Disaster Management Notes

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module I
MODULE 1
Syllabus:
Fundamental concepts of hazards and disasters: Introduction to key concepts and terminology of
hazard, vulnerability, exposure, risk, crisis, emergencies, Disasters, Resilience.
Basic concept of Earth as a system and its component sub systems. Climate Change vis‐a‐vis the
interrelationships of the subsystems‐ Green House Effect and Global warming, basic ideas about their
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causes and effects.
DISASTER BACKGROUND
Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic increase and the damage caused by them in the
recent past have become a cause of national and international concern. Over the past decade, the
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number of natural and man‐made disasters has climbed inexorably. From 1994 to 1998, reported
disasters average was 428 per year but from 1999 to 2003, this figure went up to an average of 707
disaster events per year showing an increase of about 60 per cent over the previous years. The biggest
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rise was in countries of low human development, which suffered an increase of 142 per cent.
Disasters are not new to mankind. They have been the constant, though inconvenient, companions of
the human beings since time immemorial. Disasters can be natural or human‐made.
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Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud‐burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow avalanche, flood etc. are the
examples of natural disasters while fire, epidemics, road, air, rail accidents and leakages of chemicals/
nuclear installations etc. fall under the category of human‐made disasters.
WHAT IS A DISASTER?
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 A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or a society
causing wide spread material, economic, social or environmental losses which exceed the ability of
the affected society to cope using its own resources”.
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 The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as “a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave
occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence
which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of,
property or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to
be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area”.
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 The United Nations defines disaster as “the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which
disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society or community”.
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 For a disaster to be entered into the database at least one of the following criteria must be fulfilled:
 Ten (10) or more people reported killed
 Hundred (100) or more people reported affected
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 Declaration of a state of emergency
 Call for international assistance
A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce the potential chances of risk. A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the
vulnerable population and causes damage, casualties and disruption.
For a better illustration of disaster is any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering
event along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, sick and old people, lack of
awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater loss to life and property
CE 488 – Disaster Management 1 | Page
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Module I Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
For example: an earthquake in an uninhabited desert cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how
strong the intensities produced.
An earthquake is disastrous only when it affects people, their properties and activities. Thus, disaster
occurs only when hazards and vulnerability meet. But it is also to be noted that with greater capacity
of the individual/community and environment to face these disasters, the impact of a hazard reduces.
Therefore, we need to understand the three major components namely hazard, vulnerability and
capacity with suitable examples to have a basic understanding of disaster management.
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Disaster is an event or series of events, which gives rise to casualties and damage or loss of properties,
infrastructures, environment, essential services or means of livelihood on such a scale which is beyond
the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with. Disaster is also sometimes described as
a “catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or eco‐system has been disrupted and
extra‐ordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve lives and or the
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environment”.
DISASTERS – GLOBAL SCENARIO
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Disasters ‐ natural or human‐made are common throughout the world. Disasters continue to occur
without warning and are perceived to be on an increase in their magnitude, complexity, frequency and
economic impact. Hazards pose threats to people and assume serious proportions in the under
developed countries with dense population. During the second half of the 20th century, more than 200
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worst natural disasters occurred in the different parts of the world and claimed lives of around 1.4
million people. Losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as % of GDP) in the developing
countries than in industrialized one. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters. Figure
shows the Regional distribution of disasters by type, as prepared by Centre for Research on
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Epidemiology of Disaster.
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There have been several natural, as well as, man‐made disasters. Records of natural disasters can be
traced way back to 430 B.C. when the Typhus epidemic was reported in Athens. Ten deadliest natural
disasters recorded in the world are dated back to 1556 when an earthquake in Shaanxi province of
China occurred on 23rd January, 1556 and 8,30,000 casualties were recorded. List of ten deadliest
disasters which have occurred across the world and in India in the known history and in the last century
may be seen from the respectively.
World Disaster
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S.No Name of Event Year Country & Region Fatalities
1. Earthquake 1556 China, Shaanxi 830000
2. Earthquake 1731 China 100,000
3. Cyclone 1737 India, Calcutta 300000
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4. Yellow River flood 1887 China 900,000–2,000,000
Messina
5. 1908 Italy 123000
Earthquake
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6.
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Great Kanto
7. 1923 Japan 142,000
Earthquake
Great Chinese 1958‐
8. China 15,000,000–43,000,000
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Famine 1961
West Bengal, India & East
9. Bhola Cyclone 1970 500,000
Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
Tangshan
10. 1976 China 242,419
Earthquake
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In Last Century
S.No Name of Event Year Country & Region Fatalities
1. China Floods, 1931 China 1,000,000–2,500,000
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2. Floods 1954 China 40,000

Bangladesh, Chittagong,
3. Cyclone 1970 300,000
Khulna
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4. Bangladesh Cyclone, 1991 Bangladesh 139,000

5. Earthquake 1999 Turkey 17,000
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India,
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6. Tsunami 2004 Malaysia, 230,210

Somalia,Bangladesh, Thailand
7. Hurricane Katrina 2005 United States of America 1,836
87476 deaths including
8. Sichuan Earthquake 2008 China
missing
More than 138000
9. Cyclone nargis 2008 Myanmar
deaths
10. Haiti Earthquake 2010 Haiti 31600
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Indian Disasters
S.No Name of Event Year State & Area Fatalities

1. Earthquake 1556 China, Shaanxi 830000
2. Earthquake 1731 China 100,000
3. Cyclone 1737 India, Calcutta 300000
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West Bengal, India & East
9. Bhola Cyclone 1970 500,000
Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
10. Tangshan Earthquake 1976 China 242,419
10000 deaths hundreds
of thousands homeless
12. Cyclone 1977 Andhra Pradesh 40000cattele deaths.
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Destroyed 40% of India’s
food grains
7928 died & 30000 were
13. Latur Earthquake 1993 Latur, Marthawada
injured
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14. Orissa Super Cyclone 1999 Orissa 10000
Bhuj, Bachau, Anjar, 25000 deaths 6.3 million
15. Gujarat Earthquake 2001
Ahmedabad, surat Gujarat people affected
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10749 deaths 5640
persons missing 2.79
Kerala, AP, Pandicherry, as million people affected
16. Tsunami 2004
well as the Andaman and 11827 hectares of crops
Nicobar Islands of India damaged 300000 fisher
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flok lost their livehoods
2005, 1094 deaths 167 Injured
17. Maharshrta floods MP state
July 54 Missing
18. Kashmir Earthquake 2005 Kashmir 8600 deaths
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527 deaths 19323 Live
stock 222754
19. Kosi Floods 2008 North Bihar Houses damaged
3329423 persons
affected
204 deaths 800 million
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20. Cyclone Nisha 2008 Tamil Nadu

worth damages
21. Cyclone Laila 2010 Srilanka and India 65 Deaths
22. Cyclone Lehar 2013 India None
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23. Cyclone Hud‐Hud 2014 India/Nepal 124 Deaths

24. Cyclone Komen 2015 W.B/Bihear‐Odisha None
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25. Cyclone Roanu 2016 Bangladesh, India, Myanmar 227 Deaths
26. Kerala floods 2018 Kerala 417
27. Cyclone Titli 2018 Andhra Pradesh & Odisha 89
Figure below shows the vulnerability scenario across the globe in terms of events and India has faced
more than 260 events of disasters and over 3.5 million people affected from 1975 ‐ 2001. It further
analyses that the vulnerability of people and severity of disasters.
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Distribution of People Affected
INDIA DISASTER SCENARIO:
India due to its geo‐climatic and socio‐economic condition is prone to various disasters. During the last
thirty years’ time span the country has been hit by 431 major disasters resulting into enormous loss to
life and property. According to the Prevention Web statistics, 143039 people were killed and about 150
crore were affected by various disasters in the country during these three decades. The disasters
caused huge loss to property and other infrastructures costing more than US $ 4800 crore. The most
severe disasters in the country and their impact in term of people affected, lives lost and economic
damage is given in the In India, the cyclone which occurred on 25th November, 1839 had a death toll
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of three lakh people. The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 in Gujarat and the Super Cyclone of Orissa on 29th
October, 1999 are still fresh in the memory of most Indians. The most recent natural disaster of a cloud
burst resulting in flash floods and mudflow in Leh and surrounding areas in the early hours of 6th
August, 2010, caused severe damage in terms of human lives as well as property. There was a reported
death toll of 196 persons, 65 missing persons, 3,661 damaged houses and 27,350 hectares of affected
crop area. Floods, earthquakes, cyclones, hailstorms, etc. are the most frequently occurring disasters
in India
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Economic
Year Type of Disasters People affected Life lost damage
(USD×1000)
1980 Flood 30,000,023
1982 Drought 100,000,000
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Flood 33,500,000
1984 Epidemic 3290
1987 Drought 300,000,000
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1988 Epidemic 3000
1990
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1993 Flood 128,000,000 7,000,000
Earthquake* 9,748
1994 Flood 2001
1995 Flood 32,704,000
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1996 Storm 1,500,300
1998 Storm 2871
Extreme Temp. 2541
Flood 1811
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1999 Storm 9,843 2,500,000

2000 Drought 50,000,000
2001 Earthquake* 20,005 2,623,000
2002 Drought 300,000,000
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Flood 42,000,000
2004 Flood 33,000,000 2,500,000
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Earthquake* 16,389
2005 Flood 3,330,000
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Flood 2,300,000
2006 Flood 3,390,000
2009 Flood 2,150,000

While studying about the impact we need to be aware of potential hazards, how, when and where they
are likely to occur, and the problems which may result of an event. In India, 59 per cent of the land
mass is susceptible to seismic hazard; 5 per cent of the total geographical area is prone to floods; 8
per cent of the total landmass is prone to cyclones; 70 per cent of the total cultivable area is
vulnerable to drought.
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Apart from this the hilly regions are vulnerable to avalanches/ landslides/hailstorms/cloudbursts. Apart
from the natural hazards, we need to know about the other manmade hazards which are frequent and
cause huge damage to life and property. It is therefore important that we are aware of how to cope
with their effects. We have seen the huge loss to life, property and infrastructure a disaster can cause
but let us understand what is a disaster, what are the factors that lead to it and its impact
WHAT IS A HAZARD? HOW IS IT CLASSIFIED?
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Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event that threat or have the potential for causing
injury to life or damage to property or the environment.” The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word
‘hasard’ in old French and ‘az‐zahr’ in Arabic meaning ‘chance’ or ‘luck’. Hazards can be grouped into
two broad categories namely natural and manmade.
1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena (hazards with
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meteorological, geological or even biological origin). Examples of natural hazards are cyclones,
tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which are exclusively of natural origin. Landslides, floods,
drought, fires are socio‐natural hazards since their causes are both natural and manmade. For example
flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or blocking of drains with human waste.
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2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence. Manmade hazards are
associated with industries or energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste,
pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc. The list of hazards is very long. Many occur frequently
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while others take place occasionally. However, on the basis of their genesis, they can be categorized
as follows.
1. Earthquake 2. Tsunami 3. Volcanic eruption 4. Landslide
Geological Hazards
5. Dam burst 6. Mine Fire
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1. Tropical Cyclone 2. Tornado and Hurricane 3. Floods 4.
Drought 5. Hailstorm 6. Cloudburst 7. Landslide 8. Heat &
Water & Climatic Hazards
Cold wave
9. Snow Avalanche 10. Sea erosion
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1. Environmental pollutions 2. Deforestation 3.
Environmental Hazards:
Desertification 4. Pest Infection
1. Human / Animal Epidemics 2. Pest attacks 3. Food
Biological Hazards:
poisoning 4. Weapons of Mass Destruction
Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear 1. Chemical disasters 2. Industrial disasters 3. Oil
Accidents spills/Fires 4. Nuclear
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1. Boat / Road / Train accidents / air crash Rural / Urban
fires Bomb /serial bomb blasts 2. Forest fires 3. Building
Accident related:
collapse 4. Electric Accidents 5. Festival related disasters
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6. Mine flooding

WHAT IS VULNERABILITY?
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Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure, services or geographic
area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature,
construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.”
Vulnerabilities can be categorized into physical and socio‐economic vulnerability.
Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be damaged or destroyed by natural
hazard such as earth‐ quakes or floods. It is based on the physical condition of people and elements at
risk, such as buildings, infrastructure etc; and their proximity, location and nature of the hazard. It also
relates to the technical capability of building and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during
a hazard event. The settlements which are located in hazardous slopes.
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Figure below shows the settlements which are located in hazardous slopes. Many landslide and
flooding disasters are linked to what you see in the figure below. Unchecked growth of settlements in
unsafe areas exposes the people to the hazard. In case of an earth‐ quake or landslide the ground may
fail and the houses on the top may topple or slide and affect the settlements at the lower level even if
they are designed well for earthquake forces.
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Site after pressures from population growth and urbanization
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Socio‐economic Vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected by a hazard will not merely
lie in the physical components of vulnerability but also on the socio‐ economic conditions. The socio‐
economic condition of the people also determines the intensity of the impact. For example, people
who are poor and living in the sea coast don’t have the money to construct strong concrete houses.
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They are generally at risk and lose their shelters whenever there is strong wind or cyclone. Because of
their poverty they too are not able to rebuild their houses.
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WHAT IS CAPACITY?
Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which exist in households and
communities and which enable them to cope with, withstand, prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly
recover from a disaster”. People’s capacity can also be taken into account. Capacities could be:
Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been destroyed by the cyclone or crops have been
destroyed by the flood can salvage things from their homes and from their farms. Some family
members have skills, which enable them to find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or
permanently.
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Socio‐economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their greatest losses in the physical
and material realm. Rich people have the capacity to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they
are seldom hit by disasters because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with stronger
materials. However, even when everything is destroyed they have the capacity to cope up with it.
Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes a disaster only when there is greater
vulnerability and less of capacity to cope with it. In other words the frequency or likelihood of a hazard
and the vulnerability of the community increases the risk of being severely affected.
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WHAT IS RISK?
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific
time period. Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event and the losses each
would cause.” The level of risk depends upon:
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 Nature of the hazard
 Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
 Economic value of those elements
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A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely
affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss ‘disaster management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk
management’. Disaster risk management includes all measures which reduce disaster related losses of
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life, property or assets by either reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk.
1. Preparedness
This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities and individuals
to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes the
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formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the maintenance of
inventories and the training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as
evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a recurring disaster. Preparedness therefore
encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life,
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disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs.
2. Mitigation
Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the vulnerable
conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities can be
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focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures
which are hazard specific include water management in drought prone areas, relocating people away
from the hazard prone areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs.
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In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing the economic and social
vulnerabilities of potential disasters.
WHAT IS EXPOSURE?
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The presence and number of people, property, livelihoods, systems or other elements in hazard areas
(and so thereby subject to potential losses) is known as exposure. Exposure is one of the defining
components of disaster risk
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If a hazard occurs in an area of no exposure, then there is no risk. The extent to which exposed people
or economic assets are actually at risk is generally determined by how vulnerable they are, as it is
possible to be exposed but not vulnerable.
However, increasing evidence suggests that the case of extreme hazards the degree of disaster risk is
a consequence of exposure more than it is a result of vulnerability. For instance, in the case of the 26
December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami all those exposed to tsunamis were at risk, no matter their
income, ethnicity or social class.
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People and economic assets become concentrated in areas exposed to hazards through processes such
as population growth, migration, urbanization and economic development. Previous disasters can drive
exposure by forcing people from their lands and to increasingly unsafe areas. Consequently, exposure
changes over time and from place to place.
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Many hazard prone areas, such as coastlines, volcanic slopes and flood plains, attract economic and
urban development, offer significant economic benefits or are of cultural or religious significance to
the people who live there. As more people and assets are exposed, risk in these areas becomes more
concentrated. At the same time, risk also spreads as cities expand and as economic and urban
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development transform previously sparsely populated areas.
Large volumes of capital continue to flow into hazard‐prone areas, leading to significant increases in
the value of exposed economic assets. If global exposure continues to trend upwards, it may increase
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disaster risk to dangerous levels.
Economic exposure in high‐hazard areas is trending upwards. If we do not reverse this trend, disaster
risk is set to increase. We need to act now to reduce exposure and build capacity and resilience in these
areas of growing exposure.
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When it is not possible to avoid exposure to events, land use planning and location decisions must be
accompanied by other structural or non‐structural methods for preventing or mitigating risk. In the
case of the Boxing Day 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, for instance, the only possible strategy to save lives
would have been to reduce exposure through timely evacuation, which depends on the existence of
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reliable early warning systems and effective preparedness planning, and then to compensate for loss
through insurance of other risk financing instruments
WHAT IS EMERGENCY?
Emergency is a disruption of the functioning of society, causing human, material or environmental
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damages and losses which do not exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using only its own
resources.
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Emergency is a situation in which normal operations cannot continue and immediate action is required
so as to prevent a disaster Example – forest fire, oil spills, road accidents, outbreak of epidemics etc.
When an emergency or a disaster affect a city or a region, efforts are conducted initially to care for the
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wounded, to restore lifelines and basic services, and subsequently to restore livelihoods and to
reconstruct communities. Such efforts can be structured in three phases:
 Response phase, where activities such as search & rescue, rapid damage and needs
assessments, and the provision of first aid are conducted; followed by the opening and
management of temporary shelters for those left homeless as well as the provision of
humanitarian assistance to those affected;
 Rehabilitation phase where basic services and lifelines are restored, even on a temporary
basis, including the road network and other essential facilities including bridges, airports, ports
and helicopter landing sites;
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 Recovery phase where reconstruction efforts are carried out on the basis of a more precise
assessment of damage and destruction of infrastructure. In addition, efforts are conducted to
reconstruct infrastructure when needed and to restore the livelihoods of those affected
A disaster, on the other hand, is characterized by impacts that overwhelm the capacities of local
responders and place demands on resources which are not available locally. Hence, an event is
declared as a “disaster” when there is a need for external assistance to cope with its impacts. A national
government declares a state of disaster or national calamity as a way to request international
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humanitarian assistance and the support of the international community to cope with the impacts of
the disaster
WHAT IS CRISIS?
It is any event that is going (or is expected) to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an
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individual, group, community, or whole society. Crisis is a smaller version which may degenerate in to
a disaster if not properly managed. Crisis develops over time and disaster is sudden
WHAT IS RESILIENCE?
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“Resilire” (Latin word) ‐ to bounce back
Engineering resilience ‐ The time taken by a system to bounce‐back from shocks
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Ecological resilience ‐ The extent of disturbance a system can take without undergoing structural
change
Disaster Resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organizations and states to adapt to and
recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long‐term prospects for development.
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According to the Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005), disaster resilience is determined by the
degree to which individuals, communities and public and private organizations are capable of
organizing themselves to learn from past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at
international, regional, national and local levels.
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Disaster resilience is part of the broader concept of resilience – ‘the ability of individuals, communities
and states and their institutions to absorb and recover from shocks, whilst positively adapting and
transforming their structures and means for living in the face of long‐term changes and uncertainty’
In practice, DFID’s framework (DFID, 2011a, 6‐7; diagram below) depicts the core elements of disaster
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resilience as follows:
 Context: Whose resilience is being built – such as a social group, socio‐economic or political
system, environmental context or institution
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 Disturbance: What shocks (sudden events like conflict or disasters) and/or stresses (long‐term
trends like resource degradation, urbanization, or climate change) the group aims to be
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resilient to.
 Capacity to respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock or stress depends
on exposure (the magnitude of the shock or stress), sensitivity (the degree to which a system
will be affected by, or will respond to, a given shock or stress), and adaptive capacity (how well
it can adjust to a disturbance or moderate damage, take advantage of opportunities and cope
with the consequences of a transformation).
 Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including: bounce back better, where capacities
are enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is more able to deal with future shocks
and stresses; bounce back, where pre‐existing conditions prevail; or recover, but worse than
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before, meaning capacities are reduced. In the worst‐case scenario, the system collapses,
leading to a catastrophic reduction in capacity to cope with the future.
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
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Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which can be
taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or
recover from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk
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management are:
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1. Before a disaster (pre‐disaster).
Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard. For example
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carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of the
disaster management plans at household and community level etc. Such risk reduction measures taken
under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.
2. During a disaster(disaster occurrence).
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Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized.
Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response activities.
3. After a disaster (post‐disaster)
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Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation
of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response and
recovery activities. In the subsequent chapters we would discuss in detail some of the major hazards
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prevalent in our country its causes, impact, preparedness and mitigation measures that need to be
taken up.

