strength experiments using a universal tensile tester (Instron 5982) have
been conducted. The addition of CNTs and graphite has shown different
grain formations. Metallography of Inconel 625-graphite composite
shows the formation of columnar grains, whereas Inconel 625-CNTs
composite shows equiaxed short columnar grains as shown in Fig. 24.
Results of tensile test shown higher values of Inconel 625-CNTs com­
posites compared to Inconel 625-graphite composites.
Concerning the use of Co in the preparation of MMCs using AM
techniques, several papers discussed the effect of Co inclusion. Using
SLM, Davydova et al. [287] prepared cermet objects reinforced by
Co-layer coated B4C particles. New phases of layers formed during the
SLM process due to an interaction between B4C and Co-based matrix.
This resulted in a highly homogeneous and porous (37%) part with su­
perior hardness values of 2900–3200 HV. High porosity limits the
application of developed material since they exhibit very less
compressive strengths. Due to this reason, even though the developed
material holds supreme hardness values, they confirm the presence of
cracks, which will propagate under loading conditions. Al-Thamir et al.
[288] have studied the effect Co addition while fabricating WC-based
composites using the laser-PBF method. From the trials results, it is
inferred that energy plays a vital role in producing defect-free objects.
High-dense and crack-free composite parts can be developed by con­
trolling melt-pool characteristics, scanning speeds and packing density.
Another study by Cramer et al. [289] disclosed a potential approach to
achieve high dense net-shaped components with excellent properties.

Fig. 24. 3D optical metallography of printed composites (a) Microstructure of Inconel 625-graphite composite (b) Microstructure of Inconel 625-CNTs composite
(courtesy of Zhang et al. [286]).

21
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
They have used binder jetting AM process to fabricate WC-Co composite
parts with subsequent infiltration with Co melt. The infiltration reduces
shrinkage effects and improves grain growth, thus producing high
density with appreciable microstructures. The mechanical properties are
also characterized by adjusting the height of infiltration.
There are many research works reported on the 3D printing of Fe-
based composites. Zhao et al. [282] have investigated the densifica­
tion behavior, morphology, hardness, and wear resistance properties of
AISI 420 SS reinforced with TiN. SLM is the common technique adapted
in this work also. The experimentation exhibited that TiN attributes to
strong absorption of laser and weldability of metal; hence the formation
of denser and stronger composites are achieved. The wear resistance and
hardness were also comparably high than that of pure AISI 420 SS ma­
terial. Wu et al. [290] studied the phase evaluation and the corrosion
behavior of LDMD printed 316 L SS MMCs reinforced with SiC particles.
Different compositions of SiC particles (4, 8, 12, and 16% by weight)
dispersed 316 L SS MMCs are prepared and investigated. At a low per­
centage of reinforcement level (i.e. 4%), a single γ-(FeCrNi) phase
microstructure was obtained. With the increasing levels of re­
inforcements, the microstructure was evolved to γ-(FeCrNi) +
α-(FeCrNi) + SiC phase. The denser microstructures, uniformly distrib­
uted grains are the results of dispersed SiC refinement. Mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance showcased a good result compared
to unreinforced counterparts. But a higher level of (8%) of SiC particle
inclusion leads to micro-cracks, which were clearly observed. Hence
there is a scope for future studies to investigate the levels of reinforce­
ment percentages for different MMCs using different AM techniques.
3.1.9. Multi-materials (MMs)
MMs are a combination of multiple materials to enhance perfor­
mance requirements. AM techniques are the revolutionary techniques
which enable the production of complex geometries with different ma­
terial combinations for tailored material properties and added func­
tionality. MMs may have different combinations of materials, such as
multiple metals and the combination of metals with ceramics. This
proposal has helped to combine different metals and alloys such as
Inconel and copper alloys, niobium and Ti alloys, and magnetic and non-
magnetic materials with varying percentages of composition [291].
Furthermore, AM of MMs can manipulate the metal’s properties by
depositing different phases like the secondary metallic phase over the
existing structures [134]. But manufacturing of MMs may have limita­
tions with the fabricating processes [292]. The single-step fabrication of
MMs through AM techniques facilitates the homogeneous mixture of
multiple metals or metals and ceramic combinations at the required
locations to increase their functional performance. The combination of
materials to improve the performance locally at desired locations is
called functionally gradient materials (FGM).
FGMs are capable of changing their properties by varying the com­
positions or microstructures. Initially, these materials are developed to
serve the purpose of resisting heat in the propulsion system to withstand
1000 ◦ C with just only 10 mm of thickness [293]. It was found that the
combination of metal and ceramic materials are capable of withstanding
higher temperatures and soon after-possessing good toughness property.
This combination has attracted many research applications in aero­
nautics, bioengineering, electronics, etc. [294]. Furthermore, many
developments have been made to FGMs to exploit spatially varying
properties like mechanical, physical, chemical, biochemical, etc. [125].
Manufacturing pure metallic FGMs to its wrought density can be
conveniently done, but producing complex parts near wrought density
and properties is still challenging for manufacturing methods [293]. Due
to specific advantages, much attention is paid to the fabrication of FGMs
like Ti-based alloys [295], Ni-based alloys [296], Al-based alloys [297],
Co-based alloys [298], Cu [299], Mg-based alloys [300]and refractory
materials [301] using AM technologies. Although this section is inten­
tionally presented to discuss metal-based MMs, important
metallic-based alloy materials and associated AM methods are discussed
22
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
in other sections. The focus is given to confer about metal-ceramic
compositions and their compatibility with AM techniques.
Bandyopadhyay and Heer [292] have reviewed MMs and the possi­
bilities to fabricate them using AM techniques. Because of the high
mismatch between the thermal properties of metals and ceramics and
related thermal stresses, applications of metal-ceramic MMs are not
grown over time. The processing of both the materials together may tend
the metal to get evaporated sometime due to the higher melting tem­
perature of ceramics. This scenario was reported when Al2O3 is com­
bined with Ti6Al4V. When processed using laser energy, Al2O3 observed
most thermal energy to melt while Ti6Al4V particles started evaporating
[302]. Though similar kinds of issues were found in the literature, many
experiments have successfully built metal-ceramic combinations. Since
the presence of ceramic materials within this composition, these mate­
rials are mostly used for thermal barrier coatings (TBCs).
One of the low thermal conductivity materials used for TBCs is
ceramic zirconia. It can be deposited over the metallic materials using
electroplating, plasma spraying, electron beam physical vapor deposi­
tion, and electroplating [303]. Thermal coatings undergo cyclic thermal
and mechanical loads; hence the presence of any residual stresses and
poor bonding in the fabricated parts might lead to cracks and failures.
Mumtaz and Hopkinson [303] have investigated the porosity and
microstructure of ceramic coated Waspaloy using AM technique. They
have used the SLM technique for the transition of Ni-super alloy, Was­
paloy with varying zirconia ceramic inclusion from 0 to 10% by volume
in a step by step manner of blending. There was a segregation of these
materials found near boundaries due to different melting temperatures
and properties. But, by optimizing the parameters, authors have ob­
tained dense and crack-free samples. Similarly, yttria laser stabilized
zirconia was coated to 316 L SS using laser deposition [304]. The results
on superior bonding strength, microstructure at the interface, and
minimized residual stresses are reported. Hence pushing the limitations
aside, technological advancements and parameters optimization options
might take the AM produced MMs to the next generation applications.
3.2. Ceramics
Due to the specific requirements of high-performance materials, ce­
ramics have been widely used for many applications, including auto­
mobiles, aerospace, biomedical, energy, electrical, electronics,
environmental, and so on [33]. Fabrication of high-performance
ceramic complex parts is challenging, and it is sometimes impossible
by conventional methods. There are few important challenges associ­
ated with manufacturing ceramic parts, such as difficulty in handling
inherent brittleness, the need for expensive tooling for post-processing,
and are time-consuming [33,125]. Hence direct fabrication of
high-performance ceramic parts is limited, unlike laser-based deposition
processes [305]. Comparing to conventional methods of fabrication, AM
techniques are highly capable of producing complex ceramic parts.
Initially, AM techniques were used to produce green ceramic parts, and
later they were sintered using conventional methods to get desired
properties. Recently ceramic parts are being made in a single step pro­
cess using direct AM techniques [306]. Examples for AM techniques
used for the production of ceramics are shown in Table 4. Poor bonding
between layers, lowered toughness, cracking in bulk parts, and tailoring
the novel microstructure are the common problems reported in previous
studies, which can be prevented by optimizing the AM process param­
eters [307]. Chen et al. [308] presented in his review on ceramics that
there are three feedstock forms used as slurry-based, powder-based, and
bulk solid-based. The majorly used techniques for printing ceramic
materials are inkjet printing, PBF, paste extrusion, and SLA.
Inkjet printing of ceramics provides the benefits of attaining highly
dense parts and the elimination of post-processing steps. A perfectly
controlled flow of suspension medium with proper rheology to ensure
avoidance of nozzle clogs and efficient drying practice is essential [309].
Other controlling factors in inkjet printing are effective thinning and
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4
AM processes used for fabricating ceramics.
Method of AM Technology Feedstock type Layer formation technique Ceramic material References

