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Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498

25th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference, 30 April – 2 May 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark

An Integrated Rural Development Model based on Comprehensive Life-

Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Khadi-Handloom Industry in Rural India.
Kriti Bhallaa, Tarun Kumarb*, Jananee Rangaswamya
a
Ramaiah Institute of Technology, M S Ramaiah Nagar, Bangalore 560054, India
b
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-9483742547; E-mail address: tarunator1@gmail.com

Abstract

Khadi is an indigenous handloom industry of India which has an imperative legacy attached with the Indian Freedom Movement. Khadi means
any fabric which is hand-woven using a spinning wheel called ‘Charkha’. In the pre-industrialized era, Khadi was one of the most prominent
indigenous fabrics, which promoted self-reliance and self-sufficiency in the rural areas. But post-independent India experienced a sudden upsurge
in technology-intensive, urban textile mills. This paper studies the Life-Cycle stages of production of Khadi-handloom fabrics, through a
comprehensive life-cycle assessment (LCA) performed using GaBi software; to assess its energy consumption and environmental impacts. It was
observed that production of Khadi-handloom fabric is environmentally sustainable and socially more inclusive as compared to mass-produced
textiles. Furthermore, socio-economic and cultural dimensions were added as an extension to LCA to formulate an integrated Khadi-based rural
development model. The proposed model provides an alternative paradigm for local community-based sustainable rural development.
© 201
© 2017TheThe Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier B.V.
B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 25th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 25th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference

Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment; Khadi-handloom; Sustainable and Inclusive Rural Development; Indigenous manufacturing.

1. Introduction solving the problem of unemployment of an overpopulated

country, is empowering its poor masses.
Ashby in his book ‘An Introduction to Cybernetics’
comprehensively discussed the complexity of solutions in
solving complex problems[1]. India, being a developing
country, faces complex socio-economic and cultural
sustainability issues; which requires comprehensive solutions.
Indian manufacturing sector currently contributes 17 percent to
Gross Domestic Product(GDP) as per the latest Indian
economic survey[2]. Despite significantly huge demographic
dividend, India still suffers from mass unemployment, poverty,
and rural-urban migration. Therefore, such burgeoning set of
social problems craves for a complex framework of
Fig. 1. Mass-production versus Production by masses in Textile production.
solutions[1,3,4].
Mahatma Gandhi, all through his life and works, supported The idea of production by masses, in a decentralised setup,
the idea of using human energy as current energy in forms the counter-argument to large-scale mass-production in
manufacturing; instead of fossil fuel as the reservoir sources of the industrialised world (Fig.1). Localisation of production and
energy in its operation[5]. One of the plausible solutions, in inclusive manufacturing provides an alternative sustainable

2212-8271 © 201 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 25th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2017.11.072
494 Kriti Bhalla et al. / Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498

pathway to the globalised capital-intensive economy. 1.3. Sectors of Indian Textile Industry- Structural
Capability Approach Theory by Amartya Sen describes human Classification
capabilities and its freedom of opportunities as value-creating
activities; thus reinforcing holistic human development and The different methods of production, distribution, and
creating a conducive environment for inclusive growth[6,7]. consumption play a crucial role in defining these sectors of
textile industry. The decentralised sector is a diffused system
1.1. Sustainability in Textiles of production and distribution, in contrast to the centralised
sector having a centrally organised manufacturing (Fig.3.).
Clothing is one of the most fundamental human needs. In
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, clothing is placed at the base of
the pyramid, which is physiological in nature[8]. The primary
need of clothing is to provide protection to the human body.
Furthermore, Kate Fletcher argues that clothing can be
categorized (as shown in Fig.2.) as a physiological material
need (e.g. subsistence and protection) or a psychological non-
material need(e.g. Fashion)[9].
Fibres, the basic units of clothing, can either be natural (e.g.
Cotton, wool, Silk) or synthetic (Polyester, Nylon, Viscose
Rayon). The share of various fibres in the global fibre market
Fig. 3. Subjective Classification of Indian Textile Industry.
is: Synthetic Fibres- 62.7%; Cotton- 24.3%; Wood-based
Cellulose fibres-6.6%; Other Natural fibres- 5.3%; Wool- J.C. Kumarappa in ‘Gandhian Economic Thought’ has shed
1%[10,11]. Natural Fibres can be further subdivided as a) Plant some light on the value of protecting small-scale village
originated (e.g. Cotton, Flex, Jute, hemp, linen); and b) Animal industries. Khadi-handloom industry is an appropriate
originated (Wool, Cashmere, Silk, Angora, Mohair)[10]. example, which is based on the traditional ways of production,
The term Sustainability and Sustainable Development distribution, and consumption[15]. Furthermore, he also claims
forms the basis for many studies which assess the that such industries are democratic in nature and are
environmental impacts[12]. However, to evaluate employment-harvesting for the rural population. One of the
sustainability in absolute manner is still a challenge. Life-Cycle most significant characteristics of Khadi-handloom industry is
Assessment (LCA) is a method to quantify sustainability along the participation of rural females in weaving and allied works
the life-cycle of a product, process and services using as shown in Fig.3[16].
sustainability indicators. Sustainability indicators helps in
assessing the relative impacts, which can be environmental,
social or economic in dimensions.

