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1. Structure and composition of wheat

2. Factors affecting flour quality

3. Bleaching and maturing of flour

4. Rice: types and composition

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Cereal grains - grass family Gramineae or Poaceae

World major food crop

Most common; wheat, rice, corn, barley (85%)

millets, sorghum, oats and rye (15%)
Uses for flour, pasta, breakfast cereal, alcoholic beverage, sorghum
animal feed

rye

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• Structure: Individual kernels or grain called caryopses

Protective
outer
husk

Bran
Germ Caryopses
covering

Starchy
endosperm

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 • Protect grain from frost, wind, rain, extreme temp. and other potential damaging
environment
Husk/ • Not usually consumed
Chaff
• Processed into fibre supplement

• 14.5% by weight, excellent source of fibre and minerals

• Less fibrous coating, (aleurone layer)- contain protein, phosphorous, thiamin
and other vitamin B, some fat
Bran • Removed when process into white flour

• Comprise 83% of the grain, contain starch

• Whole grain, with added fibre-→ complex carbohydrate
• Basis of all flour (-husk, bran and germ), milled into fine powder
Endosperm
• ‘Whole grain’ flour (+ bran and germ) milled into flour

• 2.5% of grain weight

• Rich in fat, incomplete protein, vitamin and minerals
• Collected and sold separately as wheat germ (excellent source of vitamins B and E)
Germ/ • Susceptible to spoilage → should be refrigerated
embryo • Whole grain- shorter shelf life than white flour

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 CHO
(75%)

Ash (1- Protein

2%) (10%)
Wheat
grain

Fat (1- Moisture

2%) (10%)

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• Classified according to:
– Texture of endosperm ( related to the way grain
breakdown in milling)

– Protein content ( related to properties of flour and

its suitability for various purposes)

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A) Vitreous and Mealy wheat

• Vitreous wheat- kernel is translucent and bright against light

• Protein content higher than mealy wheat
• The grain is strong and hard
• Mealy wheat- kernel is opaque and dark against light
• Grain is soft and weak

B) Hard and Soft wheat- refer to milling characteristics

• Hard wheat - Fragmentation of endosperm occur along line of cell

boundaries
• Yield coarse, gritty flour, free-flowing and regular shaped particles
• Flour easily sifted due to degree of mechanical damage to starch
granules is greater
• High protein content (10-12%)
• Soft wheat-fragmentation fractures in random manner way
• Yield very fine flour, irregular shape particles
• Flour difficult to sift
• Lower protein content (8-9%)
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 Volscan

C) Strong and Weak wheat

• Strong wheat- produce bread of large loaf volume, good

crumb texture and good keeping properties
• Suitable for bread making and macaroni products
• High protein content
• Weak wheat- produce small loaf volume bread, coarse open
texture
• Suitable in cakes, biscuits etc.
• Protein content is low

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Wheat proteins
• Incomplete; low in essential amino acid (lysine)
• Adequate amount of methionine
• Often paired with legumes → achieve protein completion
• Principle protein of wheat flour is gluten
• Important property; form an elastic dough when moistened
and mechanically worked
• Gluten protein classified into 4 types

• In wheat;
• Storage protein of wheat endosperm
Prolamins → Gliadin
Glutelins→ Glutenin
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Gluten proteins

• Soluble in water / • Insoluble in pure

dilute in salt water
solutions • Soluble in dilute salt
• Coagulated by heat solutions, insoluble
in high salt solutions

Albumins Globulins

Prolamins Glutelins

• Soluble in aqueous
alcohol • Soluble in dilute
acids or bases,
detergents or
dissociating/
reducing agents

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Differences between Gliadin and Glutenin

GLIADIN (Prolamins) GLUTENIN (Glutelins)

• MW 3000-7000
• Alcohol soluble (60-70% ethanol)
• Rich in glutamine, proline but little
lysine
• Glutamine concentrated in certain
regions play important role in cross
linking molecule by formation of H
bonds
• Intramolecular disulphides linkages
• Exist as single peptide chain
• Soft and sticky- gives gluten its
viscosity and extensibility
• MW 15000- 3M
• Suspendable in ethanol
• Made up of subunit of varying
molecular weights, joined together
by disulphide bond
• Intra (within) and inter
(between)molecular disulphides
linkages
• Appear as large linear molecule
• More stable and tough-gives
elasticity

•Albumin and globulin

•Low MW (12,000)
• Contains glycoprotein, mucoprotein, lipoprotein and variety of enzymes
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Gluten
• Produced from gliadin and glutelin in wheat flour by the
process of hydration and mixing