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EARTH SYSTEM
ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
A large number of hypotheses were put forth by different philosophers and scientists regarding the
origin of the earth. The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang
Theory. It is also called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that
the universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart.
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The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the development of the universe.
(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball”
(singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density.
(ii) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now
generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present.
The expansion continues even to the present day. As it grew, some energy was converted into
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matter. There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang.
Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within first three minutes from the Big Bang event,
the first atom began to form.
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(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K and gave rise to
atomic matter. The universe became transparent.
EARTH IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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The solar system was created about 4.6 billion years ago (about 9 billion years after the big bang),
supposedly after gravitational waves from a supernova produced density anomalies in an interstellar
cloud, which acted as condensation centers for the sun and the planets. In addition to hydrogen and
helium generated during the big bang higher elements from the ashes of burnt‐out stars were present
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in the cloud. After the sun had formed, its radiation pressure (solar wind) forced the light gases to the
edge of the cloud where the large gas planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) formed, whereas the
earth‐type planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) developed in the vicinity of the sun.
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Figure: The planets of the Solar System. The upper panel displays the elliptical orbits of the planets
around the sun, the lower panel shows the sizes of the planets.
Earth is the largest of the four planets closest to the sun: it differs in many ways from all other planets.
Only Earth possesses an atmosphere which supports oxygen‐breathing life forms. No other planet has
a hydrosphere and living systems which are comparable to our biosphere. The size of the Earth is
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important because it supports enough gravitational attraction to keep atmospheric gases on the
planet. For example, Mercury is too small to prevent the light gases as oxygen and carbon dioxide from
escaping while Venus is large enough to keep an atmosphere.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
The planet earth initially was a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and
helium. This is far from the present day picture of the earth. Hence, there must have been some
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events– processes, which may have caused this change from rocky, barren and hot earth to a beautiful
planet with ample amount of water and conducive atmosphere favoring the existence of life. In the
following section, you will find out how the period, between the 4,600 million years and the present,
led to the evolution of life on the surface of the planet. The earth has a layered structure. From the
outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre of the earth, the material that exists is not uniform.
The atmospheric matter has the least density. From the surface to deeper depths, the earth’s interior
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has different zones and each of these contains materials with different characteristics.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
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The last phase in the evolution of the earth relates to the origin and evolution of life. It is undoubtedly
clear that the initial or even the atmosphere of the earth was not conducive for the development of
life. Modern scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction, which first generated
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complex organic molecules and assembled them. This assemblage was such that they could duplicate
themselves converting inanimate matter into living substance. The record of life that existed on this
planet in different periods is found in rocks in the form of fossils. The microscopic structures closely
related to the present form of blue algae have been found in geological formations that are much older
than these were some 3,000 million years ago. It can be assumed that life began to evolve sometime
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3,800 million years ago.

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BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE EARTH SYSTEM
The Earth is subject to constant change. Even the solid body of the Earth or the great polar ice caps are
not steady but change over periods of tens to millions of years. These changes are essentially fueled
by the sun's energy, the heat stored in the Earth's interior and energy given off through radioactive
decay of minerals in the crust and upper‐mantle. The living world is also affected by these large‐scale
processes and is involved in the exchange between various components of the Earth system.

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The Earth is made up of the following subsystems: geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, the great ice
caps, the sea ice in the Polar Regions and the many mountain glaciers (cryosphere) and the living world
(biosphere). On short time scales (years or tens of years) each of these subsystems is in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. Consequently, the many different processes of interaction between the various
subsystems tend to vary little. If longer periods of time are considered, fluctuations and transitions
from one state of equilibrium to another become visible. These delicate states of equilibrium may be
permanently disturbed by changes in external conditions. Most of the subsystems obey certain natural
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laws which will be introduced in the course of the following chapters.
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The Geosphere
The Earth's internal structure is subdivided into crust, mantle and core and was formed very early
during its development. Compared to the Earth radius, the crust is extremely thin, only 4to7 km under
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the oceans and about 100 km under the continents. At the mid‐ocean ridges, which can be described
as a series of active magma chambers
Internal Structure of Earth
Final picture based on the study of seismic waves divides earth into 3 well defined shells or
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zones
1. The Crust
2. The Mantle
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3. The Core

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The Crust
– Uppermost shell of earth
– Study of seismic waves reveals following details about thickness of the crust
(a) Mountain areas
 Under the Himalayas, the crust is believed to be 70 – 75 km thick
 Under Hindukush Mountains it is 60 km thick
 Under the Andes it is 75 km thick
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(b) Continental Areas
 The thickness varies from 30 – 40km
 Along the continental slopes thickness if the crust shows considerable variation
(c) Oceanic Areas
 The thickness varies from a maximum of 19 – 5 km in deep oceans
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The Continental Crust
It is further distinguished into 3 layers: A, B and C
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i. The A or the upper Layer
 Thickness : 2 – 10 km
 Low density : 2.2 g/cc
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ii.
 Mostly made up of sedimentary rocks
The B or Middle layer
 Thickness : 20km or more
 Relatively dense : 2.4 to 2.6 g/cc
 Sometimes also called granite layer
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 Made up mostly of granites and other igneous and metamorphic rocks
iii. The C or lowermost layer
 Thickness : 25 – 40 km
 Density : 2.8 to 3.3 g/cc
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 Made predominantly of basic minerals (rich in magnesium silicates)
 Sometimes named as SIMA (Si – Silica, Ma – Magnesium)
The Oceanic Crust
– It is generally extension of C layer
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– A & B layers of continental crust are absent from here
– Estimated to have a volume of 2.54 x 109 cc
– Average density of 3.00 g/cc
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The Mantle
– Second concentric shell of the Earth
– Lies beneath the crust, makes upto 84% of earth’s volume
– Extends up to a depth 2900 km
– Nature of mantle is incompletely understood
– Sub‐divided into : Upper (Depth 100 – 900 km) & Lower mantle (Depth 900 – 2900 km)
– The upper mantle us further divided into 2 layers of 400 & 600 km thickness respectively
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– Density ranges from : 3.3 g/cc – just below the crust
5.7 g/cc – at the base of mantle
– A part of upper mantle (100 – 500 km depth) is in plastic state rather than solid state –
Asthenosphere (Source of volcanic activity). The asthenosphere is believed to be located
entirely in upper mantle and support the slowly moving tectonic plates
– Lithosphere – the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.
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The Core
– Innermost concentric shell of the Earth
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– The core boundary begins at depth of 2,900 km from the surface and extends to center
of earth at 6,371 km
– Sub‐divided into : Outer Core & Inner Core
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• Depth : 2,900 km – 4,580 km • Thickness : 1,790 km
• Behaves more like a liquid • Solid metallic body
– Density : 5.7 g/cc – at the base of mantle
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9.9 g/cc – at top of the mantle
12.7 g/cc – at boundary of inner core
13.0 g/cc – at the center of earth

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The Hydrosphere
The Earth is a ’water planet’. A good two‐thirds of its surface, more specifically 362,000 km2 of area, is
covered with water. The large oceans are an essential prerequisite for
the existence of the biosphere. They were the cradle of the first life on
Earth and provide an indispensable habitat for numerous organisms.
The mean depth of the World Oceans is 3,700 m and thus much larger
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than the mean elevation of the continents, given by 875 m. The total
volume of water in the ocean is about 1.35 x 109km3 while the water in
frozen state on Earth amounts to only 24.4 x 106km3 (water in lakes is
about 190,000km3). Ocean water, however, is saline whereas water on
land and specifically in the frozen state in glaciers and ice caps is fresh
water. The hydrosphere has a direct influence on weather and climate conditions on Earth, with the
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worldwide oceanic circulation playing a particularly important role.
The Atmosphere
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The composition of the atmosphere has changed fundamentally in the course of the Earth’s history
due to a number of different biological, chemical and physical processes. The early atmosphere of the
Earth consisted mainly of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Thus, it was similar to the present atmospheres
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of the planets Venus and Mars. Only with the emergence of life and biochemical processes lasting
several billion years did the current atmosphere of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other
gases evolve. This development of the Earth has been possible due to a number of fortunate
circumstances, the most important one being the distance of the Earth from the sun, which enabled
the formation of a proto‐ocean at an early state in its evolution. Any change in orbit parameters might
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have led to completely different conditions.
The Earth’s atmosphere provides only a thin protective cover from outer space. The thickness of the
entire atmosphere is about one twentieth of the Earth’s radius. The atmosphere is subdivided into four
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layers of varying heights, based on the mean vertical temperature distribution: the troposphere
between the surface of the Earth and an altitude of 11 km, the stratosphere between 11 km and 50
km, the mesosphere between 50 km and 85 km, and the thermosphere from 85 km to about 300 km.
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Figure: Vertical temperature profile of the Standard Atmosphere.
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Each layer is characterized by a uniform change in temperature with increasing altitude. In some layers
there is an increase in temperature with altitude, whilst in others it decreases with increasing altitude.
The top or boundary of each layer is denoted by a ’pause’, where the temperature profile abruptly
changes.
The stratosphere could be called the Earth’s ’sun‐glasses’. This is where most of the ultraviolet solar
radiation, which is harmful for man and all living organisms, is filtered out. This is mainly achieved by
ozone, a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. About 90% of the total quantity of ozone is to be
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found in the stratosphere.
The Biosphere
With the exception of the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, the land on Earth is populated by a
large variety of living organisms. According to conservative estimates at least eight million different
species of animals and plants exist on Earth.
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Figure: The circulation of the atmosphere. The left panel is for idealized, non‐rotating planet where
only the Hadley cell exists. The right panel is for the real Earth with Hadley and Ferrel cells. The
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corresponding surface winds are shown schematically.
Life on Earth originated from the ocean. This is where the first microorganisms emerged, whose
remains have been discovered in rocks up to four billion years old. The oldest known organisms are
primitive cells without a nucleus (prokaryotes). A first biosphere developed after unicellular algae
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began to release oxygen into the atmosphere due to photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide. Cells
with nucleus (eukaryotes) developed much later in Earth history, about two billion years ago. During
the next 400 million years evolution created an enormous multiplicity of species.
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The biosphere is a consumer and producer of greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
reduced by plants in photosynthesis. Methane is stored in permafrost soils and gas hydrates on the
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ocean bottom. Both gases are currently released to the atmosphere by human activities and reinforce
the greenhouse effect.
The term ecosystem describes a holistic concept comprising the total of organisms in a specified spatial
unit, their physical conditions and the numerous interactions between the living and non‐living
components of the system. An ecosystem can either be an isolated pool within an arid region or a
whole ocean. It is assumed that each element in the ecosystem is linked directly or indirectly with the
other elements and influences them.
The link between living and non‐living components of the ecosystem is maintained by two coupled
processes: the flow of energy and the exchange of nutrients. As the major source of energy, the sun
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is the pre‐requisite for plant photosynthesis. In this process carbon dioxide, water and other biogenous
elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are converted into protein, fats and starches via a
number of intermediate stages. These substances can be called the building blocks of life. The
organisms participating in photosynthesis are producers in the ecosystem.
On the other hand there are consumers — e.g. bacteria, fungi and animals — which mainly feed on the
producers’ organic material. This transfer of organic substance from the producer to numerous
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consumers, taking place in several steps, is called a food chain. As a final link of this chain, organisms
break down animal and plant substances into their inorganic constituents. These serve as food for the
producers. Due to the transformation of organically bound energy from one component of a food chain
to another, more and more energy is gradually lost. In contrast to this loss, the nutrient budget of the
ecosystem largely remains unchanged. The nutrients are only transferred between living and non‐living
components.
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GLOBAL CYCLES
Most of the exchange processes in the Earth system occur in the form of closed loops. While they
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constantly influence each other they obey certain natural laws. The major energy source for these
processes is the sun, which enables the flow of matter through the system.
In the environment, energy can be in the form of radiation (solar or short‐wave radiation and infrared
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or long‐wave radiation), sensible heat (thermal energy), latent heat (heat released when water goes
from the gas to the liquid or solid state), kinetic energy (energy of motion including winds, tides, and
ocean currents), potential energy (stored energy), and chemical energy (energy absorbed or released
during chemical reactions).
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Figure: Schematic Diagram of the Earth’s Energy Budget
The energy cycle is intertwined with the hydrologic cycle. Some of the energy in the sunlight reaching
Earth’s surface causes evaporation from surface water and soils. The atmosphere transports the
resulting water vapor until it condenses in clouds, releasing the latent energy that evaporated the
water. Water droplets and ice particles in clouds grow in size until they form precipitation, falling to
the surface as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Once the precipitation falls, the water can remain frozen on
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the surface to melt at a later time, evaporate again into the atmosphere, fill spaces in the soil, be taken
up by plants, be consumed by animals, leach through the soil into groundwater, run off the land surface
into rivers, streams, lakes and ultimately into the oceans or become part of a surface water body. Snow
and ice reflect more sunlight back to space than ocean water or most other types of land cover, so the
amount of snow or ice covering Earth’s surface affects the energy cycle.
The major cycles that connect the different parts of the Earth are the energy cycle, the water cycle
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(hydrologic cycle, and the cycles of important individual elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen). Each cycle is
made up of reservoirs, places where energy, water, and elements are stored for a period of time (e.g.,
chemical energy, sea ice, oceans, carbon dioxide), fluxes, the movement of energy and matter from
one reservoir to another (e.g., radiation, precipitation, transpiration, ocean currents, wind, river flow)
and processes that change the form of energy, water, and elements (e.g., photosynthesis,
condensation, fire).
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Energy from the sun flows through the environment, heating the atmosphere, the oceans, and the land
surface, and fueling most of the biosphere. Differences in the amount of energy absorbed in different
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places set the atmosphere and oceans in motion and help determine their overall temperature and
chemical structure. These motions, such as wind patterns and ocean currents redistribute energy
throughout the environment. Eventually the energy that began as sunshine (short‐wave radiation)
leaves the planet as Earth shine (light reflected by the atmosphere and surface back into space) and
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infrared radiation (heat, also called long wave radiation) emitted by all parts of the planet which
reaches the top of the atmosphere. This flow of energy from the sun, through the environment, and
back into space is a major connection in the Earth system; it defines Earth’s climate.
The Water Cycle
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In contrast to all other planets of the solar system Earth has water in great abundance and in all three
states: gaseous, liquid and solid. By far the greatest share (97%) of the Earth’s water is found in the
oceans, 2% is bound as ice and the rest (1%) is accounted for by ground water, soil water, surface
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water, the atmosphere and the biosphere. This 3% of the total quantity consists mainly of fresh water.
The fraction of water bound in ice caps depends strongly on the temperature of Earth; during the
coldest stage of last ice age, the average sea level was about 120 m deeper than today, the water being
bound in large ice shields. Rivers and lakes contain less than a thousandth of the total water on Earth,
and the atmosphere only a very small fraction of that.
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Although the atmosphere contains only a trace amount of the total water on Earth, it acts as an
important pathway for transferring water from one reservoir to another. This is because the residence
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time of water in the atmosphere is quite small; on average a water molecule that is evaporated stays
only about 10 days in the atmosphere before it precipitates again. Most of the water that evaporates
precipitates over the ocean; only less than a third precipitates over land.
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Water plays a crucial role in many global exchange processes. Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and
oxygen are transported in the Earth system through the medium of water in liquid state. Knowledge of
the magnitude and variability of the hydrological cycle is particularly important for understanding the
Earth system. Even slight changes in the proportions of components in the water cycle can have
considerable ecological consequences (e.g. flooding, drought and the processes of desertification). The
hydrologic cycle is intimately coupled to the energy balance and the redistribution of heat, because
evaporation and precipitation result in large amounts of heat being transferred.
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Figure: The water cycle of the Earth.
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Water participates in a global cycle as vapor, liquid or ice. It evaporates into the atmosphere, where it
is transported in the gaseous state following atmospheric circulation patterns. Later it condenses and
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falls as rain or snow on the Earth.
The Bio‐geochemical Cycle
Each of the chemical elements undergoes chemical reactions, but the total amount of each on Earth
remains essentially fixed. In this way, the environment consists of a set of cycles for water, carbon,
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nitrogen, phosphorous, etc. Since the cycles of the elements involve life, chemicals, and the solid Earth,
they are collectively known as biogeochemical cycles.
An important issue of long‐term climate variability and global changes are biological nutrient
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inventories and cycles: carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. These bio‐geochemical cycles link
the most important reservoirs of these elements: the hydrosphere, components of the solid Earth, the
biosphere and the atmosphere. The processes which mainly drive these cycles include the constant
oxidation of living and dead biomass by atmospheric oxygen. An important issue of long‐term climate
variability and global changes are biological nutrient inventories and cycles: carbon, nitrogen, sulphur
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and phosphorus. These bio‐geochemical cycles link the most important reservoirs of these elements:
the hydrosphere, components of the solid Earth, the biosphere and the atmosphere. The processes
which mainly drive these cycles include the constant oxidation of living and dead biomass by
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atmospheric oxygen.
Each of the chemical elements undergoes chemical reactions, but the total amount of each on Earth
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remains essentially fixed. In this way, the environment consists of a set of cycles for water, carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorous, etc. Since the cycles of the elements involve life, chemicals, and the solid Earth,
they are collectively known as biogeochemical cycles. Figure below shows the carbon cycle
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CLIMATE SYSTEM
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The term ‘climate’ is used for long‐term average weather conditions, conventionally taken over 30
years. At the same time, ‘climate’ denotes a specific state of equilibrium in the energy balance and
global energy transports. The climate system is usually defined as consisting of the atmosphere, the
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ocean, and sea ice and ice sheets. Conditions of the land surface are prescribed, as well as all external
forcing factors, as e.g. the greenhouse gas concentrations. It is a dynamic system which at most times
is in a transient equilibrium. Changes in the climate system are forced through external impacts, e.g.
changing carbon dioxide, volcano output, or the orbital parameters of the Earth, and through internal
interactions. The solar power has increased by about 30% since its birth; the continents have changed
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over millions of years; Earth alters its orbit with prominent periods of 100,000, 41,000, 23,000 and
19,000 years; the contents of greenhouse gases has varied from years to billions of years.

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Figure: Schematic view of the components of the climate system, their processes and interactions.
Over the long term, the amount of incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and atmosphere is
balanced by the Earth and atmosphere releasing the same amount of outgoing long wave radiation.
About half of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface. This energy is transferred
to the atmosphere by warming the air in contact with the surface (thermals), by evapotranspiration
and by longwave radiation that is absorbed by clouds and greenhouse gases. The atmosphere in turn
radiates longwave energy back to Earth as well as out to space.
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CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a phrase that is essentially self‐explanatory, it is the change in the climate of a
country, region, or the world over, and is believed to be caused either directly or indirectly by the
activity of the human race.
The type of climate we experience now might be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with minor and
occasionally wide fluctuations. The planet earth has witnessed many variations in climate since the
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beginning. Geological records show alteration of glacial and inter‐glacial periods. The
geomorphological features, especially in high altitudes and high latitudes, exhibit traces of advances
and retreats of glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes also reveal the occurrence of warm and
cold periods. The rings in the trees provide clues about wet and dry periods. Historical records describe
the vagaries in climate. All these evidences indicate that change in climate is a natural and continuous
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process.
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry periods. Archaeological findings show that the Rajasthan
desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000‐ 1,700 B.C. had higher
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rainfall. From about 2,000‐1,700 B.C., this region was the centre of the Harappan civilisation. Dry
conditions accentuated since then.
Climate in the recent past
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Variability in climate occurs all the time. The nineties decade of the last century witnessed extreme
weather events. The 1990s recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst
floods around the world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of the Sahara desert,
from 1967‐1977 is one such variability. During the 1930s, severe drought occurred in southwestern
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Great Plains of the United States, described as the dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or crop
failures, of floods and migration of people tell about the effects of changing climate.
Causes of Climate Change
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Climate refers to the long‐term average of the aggregation of all components of weather—
precipitation, temperature and cloudiness, for example. The climate system includes processes
involving ocean, land and sea ice in addition to the atmosphere.
The Earth system encompasses the climate system. Many changes in Earth system functioning directly
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involve changes in climate. However, the Earth system includes other components and processes,
biophysical and human those are important for its functioning. Some Earth system changes, natural or
driven by humans, can have significant consequences without involving changes in climate. Global
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change should not be confused with climate change; it is significantly more, indeed, climate change is
part of this much larger challenge.
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The causes for climate change are many. They can be grouped into astronomical and terrestrial causes.
The astronomical causes are the changes in solar output associated with sunspot activities. Sunspots
are dark and cooler patches on the sun which increase and decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
some meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather and greater
storminess occur. A decrease in sunspot numbers is associated with warm and drier conditions. Yet,
these findings are not statistically significant.
An another astronomical theory is Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles in the variations in the
earth’s orbital characteristics around the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the earth’s
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axial tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation received from the sun, which in turn, might have a
bearing on the climate.
Climate Change – Inter relationships with earth subsystems
Geosphere
The global distribution of water and land at the Earth’s surface significantly affects the circulations in
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the ocean and the atmosphere. Thus, plate tectonics contribute to the development of climate and to
changes in global environment. Volcanic eruptions, even though local in origin, can affect the Earth
system as a whole. They devastate wide areas of land and drastically change the habitat of flora, fauna
and man, and — for climate purposes — the volcanic output reflects in the substance composition of
the atmosphere. Submarine volcanoes create and destroy groups of islands. Some large volcanic events
cause eruptions of volcanic ash reaching the stratosphere, where it remains for many years,
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substantially influencing the radiation balance of the Earth. Identification of volcanic ash of particular
volcanic events in ice cores obtained in the Arctic and the Antarctic provide evidence for the worldwide
distribution of volcanic ash in the atmosphere.
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Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws up lots of
aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a considerable period of
time reducing the sun’s radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the recent Pinatoba and El Cion
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volcanic eruptions, the average temperature of the earth fell to some extent for some years. The most
important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the increasing trend in the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is likely to cause global warming.
Hydrosphere
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It is generally accepted that the oceanic circulation has a profound influence on the mean state of the
Earth’s climate and on climate changes on decadal and longer time scales. Large‐scale transports of
heat and fresh water by ocean currents are key climate parameters. The stratification and circulation
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in the upper ocean is crucial for the penetration of heat and substances into the ocean.
The circulation is determined by the structure and strength of the wind systems, the regional
distribution of precipitation patterns, and the heat exchange with the atmosphere. The shape of the
sea floor, particularly the great deep‐sea basins, also has a decisive influence on ocean current systems.
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The World Ocean plays a twofold role in the Earth’s climate system. On the one hand climate
fluctuations are caused by long‐term changes in the heat distribution of the ocean. On the other hand
the thermal ‘inertia’ of the great water masses slows down climatic changes. The close link between
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ocean and atmosphere is also effective on shorter time scales. This is seen by the close correspondence
between the surface temperature of the ocean and the air temperature close to the ground. The
surface winds also strongly contribute to changes in the oceanic circulation and thus regional weather
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conditions.
Biosphere
The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate is the increasing trend in the concentration
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is likely to cause global warming.
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GLOBAL WARMING
The continuous rise in temperature of the planet is really upsetting. The root cause for this is global
warming. Global warming begins when sunlight reaches the Earth. The clouds, atmospheric particles,
reflective ground surfaces and surface of oceans then sends back about 30 % of sunlight back into the
space, whilst the remaining is absorbed by oceans, air and land. This consequently heats up the surface
of the planet and atmosphere, making life feasible. As the Earth warms up, this solar energy is radiated
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by thermal radiation and infrared rays, propagating directly out to space thereby cooling the Earth.
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However, some of the outgoing radiation is re‐absorbed by carbon dioxide, water vapours, ozone,
methane and other gases in the atmosphere and is radiated back to the surface of Earth. These gases
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are commonly known as greenhouse gases due to their heat‐trapping capacity. It must be noted that
this re‐absorption process is actually good as the Earth’s average surface temperature would be very
cold if there was no existence of greenhouse gases.
The dilemma began when the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere was artificially
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increased by humankind at an alarming rate since the past two centuries. As of 2004, over 8 billion tons
of carbon dioxide was pumped thermal radiation is further hindered by increased levels of greenhouse
gases resulting in a phenomenon known as human enhanced global warming effect.
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GREENHOUSE EFFECT
While other planets in the solar system of the Earth are either roasting hot or bitterly cold, Earth's
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surface has relatively mild, steady temperatures. Earth enjoys these temperatures because of its
atmosphere, which is the thin layer of gases that cover and protect the planet.
However, 97 % of climate scientists and researchers agree that humans have changed the Earth's
atmosphere in dramatic ways over the past two centuries, resulting in global warming. To understand
global warming, it is first necessary to become familiar with the greenhouse effect. As Figure below
depicts, the natural greenhouse effect normally traps some portion of heat in such a way that our
planet is safe from reaching freezing temperatures while human enhanced greenhouse effect leads to
global warming. This is due to burning of fossil fuels which increase the amount of greenhouse gases
(carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen) present in the atmosphere.
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Figure: Types of greenhouse effects
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The
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atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long wave
radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s surface. The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called
greenhouse gases. The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the
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greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
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The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon
monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
The effectiveness of any given GHG molecule will depend on the magnitude of the increase in its
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concentration, its life time in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that it absorbs. The
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation in the
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial radiation when it is present in the lower
troposphere. Another important point to be noted is that the more time the GHG molecule remains in
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the atmosphere, the longer it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to recover from any change