Direct Direct SLS Powder Partially melted by laser scanning ZrO2,Y2O3 [316]
SLM Powder Fully melted by laser scanning ZrO2, Al2O3 [314]
Laser deposition-AM Powder Laser deposition of nozzle injected powder Al2O3 [82]
Indirect 3DP Liquid spray assisted Inkjet TiO2 [317]
3DP Powder solid freeform fabrication Ti3SiC2 [318]
SLS Powder Laser scanning TiC–Al2O3, SiC [319,320]
FDM Filament Material extrusion PZT ceramics [321]
SLA Photocurable resin and powders Photo curing by laser scanning SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2 [322–324]
Direct inkjet printing Powder suspension Inkjet printing ZrO2 [325]
Laser-wise slurry deposition Slurry Slurry deposition Al2O3, ZrO2 [326]
LOM Sheet Sheeting binding and laser cutting SiC, Si3N4 [327,328]

breaking of printed filament. Particle sizes and their volume fraction
plays a vital role in printing ceramic-glass compositions. Finer particles
with higher volume fraction reduce the flowability and result in higher
shrinkage and poor printing resolution. The lower volume fraction of
glass particles increases the shrinkage volume and dimensional inaccu­
racy [310]. Another advantage of AM processing ceramic materials is
the control over the porosity. Li et al. [311] have added CaSO4 and
dextrin to alumina-based ceramics to create porous parts, and later it has
shown excellent flexural properties. Maurath and Willenbacher [312]
have printed a cellular log-pile and honeycomb structures of aluminum
oxide with better mechanical strength without any defects like crack and
dimensional instability. Microstructures and mechanical properties
samples from different sintering conditions were reported in their study.
The images of printed honeycomb and log-pile structures at a sintering
temperature (Ts) of 1300 ◦ C for 2 h are shown in Fig. 25. Samples of
honeycomb structures have shown excellent specific strength under
mechanical loads. Generally, ceramics made using SLS possess higher
porosity unless they are sintered as the post-printing process. Porosity
with distinct structures is advantageous for high strength low density
applications.
Attention has been given to AM fabrication of ceramics such as Al2O3
or Al2O3–ZrO2 to address the challenges. Yves-Christian et al. [313]
have attempted to discover optimal SLM parameters for printing
Al2O3–ZrO2. The feedstock consists of 58.5% of Al2O3 and the remaining
of ZrO2 fine powders by weight. The Y2O3 is included in ZrO2 for about
6% by weight to stabilize ZrO2 at room temperature. It was found that it
is not easy to identify optimal parameters to fabricate ceramic parts
under general conditions unless pre-heated up to 1600 ◦ C. Similar way,
Wilkes et al. [314] have used the same eutectic mixture feedstock
composition (ZrO2 stabilized with 3% Y2O3) to fabricate ceramic parts
with pre-heating is done at 1715 ◦ C using a CO2 laser. Rather than single
phases, the eutectic mixture exhibited a low melting temperature
around 1860 ◦ C. Another study using the Al2O3–ZrO2 combination with
a 4:1 ratio wherein ZrO2 accounts for 90% of ZrO2 with 10% of Y2O3
through SLM was able to identify confined narrow levels of process
parameters. The parameter levels are found to eliminate shrinkage de­
fects and cracks in the fabricated parts [315].
Selective laser gelation (SLG) is another technique that combines sol-
gel and SLS for printing ceramic-based composite materials [309].
Usually, a binder with a lower temperature is used when ceramics do not
melt at lower temperatures of a laser. Laser scanning is used to print the
desired shape by holding ceramic powder in place using laser-activated
binders. Further, the printed part is sintered with higher temperatures to
create a strong bond between particles. This method is often known as
indirect SLS and is commonly used to bind ceramics with glass and
polymers to create composites. Some of the examples for direct and
indirect ceramic printing are shown in Fig. 26. Table 4 shows some of
the AM techniques used to fabricate different ceramic materials using
different feedstock types.
Vorndran et al. [329] have developed β-tricalcium phosphate ce­
ramics using phosphoric acid as a binding material. The resulting
composite shows high mechanical performance with lower density and

Fig. 25. (a) & (b) Hexogonal honeycomb structures printed with 200 μm nozzle at Ts = 1300 ◦ C, 2 h (c) & (d) top view & magnified surface of printed log-pile
structure, and (e) & (f) cross cut illustration of printed part & its unique microstructure at Ts = 1300 ◦ C, 2 h (courtesy of Maurath and Willenbacher [312]).