• Control the rheological or flow properties of dough

• On hydration, gluten form a viscoelastic 3 dimensional

network, embedded the starch granules

• This network capable of retaining tiny cells of occluded gas,

primarily air (during mixing ) and CO2 generated by yeast cells

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• Glycolipids bound to gluten proteins;
– Glutenin by hydrophobic bond
– Gliadin by hydrogen bond

• Bind to starch in complex dough system

• Glycolipids essential for functioning of gluten in producing a loaf

of bread of good quality

• Lubricating action on the gluten matrix by lowering the resistance

of the dough to diffusion and expansion of leavening gas

• Resulting in increased volume and improved grain

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Purposes:
• Improve commercial production and quality of
the final baked product
• Achieve optimal baking qualities → addition of
maturing agent
• Yield white flour

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• Natural flour contain about 95% xanthophylls or its
ester, giving the flour a creamy to yellowish
appearance.
• Bleached flour- subjected to flour bleaching agents in
order to whiten it.
• Similar effect by letting flour oxidize slowly with O2
in air during storage (natural aging).
• Most common bleaching agent;
– Organic peroxides (acetone peroxide/ benzoyl peroxide,
nitrogen dioxide / chlorine

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• Bread making quality of freshly milled flour improves during 1-2
months storage

• Improvement due to maturation or aging of flour

• Modify physical properties of gluten proteins during

fermentation resulting changes:
i. Better handling properties; dough become more elastic
hence result in better gas retention
ii. Increased tolerance in dough to varied fermentation
conditions
iii. Increased loaf volume
iv. Improved crumbPowerpoint
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• Convert/ oxidize the SH groups (thiol/ sulphydryl groups)
of cysteine in gluten to disulphide (S-S) group.

• The S-S linkages resulted in increased rigidity (greater

disulphide interchange in gluten development).

• Common maturing agent:

– Ascorbic acid, peroxysulphates, potassium bromates,
potassium iodate and stearoyl lactylates

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• Cause the flour mixture to rise
• Available in 3 forms:
i. Physical leavening agent
ii. Chemical agent
iii. Biological agent
• Type of food determine the type of leavening agents used;
– Yeast bread used biological agent (yeast)
– Quick bread, cookies, cakes, pastries- leavened physically by steam, air or
chemical agents

• Leavening changes the baked product volume, crumb, texture and

flavor

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 STEAM
AIR
Air is incorporated into Water incorporated into
almost all flour mixtures
during ; flour mixture produce
steam when heated
-mixing
-creaming of fat and sugar Expanding 1600X its
original volume
-sifting dry ingredients
-whipping egg white
Primarily use as
leavening agent for pie
Physical crusts, pastry and cream
puff
leavening
agent

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Biological leavening agent
• Yeast- Saccharomyces cerevisiae commonly used in baking industies.
– Yeast + 6O2 + C6H12O6 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
– Yeast + C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH (ethanol) + 6H2O
• Optimum temperature to multiply 68o-81oF
• Optimum fermentation temperature 81-100oF
• Sometimes added with sugar as food source
• Yeast available in several forms:

Instant
Compressed yeast
yeast/ fresh/
cake yeast Semi solid Dry yeast Less moisture Reproduce
cake, about quickly
70% moisture (8%)
Extremely
sensitive to
temp and
Short shelf life, moisture
require Activation
refrigeration Less susceptible to temp. (125-
deterioration 130oF)
Store at room temp.

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 • Yield CO2 in the presence of moisture and acid
• Only used when the mixture includes acid
Baking ingredients
• Acid reacts with baking soda and creates an
soda intermediate cmpd, carbonic acid
• Then, react to give off CO2 and water
• Eg: sodium carbonate (NaHCO3)

• Not necessary to add acid ingredients

•
Baking •
2 types;
Fast or single acting
•
powder Powder and slow double acting powder (eg:
sodium bicarbonate and sodium aluminium
sulfate (SAS)-phosphate powder)

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Rice
• Staple food in half world population
• 94% of world’s rice produced in Asia lead by
China and India
• Symbol of life and fertility
• Classification of rice according to mode of
cultivation, length of grain and texture

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• White rice
– milled and polished to remove husk, bran and germ
– All fiber, most B vitamin and iron eliminated
– Replaced by enrichment process
• Brown rice
– Has only the hull removed, leaving the bran and germ intact
– Resulting more fiber, but longer cooking time, tougher texture
• Instant rice
– Rice that has been cooked and then dehydrated
– Takes a few minutes of preparation
– The texture is inferior and grain have tendency to split during cooking
• Glutinous rice
– Slightly sweeter, stickier, more translucent compared to white rice
– Easily shaped and moulded into any shapes
• Rice bran
– Effective in lowering high blood cholesterol as oat bran
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