brought about by the latter.
The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission of CO2 comes
mainly from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and oceans are the sinks for the carbon
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dioxide. Forests use CO2 in their growth. So, deforestation due to changes in land use, also increases
the concentration of CO2. The time taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes in sources to sinks
is 20‐50 years. It is rising at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of concentration of CO2 over pre‐
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industrial level is used as an index for estimating the changes in climate in climatic models.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products of human activity. Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where
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ultra‐violet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do not reach the earth’s surface. The
CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large depletion of ozone occurs over
Antarctica. The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the troposphere.
Figure below shows pictorially the distribution of greenhouse gases. These gases are playing their
negative part in increasing the havoc of global warming. They are continuously causing an increase in
the earth’s temperature.
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Figure: Distribution of greenhouse gases
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CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
The major cause of global warming is the greenhouse gases. They include carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxides and in some cases chlorine and bromine containing compounds. The build‐up of these
gases in the atmosphere changes the radiative equilibrium in the atmosphere. Their overall effect is to
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warm the Earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the
outgoing radiation of Earth and re‐radiate it back towards the surface.
The second major cause of global warming is the depletion of ozone layer. This happens mainly due to
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the presence of chlorine‐ containing source gases. When ultraviolet light is present, these gases
dissociate releasing chlorine atoms which then catalyses ozone destruction. Aerosols present in the
atmosphere are also causing global warming by changing the climate in two different ways. Firstly, they
scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation and secondly, they may alter the microphysical and
chemical properties of clouds and perhaps affect their lifetime and extent. The scattering of solar
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radiation acts to cool the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols warms the air directly
instead of permitting sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth. The human contribution to
the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere is of various forms. For instance, dust is a by‐product of
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agriculture. Biomass burning generates a mixture of organic droplets and soot particles. Many
industrial processes produce a wide diversity of aerosols depending on what is being burned or
generated in the manufacturing process. Moreover, exhaust emissions from various sorts of transport
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produce a rich mixture of pollutants that are either aerosols from the outset or are transformed by
chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols.
GLOBAL WARMING: THE EFFECTS
Predicting the consequences of global warming is one of the most difficult tasks faced by the climate
researchers. This is due to the fact that natural processes that cause rain, snowfall, hailstorms, rise in
sea levels is reliant on many diverse factors. Moreover, it is very hard to predict the size of emissions
of greenhouse gases in the future years as this is determined majorly through technological
advancements and political decisions. Global warming produces many negative effects some of which
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are described here. Firstly, extra water vapour which is present in the atmosphere falls again as rain
which leads to floods in various regions of the world. When the weather turns warmer, evaporation
process from both land and sea rises. This leads to drought in the regions where increased evaporation
process is not compensated by increased precipitation. In some areas of the world, this will result in
crop failure and famine particularly in areas where the temperatures are already high. The extra water
vapour content in the atmosphere will fall again as extra rain hence causing flood. Towns and villages
which are dependent on the melting water from snowy mountains may suffer drought and scarcity of
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water supply. It is because the glaciers all over the world are shrinking at a very rapid rate and melting
of ice appears to be faster than previously projected. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), about one‐sixth of the total population of the world lives in the regions which shall be ‐
affected by a decrease in melting water. The warmer climate will likely cause more heat waves, more
violent rainfall and also amplification in the severity of hailstorms and thunderstorms. Rising of sea
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levels is the most deadly effect of global warming, the rise in temperature is causing the ice and glaciers
to melt rapidly. This will lead to rise of water levels in oceans, rivers and lakes that can pilot devastation
in the form of floods.
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Global warming can severely affect the health of living beings. Excess heat can cause stress which may
lead to blood pressure and heart diseases. Crop failures and famines, which are a direct consequence
of heating up of earth, can cause a decline in human body resistance to viruses and infections. Global
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warming may also transfer various diseases to other regions as people will shift from regions of higher
temperatures to regions of comparatively lower temperatures. Warmer oceans and other surface
waters may lead to severe cholera outbreaks and harmful infections in some types of sea food.
*******************************
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Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
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Dept. of Civil Engineering
MEA Engineering College

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MODULE 2
Syllabus:
Types of Natural Disasters I- Earth quakes, Landslides. Nature of impacts.
EARTHQUAKES
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Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of the year, day
or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in
seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may
de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the country.
Definition: It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there
is hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.
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Globally, earthquakes result in a loss of about 50,000 lives every year. Earthquakes over 5.5 magnitude
on the Richter scale are progressively damaging to property and human life. However, there are many
other factors that influences the damage pattern. Massive earthquakes generally occur near the
junction of two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the Indian plate goes below
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Eurasian plate. The Indian subcontinent situated on the boundaries of two continental plates is very
prone to earthquakes. Some of the most intense earthquakes of the world have occurred in India.
Fortunately, none of these have occurred in any of the major cities. According to latest seismic zoning
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map brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), over 65 percent of the country is prone to
earthquake of intensity Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MSK) VII or more.
India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum intensity of earthquake
expected (Figure below). Of these, zone V is the most active which comprises of whole of Northeast
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India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. India has highly populous cities and the constructions in these cities are not
earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus any earthquake striking in one of these
cities would turn into a major disaster. Six major earthquakes have struck different parts of India over
a span of the last 15 years.
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The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a
magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four
such major earthquakes have occurred in the region
Some significant earthquakes in India
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THE CIRCULATIONS INSIDE EARTH

– Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of prevailing high temperature and
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pressure gradients between the Crust and the Core, like the
convective flow of water when heated in a beaker.
– These convection currents result in a circulation of the
earth’s mass; hot molten lava comes out and the cold rock
mass goes into the Earth. The mass absorbed eventually
melts under high temperature and pressure and becomes a
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part of the Mantle

– Many such local circulations are taking place at different
regions underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different
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portions of the Earth undergoing different directions of

movements along the surface.
PLATE TECTONICS
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– German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915 proposed that, 200 million years ago the earth had only
one continent called Pangaea.
– Pangaea broke into pieces that slowly drifted into the present configuration of continents.
– The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some portion of the Mantle, to slide
on the hot molten outer core.
– This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates.
– The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and many smaller ones
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(a) Eurasian Plate
(b) Indo – Australian plate
(c) Pacific plate
(d) North – American Plate
(e) South – American Plate
(f) African Plate
(g) Antarctic Plate Major Tectonic Plates
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– These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of the neighbouring
ones.
(a) Convergent Boundaries: Sometimes, the plate
in the front is slower; then, the plate behind it
comes and collides (and mountains are
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formed).
(b) Divergent Boundaries: sometimes two plates
move away from one another (and rifts are
created).
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(c) Transform Boundaries: Two plates move side-
by-side, along the same direction or in
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opposite directions.
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The convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that sometimes neither of the
colliding plates wants to sink.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
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– Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.
– Hence, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative deformations that occur due to
the gigantic tectonic plate actions taking place in the Earth.
– When the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the Earth’s Crust reaches its strength,
it fractures and a sudden movement takes place there
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– The interface between the plates where the movement has taken place (called the fault) suddenly
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slips and releases the large elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the interface.
– The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake - a violent shaking of the Earth during which
large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the form of seismic waves that travel through
the body and along the surface of the Earth.
– After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified interface between the
tectonic plates starts all over again.
– Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.
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SEISMIC WAVES
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all directions through the
Earth’s layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface.
These waves are of two types - body waves and surface waves
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earth’s surface (See Fig. below). Body waves consist of
Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-waves), and surface waves consist of Love waves
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(L-waves).
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Arrival of Seismic Waves at a Site
(a) The P-waves
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– These are also called primary waves, push and pull waves.
– These are the fastest waves in which the particles vibrate in the direction of propagation.
– The velocity of P - wave is related to the rigidity of the medium and its density.
(b) The S- waves
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– These are also called secondary waves.

– In these waves particles vibrate right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
(c) The L-waves
– These waves also called Long waves or surface waves.
– These waves are sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the P and S waves.
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– S-waves do not travel through liquids.

– S-waves in association with effects of Love waves cause maximum damage to structures
RECORDING OF EARTHQUAKES
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– The instrument used to record the motion of seismic waves is called seismograph
– The record produced by the instrument is called Seismogram
– A seismograph is designed for recording either the horizontal or the vertical component of
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ground motion
– A seismograph, has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.
(a) The Sensor: The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support
(b) The Recorder: The drum, pen and chart paper constitute the recorder; and
(c) The Timer: the motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the timer.
– Pendulum type seismographs are generally used.
– Principle of Seismograph
 A pen attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum (a mass hung by a string from a
support) marks on a chart paper that is held on a drum rotating at a constant speed.
 A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the amplitude of
oscillations.
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–
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One such instrument is required in each of the two orthogonal horizontal directions.
– For measuring vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is replaced with a spring pendulum
oscillating about a fulcrum.
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– Today, digital instruments using modern computer technology are more commonly used.
– The digital instrument records the ground motion on the memory of the microprocessor that is in-
built in the instrument.
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TERMINOLOGY
The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or Hypocenter, and the point vertically above this
on the surface of the Earth is the Epicenter (See fig. below). The depth of focus from the epicenter,
called as Focal Depth. Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow focus with focal depths less
than about 70km. Distance from epicenter to any point of interest is called epicentral distance.
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MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE
–
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Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual Size of the earthquake.
– Magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size
– Professor Charles Richter noticed that,
(a) At the same distance, seismograms of larger earthquakes have bigger wave amplitude than
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those of smaller earthquakes; and
(b) For a given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have smaller wave amplitude
than those at close distances.
– These prompted him to propose the now commonly used magnitude scale, the Richter scale.
– It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform amplitude on
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epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale.

– Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as
Group Magnitude
Great 8 and higher
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Major 7 – 7.9
Strong 6 – 6.6
Moderate 5 – 5.9
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Light 4 – 4.9
Minor 3 – 3.9
Very Minor < 3.0
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INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
– Intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given location
– Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake, and is
assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.
– There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity
(MMI) Scale and the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK) Scale.
– Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most severe).
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– The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking,
(a) Perception by people and animals,
(b) performance of buildings, and
(c) Changes to natural surroundings.
– The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is shown graphically using
isoseismals, lines joining places with equal seismic intensity
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CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
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(a) Depth of focus as basis:

i. Shallow : Depth of focus lies up to 60km below the surface
ii. Intermediate : Depth of focus lies between 60-300km below the surface
iii. Deep seated : Depth of focus lies between 300-700km below the surface
(b) Magnitude as basis (See classification above in Magnitude)
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(c) Cause of origin as basis:
i. Tectonic earthquakes: Caused due to relative displacements of blocks of the crust of the
earth along the rupture planes
ii. Non-tectonic earthquake: Caused due to volcanic eruptions, atomic explosions
landslides and subsidence.
SEISMIC HAZARDS
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Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially bridges,
elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities. Aftershocks of an
earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and also cause
flooding. Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous materials resulting in
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possible chemical spills. There may also be a breakdown of communication facilities. The effect of an
earthquake is diverse. There are large number of casualties because of the poor engineering design of
the buildings and close proximity of the people. About 95 percent of the people who are killed or who
are affected by the earthquake is because of the building collapse. There is also a huge loss to the public
health system, transport and communication and water supply in the affected areas.
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The hazards associated with earthquakes are as follows
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1. Ground Shaking
Ground surface may shift during an earthquake (especially if focus is shallow). Vertical
displacements of surface produce faults
2. Structural Hazards
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Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic wave. High frequency body waves shake low
buildings more. Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more. Intensity of shaking also
depends on type of subsurface material
3. Liquefaction
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– During earthquake, the strength of the soil is reduced drastically to a point where it is unable
to support structures.
4. Lateral Spreading
– It is a phenomenon characterized by incremental displacements that range from negligible to
quite large during earthquake shaking.
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5. Landslides
6. Lifeline Hazards
– The network of facilities like electrical power and telecommunications, transportation, water
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and sewage, oil and gas distribution, and waste storage system have collectively come to
known as lifelines.
– Lifeline failures not only have severe economic consequences but can also adversely affect the
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environment and quality of life following an earthquake.

7. Tsunami and Seiche Hazards
– Rapid vertical sea floor movements caused by fault rupture during earthquake can produce
long period sea waves called tsunamis. In open sea, Tsunami travel great distances at high
speeds.
– Earthquake induced waves in enclosed water bodies (in a lake or reservoir) are called Seiche.
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POSSIBLE RISK REDUCTION MEASURES:
Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake impact. The
most effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.
Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for safe
construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the building plans
have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline
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buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with earthquake safety measures.
Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting techniques.
Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an earthquake and
preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for
community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries teachers and
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students.
Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building by laws to
withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put together to improve
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building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before construction.
Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to get damaged
even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong as shown in Figure below. Similar problems
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persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
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QUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS

Consider the following parts of building:
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1. The foundations
2. The body
3. The roof
1. The foundations
– Structure on Loose sediments weak rocks is subjected to greater risk as compared to
structures on hard rocks
– Soil particles undergo settlement during earthquake
– Foundations should be excavated to the same level
– The superstructure should be thoroughly tied with the foundations by introducing
reinforcements to prevent sliding
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2. The body
– Walls should be properly designed for resisting lateral forces
– Walls should be light in weight and made up of wood or light weight as possible
– Use reinforcements in the walls
3. The roof
– Flat roofs gives better resistance as compared to sloping roofs
– Care should be taken to minimize the lateral stresses when tiles and corrugated sheets are
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used in flat roofs
– Projections beyond roof like chimneys should be avoided
Generally speaking:
– Entire structure should acts as a unit

– Uniform height should be given to the structure
– Parapets ,Cantilevers, arches and domes should be avoided
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EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MITIGATION
Unlike other disasters, the damages caused by earthquakes are more devastating. Since it also destroys
most of the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims becomes difficult.
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It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best option is to emphasis
on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures such as:
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(i) Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and
fast dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas. Use of
Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of
tectonic plates.
(ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information
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among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimising the adverse
impacts of disasters.
(iii) Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging
construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in
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such areas.
(iv) Finally, making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials in
major construction activities in the vulnerable areas.
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MASS MOVEMENT
In many regions of the world a temporary instability of superficial mass of soil and rock has always been
an acute problem. These superficial mass may leave their original position abruptly or extremely
slowly and start their downgrade movement or vertically downward sinking.
This Movement of the ground may entail loss to property and life, especially when they happen to
occur in or near the populated areas, along highways, railway lines, dams and reservoirs, tunnels or
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under heavy structures.
Such movements of the superficial masses have been termed in common language as landslides or
landslips, technically termed as Mass Movement.
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CLASSIFICATION
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Many classification has been suggested for Mass movements attributed to a number of factors such as
variety of geological situations, nature of surface, speed with which failure occurs etc.
On the basis of type of failure, mass movements are divided into 3 types,
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1. Flowage
2. Sliding
3. Subsidence
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1. Flowage
 By flowage is understood a downgrade movement of
mass along no definite surface of failure.
 Mass involved in this type of failure is primarily
unconsolidated or loosely packed or rendered so by
natural processes of decay and disintegration.
 The result is that the movement is distributed
throughout the mass and in a highly irregular manner
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 Flowage is further distinguished into slow and rapid flowage.
 In the slow flowage, failure is not easily perceptible. The ground may be moving downslope
at as such low rates as few centimeters a year or even less.
 In rapid flowage, however, the movement of failing mass may be easily visible and the mass
may travel a few meters or more a day.
2. Sliding
 True landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by moving as a whole
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along a definite surface of failure.
 The surface of failure may be planar or semicircular in outline.
 It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure surface is unstable
whereas the material lying below this surface is generally stable.
 In unconsolidated deposits, loose inherently weak rock masses, sliding commonly takes place
along curved shear surfaces.
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But when the mass involved is hard, brittle and coherent, such
as massive rocks, shear surfaces are broadly planar in nature.
In such cases, a set of joint planes or bedding planes or fault
planes may be the most convenient natural planes of failure.
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 Types of Landslide
On the basis of the type of movement involved in the failure:
(a) Translational slides
 The surface of failure is generally planar in character,
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speed of failure is quite rapid

 The nature of mass involved in failing may be rock
blocks, rock slabs, debris and soil cover or even a
mixture of all of them.
 These slides are quite frequent in slopes made up of
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rocks and cohesive soil.

(b) Rotational slides
 In such slides, the failing surface is generally
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curved in character and the speed of failure is

also quite rapid
 Because of the nature of the failing surface, the
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movement of the mass takes the form of a sort of

rotation, rather than translation.
 The material involved in failure tilts downwards at
the rear end and heaves up at the front or toe.
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(c) Rock toppling and falls
 These are grouped along with slides although there
may be little or no sliding involved in their failure (since
they are commonly associated or accompanied with
landslides)
 They are essentially a slope-failure phenomenon.
 In the falls, there is almost a free, sudden and fast
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decent from a steep slope.
 These conditions are favored for this type of failure is weathering of rocks on the slopes
due to climatic changes e.g. frost action, expansion and contraction, leaching of natural
binders etc.
3. Subsidence
It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost
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vertically downward direction which may occur because of
removal of natural support from the underground or due to
compaction of the weaker rocks under the load from overlying
mass.
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Definitions
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Landslide Hazard refers to the potential of occurrence of a damaging landslide within a given area;
such damage could include loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption, or
environmental degradation.
Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent of potential loss to given elements (or set of elements)
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within the area affected by the hazard, expressed on a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss); vulnerability
is shaped by physical, social, economic and environmental conditions.
Landslide Risk refers to the probability of harmful consequences-the expected number of lives lost,
persons injured, extent of damage to property or ecological systems, or disruption of economic activity
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–within a landslide prone area. The risk may be individual or societal in scope, resulting from an
interaction between the hazard and individual or societal vulnerability.
Landslide Risk Evaluation is the application of analyses and judgments (encompassing physical, social,
and economic dimensions of landslide vulnerability) to determine risk management alternatives, which
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may include determination that the landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.