23
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 26. Ceramic parts printed using direct (a–c) and indirect (d &e) techniques: (a) restoration part for dental application, (b) impeller blade, (c) array of
micropillars, (d) bone implant and (e) macrostructures with different ligament lengths (courtesy of Travitzky et al. [33]).
higher porosity compared to the cast specimen. Other AM processes used
for ceramic printing are FDM [330], extrusion freeforming (EFF), and
direct ceramic SLA. These methods required post-curing processes.
Based on the type of binders used, post-curing methods vary, such as
phase changing (freezing to the crystallization of liquid), using solvents,
and curing using heating. CSL method uses photo-curable resins added
with a higher amount of fine ceramic powders. Ceramics with higher
scattering properties are preferred for this method to have an effective
curing process [33]. Recent studies in ceramic processing include 3D
printing of ceramic-graphene using thermal bubble inkjet technology
[331], fabrication of barium titanate parts using freeze-form extrusion
3D printing [332], and so on.
3.3. Polymers and composites
Polymers and their composites have been extensively used in many
applications starting from home appliances to industrial needs. Their
applications start from tiny microfluidic devices [333] to big storage
tanks [334], pipes [335], biomedical applications [336], and so on.
Polymeric materials are lightweight and strong; hence it can also be used
for load-bearing applications [125]. Due to their diversity and easy
processing capability, they are the most common materials used in AM
processing industries. The adaptability of polymers in AM technologies
made it possible to produce many complex products with low cost for a
vast number of applications from aerospace, automobile, medical,
architectural, toys, and much more. The advantage of processing
through AM techniques are high level of accuracy and elimination of the
majority of post-processing steps, which are cost-effective than other
traditional methods like casting, molding, forming, and extrusion.
Moreover, understanding the mechanical properties of printed polymers
is vital to utilize them in real-world applications. Parts printed by AM
24
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
techniques should replace the conventionally fabricated counterparts in
mechanical properties [6,337]. But increasing performance re­
quirements push up the advancing of polymeric materials by adding
additives or reinforcing them instead of using pure polymeric materials.
On the other hand, the thermo-mechanical properties of polymer-based
components are still argued. Due to viscosity and strength limitations,
there are recent developments in polymers being reported by re­
searchers [338].
Different types of AM techniques are used for processing different
types of polymers such as thermoplastics, thermosets, polymer blends,
hydrogels, biological compounds, elastomers, and polymer composites
[339]. The largest revenue earning materials in the AM segment is
polymers [124], wherein the majority of polymer type is photopolymers.
The photopolymerization technique majorly uses SLA processes in
which the molecular orientation of the printed part depends on the
thickness of the layer decided by UV light intensity [260,340]. The
second majorly used technique is SLS, which uses in most cases, the
polystyrene, thermoplastic elastomers, and polyamides [339]. Four
forms of polymer feedstocks used primarily in AM techniques are liquid
polymers, polymeric powders, polymer filament, and polymer films
[338]. Nylon 11 & 12 and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) are used in
the powder form, a large variety of thermoplastics are used in both
powder and filament forms, whereas photopolymers are used in liquid
form [341]. There are many more polymeric materials used by AM
processes, as listed by Wu et al. [341]. Dimensional accuracy and
fabrication time of printed parts may vary based on the material and AM
techniques adapted. Minetola et al. [342] have compared the tolerance
capabilities of AM processes and polymers. Three AM systems are
compared, namely FFF, SLS, and material jetting with feedstock mate­
rials of co-polyester filament, polyamide 12, ABS, respectively. SLS
system is better than other systems in terms of production time. But due
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
to high-temperature application on top layers, the deformation of sur­
rounding materials affects the sintered part’s geometrical features,
which limits the dimensional accuracy. It is reported that in terms of
tolerances, material jetting systems performed well. Apart from
dimensional requirements, some issues restrict the applications of layer
manufactured polymeric materials. Mechanical anisotropy of parts due
to a layer’s size in terms of thickness, width, and or diameter is the major
issue faced by FDM, which is most reported (~50%) than any other AM
process [343]. Curing at various wavelengths [344], annealing at
different temperature range [67,344], and resolution are the issues
associated with the SLA process wherein mechanical anisotropy is very
low (~1%) [343]. Input power for laser, scanning speed, and space and
orientation are the issues associated with SLS [345,346]. Similarly, the
thickness of the layer [347], raster angle [348], air gap [349], printer
trajectory [350], and orientation [349,351] are the other challenging
aspects. Many research works have been carried out to address the issues
of polymer processing via AM techniques.
Safai et al. [352] have discussed the fatigue behavior of printed
polymers under mechanical and environmental stresses. Minimizing the
crack propagation due to cyclic loads (fatigue) and mechanical failures
of printed parts are challenging in AM processes. Two types of fatigue
failure in the printed polymer parts may crop up [353,354]: (1) hys­
teretic heating may lead to soften and melt the thermoplastics, which
lead to thermal failure, and (2) cyclic loads or stresses may commence
cracking and its propagation which leads to mechanical failure. Hys­
teretic heating is caused by low thermal conductivity, viscoelasticity,
high damping, and strain rates [355,356]. Hysteretic heating rises up
the temperature of the printed polymer and reduces stiffness. Therefore
deformation happens due to deflection under mechanical loads. It starts
with micro-cracks and propagates until the failure of the object. Zolfa­
gharian et al. [357] have analyzed the fracture resistance of AM fabri­
cated polymers. U-Notched samples printed by FDM and multi-jet fusion
(MJF) are investigated for load-carrying capacity by equivalent material
concept integrated with the J-integral failure criterion. Due to the
continuous alignment nature of filament, the part printed by FDM
exhibited higher mechanical properties and load-carrying capacity than
the other one. Whereas MJF printed samples have shown more brittle
nature than the other one printed by FDM. Hence method of fabricating
polymeric materials plays major role in deciding mechanical properties.
Recent progress in AM processing of polymers emphasizes preparing
polymer-based composites to meet the increased strength requirements.
Yuan et al. [13] have classified reinforcements for polymer matrix into
four groups: (1) metallic reinforcements, (2) ceramics/glass re­
inforcements, (3) carbon-based reinforcements, and (4) natural fillers or
additives. The addition of reinforcements is advantageous in polymeric
parts in terms of improved mechanical strength, thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, fire-retardant tendency, piezoelectric properties,
and magnetic properties. Xu et al. [358] have presented an extendable
AM process called MM projection SLA to manufacture carbon fiber
reinforced polymer composite (FRPC). The designed two-phase micro
lattice composites experimentally revealed high stiffness and damping
performance. On the other hand, carbon FRPC, due to its continuous
fiber network, improves thermal conductivity [359] hence reduces
thermal failures wherein the printing structure improves mechanical
strength. Fig. 27 depicts the honeycomb printing structure and the
continuing nature of fibers during the deposition of reinforced polymers.
Fig. 28 shows various SEM images of 3D printed composite structures.
Recent advancements in 3D printing technology with improved printing
resolutions made it possible to print very complex and inter-locking
designed performs. Fig. 29 shows different structures of
multi-directional preforms of composites printed using 3D printing.
Spoerk et al. [361] have addressed the warpage issues by adding
spherical fillers. Warpage issues lower mechanical properties, particu­
larly toughness, mainly due to a higher level of crystallinity and fiber
orientations. It is reported that by increasing the degree of high filling
and low aspect ratio of borosilicate glass spheres in polypropylene
25
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 27. Deposition of reinforced polymers (courtesy of Compton and
Lewis [360]).
during printing highly increases the impact toughness up to 80% more
than conventional glasses. Also, the fiber orientation plays a vital role in
enhancing the mechanical properties of reinforced composite materials.