Fig. 2. Material and Non-material needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

1.2. Khadi- The Indigenous fabric of India

Khadi, also known as khaddar, is an indigenous fabric of
India, which has an imperative legacy attached to it[13]. It
played a significant role in the philosophy of self-reliance and
self-sufficiency; during the period when India was struggling
to attain freedom from British colonial rule. Thus, making a
remarkable contribution to ‘Swadeshi Movement’[14]. Khadi
means any fabric which is made from organically cultivated
natural fibres (e.g. Cotton, Silk, Jute). The prerequisite of
Khadi-fabric production-process is hand spinning (using
charkha: a simple machine to spin yarn from fibre) and hand
weaving. Hence, it relies mostly on human labour, thus making
it an eco-friendly fabric[15]. In the pre-industrialized era,
Khadi textile production promoted the decentralised village-
based economy. But, post-independent India, experienced a
sudden upsurge in technology-intensive urban textile mills.
Fig. 4. Graph showing distribution of handloom workers[16]
2. Materials and Methods
A field study was conducted in Malamachanahalli rural
area, which lies 60 kilometers away from Bangalore city in the
southern part of India. Two small-scale Khadi-handloom
production centers were visited to collect data. Interviews were
organized of the master craftsmen, weavers, labourers and
farmers to obtain information about their working conditions;
and to explore socio-economic aspects of such village
industries. These socio-economic factors were carefully
examined and evaluated against the Handloom Census (2009-
2010) of India[16].
Furthermore, a preliminary investigation was performed to
analyze the life cycle engineering stages of production and
manufacturing of Khadi-handloom fabrics employing systems-
 Kriti Bhalla et al. / Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498 495

thinking approach. The inflow and outflow variables of each

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production stage were studied. Furthermore, they were EZ'zDEtKsE&Z//E
streamlined into environmental, socio-economic and cultural D:ͬ<'
themes as shown in Fig.5. In order to interpret the dynamics of DŝůůǁŽǀĞŶŽƚƚŽŶ <ŚĂĚŝŚĂŶĚtŽǀĞŶŽƚƚŽŶ

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system behaviour, the interconnections between life-cycle

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processes were considered. The environmental impacts and

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energy consumption were calculated using GaBi educational

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software in accordance to ISO 14044. Life cycle impact

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assessment calculation method used in this study is CML 2001.