CAUSES OF MASS MOVEMENT
There are many factors involved in causing mass movement. Some of them have direct role and some
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are indirectly responsible for the instability of land mass. All such factors can be grouped into two,
Internal factors & External factors.
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A. Internal Factors
These include such causes, which tend to reduce the shearing strength of soil or rock mass.
(i) Nature of Slope
 A great majority of mass failures are confined to slopes only, it is reasonable to conclude that
nature of a slope may be a deciding factor in defining the stability of a land mass.
 By nature of slope it is meant here, the type of material of which the land mass is made up
(soil or rock) and the angle at which this particular mass is inclined with the horizontal (the
slope angle).
 Any mass forming a slope is subject to two types of forces:
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First, those forces or strength by virtue of which it can retain the soil mass in stable position
(i.e. shear strength of soil) and second, those forces which tend to induce failure into it.
 Shear strength of soil is given by: 𝝉 = 𝒄 + 𝝈𝒕𝒂𝒏∅
 Where τ – shear strength, c – cohesion, σ – normal stress and ϕ – angle of internal friction of
mass
 Among the forces that tend to induce failure in a mass, the most important is the pull due to
gravity which acts through the weight of the material.
 When Forces tending to induce failure is greater than shear strength of soil, the mass
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becomes unstable.
 This may be explained in a simple case assuming a mass M forming a slope angle β and
resting over a possible surface of planar failure.
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 Forces resisting failure, RF = cA + W cosβ tanϕ
 Forces Inducing failure, IF = W sinβ

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Where c – Cohesion of mass, W – Force of mass acting through it, β – Angle of slope,
ϕ – Angle of internal friction and A – Area of block at contact
 The condition of limiting equilibrium is satisfied when IF = RF
 In the analysis of stability conditions for slopes, a factor of safety, FS is expressed as
𝚺𝐑𝐅
𝐅𝐒 =
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𝚺𝐈𝐅
Angle of Repose
 It has been observed that most materials are stable up to a certain angle of slope.
 This is called the critical angle of slope (sometimes called angle of repose) and varies from
35ᵒ for unconsolidated sediments to 90ᵒ for perfectly crystalline un-jointed rocks.
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 For partially jointed rocks it may range from 60ᵒ -90ᵒ.

(ii) Role of Water
 Both surface and subsurface water have important role in causing mass movement.
 Water may to reduce the shearing strength of a rock or soil mass in a number of ways.
 Some general cases of role of water is discussed below under 4 ways:
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(a) Water that penetrates the soil and rocks through seepage and moves into the pores of
the mass may be the cause of development of an uplift or pore-pressure within the mass
under consideration.
This pore pressure, “p”, reduce the normal stress of the mass and thereby reduce shear
strength of soil.
(b) Water accumulates at the back of a mass may exert a pressure, in the opposite direction
of shear strength thereby reduce the net resisting forces against failure and thus cause
instability. Such water pressure cause great reduction in the factor of safety of a mass.
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(c) A still different way in which water may weaken the soil or rock mass is through its
repeated change of state with climate changes.
Water freezing within the pores and other open spaces during extremely cold weather
expands and exerts considerable pressure. This may be followed by melting or thawing of
ice crystal in following summers.
The water so produced may saturate the mass. This process of frost action may be
repeated again and again in cold humid regions resulting in disintegration of layers of
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soils and rocks. As a consequence stable slopes of massive nature may change gradually
into unstable slopes.
Flowage, whether slow or rapid, invariably involves presence of water. In cold regions, frost
action has been found to be the primary cause of frequent rock falls from high steep slopes.
(d) Water also facilitates mass failure through its lubricating action.
Thus, when groundwater happens to move along a plane of weakness (e.g. a joint set, a
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fault pane, shear zone and a bedding plane etc.) within a mass, that plane gets lubricated,
thereby decreasing the friction forces and it affects the stability.
(iii) Composition of Mass
 Materials are stable in a given set of conditions of slope and water content
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 By composition of the mass is meant in the present study:
(a) Whether the mass is in the form of soil or a rock; rock formation is stable as compared to
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soil formation
(b) If soil, whether it is cohesive or non-cohesive, and also, if it is sandy, silty or clayey or a
mixture of two or more of these components; Cohesive soil is stable compared to non-
cohesive soil
(c) If rock, whether it is an igneous or sedimentary or metamorphic rock, and also, within each
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group, to which particular class it belongs. Igneous rock is stronger rock
 The role of composition of mass in its stability becomes important because a broad assessment
can be made about the stability of a mass if its exact composition (in both physical and chemical
sense) is known.
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(iv) Geological Structures

 Geological structures are of great significance in defining the stability of mass, especially in
rocks.
 Relationship of geological structures with the stability of mass has been discussed below under
3 headings:
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(a) Bedding planes

 Many sedimentary rocks are layered or stratified and thickness of layers may range from
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few centimeters to many meters. The bedding plane (the surface between any two
adjacent layers) is a plane, with least cohesion in a layered mass. These layers may be
horizontal, inclined at various angles with the horizontal (dipping) or even vertical. The
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dip or inclination of the stratified rocks exerts very important influence on the stability
of slopes.
 This may be explained in different cases as follows:
CASE I: The layers are horizontal (Dip = 0°). Such rocks forming the slopes of the natural
valleys and artificial cuts are stable at all the angles up to 90°. When they fail, it may be
due to presence of secondary jointing or related fractures.
CASE II:
The layers are Inclined. In such a situation, assuming that the rock is free from any other
types of discontinuities (joints, shear and fault zones), the stability of a slope (natural
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the artificial) will depend primarily on the condition whether the layers are dipping
backwards into the mountain or forward into the valley or the cut.
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# When dipping into the mountain, the tendency of layers to slide along the bedding
planes is resisted by enormous weight of the mountain resting against them. Hence,
in such a situation, even a nearly vertical slope should be stable.
# When dipping into the valley, there will be tendency of the layers to slide and sliding
may take place where the dip of the layers is greater than angle of internal friction,
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ϕ = 30 and the slope angle β exceeds the dip angle α .
# Cuts parallel to the dip of the rocks are more safe and stable compared to those
parallel to the strike of the layers.
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(b) The Metamorphic Structures
 Schistosity, foliation and cleavage structures as found in metamorphic rocks like schists,
gneisses and slates respectively and thus all behave as surfaces of weakness and
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promote the failure.

(c) The Jointing Structures
 Joints reduce the shear strength of soil and rock formations
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B. External factors
 An analysis of many slope failure makes it clear that in some cases an external factor might have
triggered the slide
 External factors include vibrations from artificial and natural phenomenon.
Vibrations due to artificial causes - Heavy blasting and heavy traffic on hill roads
Vibrations due to natural causes – Earthquakes
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 Another important external factor is the removal of the support at the foot of the slope, during
excavation for road widening.
 Removal of trees is another is another external cause for mass movement
ADVERSE EFFECTS
The most common elements at risk are the settlements
built on the steep slopes, built at the toe and those built at
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the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain
valley. All those buildings constructed without appropriate
foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at
risk. Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.
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Distributional Pattern:
Landslides constitute a major
natural hazard in our country,
which accounts for considerable
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loss of life and damage to
communication routes, human
settlements, agricultural fields
and forest lands. The Indian
subcontinent, with diverse
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physiographic, seismic, tectonic
and climatological conditions is
subjected to varying degree of
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landslide hazards; the Himalayas
including Northeastern
mountains ranges being the
worst affected, followed by a
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section of Western Ghats and

the Vindhyas. Removal of
vegetation and toe erosion have
also triggered slides. Torrential
rainfall on the deforested slopes
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is the main factor in the

Peninsular India namely in
Western Ghat and Nilgiris.
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Human intervention by way of

slope modification has added to
this effect. Figure shows landslide hazard zonation map of India.
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MONITORING OF MASS MOVEMENTS

 Detection of possibility of failure before its occurrence by noting the present conditions is called
Monitoring.
 Monitoring of slopes may be achieved by using conventional surveying techniques.
 Land or mass movement can be ascertained using electronic equipment, laser equipment,
settlement gauges and extensometers.
 Pore water pressure can be measured using the Piezometers and thus possibility of failure by pore
water pressure can be understood.
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TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE LANDSLIDE HAZARDS
Following are some of the techniques used to reduce landslide hazards. These may be used in a variety
of combinations to help to solve both existing and potential landslide problems. The techniques are
generally applicable to all types of surface ground failure, including flows, slides and falls. The
effectiveness of each hazard reduction varies with time, place and persons involved in the planning
and implementing of the Programme for reducing the hazard.
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CONTROL OF MASS MOVEMENTS

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1. Drainage
 Water presence is the one of the factor that leads to the mass movement.
 Avoid water content either by surface or sub-surface methods.
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 Construct series of ditches

 Backfill the pits on the soil surface with concrete or asphalt to prevent the water
impounding.
 Cover the slope surface with granular material to remove excess rainfall.
 Remove the cracks and fissures in the surface by filling with cement, bitumen or clay
mixture.
 Construct interception drains (To reduce pore water pressure)
 Oiling of slope surfaces
 Electro- osmosis
 Heating the slope surface to avoid water content
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2. Retaining structures
 Construct Retaining walls and buttresses
 These are suitable where:
(a) The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic.
(b) The sliding mass is likely to remain dry
(c) The movement is of a shallow nature and limited extent
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3. Slope reinforcement by rock bolting
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Rock Bolts pa
 Rock bolts are used to tie up different rock blocks together thereby improving the stability of
rock mass.
 A rock bolt is a steel bar of suitable dia (2-25mm) and length (60cm- 5m) one end of which is
designed for expanding and other end is threaded to take a nut and washer.
 Such a bolt is inserted into a hole drilled in the rock at a proper angle with the plane of weakness
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and its end within the rock is made to expand whereby it fits tightly into the rock.
 The other end is tied on a plate with the help of a nut and washer. The rod is generally pre-
stressed and is always placed in tension.
 When placed in the above fashion, the rock bolt held up within the two ends of the bolt gets
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compressed and hence stabilized against falling.

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Rock Anchors
 Rock anchors are structural elements made up of cables, bars. Like bolts, it is also placed in
previously drilled holes and then whole or part of them is bonded to the rock using a proper
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technique.
 They may be tensioned after placing in the hole before or after grouting which is an integral
part of anchorage system.
 Anchor system may exceed 20-30m in length and once installed they modify the original stress
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field of the rock to a considerable extent.

 Use corrosion resistant materials for rock anchors
4. Slope treatment
 Treat the top layers of formation
 Apply concrete or mortar on the top surface.
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 The mixture of cement and sand (1:3) with little water is applied on the face under pressure and
thus the slopes gains sufficient strength on hardening.
 Flatten the slope to ensure stability.
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 Decreasing the load on slopes (For example on hill roads, reduce the traffic)
 Provide benches at the foot of the slope
 Promote afforestation (Vegetation cover reduces the infiltration of water)
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*******************************
Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module III
MODULE 3
Syllabus:
Types of Natural Disasters II‐ Floods, Coastal disasters‐ Cyclones, Tsunamis. Nature of impacts.
FLOODS
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You read in newspapers and watch images of floods on televisions occurring in some regions during
rainy seasons. Inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its
spill‐over presents the condition of flooding. Unlike other natural disasters, the causes of floods are
well established.
Floods are relatively slow in occurrences and often, occur in well‐identified regions and within expected
time in a year. Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run‐off exceeds the carrying
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capacity of the river channels and streams and flows into the neighboring low‐lying flood plains. At
times, this even goes beyond the capacity of lakes and other inland water bodies in which they flow.
Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity rainfall for a
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considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in the infiltration rate and presence
of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of soil erosion. Though floods occur frequently over
wide geographical area having disastrous ramifications in many parts of the world, floods in the South,
Southeast and East Asian countries, particularly in China, India and Bangladesh, are frequent and
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equally disastrous.
Once again, unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in the genesis as well
as spread of floods. Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural practices, disturbances along
the natural drainage channels and colonization of flood‐plains and river‐beds are some of the human
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activities that play an important role in increasing the intensity, magnitude and gravity of floods.
FLOODS
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation of
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land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even
happen suddenly without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over, heavy rains etc.
 Every stream flows in a particular stage at a particular place during different intervals of time in a
year such as a dry stage, half‐full stage and bank full stage.
 This depends upon climate and precipitation in the catchment area.
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 A flood occurs when the volume of water in the river becomes greater than bank‐full stage: the
extra water spills over the banks and spreads in sheets all along and away from the banks governed
by available slope. This condition is called flood.
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TYPES OF FLOODS
According to their duration flood can be divided into different categories:
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(a) Slow‐Onset Floods: Slow Onset Floods usually last for a relatively longer period, it may last for
one or more weeks, or even months.
(b) Rapid‐Onset Floods: Rapid Onset Floods last for a relatively shorter period, they usually last
for one or two days only.
(c) Flash Floods: Flash Floods may occur within minutes or a few hours after heavy rainfall, tropical
storm, failure of dams or levees or releases from dams, and it causes the greatest damages to
society.

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Module III Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
Flash floods
Flash floods, which are short‐lived extreme events, prove the exception. They usually occur under
slowly moving or stationary thunderstorms, which last for less than 24 hours. The resulting rainfall
intensity exceeds infiltration capacity, so run‐off takes place very rapidly. Flash floods are frequently
very destructive as the high energy flow can carry much sedimentary material
 Flash floods are local floods of great volume and short duration.
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 A flash flood generally results from a torrential rain or “cloudburst” on relatively small and
widely dispersed streams.
 Runoff from the intense rainfall results in high flood waves.
 Discharges, quickly reach a maximum and diminish almost as rapidly.
 Flood flows frequently contain large concentrations of sediment and debris.
 Flash floods also result from the failure of a dam.
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 Flash floods are particularly common in mountainous areas and desert regions but are a
potential threat in any area, where the terrain is steep, surface runoff rates are high, streams
flow in narrow canyons, and severe thunderstorms prevail.
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River floods
 River floods are caused by precipitation over large areas or by melting of the winter’s
accumulation of snow, or by both.

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short duration in small streams, riverine floods take place in river systems whose tributaries
may drain large geographic areas and encompass many independent river basins
 Floods on large river systems may continue for periods ranging from a few hours to many days.
Flood flows in large river systems are the distribution of precipitation.
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 The condition of the ground (amount of soil moisture, seasonal variations in vegetation, depth
of snow cover, imperviousness due to urbanization, etc.) directly affects runoff.
Coastal floods/Storm surge
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 Storm surge or tidal surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather
system, typically a tropical cyclone.
 Storm surge is caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface.
 The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level
 Low pressure at the center of a weather system also has a small secondary effect, as can the
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bathymetry of the body of water.
 It is this combined effect of low pressure and persistent wind over a shallow water body which
is the most common cause of storm surge flooding problems.
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 The term "storm surge" in casual (non‐scientific) use is storm tide; that is, it refers to the rise
of water associated with the storm, plus tide, wave run‐up, and freshwater flooding.
CAUSES OF FLOODS
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There are several causes of floods and differ from region to region. The causes may vary from a rural
area to an urban area. Some of the major causes are:
a. Heavy rainfall
b. Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
c. Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
d. Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
e. Construction of dams and reservoirs
f. In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with storm
surge leads to flooding.
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The geological factors that facilitate floods are defined by the topography, lithology and character
of the drainage basin.
a. Topography: The nature of slopes along the river bank may vary from slightly sloping to steeply
sloping. The steeply sloping land conveys the run‐off after heavy rains directly to the stream
within a short time from both the sides thereby reaching the bank full stage.
b. Lithology (i.e. type of soil or rock): when majority of slopes in the catchment are made of pervious
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open‐texture soils or highly permeable rocks, a good part of rainwater is absorbed and infiltrates
as ground water. However, where slopes are made up of impervious, compacted, solid and
massive rocks or soils, greater volumes of run‐off reach the streams contributing towards the
flood‐stage situation.
c. Vegetation: Vegetation in the form of grasses, bushes or even forests with well‐ developed
root network system act as effective barriers and retarders against run‐off. Conversely bare slopes
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not only allow the run‐off an easy path, they also contribute by providing lot of debris to the
down‐rushing waters. This debris when reaching the streams flattens their channels thereby
decreasing their water carrying capacity. Short‐time sudden floods (flash floods) may be caused on
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rare occasions by cloud bursts and collapse of darns against reservoir.
TYPICAL ADVERSE EFFECTS:
The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like houses,
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bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landslides triggered on account of water getting
saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by
drowning. Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, piped
water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria and many other
infectious diseases.
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Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result there is a huge crop
loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. Floods may also affect the soil characteristics.
The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top layer or may turn saline if sea water floods
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the area
MONITORING OF FLOODS
Anticipating floods before they occur allows for precautions to be taken and people to be warned so
that they can be prepared in advance for flooding conditions.
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In order to make the most accurate flood forecasts for waterways, it is best to have a long time‐series
of historical data that relates stream flows to measure past rainfall events.
Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting techniques are also important components
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of good flood forecasting.
Magnitude and Frequency of flood
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 The magnitude of a flood is generally indicated by the discharge of water from a channel at a
particular point. The discharge of flow is commonly indicated by means of a hydrograph.
 As the name indicates, a hydrograph is a plot between discharge of a stream at a particular
place in cubic meters/sec or cubic feet/sec over a period of time (day/week/month/year). A flood
is often indicated by the Peak in a hydrograph
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 If we have hydrographs of a river for longer periods (or years) then it can be used for flood
prediction studies
 If we have longer periods of hydrographs, the frequency of flood i.e. its recurrence or periodicity
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can be predicted.
 If a flood has return period of 10 years it means it occurs once in 10 years.
POSSIBLE RISK REDUCTION MEASURES:
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Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the risk of the region. Historical
records give the indication of the flood inundation areas and the period of occurrence and the extent
of the coverage. Warning can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water levels in
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case of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land characteristics will determine
the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give the proper indication of water flow during
floods.
Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters inundate the floodplains and the
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coastal areas. The number of casualties is related to the population in the area at risk. In areas where
people already have built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better sites so as
to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the areas which are subjected
to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools should be built in safe areas. In urban areas,
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water holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or low‐lying areas.
Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening of structures to withstand
flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build
on stilts or platform. Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the
amount of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase absorption could be a mitigation strategy
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in certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other water holding
areas, conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion include levees, embankments, dams and
channel improvement. Dams can store water and can release water at a manageable rate. But failure
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of dams in earthquakes and operation of releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas. Flood
Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to keep flood water away,
blocking or sealing of doors and windows of houses etc. Houses may be elevated by building on raised
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land. Buildings should be constructed away from water bodies.
Flood Management. In India, systematic planning for flood management commenced with the Five
Year Plans, particularly with the launching of National Programme of Flood Management in 1954.
During the last 48 years, different methods of flood protection structural as well as nonstructural have
been adopted in different states depending upon the nature of the problem and local conditions.
Structural measures include storage reservoirs, flood embankments, drainage channels, anti‐erosion
works, channel improvement works, detention basins etc. and non‐structural measures include flood
forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing, disaster preparedness etc. The flood management
measures undertaken so far have provided reasonable degree of protection to an area of 15.81 million
hectares throughout the country.
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Flood embankments, Dams & Reservoir
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Drainage improvement, Diversion of Flood River
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Diversion canals. Floods can be controlled by
redirecting excess water to purpose‐built canals
or floodways, which in turn divert the water to
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temporary holding ponds or other bodies of water
where there is a lower risk or impact to flooding.
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Flood plain zoning
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Flood plain zones can be designated for specific types of land use: that is, in the channel zone water
should be allowed to flow freely without obstruction;
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 Flood hazard zone I (Active flood plain area):
Prohibit development (business and residential) within flood plain Maintain area in
a natural state as an open area or for recreational uses only.
 Flood hazard zone II (Alluvial fans and plains with channels less than a metre deep,
bifurcating, and intricately interconnected systems subject to inundation from overbank
flooding):
Flood-proofing to reduce or prevent loss to structures is highly recommended. Residential
development densities should be relatively low; development in obvious drainage channels
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should be prohibited.
Dry stream channels should be maintained in a natural state and/or the density of native
vegetation should be increased to facilitate superior water drainage retention and infiltration
capabilities.
Installation of upstream stormwater retention basins to reduce peak water discharges.
Construction should be at the highest local elevation site where possible.
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 Flood hazard zone III (Dissected upland and lowland slopes; drainage channels where
both erosional and depositional processes are operative along gradients generally less
than 5%):
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Similar to flood hazard zone II
Roadways that traverse channels should be reinforced to withstand the erosive power of a
pachanneled stream flow.
DISTRIBUTIONAL PATTERN OF FLOODS IN INDIA
Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Various states of India face heavy loss of lives
and property due to recurrent floods. National Flood Commission identified 40 million hectares of land
as flood‐prone in India. The Figure below shows the flood‐affected areas in India.
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Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high flood‐prone states of India. Apart from these, most
of the rivers in the northern states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, are also vulnerable to occasional
floods. It has been noticed that states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting
inundated in recent decades due to flash floods. This is partly because of the pattern of the monsoon
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and partly because of blocking of most of the streams and river channels by human activities.
Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences flooding during November‐ January due to the retreating
monsoon.
Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin (comprising of Barak, Tista,
Torsa, Subansiri, Sankosh, Dihang and Luhit), the northwestern river basin (comprising Jhelum, Chenab,
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Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and the Ghagra), peninsular river basin (Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani,
Godavari, krishna, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, orissa
and Kerela. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are some of the states who have been severely
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prone to floods. Our country receives an annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in
3‐4 months i.e June to September. Due to the intense and periodic rain, most of the rivers of the
country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their carrying capacity.
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Warning:
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Flood forecasting and warning has been highly developed in the past two decades. With the
advancement of technology such as satellite and remote‐sensing equipments flood waves can
be tracked as the water level rises. Except for flash floods there is usually a reasonable warning
period. Heavy precipitation will give sufficient warning of the coming river flood. High tides
with high winds may indicate flooding in the coastal areas. Evacuation is possible with suitable
monitoring and warning. Warning is issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC), Irrigation
& Flood Control Department, and Water Resources Department. CWC maintains close liaison
with the administrative and state engineering agencies, local civil authorities to communicate
advance warning for appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures.
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FLOOD BENEFITS
Floods (in particular more frequent or smaller floods) can also bring many benefits, such as
 Recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and increasing nutrients in some soils.
 Flood waters provide much needed water resources in arid and semi‐arid regions where
precipitation can be very unevenly distributed throughout the year.
 Freshwater floods particularly play an important role in maintaining ecosystems y in river
corridors and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain biodiversity.
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 Flooding can spread nutrients to lakes and rivers, which can lead to increased biomass and
improved fisheries for a few years.
 Fish, such as the weather fish, make use of floods in order to reach new habitats.
 Bird populations may also profit from the boost in food production caused by flooding.
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TSUNAMI
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and nami meaning
'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides.
These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement of water from the lake
or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.
Whatever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately
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surging over land with great destructive power. The effects of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or even
destructive.
What is a Tsunami?
A tsunami is a very long‐wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden displacement of the
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seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water. Tsunami are sometimes called "seismic sea
waves", although they can be generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes. Tsunami have also
been called "tidal waves", but this term should not be used because they are not in any way related to
the tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occur suddenly, often without warning, they are extremely
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dangerous to coastal communities.
Physical Characteristics of Tsunami
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All types of waves, including tsunami, have a wavelength, a wave height, an amplitude, a frequency or
period, and a velocity.
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• Wavelength is defined as the distance between two identical points on a wave (i.e. between