Zero degrees orientation leads to good tensile strength, toughness, and
other mechanical properties, whereas 90◦ orientation gives the weakest
properties [362]. Continuous fiber 3D printing for polymer composites
using a multi-axis robotic arm is also a new trend to overcome the lack of
z-direction reinforcement [363–365]. Another study has proven
improved mechanical properties through unit-cell concepts in printing
SiC and carbon fibers reinforced epoxy-based polymer composites
[360]. Different methods presented in research works to obtain the good
orientation of fibers such as shear force during extrusion, application of
magnetic fields, electrical field, oscillatory motion, and ultrasonic
standing waves [360].
Mohammadizadeh et al. [366] have performed the structural anal­
ysis on 3D printed polymer composites reinforced with fibers. Fiber­
glass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar are the reinforcement materials used on
the nylon matrix and printed with close to 0◦ fiber orientation to the
axial direction. SEM images of fatigue tested samples are presented in
Fig. 30. The fiber breakage, de-bonding, and pull-outs are visible in the
images. Based on the experimental analysis, a higher degree of fiber
packing and homogeneous fiber orientation confirms superior me­
chanical properties and resistance to failure under loads. These mate­
rials could be a potential replacement for other polymer composites and
metal for various engineering applications in aerospace, automobile,
and bio-medical industries [366].
Flowability, anisotropy, and lack of strength during specific loading
conditions (i.e., perpendicular to reinforcement directions) are some of
the limitations of chopped, short, and continuous fibers. However,
recent advancements in the preparation of polymer-based composites
are the addition of nano-particles as reinforcements [367]. This will
lower the anisotropic effect and improve flowability, mechanical prop­
erties, electrical conductivity, flame-retardant property, and light ab­
sorption capacity of polymeric materials [13,341]. There are variety of
materials used as nano-fillers including carbon nanotubes (CNT) [368],
graphene & carbon nano-fiber [369], calcium carbonate & SiO2 [370],
Al2O3 [371], TiO2 [372], Nano-silica [373], ZrO2 [374] and many more
[341].
3.4. Biomaterials
The biomedical field is one of the thrust areas for the evolution of AM
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 28. SEM images of various printed composites structures (a) square, (b) hexagon, (c–d) triangular honeycomb structure, and (e–f) magnified images showing the
orientation of fiber reinforcement (courtesy of Compton and Lewis [360]).
Fig. 29. Multi-directional interlock 3D preforms of composites printed using 3D printing (a) through-the-thickness, (b) layer-by-layer, (c) orthogonal, (d) rectangular
4-step braided and (e) rectangular 4-step braided (courtesy of Quan et al. [24]).
techniques since there are unique requirements to be addressed by
manufacturing methods. High intricacy is a critical challenge associated
with biomedical applications such as developing 3D models and orga­
noids, unique implants, regulated drug delivery systems, implant-tissue
interface, dentistry, orthopedics, and engineered tissues and organs
[375]. Patient-specific requirements urge the customization of
bio-medical implants, prosthesis, and other applications [376] (see
Fig. 31). Small production quantities characterize biomedical industries
due to its patient-specific nature. Conventional manufacturing methods
are too costly in producing small ordered quantities of customized im­
plants since it incurs many pre-processing steps such as tooling. But AM
techniques can process faster and cheaper than conventional
manufacturing methods in manufacturing small quantities of custom­
ized parts [377]. Also, the CAD data can be shared with researchers to
reproduce and investigate. AM techniques are highly potential to
fabricate very complex internal microstructures with required me­
chanical, physical, and biological characteristics. Different types of
materials have been used in the biomedical field, such as metals, poly­
mers, ceramics, SMAs, bioglass, and biomaterials [378]. Furthermore,
an essential advancement in AM techniques is printing porous biode­
gradable materials, which help in the regeneration of tissues [379].
Though AM techniques are flexible enough to use different materials,
polymeric materials still lack durability, stiffness, strength to weight
ratio, and other characteristics. Polymeric materials can be reinforced
with fibers to overcome these shortcomings. Kussmaul et al. [381] have
26
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
explored the use of AM techniques in fabricating structurally optimized
exoskeleton hip structure of carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Patient
data has been used to optimize the structures to individual load condi­
tions. Analyses on load conditions promised the reduction of weight
compared to standard materials for the same load-carrying capacity.
Fiber-reinforced polymers provide high performance in the biomedical
field. However, there are still challenges associated with their
manufacturing through AM processes such as controlling fiber orienta­
tion, porosity, bonding between fiber and matrix material. Zindani and
Kumar [382] have explored the scope for future works related to the
printing of polymer composites using AM techniques such as material
usability, interfacial properties, interlayer bonding, printability, and
porosity. In recent years, the use of biocompatible polymer hydrogels
came into existence to replace natural tissues. Hydrogels are capable of
providing oxygen and nutrition enriched aqua environment that a bio
cell requires. Advancements in technologies have brought a solution to
many biomedical industries by printing biological organs by depositing
living cells and hydrogels into the required shape. 3D printing is pri­
marily the source for the development of bio-printing for which the
so-called bioink composed of biomaterials and living cells is necessary
[383]. Polymers with biocompatibility used for 3D printing are poly­
caprolactone, polylactic acid, and polylactic-co-glycolic acid. Polymers
added with hydroxyapatite have shown proven biological properties in
bone tissues [384]. Collagen is an element present in the extracellular
matrix in the human body. Lee et al. [385] have attempted to print the
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 30. SEM images of fatigue tested FRPC samples (a) carbon fiber + nylon, (b) fiber glass + nylon and (c) kevlar + nylon (courtesy of Mohammadizadeh
et al. [366]).
human heart’s components using collagen embedded with hydrogels.
The advantage of 3D printing is highly utilized to print parts of the
human heart, starting from minute capillaries to the complete heart. The
author has reported that the 3D printed bio hearts can be precisely
reproduced according to individual patient needs using micro-computed
tomography. Fig. 32 shows the typical 3D printing of an organ-scale
human heart using collagen.
Bioprinting is presently an approach for forming a range of tissue
constructs such as skin, bone, vascular tissue, cartilage, periodontal, and
cardiovascular. Along with these uses, AM printed tissues are used as
viro as models for disease and analogies [386]. Bioprinting is also used
to generate 3D structures such as scaffolds and tissue constructs for the
formation of tissue. The AM applications in tissue engineering through
bioprinting are summarized in Table 5. Still, there are limitations to be
addressed, such as matching the properties of printed tissues with the
native tissues and the availability of printable bioink with required
properties. Guzzi and Tibbitt [387] have explored the emerging tech­
niques in AM for biomedical applications. Recently a hybrid surface
27
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
tension supported AM technique is developed to fabricate large-scale
biomaterial with mechanically supported MMs. In this technique, first
fenestrated mechanical support is printed via SLS or SLA, and subse­
quently, polymers or hydrogel films are coated using surface tension.
The solidification of laid films then forms a MM 3D model with aniso­
tropic properties. Another technique is the multi-photon lithography
that is capable of printing biomaterials in the sub-cellular scales. As a
more advanced technique, volumetric AM is developed to print a 3D part
within a rotating photosensitive resin collection wherein determined
axial tomography project the evolving pattern of light. Though the
advanced techniques offer high structural properties, fabrication of MM
bio parts, low resolution, processing speed, and decreasing cell viability
due to the stimulus are some limitations that need to be addressed in
future research works [387].
3.4.1. Porous materials for implants and bone scaffolds
Metallic materials and alloys have been used widely for bone im­
plants. The metals and alloys proven for their better biocompatibility
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 31. Basic applications of Ti alloys for human implants (a) & (b) dental restoration (c) reconstruction of jaws and face (d) Rib repair (e), (f) & (g) arthroplasty in
knees, ankles & hip, and (h) reconstruction of vertebral (courtesy of Weng et al. [380]).