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The system boundary considers cotton cultivation, fibre
production, fabric production, garment processing,
transportation, use phase and disposal (Fig.7). Secondary
processes such as manufacturing of farm equipments,
fertilizers, pesticides, production machinery and transport
vehicles were not taken into consideration because they
contributed less than one percent of relative impacts. Human
labour was difficult to quantify in the simulation model, hence
Fig. 6. Energy Demand of Woven Fabric in MJ/Kg (GaBi Model).
qualitative analysis of the same has been done. The functional
unit was taken as the production of one kilogram of hand- Table 1. Socio-economic and cultural Impact assessment of Khadi Fabric
woven cotton-Khadi fabric. Inventory Analysis: Primary data Production Life-cycle Stages[16]
(collected by the authors), Ecoinvent 3.0 and GaBi educational
Socio- Fiber Yarn Weaving Post
databases served as the data source. In the end, a reference economic and Production Manufacturing (Hand- Loom
model was proposed as an integrated rural development plan cultural (Natural (Hand-spun) woven) Processes
having Khadi-handloom production as its nucleus. indicators Fiber)
Forced Labour Less Nil Nil Nil
Child Labour Less Less Less Less
Adequate Less Medium Medium Medium
Salary
Working Time Medium Medium Medium Medium
Health and Large Large Large Medium
Safety
Skill Medium Large Large Medium
Development
Gender Equity Less Large Large Medium
Literacy Less Medium Medium Medium
Discrimination Less Less Less Less
Fig. 5. Inflow and outflow variables of the production process stages. Female Work Less Large Large Large
Participation
Rate
3. Results and Interpretation
Intricacy of Less Large Large Medium
Work
The total energy demand for cotton Khadi woven fabric was
97.6 MJ/kg as against 170.5 MJ/kg for mill woven cotton Labour Medium Large Large Large
Intensive
fabric. Fig. 7. Shows various LCA stages in cotton Khadi
production. For cotton Khadi production, the LCA stages with Machine Medium Less Less Less
Intensive
high energy demand were cotton cultivation (34.07 MJ/kg), use
phase (50.6 MJ/kg) and garment processing (10.94 MJ/kg). Capital Medium Less Less Less
Investment
Fig.6. shows the comparative energy demand for cotton Khadi
versus mill-woven Khadi. Cotton cultivation stage (9.435 Kg Efficiency of Medium Less Less Less
Production
CO2 – equiv.) was the largest contributor towards Global
Warming Potential (GWP); closely followed by use phase (3.9 Rate of Medium Medium Medium Medium
Migration
Kg CO2 – equiv.) and garment processing phase (0.84 Kg CO2
– equiv.) as shown in Fig. 8. Further, it was observed from Fig. Heritage Less Medium Medium Medium
Conservation
9 that use phase had the highest energy demand (50%) while
Degree of Relative Impact Factor (RIF) are as follows: Nil RIF; Less RIF; Medium
all other stages contributed remaining 50 percent. Human RIF and Large RIF
Toxicity Potential was found to be largest in use phase (1.346
kg- DCB equiv.) followed by cotton cultivation phase (0.401
kg- DCB equiv.) as shown in Fig. 10.
496 Kriti Bhalla et al. / Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498
Fig. 7. Life-Cycle Stages of Cotton Khadi Fabric Production.
Fig. 8. Energy Demand of Cotton Khadi production (MJ/kg) (GaBi model).
Fig. 9. Human Toxicity Potential (Kg-DCB equiv.) for Cotton Khadi
handloom production (GaBi model).
Fig. 10. Water Use across life-cycle stages for cotton Khadi (GaBi model).
Water usage was maximum in use phase of the garment
(3370 Litres per Kg of fabric); while cotton cultivation used
750 Litres per kg of fabric. Hence, use phase (40 washes over
life-cycle) has highest contributions in almost all
environmental and energy impacts categories. This can be
explained partly due to large quantity of water and detergent
used; drying and ironing loads; and high maintenance energy
in use-phase. Moreover, the cotton cultivation stage
contributed highly in environmental impacts due to poor
agricultural practices, inefficient irrigation and lack of
technological advancements. Additionally, a comparative
analysis of embodied energy in different types of fibres, man-
made and synthetic, was done. It was revealed that cotton
Khadi fabric has comparatively lower embodied energy as
shown in Table 2. Hand-spinning and hand-weaving were
comparatively cleaner stages due to manual operation, which
also made it slow and inefficient.
 Kriti Bhalla et al. / Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498 497