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wave crests or wave troughs). Normal ocean waves have wavelengths of about 100 meters.
Tsunami have much longer wavelengths, usually measured in kilometers and up to 500
kilometers.
• Wave height refers to the distance between the trough of the wave and the crest or peak of the
wave.
• Wave amplitude ‐ refers to the height of the wave above the still water line, usually this is equal
to 1/2 the wave height. Tsunami can have variable wave height and amplitude that depends on
water depth as we shall see in a moment
• Wave frequency or period ‐ is the amount of time it takes for one full wavelength to pass a
stationary point.
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• Wave velocity is the speed of the wave. Velocities of normal ocean waves are about 90 km/hr
while tsunami have velocities up to 950 km/hr (about as fast as jet airplanes), and thus move
much more rapidly across ocean basins. The velocity of any wave is equal to the wavelength
divided by the wave period.
V = λ/P
Tsunami are characterized as shallow‐water waves. These are different from the waves most of us have
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observed on the beach, which are caused by the wind blowing across the ocean's surface. Wind‐
generated waves usually have period (time between two successive waves) of five to twenty seconds
and a wavelength of 100 to 200 meters. A tsunami can have a period in the range of ten minutes to
two hours and wavelengths greater than 500 km.
How Tsunami are Generated
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The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways. The most common
of these are fault movements on the sea floor, accompanied by an earth‐quake. They release huge
amount of energy and have the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement depends on how
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fast the earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced. Fig blow shows how an earthquake
causes tsunami.
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The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring under water or
originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The largest tsunami ever produced by a
landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide produced a wave that reached a high
water mark of 50 ‐ 150 meters above the shoreline
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There is an average of two destructive tsunami per year in the Pacific basin. Pacific wide tsunami is a
rare phenomenon, occurring every 10 ‐ 12 years on the average. Most of these tsunamis are generated
by earthquakes that cause displacement of the seafloor, but, as we shall see, tsunami can be generated
by volcanic eruptions, landslides, underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts.
 Earthquakes
Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the seafloor. Thus, earthquakes that
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occur along coastlines or anywhere beneath the oceans can generate tsunami. The size of the
tsunami is usually related to the size of the earthquake, with larger tsunami generated by
larger earthquakes. But the sense of displacement is also important. Tsunami are generally
only formed when an earthquake causes vertical displacement of the seafloor
 Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes that occur along coastal zones, like in Japan and island arcs throughout the world,
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can cause several effects that might generate a tsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidly
emplace pyroclastic flows into the water, landslides and debris avalanches produced by
eruptions can rapidly move into water, and collapse of volcanoes to form calderas can
suddenly displace the water.
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 Landslides
Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate tsunami. Most such landslides
are generated by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
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 Underwater Explosions
Nuclear testing by the United States in the Marshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950s generated
tsunami.
 Meteorite Impacts
While no historic examples of meteorite impacts are known to have produced a tsunami, the
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apparent impact of a meteorite at the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years
ago near the tip of what is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, produced tsunami that left
deposits all along the Gulf coast of Mexico and the United States.
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General Characteristics
Tsunami differs from ordinary ocean waves, which are produced by wind blowing over water. The
tsunamis travel much faster than ordinary waves. Compared to normal wave speed of 100 kilometers
per hour, tsunami in the deep water of the ocean may travel the speed of a jet airplane ‐ 800 kilometers
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per hour! And yet, in spite of their speed, tsunami increases the water height only 30‐45cm and often
passes unnoticed by ships at sea.
Contrary to the popular belief, the tsunami is not a single giant wave. It is possible for a tsunami to
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consist of ten or more waves which is then termed as 'tsunami wave train'. The waves follow each
other 5 to 90 minutes apart. Tsunami normally causes flooding as a huge wall of water enters the main
land.
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Predictability:
There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:
a) International tsunami warning systems and
b) Regional warning systems.
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Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the great majority of them
have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists cannot exactly predict earthquakes, they also
cannot exactly predict when a tsunami will be generated.
a) International Tsunami Warning Systems:
Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami (1946), the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed with
its operational center at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC
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is able to alert countries several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning includes predicted
arrival time at selected coastal communities where the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami
watch is issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.
b) Regional Warning Systems
It use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to determine if there is a possible local threat of a
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tsunami. Such systems are capable enough to provide warnings to the general public in less than 15
minutes.
In India, the Survey of India maintains a tide gauge network along the coast of India. The gauges are
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located in major ports as shown in the figure. The day‐to‐day maintenance of the gauge is carried with
the assistance from authorities of the ports.
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Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected with the help of radars. The 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, recorded data from four radars and recorded the height of tsunami waves two hours after
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the earthquake. It should be noted that the satellites observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami would
not have been of any use in delivering warnings, as the data took five hours to process and it was pure
chance that the satellites were overhead at that time. However, in future it is possible that the space‐
based observation might play a direct role in tsunami warning.
Mitigation of Risks and Hazards
The main damage from tsunami comes from the destructive nature of the waves themselves.
Secondary effects include the debris acting as projectiles which then run into other objects, erosion
that can undermine the foundations of structures built along coastlines, and fires that result from
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disruption of gas and electrical lines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops and water and electrical
systems which can lead to famine and disease.
Typical adverse effects:
Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the majority of damage. The
force of the water can raze everything in its path. It is normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that
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causes major destruction to the human settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the
normal functioning of the society.
Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw towards the ocean they
sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get destroyed and the houses carried out to
sea. Damage to ports and airports may prevent importation of needed food and medical supplies. Apart
from the physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health system. Deaths mainly occur
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because of drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get washed away or crushed by the giant
waves and some are crushed by the debris, causes.
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There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has caused large scale health problem.
Availability of drinking water has always been a major problem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage
pipes may be damaged causing major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other ground water
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may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage. Flooding in the locality may lead to crop
loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets, environmental degradation etc.
Possible risk reduction measures:
While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone countries some
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measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an
extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal
areas. Other localities have built flood gates and channels to redirect the water from incoming
tsunamis. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis are often higher than the
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barriers.
For instance, the tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as
30m (100 ft) tall ‐ as high as a 10‐story building. The port town of Aonae on Hokkaido was completely
surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood‐
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framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the
height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
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Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis include:
• Site Planning and Land Management‐
Within the broader framework of a comprehensive plan, site planning determines the location,
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configuration, and density of development on particular sites and is, therefore, an important tool
in reducing tsunami risk.
 The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open‐space uses as agriculture,
parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is recommended as the first land use planning
strategy. This strategy is designed to keep development at a minimum in hazard areas.
 In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open‐space uses, other land use planning
measures can be used. These include strategically controlling the type of development and
uses allowed in hazard areas, and avoiding high‐value and high occupancy uses to the greatest
degree possible.
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• Engineering structures
Most of the habitation of the fishing community is seen in the coastal areas. The houses
constructed by them are mainly of lightweight materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore
there is an urgent need to educate the community about the good construction practices that they
should adopt such as:
 Site selection – Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the coastline
as these areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis.
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 Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea level.
 Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in height. Elevating house
will help reduce damage to property from most tsunamis.
 Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
 Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
 Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters at the time of a
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disaster.
• Flood management
Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will flood the coastal areas. Flood mitigation
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measures could be incorporated.
Plan for a Tsunami
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Develop a Family Disaster Plan. Tsunami‐specific planning should include the following:
• Learn about tsunami risk in your community. Contact your local emergency management office
or Red Cross chapter. Find out if your home, school, workplace or other frequently visited locations
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are in tsunami hazard areas. Know the height of your street above sea level and the distance of
your street from the coast or other high‐risk waters. Evacuation orders may be based on these
numbers.
• If you are visiting an area at risk from tsunamis, check with the hotel, motel, or campground
operators for tsunami evacuation information and how you would be warned. It is important to
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know designated escape routes before a warning is issued.
If you are at risk from tsunamis, do the following:
• Plan an evacuation route from your home, school, workplace, or any other place you'll be where
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tsunamis present a risk. If possible, pick an area 100 feet above sea level or go up to two miles
inland, away from the coastline. If you can't get this high or far, go as high as you can. Every foot
inland or upwards may make a difference. You should be able to reach your safe location on foot
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within 15 minutes. After a disaster, roads may become impassable or blocked. Be prepared to
evacuate by foot if necessary. Footpaths normally lead uphill and inland, while many roads parallel
coastlines. Follow posted tsunami evacuation routes; these will lead to safety. Local emergency
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management officials can help advice you as to the best route to safety and likely shelter locations.
• Practice your evacuation route. Familiarity may save your life. Be able to follow your escape route
at night and during inclement weather. Practicing your plan makes the appropriate response more
of a reaction, requiring less thinking during an actual emergency.
• Use a radio to keep informed of local watches and warnings.
• Talk to your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies do not cover flooding from a tsunami. Ask
about flood insurance.
• Discuss tsunami with your family. Everyone should know what to do in case all family members
are not together. Discussing tsunamis ahead of time will help reduce fear and anxiety and let
everyone know how to respond. Review flood safety and preparedness measures with your family.
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Assemble "Disaster Supplies Kit”. Tsunami‐specific supplies should include the following:
• Evacuation Supplies Kit in an easy‐to‐carry container (backpack) near your door
• Disaster Supplies Kit
How to Protect Your Property
• Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the coastline. These areas are
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more likely to experience damage from tsunamis, strong winds, or coastal storms.
• Make a list of items to bring inside in the event of a tsunami. A list will help you remember
anything that can be swept away by tsunami waters.
• Elevate coastal homes. Most tsunami waves are less than 10 feet. Elevating your house will help
reduce damage to your property from most tsunamis.
• Follow flood preparedness precautions. Tsunamis are large amounts of water that crash onto the
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coastline, creating floods.
• Have an engineer check your home and advise about ways to make it more resistant to tsunami
water. There may be ways to divert waves away from your property. Improperly built walls could
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make your situation worse. Consult with a professional for advice.
Media and Community Education Ideas
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• If your community is at risk, build and publicize locations of tsunami evacuation routes. Post signs
directing people to higher ground away from the coast.
• Review land use in tsunami hazard areas so no critical facilities, such as hospitals and police
stations; or high occupancy buildings, such as auditoriums or schools; or petroleum‐storage tank
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farms are located where there is a tsunami hazard. Tsunami damage can be minimized through
land use planning, preparation, and evacuation.
• Publish a special section in your local newspaper with emergency information on tsunamis. Localize
the information by printing the phone numbers of local emergency services offices, the American
Red Cross chapter, and hospitals.
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• Periodically inform your community of local public warning systems.
• Work with local emergency services and Red Cross officials to prepare special reports for people
with mobility impairments on what to do if an evacuation is ordered, and develop plans to assist
them with evacuation if necessary.
• Interview local officials and insurance companies about the proper types of insurance to cover a
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flood‐related loss. Include information on the economic effects of disaster.
What to Do When a Tsunami WARNING Is Issued
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• Listen to a radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other reliable source for updated
emergency information. Authorities will issue a warning only if they believe there is a real threat
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from tsunami.
• Follow instructions issued by local authorities. Recommended evacuation routes may be different
from the one you use, or you may be advised to climb higher.
• If you are in a tsunami risk area, do the following:
 If you hear an official tsunami warning or detect signs of a tsunami, evacuate at once. A tsunami
warning is issued when authorities are certain that a tsunami threat exists, and there may be
little time to get out.
 Take your Disaster Supplies Kit. Having supplies will make you more comfortable during the
evacuation.
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 Get to higher ground as far inland as possible. Officials cannot reliably predict either the height
or local effects of tsunamis. Watching a tsunami from the beach or cliffs could put you in grave
danger. If you can see the wave, you are too close to escape it.
Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe. A tsunami is a series of waves that may
continue for hours. Do not assume that after one wave the danger is over. The next wave may be larger
than the first one.
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What to Do After a Tsunami
• Continue listening to the radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other reliable
source for emergency information. The tsunami may have damaged roads, bridges, or other places
that may be unsafe.
• Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where appropriate. Call for help. Do not move
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seriously injured persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
• Help a neighbor who may require special assistance‐‐infants, elderly people, and people with
disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance. People
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who care for them or who have large families may need additional assistance in emergency
situations.
• Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in
•
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disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.
Stay out of the building if waters remain around it. Tsunami waters, like flood waters, can
undermine foundations, causing buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls to collapse.
• When re‐entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution. Tsunami‐driven flood waters may
have damaged buildings where you least expect it. Carefully watch every step you take.
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 Wear sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
 Use battery‐powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings. Battery‐powered
lighting is the safest and easiest, preventing fire hazard for the user, occupants, and building.
 Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that the building is not
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in danger of collapsing.
 Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage. Cracks and damage to a foundation can
render a building uninhabitable.
 Look for fire hazards. There may be broken or leaking gas lines, flooded electrical circuits, or
submerged furnaces or electrical appliances. Flammable or explosive materials may come from
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upstream. Fire is the most frequent hazard following floods.
 Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a window and
quickly leave the building. Turn off the gas using the outside main valve if you can, and call the
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gas company from a neighbor’s home. If you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned
back on by a professional.
 Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed wires, or if you smell
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burning insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have
to step in water to get to the fuse box or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice.
Electrical equipment should be checked and dried before being returned to service.
 Check for sewage and water line damage. If you suspect sewage lines are damaged, avoid
using the toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged, contact the water company
and avoid using water from the tap. You can obtain safe water from undamaged water heaters
or by melting ice cubes.
 Use tap water if local health officials advise it is safe.
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 Watch out for animals, especially poisonous snakes that may have come into buildings with
the water. Use a stick to poke through debris. Tsunami flood waters flush snakes and animals
out of their homes.
 Watch for loose plaster, drywall and ceilings that could fall.
 Take pictures of the damage, both building and its contents, for insurance claims.
• Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
• Shovel mud while it is still moist to give walls and floors an opportunity to dry.
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• Check food supplies. Any food that has come in contact with flood waters may be contaminated
and should be thrown out.
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CYCLONE
What is a Cyclone?
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction
in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They occur
mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
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Cyclones are known by different names in different parts of the world:
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• Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline
• Hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Pacific Ocean east of the dateline, or
the South Pacific Ocean.
• Tropical cyclones ‐ the Southwest Pacific Ocean and Southeast Indian Ocean.
• Severe cyclonic storm (the North Indian Ocean)
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• Tropical cyclone (the Southwest Indian Ocean)
• Willie‐Willie in Australia
• Tornado in South America
Types of Cyclones
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The term 'cyclone' actually refers to several different types of storms. They occur in different places,
and some occur over land while others occur over water. What they all have in common is that they
are spinning storms rotating around that low ‐pressure center.
Tropical cyclones: are what most people are familiar with because these are cyclones that occur over
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tropical ocean regions. Hurricanes and typhoons are actually types of tropical cyclones, but they have
different names so that it's clear where that storm is occurring. Hurricanes are found in the Atlantic
and Northeast Pacific, typhoons are found in the Northwest Pacific. If you hear 'tropical cyclone,' you
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should assume that it's occurring in the South Pacific or Indian Ocean, but for this lesson, we'll use it
refer to all types of tropical ocean cyclones.
We can also further describe tropical cyclones based on their wind speeds. They are called category 1,
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2, 3, 4 or 5, increasing with intensity and wind speed as the number increases. A category 1 cyclone is
the weakest, with wind speeds of 74‐95 mph. A category 5 cyclone, on the other hand, is extremely
dangerous and has the potential for major damage. Category 5 cyclones have wind speeds of 155 mph
and above!
Polar cyclones: are cyclones that occur in Polar Regions like Greenland, Siberia and Antarctica. Unlike
tropical cyclones, polar cyclones are usually stronger in winter months. As you can see, these storms
really do prefer the colder weather! They also occur in areas that aren't very populated, so any damage
they do is usually pretty minimal.
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Mesocyclone: is when part of a thunderstorm cloud starts to spin, which may eventually lead to a
tornado. 'Meso' means 'middle', so you can think of this as the mid ‐point between one type of storm
and the other. Tornadoes all come from thunderstorm clouds, but not all thunderstorm clouds make
tornadoes. In order for a tornado to occur, part of that cloud has to spin, and though you can't really
see this happening, this is the intermediate, or 'meso' step from regular cloud to dangerous spinning
cloud running along the ground.
General Characteristics:
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Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of a cyclone are:
1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge
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Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause a lot of destruction. In some cases it
is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing
floods.
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The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely
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a) Formation and initial development state:
Four atmospheric/ oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone namely:
 A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of 60 meters, which
provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation.
 High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by to a height of about 7000 meters,
facilitates condensation of water vapor into droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and
induces drop in pressure.
 Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature with altitude) encourages
considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air occurs.
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 A location of at least 4‐5 latitude degrees from the Equator allow the influence of the force due
to the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around
low pressure centers.
b) Fully matured:
The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant
cumulus thundercloud bands. These bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active central
cloud core which raps around a relatively calm zone. This is called the “eye” of a cyclone. The eye
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looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by thick clouds. The outer circumference of the thick
cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.
c) Weakening or decay
A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its source of warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This
is possible when the cyclone hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher altitude or when there
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is the interference of another low pressure.
Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to land a cyclone may last for less
than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks. On an average the life cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete
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these three stages mentioned above) takes six days. The longest cyclone is typhoon John which lasted
for 31 days (August to September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific basins).
Indian Cyclones
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Cyclones vary in frequency in various parts of the world. The 7516.6 kilometers long Indian coastline is
the earth’s most cyclone battered stretch of the world. Around 8 per cent of the total land area in India
is prone to cyclones. About two‐third of the cyclones that occur in the Indian coastline occur in the Bay
of Bengal. The states which are generally affected in the east coast are West‐Bengal, Orissa, Andhra
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Pradesh; Tamil Nadu and on the west coast Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.
Distributional Pattern:
The map of India shows the areas that are generally affected by strong winds/ cyclones.
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Some of the major cyclones that have affected the country in the past are as mentioned in table below.
Some of the major cyclones that have affected the country in the past are as mentioned damage. The
satellites track the movement of these cyclones based on which the people are evacuated from areas
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lively to be affected. It is difficult to predict the accuracy. Accurate landfall predictions can give only a
few hours’ notice to threatened population.
Sl No Year Area Death toll