than other materials are SS, Co-based alloys, and Ti and its alloys. These
materials also possess good mechanical properties and resistance to
corrosion hence widely used for load-bearing implants. Critical issues
related to load-bearing implants are the mismatch of its Young’s
modulus with bone and the weaker interfacial bonding [379] due to
these materials’ high stiffness than bone tissue. One alternative option to
improve the interfacial bonding and modulus mismatch is the applica­
tion of porous materials. The porous implants (see Fig. 33) allow the
growth of bone into the pores, leading to stronger bonding between bone
and implants, long term stable biological fixation. Comparing to con­
ventional manufacturing processes, AM techniques are superior in
introducing porous implants by fabricating varying porosities within the
patient-specific complex geometries [409]. It is the most significant
development using AM. After many research attempts, researchers have
realized that open unit cell structures with interconnected pores and
controllable geometries can show excellent performance in cell

28
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 32. Bio printed human heart (a) 3D model derived from MRI scan scaled to neonatal size, (b) collagen printed heart, (c) sectional view showing the intricate
structures inside the heart, (d) closer view of trabeculae in the ventricle (left side), (e) G-code for the structure shown in (d), (f) closer view of a septal wall separating
the ventricles, and (g) G-code for the image shown in (f) (courtesy of Lee et al. [385]).

Table 5
Application of AM in tissue generation for fabricating scaffolds and tissue constructs [388].
AM techniques Tissue Materials Cell types References

Extrusion-based bioprinting Heart valve Hyaluronic acid, Gelatin, Alginate, Aortic valve interstitial cell, [389,390]
Aortic root sinus smooth-muscle cell
Myocardial tissue Alginate Cardiomyocyte progenitor cell [390,391]
Blood vessel Collagen, Agarose, Alginate Endothelial cell, [392–394]
Cardiac cell,
Smooth-muscle cell,
Fibroblast
Musculoskeletal tissue Agarose, Alginate, Hydroxyapatite, Polycaprolactone Bone marrow stromal cell, [395,396]
Endothelial progenitor cell,
Endogenous stem cell
Nerve Bone-marrow stem cell, Schwann cells Agarose [397,398]
Skin Gelatin Epithelial progenitors [399]
Bone GelMA Human mesenchymal stem cells [400]
Jetting-based bioprinting Blood vessel Fibrin Endothelial cell, [401,402]
Smooth-muscle cell,
Mesenchymal stem cell
Musculoskeletal tissue Fibrin Muscle-derived stem cells, [403–405]
Myoblast,
Mesenchymal fibroblast
Nerve Soy agar, Collagen, Fibrin Embryonic motor neuron cell, [406,407]
Hippocampal cell,
Cortical cell,
Neuronal precursor cell,
Neural stem cells
Skin Collagen Dermal fibroblast, [408]
Epidermal keratinocyte

attachments. Unit cell type is also a key aspect responsible for biological
and mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus, compressive/­
tensile strength, and yield strength [410]. Since biomedical scaffolds
will also undergo cyclic loads, AM fabricated implants’ fatigue behavior
gained particular importance over other static mechanical properties.
Type of unit cell and porosity may negatively influence the fatigue
properties; hence, the selection of AM technology and their controlling
parameters may effectively improve the fatigue properties of scaffolds
[410]. Also, adding multiple materials for biomedical applications
makes AM techniques as promising for biomedical applications. There
are also issues associated with topology optimization while designing
scaffolds are physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of printed
parts through AM. The material properties may lead to deviation in the
final shape of parts printed than designed in the CAD model. A good
understanding of these parameters may help in precise and optimal to­
pology design and optimization.
Ti alloys and Ti matrix composites are preferably used for biomedical
implants due to their superior properties [411]. The basic biomedical

29
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 33. Image of AM fabricated bone scaffolds. (a) Sheep cervical spine made of Ti6Al4V, (b) NiTi scaffold for pseudo elastic applications, (c) expanded stent made
of Mg, (d), (e) & (f) plain, homogeneous & thick CaP coated Ti scaffold, (g), (h) & (i) as printed, after HCl etched & enlarged view of Ti6Al4V scaffold (courtesy of
Wang et al. [419].
applications of Ti alloys are illustrated in Fig. 31. Hao et al. [412] have
reviewed the biomedical applications of additively manufactured β-type
Ti alloys. Pure Ti and quite a few alloys have been generally used for
medical implants in which α+β type Ti–6Al–4V alloy is most frequently
used [413]. The vanadium (V) present in the Ti–6Al–4V alloy is recently
argued to be toxic and reported to induce long-term health issues like
Alzheimer’s ailment and neuropathy [414]. Due to too much Young’s
modulus, ~110 GPa of α+β type alloys comparing to adjacent bones
(~30 GPa) leads to “stress-shielding” issues, high strength low modulus
β-type Ti alloys have been developed [415]. There are two stages by
which β phase alloys have been developed. During the first stage, Ti
alloys with reduced modulus have been developed, such as
Ti–35Nb–5Ta–7Zr and Ti–29Nb–13Ta–4.6Zr, but invariably, the
strength also found to be reduced. At the second stage, attempts were
made to keep the modulus low and increase the mechanical strength.
Ti–24Nb–4Zr–8Sn, abbreviated as Ti2448, was developed and found to
be satisfying the requirements, and clinical experiments were shown the
formation of new bone in rabbit comparing to Ti–6Al–4V [416]. Apart
from Ti-based alloys, stainless steel [417] and cobalt-chromium alloys
[418] are also used for biomedical implants. Additionally, SMAs, due to
their external environments induced deformation property, has found its
position in orthopedic implants’ applications such as NiTi, NiTiCu, and
NiTiNb.
4. Additive manufacturing in the fabrication of thin-walled
structures
In addition to the wide discussion on AM’s methods and materials,
this paper also presents its perspectives on the fabrication of thin-walled
structures using AM techniques from the literature. AM processes are
30
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
advantageous in fabricating hollow and thin-walled structures due to its
capability to build very complex structures with comparable mechanical
properties to that of the feedstock and lowest material losses. The
propagation in materials research primarily intended to reach superior
mechanical properties to facilitate advanced applications such as aero­
space, automobiles, bio-medical, electrical, etc. Structures of such ap­
plications are mostly thin-walled and hollow shaped. Therefore, they
prone to lose stability over time. Stability constraints are the major
driving factors for some applications such as fuselage, rocket structures,
etc. Therefore it is vital to examine the mechanical properties, status of
materials, design considerations, challenges, and limitations while
fabricating thin-walled structures using AM techniques. While parts
manufactured for biomedical applications like scaffolds and engineered
tissues using AM also good examples for this category, they have been
discussed in the previous section. Table 6 summarizes the different types
of AM techniques used to fabricate thin-walled parts using different
material categories such as metals and alloys, polymers, and ceramics.
AM of metallic components involves higher energy rates due to
higher melting temperatures of metals, alloys, and their composites.
DED techniques are capable of fabricating metallic components in the
layer by layer fashion. There are generally two categories of metallic
feedstock used in AM of metallic parts, such as powders and wires [424].
Although many applications related to AM fabrication of thin-walled
structures use powder-based fusion techniques, wire feedstock-based
methods hold many advantages. Metallic wires are more comfortable
to manufacture compared to metal powders and are commonly avail­
able. The AM techniques based on energy sources such as electric arc,
laser, plasma, and electron beam can effectively use wire feedstock.
Laser and electron beam-based techniques contribute to precise fabri­
cation compared to others. Powder-based methods require to fill most
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 6
Summary of AM techniques in the fabrication of thin-walled structures.
Material Work Material AM technique Work Structure/shape Advantages Challenges/Limitations References
type