In addition to this, while analysing the socio-economic

impacts (as shown in Table.1.), it was found that female
workforce participation-rate was higher in rural areas. This
could be accredited to the fact that local and federal governing
bodies (promoting small-scale village industries) focuses on
women empowerment and employment generation to the
female population. Moreover, the working environment and
health conditions were adequately better because of lower
population density and lesser pollution as compared to the
urban areas. While majority of the production processes of such
industries were quite labour-intensive and inefficient; it
required intricate skills to weave the fabric. Upon meticulous
analysis of Handloom Census (2009-2010) and the primary
case studies, it was found that child labour and forced labour
showed a declining trend and was quite low at present. This
should be seen in the light of various child protection schemes;
Fig. 11. Global Warming Potential according to GHG (Kg CO2 – Equiv.) laws prohibiting child labour and Right to Education Act
(RTE); Mid-day Meal scheme and Save the Girl Child-Educate
Table 2. Comparison of Embodied energy in different types of fibres as the Girl Child scheme. Furthermore, as highlighted by the
adapted from[17] . (* as reported in the study) weavers and allied workers in the interviews conducted, the
Types of Fibres Energy per Energy per Total Energy remuneration and work timings were better than their urban
kg Fibre kg Fabric (life-cycle) counterparts pertaining to low-cost of living, lesser distance of
(MJ/Kg) (MJ/Kg) (MJ/Kg) travel and robust Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
Cotton Khadi* 34.5 63.1 97.6 framework. Nonetheless, prevalent corruption, slow decision-
making, and lack of vision has marred the potential of such
Cotton Mill Woven* 44 126 170
industries.
Cotton Conventional 55 92 147
Flax 10 92 102 4. Model for Khadi-based Integrated Rural Development
Wool 63 92 155
Viscose 100 92 192 It was inferred from our study, that Khadi textile
Polypropylene 115 92 207 manufacturing is not an isolated event but a highly
interconnected process spanning across social, cultural,
Polyester 125 92 217
environmental and economical spheres of a rural landscape.
Acrylic 175 92 267
These interdependencies and hidden feedback loops would
Nylon 250 92 342 help us understand the sustainability of such local systems.

Fig. 12. Proposed Model for Khadi-based Integrated Rural Development

498 Kriti Bhalla et al. / Procedia CIRP 69 (2018) 493 – 498
Hence, a model for integrated rural development was
formulated which identifies and describes various sub-systems
required for a Khadi-based village ecosystem. The co-relations
and interdependencies of various elements and sub-systems are
also depicted as shown in Figure 12.
Fig. 13. Implementation framework for Integrated Khadi-based Sustainable
Rural Development Systems.
These sub-systems are a) Geographical features; b)
Governance profile; c) Demographic profile-handloom
workers; d) Rural occupation types; e) Economic resources; f)
Ecology and environment; and g) Socio-cultural aspects.
Furthermore, an implementation framework was worked
out employing the results from LCA study and socio-economic
relative impact assessment (as shown in Fig. 13). For instance,
geographical profile of a village is the deciding factor in
determining the village occupation types. While the
demographic distribution would be used as an asset for value
creation and sustained economic growth (as in case of India and
South-Asia in general). Consequently, decentralised local
governance system comprising of community-based
participatory approach and a democratic welfare state would
provide for a more inclusive development and equitable growth
at grass-roots level. As a result, improvement in the economic,
environmental and socio-cultural aspects would create a
sustainable village ecosystem at the local level. Science and
technology would play a key role via information and
communication technologies, financial solutions, robust data
infrastructure and advanced health-care monitoring systems.
Thus, making such systems viable and replicable over given
geographical regions. Such modules, when interconnected
would point to a differentiated yet sustainable global
development.
5. Conclusions and Discussions
To conclude, Khadi handloom fabric production is
environmentally more sustainable than most other fabrics,
natural and synthetic alike. Unfortunately, constant decline in
demand, dying popularity and rural-urban migration has hit
Khadi handloom industry adversely. In view of the low
embodied energy, low environmental impacts and high
employment creating potential; there is an urgent need for
Khadi-based integrated-rural development for a sustainable
future. The rural based Khadi industries provide better
opportunities for holistic human development; while the
technology-intensive textile mills are plagued by various
vectors such as: unhygienic living conditions, poor health and
safety measures, pollution (air and water) and glaring income
and gender inequalities. An attempt was made to propose a
model framework for the same as shown in Fig. 12. It shows an
alternative paradigm for local community-based decentralized-
economic system which would be socially and culturally
inclusive; and would provide a scalable implementation
module for sustainable rural development.
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