1 1971 Eastern Coast 9658
2 1972 Andhra Pradesh and Orissa 100
3 1977 Chennai, Kerala & Andhra Pradesh 14,204
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4 1979 Andhra Pradesh 594
5 1981 Gujarat 470
6 1982 Gujarat & Maharashtra 500
7 1984 Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh 512
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10 1990 Orissa 250
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11 1999 Orissa 8913
Warning
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Low pressure and the development can be detected hours or days before it causes damage. The
satellites track the movement of these cyclones based on which the people are evacuated from areas
lively to be affected. It is difficult to predict the accuracy. Accurate landfall predictions can give only a
few hours’ notice to threatened population.
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India has one of the best cyclone warning systems in the world. The India Meteorological Department
(IMD) is the nodal department for wind detection, tracking and forecasting cyclones. Cyclone tracking
is done through INSAT satellite. Cyclone warning is disseminated by several means such as satellite
based disaster warning systems, radio, television, telephone, fax, high priority telegram, public
announcements and bulletins in press. These warnings are disseminated to the general public, the
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fishing community especially those in the sea, port authorities, commercial aviation and the
government machinery.
Elements at Risk: Strong winds, torrential rains and flooding cause a huge loss to life and property. The
1999 Super Cyclone of Orissa killed more than 10,000 precious lives with women and children greatly
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affected. Apart from loss to life there is a huge loss to infrastructures like houses built of mud, older
buildings with weak walls, bridges, settlements in low lying areas.
Effects of Cyclones and Hurricanes:
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 Tropical cyclones cause heavy rainfall and landslides.
 They cause a lot of harm to towns and villages, causing severe damage to kuccha houses.
Coastal businesses like shipyards and oil wells are destroyed.
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 They harm the ecosystem of the surrounding region. iv. Civic facilities are disturbed.
 Agricultural land is severely affected, especially in terms of water supply and soil erosion.
 It causes harm to human, plant and animal life.
 Communication systems are badly affected due to cyclones.
Typical Adverse effect:
First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause major damage to infrastructure and housing, in
particular fragile constructions. They are generally followed by heavy rains and floods and, in flat
coastal areas by storm surge riding on tidal waves and inundating the land over long distances of even
upto 15 kilometer inland damaged or destroyed by the wind force, flooding and storm surge. Light
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pitched roofs of most structures especially the ones fitted on to industrial buildings will suffer severe
damage.
Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements, contamination of water supplies
may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.
Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters.
Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock lying in low lying
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areas. Plantation type crops such as banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea
water may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may
lead to acute food shortage.
Communication – severe disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring down the
electricity and communication towers, telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and satellite disk
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and broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed, Lack of proper
communication affects effective distribution of relief materials.
Management and Mitigation of Cyclones and Hurricanes:
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 Coastal areas should be well prepared to meet eventualities that arise from cyclones.
 Houses should be constructed such that they can withstand the heavy rainfall and forceful
winds.
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paShelter beds should be created to check soil erosion and speed of winds.
Remote sensing techniques should be used to forecast cyclones appropriately. v. When a
cyclone does occur, rescue and relief operations should be in place.
 Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
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Coastal belt plantation ‐ green belt plantation along the coastal line in a scientific interweaving pattern
can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a cover through green belt sustains less damage. Forests
act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone travel
freely inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to inundate large areas and cause
destruction. With the loss of the forest cover each consecutive cyclone can penetrate further inland.
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Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the probability of
the winds in the region. Cyclones can be predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and
often very destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of occurrence for particular wind
speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to cyclone in any given year. It will be useful
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to estimate the severity of the cyclone and various damage intensities in the region. The map is
prepared with data inputs of past climatological records, history of wind speed, frequency of flooding
etc.
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Land use control designed so that least critical activities are placed in vulnerable areas. Location of
settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk. Siting of key facilities must be marked in the land use.
Policies should be in place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.
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Engineered structures – structures need to be built to withstand wind forces. Good site selection is
also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas are built with locally available materials and
have no engineering inputs. Good construction practice should be adopted such as:
 Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to construct on stilts or on earth
mound.
 Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All elements holding the
structures need to be properly anchored to resist the uplift or flying off of the objects. For
example, avoid large overhangs of roofs, and the projections should be tied down.
 A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
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 Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
 Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and water.
 Protect river embankments.
 Communication lines should be installed underground.
 Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
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Flood management – Torrential rains strong wind and storm range leads to flooding in the cyclone
affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation measures could be
incorporated (see section on floods for additional information).
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Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil intact and prevent erosion
and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak.
Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes devastating
effects. The Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for urgent measures like shelterbelt
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plantation along cyclone‐prone coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose should not only be able
to withstand the impact of strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.

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Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
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Assistant Professor
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MODULE 4
Syllabus:
Types of Anthropogenic Disasters I– soil and soil degradation, desertification.
SOIL DEGRADATION
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Many people do conceive the idea of soil degradation but a good number lacks the knowledge of its
precise definition. To fill this knowledge gap, soil degradation simply means the decline in soil quality
which comes about due to aspects such as improper land use, agriculture, and pasture, urban or
industrial purposes. It involves the decline of the soil’s physical, biological and chemical state.
Soil degradation examples include decline in soil fertility, adverse changes in alkalinity, acidity or
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salinity, extreme flooding, use of toxic soil pollutants, erosion, and deterioration of the soil’s structural
condition. These elements contribute to a significant amount of soil quality depreciation annually.
Excessive soil degradation thus gives rise to immediate and long-term impacts which translate into
serious global environmental headaches.
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While soil degradation may occur naturally, it has been highly exuberated by anthropogenic activities.
Besides, climate change combined with human activities continues to worsen soil degradation. With
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the objective of understanding the distinct nature of soil quality decline, here are the causes, effects,
and solutions of soil degradation.
CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

1. Physical Factors
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There are several physical factors contributing to soil degradation distinguished by the manners in
which they change the natural composition and structure of the soil. Rainfall, surface runoff, floods,
wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements result in the loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil
quality.
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All these physical factors produces different types of soil erosion (mainly water and wind erosion) and
soil detachment actions, and their resultant physical forces eventually changes the composition and
structure of the soil by wearing away the soil’s top layer as well as organic matter. In the long-term,
the physical forces and weathering processes lead to the decline in soil fertility and adverse changes in
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the soil’s composition/structure.

2. Biological Factors
Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that tend to reduce the quality of soil. Some
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bacteria and fungi overgrowth in an area can highly impact the microbial activity of the soil through
bio-chemical reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil productivity capacity. Human
activities such as poor farming practices may also deplete soil nutrients thus diminishing soil fertility.
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The biological factors affect mainly lessens the microbial activity of the soil.
3. Chemical Factors
The reduction of soil nutrients because of alkalinity or acidity or water logging are all categorized under
the chemical components of soil degradation. In the broadest sense, it comprises alterations in the
soil’s chemical property that determine nutrient availability. It is mainly caused by salt buildup and
leaching of nutrients which corrupt the quality of soil by creating undesirable changes in the essential
soil chemical ingredients. These chemical factors normally bring forth irreversible loss of soil nutrients
and productivity capacity such as the hardening of iron and aluminum rich clay soils into hardpans.
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4. Deforestation
Deforestation causes soil degradation on the account of exposing soil minerals by removing trees and
crop cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on the surface of the soil.
Vegetation cover primarily promotes thee binding of the soil together and soil formation, hence when
it is removed it considerably affects the capabilities of the soil such as aeration, water holding capacity,
and biological activity.
When trees are removed by logging, infiltration rates become elevated and the soil remains bare and
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exposed to erosion and the buildup of toxicities. Some of the contributing activities include logging and
slash and burn techniques used by individuals who invade forest areas for farming, rendering the soils
unproductive and less fertile in the end.
5. Misuse or excess use of fertilizers
The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist in
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binding the soil together. Most agricultural practices involving the use of fertilizers and pesticides often
entail misuse or excessive application, thereby contributing to the killing of soil’s beneficial bacteria
and other micro-organisms that help in soil formation.
The complex forms of the fertilizer’s chemicals are also responsible for denaturing essential soil
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minerals, giving rise to nutrient losses from the soil. Therefore, the misuse or excessive use of fertilizers
increases the rate of soil degradation by destroying the soil’s biological activity and builds up of
toxicities through incorrect fertilizer use.
6. Industrial and Mining activities
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Soil is chiefly polluted by industrial and mining activities. As an example, mining destroys crop cover
and releases a myriad of toxic chemicals such as mercury into the soil thereby poisoning it and
rendering it unproductive for any other purpose. Industrial activities, on the other hand, release toxic
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effluents and material wastes into the atmosphere, land, rivers, and ground water that eventually
pollute the soil and as such, it impacts on soil quality. Altogether, industrial and mining activities
degrade the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties.
7. Improper cultivation practices
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There are certain agricultural practices that are environmentally unsustainable and at the same time,
they are the single biggest contributor to the worldwide increase in soil quality decline. The tillage on
agricultural lands is one of the main factors since it breaks up soil into finer particles, which increase
erosion rates. The soil quality decline is exuberated more and more as a result of the mechanization of
agriculture that gives room for deep plowing, reduction of plant cover, and the formation of the
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hardpan. Other improper cultivation activities such as farming on steep slope and mono-cropping, row-
cropping and surface irrigation wear away the natural composition of the soil and its fertility, and
prevent soil from regenerating.
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8. Urbanization
Urbanization has major implications on the soil degradation process. Foremost of all, it denudates the
soil’s vegetation cover, compacts soil during construction, and alters the drainage pattern. Secondly, it
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covers the soil in an impermeable layer of concrete that amplifies the amount of surface runoff which
results in more erosion of the top soil. Again, most of the runoff and sediments from urban areas
are extremely polluted with oil, fuel, and other chemicals. Increased runoff from urban areas also
causes a huge disturbance to adjacent water sheds by changing the rate and volume of water that flows
through them, and impoverishing them with chemically polluted sediment deposits.
9. Overgrazing
The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients as well as the top soil are highly contributed by
overgrazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing the
rates of soil erosion. As a result, soil quality and agricultural productivity is greatly affected.
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SALINIZATION OF SOIL
Normally, soil is rich in salts because the parent rock of the soil contains ionic substances. Seawater is
another source of salts in low-lying area along the coast. A very common source of salts in irrigated
soils, however, is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation water contains some salts. After irrigation,
the water added to the soil is used by the crops or evaporates directly form the moist soil. The salt,
however, is left behind in the soil. Therefore, unless removed, it accumulates in the soil. This
phenomenon is called salinization. A white layer of dry salt is sometimes observed on very salty soil.
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Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization.
Most irrigation water contains some salts. After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the
crops or evaporates directly form the moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind the soil. Therefore,
unless removed, it accumulates in the soil. This phenomenon is called salinization. Salts in the irrigation
water or soil cause an adverse effect on crop production.
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To sustain production of crops, irrigation procedures need to be adjusted to control the salts in the
soil, as well as controlling the salt concentration in the irrigation water. Electrolytic conductivity, cation
exchange capacity, sodium adsorption ratio and other physico-chemical parameters, are used for
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assessing the salinity of soil and water. In order to mitigate the effects of salinization to maintain
agricultural productivity, several measures have been practiced. The rise of groundwater is mainly
caused by the capillary effect of the soil. Irrigation methods to avoid capillary rise have been developed.
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The most widely used method to improve salinity is leaching. Also, salt- tolerant crops are developed
with the help of biotechnology, in order to be able to thrive in a saline environment.
Causes of Salinization
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In many places in the world, the productivity of soil has deteriorated because of an excess of salt has
accumulated in the soil around the plant root zone. Large-scale soil salinization has mostly occurred in
arid and semi-arid regions. Soil affected by salt also widely exists in sub-humid and humid (i.e. high
rainfall) regions. Saline soil is particularly frequent in coastal areas since the soil in those areas is
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exposed to seawater.
Even if the water is low in salinity, the salinity in the soil will increase if the water is used for irrigation
for a long time because the trace amount of salt gradually accumulates. Excessive salinity of the soil
surface and the root zone are typical properties of saline soils. The main source of salts in soil is exposed
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bedrock in geologic strata in the Earth's crust. Salts are gradually released from the bedrock after
becoming soluble through physical and chemical weathering such as hydrolysis, hydration, dissolution,
oxidation, and carbonation. The released salts dissolve into the surface water or groundwater. As the
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water with dissolved salts flows from humid regions to less humid or arid regions, salts in the water
are gradually concentrated.
The most dominant ions at the place where salts become soluble by weathering are carbonate and
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bicarbonate of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, if carbon dioxide exists. At first, the salinity
of the water is low, but as the water flows from a humid area to a less humid area, it becomes higher
as the water evaporates. As the salts in the water are further concentrated, salts with lower solubility
start to precipitate. In addition, due to other mechanisms such as ion exchange, adsorption, and the
difference of mobility, the concentrations of chemical substances dissolved in the water gradually shift;
this always results in increased concentration of chloride and sodium ions in water and soil.
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EFFECTS OF SOIL DEGRADATION
1. Land degradation
Soil quality decline is one of the main causes of land degradation and is considered to be responsible
for 84% of the ever diminishing acreage. Year after year, huge acres of land lost due to soil erosion,
contamination and pollution. About 40% of the world’s agricultural land is severely diminished in
quality because of erosion and the use of chemical fertilizers, which prevent land from regenerating.
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The decline in soil quality as a result of agricultural chemical fertilizers also further leads to water and
land pollutionthereby lowering the land’s worth on earth.
2. Drought and aridity
Drought and aridity are problems highly influenced and amplified by soil degradation. As much as it’s
a concern associated with natural environments in arid and semi-arid areas, the UN recognizes the fact
that drought and aridity are anthropogenic induced factors especially as an outcome of soil
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degradation. Hence, the contributing factors to soil quality decline such as overgrazing, poor tillage
methods, and deforestation are also the leading causes of desertification characterized by droughts
and arid conditions. On the same context, soil degradation may also bring about loss of biodiversity.
3. Loss of arable land
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Because soil degradation contributes to land degradation, it also means that it creates a significant loss
of arable land. As stated earlier, about 40% of the world’s agricultural land is lost on the account of soil
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quality depreciation caused by agro-chemicals and soil erosion. Most of the crop production practices
result in the topsoil loss and the damage of soil’s natural composition that make agriculture possible.
4. Increased flooding
Land is commonly altered from its natural landscape when it rids its physical composition from soil
degradation. For this reason, the transformed land is unable to soak up water, making flooding more
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frequent. In other words, soil degradation takes away the soil’s natural capability of holding water thus
contributing to more and more cases of flooding.
5. Pollution and clogging of waterways
Most of the soil eroded from the land together with the chemical fertilizers and pesticides utilized in
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agricultural fields are discharged into waterways and streams. With time, the sedimentation process
can clog waterways, resulting in water scarcity. The agricultural fertilizers and pesticides also damage
marine and freshwater ecosystems and the limits the domestic uses of the water for the populations
that depend on them for survival.
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SOLUTIONS OF SOIL DEGRADATION

1. Reducing deforestation
Avoiding deforestation completely is an uphill task. However, deforestation can be cut down and this
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can create an impressive way of reshaping and restoring forests and vegetation cover. As populations
grow, individuals can be sensitized and educated regarding sustainable forest management and
reforestation efforts. Also, preserving the integrity of guarded areas can significantly reduce
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demonstration.
Hence, there is a necessity for individuals all over the world to respect forest cover and reduce some
of the human-driven actions that encourage logging. With the reduction of deforestation, soil’s ability
to naturally regenerate can be restored. Governments, international organizations, and other
environmental stakeholders need to ensure there are appropriate measures for making zero net
deforestation a reality so as to inhibit soil degradation.
2. Land reclamation
The outcomes of soil erosion and quality decline are widely irreversible. Still, soil organic matter and
plant nutrients can be replenished. To restore the lost soil mineral matter and organic content, it would
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require what is known as land reclamation. Land reclamation encompasses activities centered towards
restoring the previous organic matter and soil’s vital minerals. This may include activities such as the
addition of plant residues to degraded soils and improving range management.
Salinized soils can be restored by salt level correction reclamation projects and salinity control. One of
the simplest but most forgotten methods of land reclamation is planting of vegetation such as trees,
crops, and flowers over the affected soils. Plants act as protective covers as they are helpful at making
the soil stronger by stabilizing the land surface.
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3. Preventing salinization
Just like the old adage states that “prevention is better than cure,” so does the same concept apply in
solving the worldwide problem of soil degradation through salinization. The costs of preventing
salinization are incredibly cheaper than the reclamation projects in salinized areas. Consequently,
actions such as reducing irrigation, planting salt tolerant crops, and improving irrigation efficiency will
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have high pay offs because the inputs and the labor-demanding aspects associated with reclamation
projects are zero. Preventing salanization in the first place is thus an environmentally friendly means
of offering solution to soil degradation.
4. Conservation tillage
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Proper tillage mechanisms hold as one of the most sustainable ways of avoiding soil quality decline.
This is otherwise known as conservation tillage, which means tillage mechanisms targeted at making
very minimal changes to the soil’s natural condition and at the same time improving the soil’s
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productivity. Examples include leaving the previous year’s crop residue on the surface to shield the soil
from erosion and avoiding poor tillage methods such as deep plowing.
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SOIL DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is defined as a process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas due
to various factors including climatic variations and human activities. Or, to put it in another way,
desertification results in persistent degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystems due to man-made
activities and variations in climate. Desertification, in short, is when land that was originally of another
type of biome turns into a desert biome because of changes of all sorts. A huge issue that many
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countries have is the fact that there are large pockets of land that are going through a process that is
known as desertification.
Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Other factors that cause desertification
include urbanization, climate change, over drafting of ground water, deforestation, natural disasters
and tillage practices in agriculture that place soils more vulnerable to wind. Desertification affects
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topsoil, groundwater reserves, surface runoff, human, animal and plant populations. Water scarcity in
drylands limits the production of wood, crops, forage and other services that ecosystems provide to
our community.
According to UNESCO, one third of world’s land surface is threatened by desertification and across the
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world it affects livelihood of millions of people who depend on the benefits of ecosystems that drylands
provides. Desertification is another major environmental concern and a major barrier to meeting
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human basic needs in drylands and are being constantly threatened by increases in human pressures
and climatic variability. In this article, we’re going to give you an idea as to what are the causes of
desertification, the effects that desertification has, and what we can do in order to deal with the
problem at hand. Let’s take a closer look at all of these topics.
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CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
 Overgrazing: Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are starting to become desert
biomes. If there are too many animals that are overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for
the plants to grow back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.
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 Deforestation: When people are looking to move into an area, or they need trees in order to make
houses and do other tasks, then they are contributing to the problems related to desertification.
Without the plants (especially the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.
 Farming Practices: Some farmers do not know how to use the land effectively. They may
essentially strip the land of everything that it has before moving on to another plot of land. By
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stripping the soil of its nutrients, desertification becomes more and more of a reality for the area
that is being used for farming.
 Urbanization and other types of land development. As mentioned above, development can cause
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people to go through and kill the plant life. It can also cause issues with the soil due to chemicals
and other things that may harm the ground. As areas become more urbanized, there are less
places for plants to grow, thus causing desertification.
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 Climate Change: Climate change plays a huge role in desertification. As the days get warmer and
periods of drought become more frequent, desertification becomes more and more eminent.
Unless climate change is slowed down, huge areas of land will become desert; some of those areas
may even become uninhabitable as time goes on.
 Stripping the land of resources. If an area of land has natural resources like natural gas, oil, or
minerals, people will come in and mine it or take it out. This usually strips the soil of nutrients,
which in turn kills the plant life, which in turn starts the process toward becoming a desert biome
as time goes on.
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 Natural Disasters: There are some cases where the land gets damaged because of natural
disasters, including drought. In those cases, there isn’t a lot that people can do except work to try
and help rehabilitate the land after it has already been damaged by nature.
EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION
 Farming becomes next to impossible. If an area becomes a desert, then it’s almost impossible
to grow substantial crops there without special technologies. This can cost a lot of money to try
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and do, so many farmers will have to sell their land and leave the desert areas.
 Hunger: Without farms in these areas, the food that those farms produce will become much
scarcer, and the people who live in those local areas will be a lot more likely to try and deal with
hunger problems. Animals will also go hungry, which will cause even more of a food shortage.
 Flooding: Without the plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more eminent. Not all deserts are dry;
those that are wet could experience a lot of flooding because there is nothing to stop the water
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from gathering and going all over the place. Flooding can also negatively affect the water supply,
which we will discuss next.
 Poor Water Quality: If an area becomes a desert, the water quality is going to become a lot worse
than it would have been otherwise. This is because the plant life plays a significant role in keeping
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the water clean and clear; without its presence, it becomes a lot more difficult for you to be able
to do that.
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Overpopulation: When areas start to become desert, animals and people will go to other areas
where they can actually thrive. This causes crowding and overpopulation, which will, in the long
run, end up continuing the cycle of desertification that started this whole thing anyway.
 Poverty: All of the issues that we’ve talked about above (related to the problem of
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desertification) can lead to poverty if it is not kept in check. Without food and water, it becomes
harder for people to thrive, and they take a lot of time to try and get the things that they need.
SOLUTIONS FOR DESERTIFICATION

 Policy Changes Related to How People can Farm. In countries where policy change will actually
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be enforced on those in the country, policy change related to how often people can farm and
how much they can farm on certain areas could be put into place to help reduce the problems
that are often associated with farming and desertification.
 Policy Changes to Other Types of Land Use. If people are using land to get natural resources or
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they are developing it for people to live on, then the policies that govern them should be ones
that will help the land to thrive instead of allowing them to harm the land further. The policy
changes could be sweeping or they could be depending on the type of land use at hand.
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 Education: In developing countries, education is an incredibly important tool that needs to be

utilized in order to help people to understand the best way to use the land that they are farming
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on. By educating them on sustainable practices, more land will be saved from becoming desert.
 Technology Advances. In some cases, it’s difficult to try and prevent desertification from
happening. In those cases, there needs to be research and advancements in technology that push
the limits of what we currently know. Advancements could help us find more ways to prevent
the issue from becoming epidemic.
 Putting Together Rehabilitation Efforts. There are some ways that we can go back and
rehabilitate the land that we’ve already pushed into desertification; it just takes some investment
of time and money. By putting these together, we can prevent the issue from becoming even
more widespread in the areas that have already been affected.
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 Sustainable practices to prevent desertification from happening. There are plenty
of sustainable practices that can be applied to those acts that may be causing desertification. By
adding these to what we should be doing with land, we can ensure that we don’t turn the entire
world into a desert.
PREVENTIVE ACTIONS INCLUDE:

 Integrating land and water management to protect soils from erosion, salinization, and other
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forms of degradation.
 Protecting the vegetative cover, which can be a major instrument for soil conservation against
wind and water erosion.
 Integrating the use of land for grazing and farming where conditions are favorable, allowing
for a more efficient cycling of nutrients within the agricultural systems.
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 Applying a combination of traditional practices with locally acceptable and locally adapted land
use technologies.
 Giving local communities the capacity to prevent desertification and to manage dry land
resources effectively.
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Turning to alternative livelihoods that do not depend on traditional land uses, such as
dryland aquaculture, greenhouse agriculture and tourism-related activities, is less demanding
on local land and natural resources, and yet provides sustainable income.
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Creating economic opportunities in dryland urban centers and in areas outside of drylands
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SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is, at its core, a natural process. Put simply, it is when topsoil, which is the upper-most
layer of the ground, is moved from one spot to another. Why this matters is because topsoil is the part
of the land that is highest in organic matter and best suited for farming and other fertile activities,
which is why soil erosion can have the greatest impact on farmers and agricultural land. In other words,
soil erosion is a naturally occurring and slow process that refers to loss of field’s top soil by water and
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wind or through conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural land.
When farming activities are carried out, the top soil is exposed and is often blown away by
wind or washed away by rain. When soil erosion occurs, the movement of the detached topsoil is
typically facilitated by either a natural process – such as wind or water movement – or by the impact
of man, such as through tilling farmland.
The process of soil erosion is made up of three parts:
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 Detachment: This is when the topsoil is actually “detached” from the rest of the ground.
 Movement: This is when the topsoil is relocated to another area.
 Deposition: Where the topsoil ends up after this process.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
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1. Sheet erosion
 Rainfall on an artificially prepared soil especially on gently sloping fields, generally results in
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sheet erosion. In this process, many soil grains are pounded loose and made free to float away
during the initial stages of rainfall.
 This process starts simultaneously over a large area so that after some time during the rains, a
huge thick sheet of water flows down the slope and hence it cause erosion of the top soil i.e.
uniform skimming of the top soil.
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 Sheet erosion has been described as dangerous because this erosion cannot recognized easily
and thus it may continue for years without being realized.
2. Gully erosion
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 This signifies formations and evolution of down slope valleys that develop on sloping soil due
to continued soil erosion.
 Gullying is a consequence of sheet erosion.
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 Uniform sheet erosion over any surface for longer periods is impossible even on perfectly smooth
surfaces because neither the flow velocities over the entire surface could be uniform nor the
surface could be 'absolutely' perfect. Hence, rate of erosion along different paths would be
different creating conditions for excessive concentrated erosion along some paths.
 These paths of excessive erosion eventually develop into gulleys with the passage of time
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is a natural process which occur when there is loss of or removal of top layer of soil to due
to rain, wind, deforestation or any other human activity. Cause of soil erosion can be broken down into
two main categories:
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1. Erosion by Water
2. Erosion by Wind
1. Erosion by Water
 Rainfall Intensity and Runoff: The impact of raindrops will break up the soil and will create runoff
and thus takes sediment with it. i.e. More the intensity of rainfall more will be the soil erosion
 Distribution of rainfall and landscape: If the ground surface is such that rainfall distributes evenly
and if there is no plenty rainfall, then the erosion will be less.
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 Soil Erodibility: Based on the characteristics of each unique soil, it is more or less susceptible to
erosion i.e. Small grain and open structure soil erodes more than the larger grain and closed
structure soil.
 Ground Slope: The steeper the slope, greater amount of soil can be lost. As the soil erodes
downward, it increases the slope degree, which in turn, creates further erosion. Steeper slope
ground erodes more than the ground having mild slope due to increased speed of run off than
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infiltration.
 Vegetation: Vegetative cover of plants or crop residues protects the soil from raindrop impact
and splash. The less vegetation cover, the more erosion can occur.
 Deforestation: It is one of the major factors responsible for Soil erosion. Removal of forest covers
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which function as a binder of the top layer of the soil, results in enhancing extent of soil erosion.
 Mismanaged utilization of soil resources: The soil erosion is enhanced by improper surface
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drainage, removal of forest litter, overgrazing etc.
2. Erosion by Wind
 Erodibility of Soil: The finest particles are transported by the wind, while the heavier particles are
blown across the surface causing abrasion.
 Soil Surface Roughness: Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance to wind erosion.
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Excess tillage can contribute to the breakdown of soil.
 Climate: Soil moisture levels at the surface can become extremely low in times of drought and
thus increase tendency of particles to be carried by the wind. Conversely, this effect can occur in
freezing climates as well.
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 Un-Sheltered Distance: The lack of windbreaks allows wind to transport particles a farther
distance, increasing abrasion and erosion.
 Vegetative Cover: Lack of permanent vegetation creates loose, dry, and barren soil that is perfect
for wind transport.
FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION
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There are mainly three factors that will be affecting erosion

Natural factors:
1. Heavy rains on weak soil: Rain drops loosen soil particles and water transports them
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down hill.
2. Vegetation depleted by drought: Rain drops are free to hit the soil, causing erosion
during rainfall. Winds blow away the fine particles during droughts.
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3. Steep slopes: Gravity pulls harder: water flows faster, soil creeps, slips or slumps
downhill.
4. Rain fall: Erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become more severe.
5. Drought: Water dries up and the soil becomes a play ball of winds. A sudden rain
causes enormous damage.
6. Changing winds: Areas previously sheltered, become exposed.
Human-induced factors:
1. Change of land: The land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity and moisture.
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2. Intensive farming: The plough, excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land,
often permanently.
3. Housing development: Soil is barred; massive earthworks to landscape the
subdivision; soil is on the loose.
Road construction: Roads are cut; massive earth works, leaving scars behind. Not enough attention is
paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of road sides.
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CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
Predominant causes of soil erosion are either related to naturally-occurring events or
influenced by the presence of human activity. Some of the principal causes of soil erosion include:
Natural Causes
 Rain and rainwater runoff: In a particular heavy rain, soil erosion is common. First of all, the water
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starts to break down the soil, dispersing the materials it is made of. Typically, rainwater runoff will
impact lighter materials like silt, organic matter, and finer sand particles, but in heavy rainfall, this
can also include the larger material components as well.
 Farming: When land is worked through crops or other agricultural processes, it reduces the overall
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structure of the soil, in addition to reducing the levels of organic matter, making it more susceptible
to the effects of rain and water. Tilling in particular, because it often breaks up and softens the
structure of soil, can be a major contributor to erosion. Farming practices that reduce this activity
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tend to have far less issues with soil erosion.
 Slope of the land: The physical characteristics of the land can also contribute to soil erosion. For
example, land with a high hill slope will perpetuate the process of rainwater or runoff saturation
in the area, particularly due to the faster movement of the water down a slope.
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 Lack of vegetation: Plants and crops help maintain the structure of soils, reducing the amount of
soil erosion. Areas with less naturally-occurring flora may be a hint that the soil is prone to erosion.
 Wind: Wind can be a major factor in reducing soil quality and promotion erosion, particularly if the
soil’s structure has already been loosened up. However, lighter winds will typically not cause too
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much damage, if any. The most susceptible soil to this type of erosion is sandy or lighter soil that
can easily be transported through the air.
Human-Induced Causes of Soil Erosion
 Mining
Mining, one of the activities that enabled the growth of our economies, has severely scared the
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face of our planet and destroyed many unique habitats without mercy. Some of the world’s largest
mines cut as deep as 0.75 miles into the earth’s surface and spread over an area of more than 2,000
acres.
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 Deforestation
The rate of erosion in forests is naturally very low because complex root systems of trees anchor
the soil in place and fallen leaves or other green material offers a protective cover. But during the
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deforestation when forests are clear cut or burned down in the ‘slash-and-burn’ practice, soil
stability is disturbed. And even though the soil was healthy and resistant prior deforestation, after
clearing, it will be easily washed away by rain.
 Recreational activities
Tourism and recreational activities often damage ecosystems, especially if the number of tourists
in a given area is greater than the ecosystem capacity to deal with it. In the most visited places,
tourists trample the vegetation around trails, slowly creating larger patches of vegetation free
surface. Frequently walked trails become compacted, which leads to the decreased soil
permeability and higher surface runoff. The combination of these factors then results in
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progressively eroding trails and areas around them as people try to avoid slippery or muddy surface
of the main trail.
 Climate change
Climate change comes with many changes for our planet and the environment. One of the most
talked about effects of climate change is a changing rainfall pattern. With some areas getting more
frequently heavy rains and other areas suffering of prolonged droughts, the risk of erosion is
expected to rise around the world.
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EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
A major problem with soil erosion is that there is no telling how quickly or slowly it will occur.
If largely impacted by ongoing weather or climate events, it may be a slow-developing process that is
never even noticed. However, a severe weather occurrence or other experience can contribute to
rapid-moving erosion, which can cause great harm to the area and its inhabitants.
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On-Site Effects of Erosion
Some of the greatest effects of soil erosion include:
 Loss of topsoil: Obviously, this is the biggest effect of soil erosion. Because topsoil is so fertile, if it
is removed, this can cause serious harm to farmer’s crops or the ability to effectively work their
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land.
 Soil compaction: When soil under the topsoil becomes compacted and stiff, it reduces the ability
for water to infiltrate these deeper levels, keeping runoff at greater levels, which increases the risk
of more serious erosion.
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 Reduced organic and fertile matter: As mentioned, removing topsoil that is heavy with organic
matter will reduce the ability for the land to regenerate new flora or crops. When new crops or
plants can’t be placed successfully in the area, this perpetuates a cycle of reduced levels of organic
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nutrients.
 Poor drainage: Sometimes too much compaction with sand can lead to an effective crust that seals
in the surface layer, making it even harder for water to pass through to deeper layers. In some
ways, this can help erosion because of the densely packed soil, but if it perpetuates greater levels
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of runoff from rainwater or flooding, it can negatively impact the crucial topsoil.
 Issues with plant reproduction: When soil is eroded in an active cropland, wind in particular makes
lighter soil properties such as new seeds and seedlings to be buried or destroyed. This, in turn,
impacts future crop production.
 Soil acidity levels: When the structure of the soil becomes compromised, and organic matter is
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greatly reduced, there is a higher chance of increased soil acidity, which will significantly impact
the ability for plants and crops to grow.
 Long term erosion: Unfortunately, if an area is prone to erosion or has a history of it, it becomes
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even harder to protect it in the future. The process has already reduced the soil structure and
organic matter of the area, meaning that it will be harder to recover in the long run.
 Water pollution: A major problem with runoff from soils – particularly those used for agricultural
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processes – is that there is a greater likelihood that sediment and contamination like the use of
fertilizer or pesticide. This can have significant damage on fish and water quality.
Off-Site Effects of Erosion
 Water pollution and sedimentation
The major off-site problem caused by erosion is the deposition of eroded soil, along with pollutants
it picked up, into watercourses. This causes two serious problems:
1. Water pollution by heavy metals, agricultural chemicals and other contaminants
2. Sedimentation in water bodies
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Besides introducing new pollutants in the water, soil transported into water bodies disrupts aquatic
ecosystems by changing chemical and physical properties of water. Agricultural fertilizers can
cause eutrophication and mass dying of aquatic life. Increasing sediment loads can block rivers and
dams, eventually leading to mud floods and further damage to surrounding ecosystems and built
structures.
High sedimentation rates also damage hydro-electricity plants and decrease the lifetime of
constructed water reservoirs. Additional problem is the pollution of drinking water supply, which
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requires extra investment into removing impurities and making water suitable for drinking again.
 Flooding
The deposition of silt in water courses often obstructs their natural path. This increases the risk of
flooding and further enhances erosion of water banks, since the water seeks the way to flow
around a newly created obstruction.
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Disturbed soils also do not absorb water as much as they naturally would. Deforested areas
turn into arable lands or overgrazed pastures lose their ability to effectively capture and retain
water. Higher surface runoff then swells water streams to bigger size and floods become more
frequent and extensive even in areas where they haven’t occurred ever before.
 Airborne dust pollution
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Wind erosion has the power to cause widespread air pollution that can affect places hundreds or
even thousands of miles away from the original site of erosion. There are numerous cases
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describing its suffocating effects.
Wind-blown dust particles do not harm only the health of people and animals; they also
damage young plants and crops. Wind often picks up fine particles of sand, silt and organic matter
and buries or breaks seedlings, while exposing seeds or plant roots in other places. This leaves
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behind weak and vulnerable crops that cannot provide sufficient yield.
 Damage to infrastructure
Whether it is a damage caused by flooded rivers, roads and rails torn apart by sliding land or dams
cracking under the burden of accumulating sediments, soil erosion can gradually and certainly
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somewhat sneakily destroy many built structures. In fact, to predict the future rate of erosion when
planning a new construction project is extremely difficult, since there are so many possible triggers.
SOLUTIONS FOR SOIL EROSION
When it comes to finding solutions for soil erosion, the most useful techniques found tend to
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be those that emphasize reinforcing the structure of the soil, and reducing processes that affect it.
 Careful tilling: Because tilling activity breaks up the structure of soil, doing less tilling with
fewer passes will preserve more of the crucial topsoil.
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 Crop rotation: Plenty of crop rotation is crucial for keeping land happy and healthy. This
allows organic matter to build up, making future plantings more fertile.
 Increased structure for plants: Introducing terraces or other means of stabilizing plant life
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or even the soil around them can help reduce the chance that the soil loosens and erodes.
Boosting areas that are prone to erosion with sturdy plant life can be a great way to stave
off future effects.
 Water control: For those areas where soil erosion is predominantly caused by water –
whether natural or man-made – specialized chutes and runoff pipes can help to direct
these water sources away from the susceptible areas, helping stave off excess erosion.
Having these filters in particular areas rather than leading to natural bodies of water is a
focus to reduce pollution.
 Increased knowledge: A major factor for preventing soil erosion is educating more and
more people who work with the land on why it is a concern, and what they can do to help
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reduce it. This means outreach to farmers in susceptible areas for ways that they can help
protect crops from inclement weather, or ways that they can help make sure their soil
remains compact without restricting their plant growing activities.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
Methods adopted for prevention and control of soil erosion fall under two categories: agronomic
practices and engineering practices.
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Agronomic Practices
 By agronomic practice it means the protection of the top soil by special methods and schemes of
crop cultivation.
 These include:
(i) Crop Rotation
 In which different crops are grown in the same area by rotation, that is, one after another.
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 A sequence commonly followed is, for example, a cultivated crop, a small grain and then grass.
After this, cultivated crop may again be sown.
(ii) Strip Cropping
 In which the cultivated crops and the cover crops are sown in alternate strips during the same
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period in the same field.
Engineering Practices
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The engineering methods most widely used for combating soil erosion include:
(i) Excavation of ditches
 These can be described as artificially created channels excavated at suitable locations to divert
the excess of water from approaching the affected areas, especially in steeply sloping regions.
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 Two types of ditches commonly made for controlling soil erosion are:
(a) Diversion Ditches which are excavated above the cultivated portion of a sloping area with
a view of diverting the run off away from the field.
(b) Interception Ditches – These are made at regular and suitable intervals across the cultivated
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field. By draining water from small strips, these ditches do not allow the formation of thick
sheets of water capable of doing soil erosion.
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(ii) Terrace Construction

 These are constructed along suitable locations across the slope of hillsides with essential
function of collecting and conducting the run-off to an erosion-proof outlet.
 Spacing of terraces along the slope requires careful consideration. First terrace is generally built
near enough to the upper limit of the slope.
 This prevents the initiation of erosion. Terraces should always be uniformly graded as to prevent
ponding of water on the one hand and development of erosional velocities on the other hand.
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(iii) Check Dams.
 Small check dams constructed out of various materials like stones, timber and steel etc. prevent
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gullying.
 Such dams serve the purpose of reducing the velocity of run-off and cause deposition of the
material which may ultimately support vegetation. This may contribute positively for controlling
gullying, especially when vegetation is re-established.
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*******************************
Prepared By
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NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module V
MODULE 5
Syllabus:
Types of Anthropogenic Disasters I– Fundamental concepts of water and atmospheric pollution.
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WATER POLLUTION
Introduction
Water is essential for the existence of all life forms. In addition to household uses, water is vital for
agriculture, industry, fishery and tourism etc. Increasing population, urbanization and
industrialization has led to the decreased availability of water. The quality of water used is also being
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deteriorated as it is getting more and more polluted. You may be aware of at least some health
hazards and harmful effects of water pollution. In this lesson a detailed account of various types,
sources and effects of water pollutants is given. Some methods of water pollution control and
legislatures involved have also been discussed.
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Water Resources on Earth
You may be aware that about three fourths of our planet earth’s surface is covered by water.
However, very little of it is available for consumption. Most (about 97%) of the water on earth is
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present in the seas and oceans. It is too salty to be of any use for drinking, agriculture and industrial
purposes. The remaining 3% is fresh water; 75% of which is locked up in the polar ice caps and in
glaciers and quite deep under the earth’s surface as underground water. The fresh water, which we
can use, comes to us from two sources:
i. Surface water
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ii. Ground water
Let us learn about these in detail.
(i) Surface Water: Rain and snow are good natural resources of fresh water. It is estimated that of all
the precipitation (rain water and snow) that falls on the earth, about one‐third is absorbed by the
plants and another one‐third seeps down into the soil and the remaining one third runs off the surface
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into streams and rivers. This part of precipitation, which runs off to form streams, rivers and lakes, is
called the surface water.
Precipitation (rain or snow) that runs‐off into stream, rivers and lakes is called surface water.
The small fraction of usable surface water is continuously replenished by means of the hydrological
cycle,
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A schematic representation of Hydrological cycle

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Module V Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC

The hydrological cycle involves evaporation of water from oceans, rivers and other sources to form
clouds. The clouds on saturation with water vapours cause precipitation falling back on earth’s
surface. On surface, the water runs off to rivers and finally to oceans. The water again evaporates and
the cycle continues.
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Surface water has a natural tendency to clean itself as it contains certain organisms that break down
pollutants into harmless substances.
(ii) Ground Water: The part of precipitation that seeps into the ground as a result of gravity and fills
the pores between soil particles and rocks under it is called ground water. The water bearing layers
of soil and rocks are called aquifers. Ground water is very important for agricultural and industrial
purposes. Ground water in the form of wells and springs is often the only source of water supply
especially in villages and small towns.
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In spite of a good number of water resources, we have shortage of usable water. This is due to
increasing population, urbanization and industrialization. There is a need to optimize use of water and
also conserve surface run off of water by means of rainwater harvesting, groundwater conservation,
making use of recycling methods etc.
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Water Pollution ‐ Parameters
A large amount of water is discharged back after domestic and industrial usage. This is contaminated
with domestic waste and industrial effluents. When this contamination reaches beyond certain
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allowed concentrations, it is called pollution and the contaminants are called the pollutants. Water
pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas, underground water or oceans
by substances, which are harmful for living beings. If the concentration of substances naturally
present in water increases then also the water is said to be polluted.
Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas, underground water
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or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings. Industrialization and population
explosion are two important factors for water pollution.
Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond a specified
concentration in water.
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i) Physical parameters. Colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical conductivity
constitute the physical parameters and are good indicators of contamination.
For instance, colour and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an offensive odour
or a bitter and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit for drinking.
ii) Chemical parameters: These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, fluorides,
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nitrates, and metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids, present in water.
iii) Biological parameters: The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi, viruses,
protozoa and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a good extent by the
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presence of pollutants. The pollutants in water may cause a reduction in the population of both
lower and higher plant and animal lives. Thus, the biological parameters give an indirect indication
of the amount of pollution in water.
Water Pollution ‐ Sources
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Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical or
biological change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms. As mentioned
earlier, the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is discharged with some
undesirable impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution of water, which is generally
called the fresh water pollution. Fresh water pollution may be classified into two types: surface water
pollution and ground water pollution.