Metals/ Monel alloys, nickel SLA combined with Truss core sandwich Minimal material usage, cost- Non-uniform phase change [420]
alloys super alloys, and electroplating structures, Rocket engine efficient leads to internal stress.
refractory rhenium chambers, and nozzles
alloys
Ti–6Al–4V Laser PBF Thin wall Great deformation control can be Buckling deformation due to [421]
obtained by compensation design residual stress.
Inconel 718 Thin-wall and support Good accuracy, increased volume Rotational laser scanning [422]
structures density process efficiency, good strategies, scanning velocity
mechanical properties
Ti–6Al–4V EBM Thin-walled parts Optimization of mechanical Lack of fusion between layers [423]
properties of build part, improved
surface quality
austenitic SS, AISI 301 laser metal wire Thin wall Effective material usage, capability Irregular depositions [424]
deposition to fabricate smallest parts with
(μLMWD) accuracy
Steel WAAM Thin-walled parts Material efficiency, improved part Step-over distance, lower [425]
quality, gap-free cross-sections build rates
H08MN2SI steel Circular thin-walled parts Easy to study complex thermo- Large fluctuations of residual [426]
mechanical mechanisms stresses
Ti–6Al–4V wire feed electron Thin wall Good microstructures Controlling beam power and [427]
beam AM velocity
Polymers PLA FDM Thin-walled covers for Good vibration damping ability Damping effectiveness of non- [428]
steel frames thin-walled structures
3D surface High mechanical performance of Path generation [429]
non-planar composite structures
ABS, PLA Extrusion based AM Shell parts Accuracy, build time, effective Generation of algorithms for [430]
material usage asymmetric shell structures
PLA Micro extrusion 3D Microfilms Improved mechanical isotropy of Real-time control of [431]
Printing printed films, high resolutions solidification and evaporation
process
Ceramics Al2O3, ZrO2 Laser-wise slurry Thin wall cups, sanitary Improved microstructures, green Control of local sintering [326]
deposition seat density, process, uniform energy
absorption during sintering
Al2O3 SLA Lattice structures Highly advantageous than Refractive index of ceramics [432]
conventional methods causes scattering
Al2O3, ZrO2, TiC Laser deposition Wall, hollow cylinder higher fabrication efficiency, lower poor bonding, lowered [307]
reinforced composites AM labor intensity, remanufacturing toughness, cracking
capability
SiSiC Laser-wise slurry Thin turbine rotor parts Good packing density, particle poor reproducibility [433]
deposition orientation, improved mechanical
properties

volume of parts, and unused powders should be recycled [434]. This
necessitates the use of powders for building solid large volume parts to
avoid material loss. Although most of the unused powders can be
recycled, powder recovery and recycling are still the issues to be
addressed for reactive materials such as Al and Ti [425]. The magnitudes
of these issues are high when parts with thin structures are fabricated.
But wire feedstock-based AM techniques are advantageous in terms of
material savings, accuracy, and flexibility in manipulation for fabri­
cating thin-walled structures. Both cases of metallic feedstock types in
DED AM techniques draw some challenges while manufacturing
thin-walled and hollow structures such as thermal stresses and associ­
ated deformation issues [420,421], irregular depositions [424], and
controlling the energy and velocity of printing [427]. Deformation of
thin-walled parts due to different cooling rates after higher temperature
depositions affect geometrical stability and dimensional accuracy.
Reduced part thickness increases the effect of thermal accumulation due
to shorter scanning paths and lower thermal conductivity. Therefore it is
necessary to control the cooling rate after deposition. Compensation
design is another option to minimize the deformation [421].
Fabricating polymeric materials for hollow shaped and thin-walled
structures are majorly performed by extrusion and photo­
polymerization based AM techniques. When parts with overhanging
features are printed, support structures are provided to avoid sagging
due to gravity [435]. Building a thin-walled part with the help of support
structures in extrusion-based AM processes consumes more build time.
The finished part’s surface quality adhered to support structures is
reported to be low in previous literature. This requires additional sup­
port materials and post-processing steps. However, these limitations
attribute to increased fabrication costs. There are also strategies re­
ported in the previous literature to avoid support materials for over­
hanging thin parts such as having a multi-directional setup, specific path
patterns exhibited by custom-extrusion tool, and varying build direction
constantly during fabrication [430]. Real-time control over the solidi­
fication of polymer melts and evaporation due to higher energy are
important challenges related to the AM fabrication of thin-walled
structures. Controlling the energy deposition in light and laser-based
AM techniques for polymeric materials is necessary to obtain required
part geometries without defects. Peng et al. [436] have used a mist spray
set up to accelerate the solidification rate to avoid deformation due to
gravity. However, most authors have acknowledged the desired me­
chanical properties of AM fabricated thin-walled parts.
Ceramic parts in the thin-walled category are generally fabricated
using laser-based deposition and photopolymerization. Photo­
polymerization is not new to ceramic processing, but thin-walled
structures and microfabrication of ceramic parts are the current in­
terests of researchers. After photocuring of ceramics mixed slurry
deposited into desired tracks of multiple layers, heat treatment is
necessary to ensure the stability, mechanical properties, surface finish,
and other required characteristics. Lateral overlapping/line width
compensation is given to compensate the layer thickness and get a
uniform connection between subsequent layers. On the other hand,
multiple challenges related to SLA, such as ladder effects caused by

31
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
surface roughness, limits its use in extended applications like thin-
walled and small-sized round features [33]. Laser-based AM has been
an emerged technology for processing ceramics in recent years. These
technologies are advantageous in terms of quick fabrication at low cost.
Due to higher processing temperatures, relative density, micro-cracks,
microstructural characteristics, and color changes are the real chal­
lenges researchers confront while fabricating thin walls [437]. However,
controlling laser power can effectively eliminate micro-cracks in the
fabrication of thin-walled structures. Similarly, optimization of other
parameters can significantly improve the surface quality. But resulting
mechanical properties of a laser built thin walls are very similar to the
parts made by conventional manufacturing processes [438]. Restoration
of color to that of feedstock can be obtained by further heat treatments
like sintering [437].
5. Challenges and limitations in AM
Despite wide applications that motivate the development of AM
techniques, there are still challenges and limitations such as materials,
imperfections, cost, productivity, and knowledge on AM process systems
[439] that need to be addressed by further research works as delineated
follow:
• Many applications like prosthesis, tooling, and other functional ap­
plications are made to realize RPT’s transformation into rapid
manufacturing and rapid tooling [35]. Though there are many reli­
able techniques like LBM that have proven to overcome the disputes,
the real challenges are tethered with various materials, processes,
and system technologies to fetch productivity with precision from
the AM processes [440].
• There is a wide range of materials starting from polymers, metallic
and non-metallic materials discussed in this paper. Still, in­
vestigations on commercial usage of AM printed thermosetting
polymers are rarely found in the literature [24]. Low-cost AM ma­
chines are readily available in the market. They are used for various
purposes, such as tooling, research, educational, functional appli­
cations, etc. Increasing usage of AM techniques amplifies high plastic
consumption. Since thermoplastics yield excellent reusability, more
recycling techniques and initiatives must be brought to reduce
environmental burden [341].
• Due to a lack of test standards for AM processed objects, the difficulty
being experienced by researchers and manufacturers is comparing
parts printed by different AM techniques [341]. Presently, quite a
few basic AM standards are available such as ISO 17296, ASTM
F2792, ISO/ASTM 52915–13, and ISO/ASTM 52921–13. Standards
in the future could be developed for design, selection of materials,
processing conditions, and experimental methods for AM printed
parts of various applications [441].
• The challenge associated with scaling up of parts is the printing
speed and resolution. FFF suffers a lack of printing speed that limits
its application to fabricate large parts. But big area AM technique
suffers finishing of components due to low resolution though it
possesses high deposition rates (50 kg/h) [341]. Hence maintaining
the balance between scale-up and printing speeds is highly chal­
lenging in AM techniques.
• Simulation-based modeling to predict the performance of AM parts
needs highly reliable methods. Oversimplification in the simulation
may lightly consider processing parameters that affect interlayer
bonding and porosity of AM parts. Hence optimization of parameters
for different structural and load-bearing applications is required.
Presently, computer-aided design (CAD) packages are used for
modeling the parts for AM techniques, which are mostly regular
shapes for conventional fabrication. But very complex structures like
porous and anfractuous for cellular and yarn intertwines, more de­
velopments to be made in CAD packages [25]. Also, presently no
single package is commercially available for simulation-based
32
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
modeling to iteratively (repeating simulations) predict the required
characteristics like strength, accuracy, surface finish, and direct
production [35].
• AM processes are economical due to eliminated tooling costs
compared with conventional manufacturing methods. However,
precise manufacturing of feedstock materials such as the constant
diameter of filaments, uniform diameter of powder, and reinforce­
ment particles is quite expensive. Similarly, bringing high resolution
in injection-based AM processes consumes more processing time, and
it accounts for time and energy cost.
• Another critical challenge in printing multi-directional preforms (i.
e., reinforced composites) through extrusion-based techniques is
nozzle clogging due to filler materials (fibers, particulates, and nano-
particles) and orientation. Hence knowledge of rheological proper­
ties and uniform distribution of reinforcements is necessary to avoid
defects such as voids and reinforcement accumulation. Also, the
multi-directional distribution of fillers in composites is difficult.
• On the processing of BMGs, a significant challenge is a need for
extremely fast cooling, which is necessary to ensure a completely
amorphous structure. Also, the high purity of feedstock material and
complicated equipment limits the use of BMGs on AM processes.
• While fabricating thin-walled and hollow structures, controlling the
deformation due to thermal stresses and sagging are the real chal­
lenges to be addressed. Bringing good microstructural characteristics
in printed parts mainly depends on controlling the process parame­
ters such as laser beam energy, scanning velocity, scanning path
strategy, and cooling rates. Low surface quality limits powder-based
AM techniques on the fabrication of thin-walled structures [33].
Apart from these challenges and limitations, some common problems
confronted by AM technologies are portrayed by Ngo et al. [4]. For­
mation of voids is a common problem that leads to reduced interfacial
bonding between adjacent layers, resulting in the delamination of layers
after printing. There is a definite difference between the material inside
and at the layer boundary, which results in anisotropic microstructure
formation. These two problems are the major causes of inferior me­
chanical strength along the vertical tension compared with other
directional loads. When modeled part geometry from CAD software is
tessellated and communicated to a 3D printer, an intricacy encountered
by fabrication is the printing of fine features at curved boundaries. This
required fine addition of feedstock at slower speeds hence consumes
more time for fabrication. Otherwise, it needs post-processing.
Also, the layer-by-layer appearance due to the nature of printing
technology is another issue. Layered appearance may not be important
for small functional elements and wherever hidden in real-time appli­
cations. But it is a significant concern for large-scale applications like
concrete walls and structures in civil constructions, as shown in Fig. 34.
Therefore post finishing on the surfaces exposed outside is essential
mainly when constructed using filament-based AM technique.
6. Conclusions
The advantages of AM techniques such as freeform manufacturing
capability, material savings, mass customization, and economical pro­
totyping capabilities attributes to the increasing use of AM techniques in
aerospace, automobile, biomedical, and other engineering industries.
This can show the potentially elevated AM equipment sales in the
markets and likely to grow more in the future. More technological de­
velopments need more knowledge about them in the minds of the
technologically equipped workforce and researchers. The synergic fac­
tors for the knowledge base on AM are a deeper understanding of the AM
processes, advancements, processability of materials, and issues/defects
related to process parameters, metallurgy, thermal and mechanical
characteristics. This paper presented a critical review of the AM pro­
cesses, characteristics, and operations, insights into the application
materials, and challenges to address these requirements.
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
Fig. 34. Concrete printing (courtesy of Asprone et al. [442]).
Every AM technique has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of
equipment cost, operating cost, material cost, process complexity,
operating parameters, feedstock preparation, part strength, after print­
ing properties, size of parts printed, printing speed, and post-processing
treatments. A review of existing studies has revealed the actual re­
quirements for AM processes and its developments towards advancing
the applications. Among all the requirements, product quality is given
the highest priority. Mechanical, metallurgical, thermomechanical,
electrical properties and defect preventions are considered to be the
significant attributes to the quality of printed parts. The quality aspects
may vary with the feedstock properties, controlling parameters of
fabrication techniques. This requires a greater understanding of mate­
rials’ behavior for varying process parameters, which could be compli­
cated but essential. Good knowledge of the AM processes and its
controlling parameters may help evade the common defects and achieve
superior properties and tailored microstructures.
FDM process is the most commonly used AM technique due to its
simplicity in construction, low operating cost, and higher printing
speeds. Though FDM is majorly used for printing polymeric materials, it
provides a possibility of combining different materials in the form of
reinforcements and dispersed particles to create composite materials. A
literature study revealed that the mechanical strength of FDM printed
parts are comparatively weaker than powder-based AM techniques.
Similarly, though LOM offers a greater possibility of integrating
different materials, studies do not advise it for producing intricate
shapes due to its poor accuracy, finishing, and time-consuming post-
processing steps. SLA is another technique to fabricate photosensitive
polymer and composite objects of complex shapes with higher resolu­
tion. The use of a limited range of work materials hinders SLA’s exten­
sive use for high strength mechanical applications. Laser-based AM
techniques such as SLS and SLM involve higher heating levels, leading to
stronger bonding between metal powders. Focusing a laser beam can be
done precisely; therefore, complex metallic parts with higher mechani­
cal strength can be easily achieved. Unlike SLS and SLM processes, DED
processes such as LENS, LDMD, SEBM, LIFT, LSF, and WAAD involves
focusing of laser or electron beam to produce much higher temperature
to melt the metal powder before being deposited. Hence the fashion of
deposition would be similar to that of FDM but leads to elevated me­
chanical strength characteristics. The limitations of DED processes
include poor surface quality and limited capability of producing very
complex shapes. Still, higher mechanical characteristics enable DED
printed parts to be used in critical aerospace and automobile applica­
tions. AM techniques have been evolved and capable of printing parts
33
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
from micro to macro sizes with higher accuracy and improved me­
chanical characteristics. Such techniques are PμSLA, TPP, EHDP for
micro-objects, and contour crafting for building massive constructions
in civil applications.
Efforts are being taken around the world to introduce quality prod­
ucts with better physical and functional performance. Developing better
materials and metallurgical knowledge is the base for quality products
and their sustainability in research. This paper covered the insights of
mechanical and microstructural characteristics of 3D printed metallic
materials and composites such as steels, Al and Mg alloys, Ti and its
alloys, Ni/Co-based alloys, high-entropy alloys, magnetic alloys, BMGs,
and metal matrix composites. The main challenges observed from the
literature concerning metallic materials are difficulty in bringing
required microstructural characteristics that directly influence the me­
chanical and other properties. Metal matrix composites are the best al­
ternatives for conventional materials to improve strength related aspects
of 3D printed parts. The other segment in AM is polymers and polymer
composites. Resins and powders are commonly used in polymer-based
AM processes such as FDM, SLA, SLS, FDM, and polyjet printing.
Frequently used polymers in AM are ABS, PLA, and polyamides and
thermosetting polymers. Due to less strength characteristics, polymer-
based 3D printed parts are limited to low load-bearing applications,
but polymer-based composite preparation is still an attractive topic for
researchers. 3D printing processes are highly advantageous while pro­
cessing ceramic-based materials since it is challenging to fabricate
highly complex ceramic parts through conventional manufacturing.
Laser-based AM processes are commonly used for processing ceramic
and its composites. The biomaterial is the critical material segment used
for different medical applications such as implants and biocompatible
polymers to replace tissues. On the other hand, 3D printing of biocom­
patible materials is limited due to less number of available materials. In
fabricating thin-walled structures and scaffolds, there are specific design
and manufacturing considerations to be accounted. Such considerations
include the use of support structures, printing speed, control over the
energy, scanning strategy, cooling rates, and compensation design.
There are also challenges associated with AM processes, which need
to be addressed in future research works. The evolution of standards for
design, material selection, fabrication, and testing should be promoted
for different applications. Printing speed is one of the major challenges
faced by most AM techniques due to layer by layer addition of materials.
Especially when scaling up the part sizes, lower printing speeds highly
influences the development time for new applications. Lack of
simulation-based printing techniques hampers the accurate prediction
of desirable properties of printed parts. Though 3D printing of parts is
economical compared to conventional manufacturing processes, prep­
aration of feedstock attributes to high processing time, cost, and energy.
There is also a difficulty persist with improving the rheological prop­
erties and orientation of preforms in composite printing. Inaccuracy
while converting 3D CAD model into tessellated data, layer-by-layer
appearance and Z directional strength are other common drawbacks
stated in the literature. Additionally, to preserve the environment from
the high consumption of plastics, reuse techniques could be promoted
and integrated with additive manufacturing. Apart from the shortcom­
ings, AM technologies’ advancements are amazingly gaining attention
among the researchers due to more research funding and the evolution
from prototyping to production.
This review article infers that significant attempts are being made
during the evolution of AM techniques to provide better scientific
knowledge on the AM processes, properties of build part, and their
structures. Acquiring knowledge about the criticality in producing
defect-free and quality products at a minimized cost within a very short
period remains an important objective while AM is still intricate.
Therefore continued research and development in AM processes is
necessary over a few decades to reach this milestone.
M. Bhuvanesh Kumar and P. Sathiya
7. Future research directions
Since many issues yet to be focused by the research community in
terms of materials, printing quality, mechanical properties, and pro­
cessing complexities as discussed in this paper, some of the directions for
future investigations are outlined as follow:
• More number of additively manufactured novel polymer composites
need to be explored in the context of discovering new and MMs for
lightweight, high strength applications.
• Future research works could focus much on process modifications to
increase the Z directional strength of AM parts by reducing
anisotropy.
• Research works related to the implementation of multi-nozzle print
heads to inject matrix material and reinforcement materials
concurrently during printing may address the filler distribution,
nozzle clogging, and other challenges associated with fabricating
composite parts. This can also be useful while using thermoset
feedstock.
• Combinatorial AM fabrication processes to be further developed to
commercialize the BMG products. Studies related to high-
temperature stability, plasticity, scaling up of part sizes, porosity,
multi-functional coatings, and MEMS & NEMS can be invited for
future research works for various biomedical applications such as
drug delivery systems, bone implants, antirestenotic drugs for stents,
etc. [443].
• Combining processes like laser-based AM for fine texture and WAAM
for high deposition rate could be the future research aspect for
increasing productivity with accuracy. The combinations of methods
include laser AM integrated with the re-melting process [444] and
AM integrated with subtractive machining processes. And the whole
scaffold may be automated to address material handling, precision,
data exchange, product quality and consistency, operator safety,
health, and other system technology-related issues [35]. Research
works can also focus on the engineering characterization of AM
coatings applied for repairing defective parts [445]. Further, opti­
mization of parameters, energy consumption, material removal rate,
and surface integrity can be studied.
• Printing multi-functional application-oriented structures add
another dimension of future works related to the development of
gradient materials. Printing multiple materials with different prop­
erties for different functionalities is yet to be part of the research that
will significantly grow. The best example would be developing
functional fuel cells using a single printing process [293].
Inter-metallic phases formed due to rapid cooling and other intricate
re-melting steps create non-equilibrium effects. These phases are
sometimes detrimental. Hence, modeling non-equilibrium thermo­
dynamics should be enabled in future research to address the
pervasive usage of gradient materials [446,447].
• To meet advanced applications’ requirements, the AM produced
parts are expected to be superior in quality (eliminated internal
stresses), surface finish, intricate and thin-walled structures.
Increasing knowledge levels of researchers can be utilized to carry
out more in-depth research on post-processing techniques such as
heat treatment and surface finish. The focus of future research could
also include the careful removal of supporting materials.
Permissions & conflict of interest
The authors affirm that permission has been obtained for all the
copyrighted materials, such as figures and tables used in this paper. Also,
the authors declare that there is no potential conflict of interest associ­
ated with the contents presented in this paper.
34
Thin-Walled Structures xxx (xxxx) xxx
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the support rendered by the Na­
tional Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, India –
620015.
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