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A. Surface Water Pollution
When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution. The surface
water pollution has a number of sources. These can categorized as:
 Point and Non‐point Sources
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 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
(i) Point and Non‐point Sources
The well‐defined sources that emits pollutants or effluents directly into different water bodies of fresh
water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are examples of this type. The point
sources of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand, the non‐point sources of water
pollution are scattered or spread over large areas. This type of sources deliver pollutants indirectly
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through environmental changes and account for majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes.
For example, the contaminated water that runs off from agriculture farms, construction sites,
abandoned mines, enters streams and lakes. It is quite difficult to control non‐point sources.
(ii) Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
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As mentioned earlier, an increase in the concentration of naturally occurring substances is also
termed pollution. The sources of such an increase are called natural sources. Siltation (which includes
soil, sand and mineral particles) is one such natural source. It is a common natural phenomenon,
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which occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate deforestation makes soil loose and flood waters
bring silt from mountains into streams, rivers and lakes.
On the other hand, the human activities that result into the pollution of water are called
anthropogenic or manmade sources of water pollution. For example, domestic (sewage and waste
water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams and seas are
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anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by run‐off water and enter
the various water bodies also belong to this category. The anthropogenic sources of water pollution
are shown in Fig.
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Anthropogenic Sources of water pollution
B. Ground Water Pollution
When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters an aquifer it results into ground water

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pollution. The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only source of drinking
water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern. Groundwater gets polluted
in a number of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil, seepage pits and septic tanks cause pollution
of groundwater. Fig. 34.3. The porous layers of soil hold back solid particles while the liquid is allowed
to pass through. The soluble pollutants are able to mix with the groundwater. In addition to these,
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the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers and unchecked release of toxic wastes and even
carcinogenic substances by industrial units many result in slow trickling down through the earth’s
surface and mixing with the groundwater. This problem is very serious especially in areas where water
table is high (i.e., where water is available near surface of earth).
The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large empty space available below
the earth’s surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground water at one point, they may be
observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. In such a case it is difficult to
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estimate the source of water pollution. However, suspended impurities and bacterial contaminants
are removed in the process of seepage by the soil acting as an absorbent and filter, and water acting
as a solvent.
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Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants which get mixed
with the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have access to air
(in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless products in
groundwater does not occur.
Water Pollutants
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You have read the various sources from where pollutants enter the water bodies. Let us now learn
about the various types of pollutants arising out of these sources. These can be broadly put under the
following types.
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i. Sewage Pollutants (Domestic and Municipal Waste)
ii. Industrial Pollutants
iii. Agricultural Pollutants
iv. Radioactive and Thermal Pollutants
(i) Domestic and Municipal Pollutants: The sewage contains garbage, soaps, detergents, waste
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food and human excreta and is the single largest sources of water pollution. Pathogenic (disease
causing) microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae) enter the water system through sewage
making it infected. Typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking
infected water. Water polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow
by themselves, but reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number of diseases, such
as, polio, viral hepatitis and may be cancer which are resistant to like the organic matter are oxygen
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demanding substances. They are responsible for deoxygenation of water‐bodies which is harmful for
aquatic life.
Other ingredients which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e., nitrates and
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phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal bloom (blue‐green species).
This process is called eutrophication and is discussed in details in the next section.
(ii) Industrial Pollutants: Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water streams. These are
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responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers like highly toxic heavy metals such as
chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes (e.g., acids,
alkalies, cyanides, chlorides, etc.). River Ganges receives wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp
mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide industries. Most of these pollutants are resistant to breakdown
by microorganisms (called non‐biodegradable), therefore damage the growth of crops and the
polluted water is unsafe for drinking purposes.
Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides release
mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body. Mercury enters the
food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human body. The toxicity of mercury

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became evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy in Japan during the period 1953‐60. Fish died due
to mercury consumption and those who ate fish were affected by mercury poisoning and quite
a few died. The milder symptoms of mercury poisoning are depression and irritability but acute
toxic effects can cause paralysis, blindness, insanity, birth defects and even death. The high
concentration of mercury in water and in fish tissues results from formation of soluble
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monomethyl mercury ion, (CH3, Hg+) and volatile dimethyl lmercuty [(CH3)2 Hg] by anaerobic
bacteria in sediments.
(iii) Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms, slaughterhouse, poultry
farms, salts and silt are drained as run‐off from agricultural lands. The water body receiving large
quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to
eutrophication and consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates
is bad for human health especially for small children.
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Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and rodent pests.
Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water or through food chain
(biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in water but are highly soluble in fats.
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For example, the concentration of DDT in river water may be very low but some fish over a period
of time accumulate so much of DDT that they become unfit for human consumption. The use of
pesticides in our country is increasing very rapidly.
Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become metabolised by animals that graze on
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fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often observed in the human food chain.
The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute amounts can cause hormonal
imbalance and may lead to cancer.
(iv) Physical Pollutants: Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them are discussed
below :
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(a) Radioactive Wastes : Radionucleides found in water are radium and potassium‐40. These
isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals. Water bodies are also polluted
by accidental leakage of waste material from uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and
industries, research laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials enter
human body through water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital organs. They
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cause tumours and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources: Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants require water
for cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers or lakes.
This results in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology of the water body.
Higher temperature lowers the dissolved oxygen level (which is very essential for marine life) by
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decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water. Fish and other aquatic organism can get affected
by a sudden change in water temperatures.
(c) Sediments : Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments. The sediment
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become polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as the soil carried by flood water
from crop land, is responsible for sedimentation. The sediments may damage the water body by
introducing a large amount of nutrient matter.
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(v) Petroleum Products: Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication, plastics
manufacturing, etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and other related products
generally get into water by accidental spillage from ships, tankers, pipelines etc. Besides these
accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration sites and automobile service centres pollute different
water bodies. Oil slick which floats on the water surface causes death of marine life and severely
affects the ecosystem of the ocean.
A list of various types of water pollutants, their sources and effects have been summarized in Table
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Types of water pollutants, their sources and effects
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Water Pollution and Some Biological Effects
The natural source of water in the form of precipitation or rain is the purest form available in nature.
However after reaching the surface and then underground it gets contaminated by a number of
pollutants. There are some biological factors also mentioned earlier responsible for spoiling the
quality of water. These include the lower plants like algae and bacteria which are the causes of
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nutrient accumulation in aquatic systems. This nutrient accumulation gives rise to a condition called
eutrophication explained below.
(a) Eutrophication
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Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients such as
nitrates and phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land. Let us try to
understand this phenomenon. A water system like a lake or any reservoir may get a large inflow of
organic matter from domestic wastes and run off from the surrounding land. Increasing human
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population, intensive agriculture and rapid industrial growth have led to an increasing release of
domestic waste, agricultural residues, industrial wastes and land run‐off into various water bodies.
Nutrients are released from organic waste by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria which start
decomposing it. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this process. As more and more organic matter
enters a water body, more is the deoxygenation of the water body and larger is the production of
nutrients. These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and other large water plants such as
duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die also due to larger oxygen demand and therefore
oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e., deoxygenation of the water body). Such a water body is said
to be eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication. The word eutrophication is derived from
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the Greek word which means well‐nourished as (eu:true, trophos:feeding)
Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of nutrients by the action
of aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body naturally or by human activity.
The above discussion leads us to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Let us try to
understand by the description given below.
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(b) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27°C and in darkness during 3 days in breaking
down organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand (BOD).
It can be explained in the following manner.
You know that there are many organic compounds or waste present in a water body. The
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microorganisms present in the system act upon this waste for their own consumption and growth. In
the process the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met by the dissolved oxygen present in
water. It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD
value of an aquatic system depends upon:
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• the type and amount of organic waste
• the organisms acting on it
• temperature and pH
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The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of oxygen
required to break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of water. This value is a
good measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body. The less polluted water shows
comparatively low value of BOD. Its value is used as a criterion for managing water pollution of a
water body. An evaluation is made by determining oxygen concentration in water before and after
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incubation at 20#C in dark for 5 days.
(c) Biomagnification
A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed for controlling
insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harm to other (non target)
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organisms. For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control mosquitoes at a concentration
expected to be harmless to non target organisms like fish and birds. DDT accumulated in the marshes
and planktons. Planktons were eaten by fish and the fish had a higher concentration of DDT in its
body. Further, when birds ate the fish, they accumulated still higher concentration. This increase in
concentration of accumulated toxic chemicals as one goes higher in the food chain is termed
biomagnification. Biomagnification has at times threatened the reproduction and survival of
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carnivores (secondary consumers) who occupy the highest level of the food chain.
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Water Pollution ‐ Some Control Measures
Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage which
is classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the form of suspended
colloidal and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients and gases. Sewage is one
of the major causes of water borne diseases and therefore the treatment of sewage is one of the
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important tasks. For a long time treatment of municipal waste in the form of sewage involved mainly
of the removal of suspended solids, oxygen demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Now the
disposal of the solid residue from sewage has been improved by applying municipal treatment
processes.
The treatment of this waste water is carried out in the following three stages:
(i) Primary treatment
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(ii) Secondary treatment, and
(iii) Tertiary treatment
Primary Treatment: When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing steam, the
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treatment is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is known as primary
treatment. If the water is required for drinking purposes, it has to undergo further treatment called
secondary and tertiary treatments. The following steps are performed to do primary treatment of
water:
(i)
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n: This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose in sewage treatment plant. The
polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay and other matter settle to be bottom and water is
slowly allowed to move out. Fine particles do not settle and are thus required to be removed in the
next step.
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(ii) Coagulation: Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles by a
process called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special chemicals called
coagulants (flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles either settle to the bottom or are
moved in the next step.
(iii) Filtration: Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered by passing
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the water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some fibrous materials. The total
impurities collected in these steps are called sludge. It is used as a valuable fertilizer. On composting
(i.e. the action of anaerobic bacteria), it releases sludge gas. It consists mainly of methane gas which
is used for cooking purposes.
Secondary or Biological Treatment: The water after primary treatment is not fit for drinking purposes
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and has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary or biological treatment. A
commonly used method is to allow polluted water to spread over a large bed of stones and gravel so
that the growth of different microorganisms needing nutrients and oxygen is encouraged. Over a
period of time a fast moving food chain is set up. For example, bacteria consume organic matter from
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the polluted water; protozoa live on bacteria. Every form of life including algae and fungi help in the
cleaning up process. This is called secondary treatment of water. It involves the following processes
(i) Softening : By this treatment undesirable cations of calcium and magnesium are removed
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from hard waters. Either water is treated with lime and soda ash to precipitate Ca2+ ions as carbonates
or it is passed through cation exchangers. This makes water soft.
(ii) Aeration: In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add oxygen to
water. This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into harmless products such as
carbon dioxide and water. The addition of oxygen reduces carbon dioxide. sulphide etc.. The water is
as yet not fit for drinking purposes. The pathogenic and other microorganisms need to be killed. This
is done in the next treatment.
Tertiary Treatment : The tertiary treatment is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is the most
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commonly used disinfectant used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also reacts with traces of
organic matter present in water and forms undesirable chlorinated hydrocarbons (toxic and
potentially carcinogenic). It is therefore desirable to reduce the organic matter in water before
passing chlorine gas. Other methods of disinfection such as ultraviolet radiation, ozone gas treatment
or reverse osmosis are preferred over chlorine treatment. But these methods are more expensive.
Fig.34.3 gives a clear picture of the process of sewage treatment in total.
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pa Treatment process of sewage

In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers and chemical
processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. During primary treatment a large percentage of suspended
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solids and inorganic material is removed from sewage. The secondary stage reduces organic material
by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is done when water is to be reused.
Here 99% of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure that water is free
from infecting materials.
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Legislative Measures for Preventing Water Pollution
It is important to utilise a good quality and unpolluted water. The quality criteria may vary depending
on the use. Individual efforts do pay in this regard, however, a common policy in the form of
legislation is always more effective. The enactment of 'Prevention and Control of Water Pollution Act'
in 1974 has helped in the prevention of water pollution. The standards have been prescribed for
water pollution under Environment (Protection) Act 1986. These are given as follows.
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 General standards for water pollutants for discharge of effluents in water bodies on land
(inland surface water, public sewers, irrigated land and coastal areas)

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Standards specific for each type of industry
 Standards defined for the amount of waste water to be discharged for different industries
 Standards limiting the amount of a particular pollutant on the basis of production capacity
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of an industrial unit
The state pollution control boards have also been empowered to grant/renew consent to
new/existing water polluting industries under water 'Prevention and Control of Pollution Act‐1974.'
They have been empowered to shut down any industrial unit which fails to meet the prescribed
standards under this Act. The state governments have also been authorized to take punitive measures
against defaulting industries.
It becomes imperative to act upon the above mentioned rules and regulations and also follow
measures at individual end to improve the quality of water used for various purposes.
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AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is a result of industrial and certain domestic activity. An ever‐increasing use of fossil fuels
in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone quarries had led
to air pollution. Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be
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directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants, property or interferes
with the normal environmental processes. Air pollutants are of two types (1) suspended particulate
matter, and (2) gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx etc. Some of the major air
pollutants, their sources and effects are given in table below.
Table: Particulate air pollutants, their sources and effects
Pollutant Sources Effects
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Suspended Smoke from domestic, Depends on specific composition
particulate industrial and vehicular Reduces sunlight and visibility,
matter/dust soot increases corrosion,
Pneumoconiosis, asthma, cancer,
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Fly ash Part of smoke released Settles down on vegetation, houses.
from chimneys of Adds to the suspended participate
factories and power matter (SPM) in the air. Leachates
plants contain harmful material

HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTION
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The origin of air pollution on the earth can be traced from the times when man started using firewood
as a means of cooking and heating. Hippocrates has mentioned air pollution in 400 BC. With the discov‐
ery and increasing use of coal, air pollution became more pronounced especially in urban areas. It was
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recognized as a problem 700 years ago in London in the form of smoke pollution, which prompted
King Edward I to make the first antipollution law to restrict people from using coal for domestic heating
in the year 1273. In the year 1300 another Act banning the use of coal was passed. Defying the law led
to imposition of capital punishment. In spite of this air pollution became a serious problem in London
during the industrial revolution due to the use of coal in industries. The earliest recorded major
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disaster was the 'London Smog' that occurred in 1952 that resulted in more than 4000 deaths due to
the accumulation of air pollutants over the city for five days.
Air pollution began to increase in the beginning of the twentieth century with the development of the
transportation systems and large‐scale use of petrol and diesel. The severe air quality problems due
to the formation of photochemical smog from the combustion residues of diesel and petrol engines
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were felt for the first time in Los Angeles. Pollution due to auto‐exhaust remains a serious
environmental issue in many developed and developing countries including India.
The Air Pollution Control Act in India was passed in 1981 and the Motor Vehicle Act for controlling the
air pollution, very recently. These laws are intended to prevent air from being polluted.
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The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution took place in Bhopal where extremely
poisonous methyl isocyanide gas was accidentally released from the Union Carbide's pesticide
manufacturing plant on the night of December 3rd 1984. The effects of this disaster on human health
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and the soil are felt even today.

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STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is normally composed of 79 percent nitrogen, 20
percent oxygen and one percent as a mixture of carbon dioxide,
water vapour and trace amounts of several other gases such as
neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon. The
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general structure of the atmosphere has several important
features that have relevance to environmental problems. The
atmosphere is divided into several layers.
The innermost layer the troposphere extends 17 kilometers
above sea level at the equator and about 8 kilometers over the
poles. It contains about 75 percent of the mass of the earth's air.
The fragility of this layer is obvious from the fact that if the earth
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were an apple this particular layer would be no thicker than an
apple's skin.
Temperature declines with altitude in the troposphere. At the top
of the troposphere temperatures abruptly begin to rise. This
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boundary where this temperature reversal occurs is called the tropopause.
The tropopause marks the end of the troposphere and the beginning of the stratosphere, the second
layer of the atmosphere. The stratosphere extends from 17 to 48 kilometers above the earth's surface.
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While the composition of the stratosphere is similar to that of the troposphere it has two major
differences. The volume of water vapour here is about 1000 times less while the volume of ozone is
about 1000 times greater. The presence of ozone in the stratosphere prevents about 99 percent of
the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth's surface thus protecting humans from
cancer and damage to the immune system. This layer does not have clouds and hence airplanes fly in
this layer as it creates less turbulence. Temperature rises with altitude in the stratosphere until there
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is another reversal. This point is called the stratopause and it marks the end of the stratosphere and
the beginning of the atmosphere's next layer, the mesosphere.
In the mesosphere the temperature decreases with altitude falling up to ‐110 oC at the top. Above this
is a layer where ionization of the gases is a major phenomenon, thus increasing the temperature. This
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layer is called the thermosphere. Only the lower troposphere is routinely involved in our weather and
hence air pollution. The other layers are not significant in determining the level of air pollution.
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TYPES AND SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities
that are harmful to human health and the environment. Air may get polluted by natural causes such
as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally
naturally caused by lightning. However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally occurring
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pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent
atmospheric change.
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural events (for
example, dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (emission from vehicles, industries,
etc.). These are called primary pollutants. There are five primary pollutants that together contribute
about 90 percent of the global air pollution. These are carbon oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter.
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Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among
the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and toxic gas produced when organic materials such as
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natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest source of
carbon monoxide. The number of vehicles has been increasing over the years all over the world.
Vehicles are also poorly maintained and several have inadequate pollution control equipment
resulting in release of greater amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is however not a
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persistent pollutant. Natural processes can convert carbon monoxide to other compounds that are
not harmful. Therefore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if no new carbon monoxide is
introduced into the atmosphere.
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt.
Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are involved
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in the production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone.
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They either
evaporate from fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely. Hydrocarbons are
washed out of the air when it rains and run into surface water. They cause an oily film on the surface
and do not as such cause a serious issue until they react to form secondary pollutants. Using higher
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oxygen concentrations in the fuel‐air mixture and using valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting
of catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of the modifications that can reduce the release of
hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
Table: Gaseous air pollutants: their sources and effects
Pollutant Source Harmful effect
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Carbon compound (CO Automobile exhaust • Respiratory problems

and CO2) burning of wood and coal • Greenhouse effect
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Sulphur compounds Power plants and • Respiratory problems in humans

(SO2 and H2S) refineries volcanic • Loss of chlorophyll in plants
eruptions (chlorosis)
Nitrogen Compound Motor vehicle exhaust • A id i
Irritation in eyes and lungs
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(NO and N2O) atmospheric reaction • Low productivity in plants

• Acid rain damages material
(metals and stone)
Hydrocarbons Automobiles and • Respiratory problem
(benzene, ethylene) petroleum industries • Cancer causing properties
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SPM (Suspended Thermal power plants, • Poor visibility, breathing problems

Particulate Matter) Construction activities, • Lead interferes with the
(Any solid and liquid) metallurgical processes development of red blood diseases
particles suspended in and automobiles and cancer.
the air, (flush, dust, • Smog (smoke & fog) formation
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Fibres (Cotton, wool) Textiles and carpet • Lung disorders
weaving industries

Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires, bits of as‐
bestos, dust particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust particles
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and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure to
particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs and interfere with the ability of the lungs to
exchange gases.
Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High lead
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levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the primary source
of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities.
Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltration of polluted outside air and from various chemicals
Term
Aerosol
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used or produced inside buildings. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally harmful.
Types of particulates
Meaning
General term for particles suspended in air

Examples
Sprays from pressurized cans

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Mist Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mist
Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are

Dust blown into the air or are produced from Dust storm
larger particles by grinding them down
Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a

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Cigarette smoke, smoke from

Smoke mixture of solid and liquid particles
burning garbage
produced by chemical reaction such as fires
Generally, means the same as smoke but
often applies specifically to aerosols
Fume Zinc/lead fumes
produced by condensation of hot vapors of
metals.
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Geometrical shape or form of the smoke

Plume
coming out of a chimney
Fog Aerosol consisting of water droplets
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Term used to describe a mixture of smoke

Smog
and fog.
WHAT HAPPENS TO POLLUTANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE?
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Once pollutants enter the troposphere, they are transported downwind, diluted by the large volume
of air, transformed through either physical or chemical changes or are removed from the atmosphere
by rain during which they are attached to water vapour that subsequently forms rain or snow that falls
to the earth's surface. The atmosphere normally disperses pollutants by mixing them in the very large
volume of air that covers the earth. This dilutes the pollutants to acceptable levels. The rate of
dispersion however varies in relation to the following aspects:
Topography
Normally as the earth's surface becomes warmed by sunlight the layer of air in contact with the ground
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is also heated by convection. This warmer air is less dense than the cold air above it, so it rises. Thus,
pollutants produced in the surface layer are effectively dispersed.
However, on a still evening, the process is reversed. An hour or two before sunset after a sunny day,
the ground starts to lose heat and the air near the ground begins to cool rapidly. Due to the absence
of wind, a static layer of cold air is produced as the ground cools. This in turn induces condensation of
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fog. The morning sun cannot initially penetrate this fog layer. The cold air being dense cannot rise and
is trapped by the warm air above. It cannot move out of the area due to the surrounding hills. The
topographic features resemble a closed chemical reactor in which the pollutants are trapped. This
condition often continues through the cool night and reaches its maximum intensity before sunrise.
When the morning sun warms the ground the air near the ground also warms up and rises within an
hour or two. This may be broken up by strong winds. In cold regions this situation can persist for
several days. Such a situation is known as smog (smoke + fog).
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The most well‐known example is that of the 'London Smog' that occurred in 1952. The city used large
quantities of sulphur containing coal for domestic heating that released smoke, along with smoke from
thermal power plants and other industrial establishments. This used to lead to the generation of high
levels of smoke containing sulphur oxides. Due to a sudden adverse meteorological condition air
pollutant like smoke and sulphur oxides started to build‐up in the atmosphere. The white fog
accumulated over the city turned black forming a 'pea‐soup' smog with almost zero visibility. Within
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two days of the formation of this smog, people started suffering from acute pulmonary disorders
which caused irritation of bronchi, cough, nasal discharges, sore throat, vomiting and burning sen‐
sations in the eyes. This event lead to several deaths.
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Meteorological conditions
The velocity of the wind affects the dispersal of pollutants. Strong winds mix polluted air more rapidly
with the surrounding air diluting the pollutants rapidly. When wind velocity is low mixing takes place
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and the concentration of pollutants remains high.
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When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are transported by prevailing winds they form secondary
pollutants such as nitric acid vapour, droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of sulphate and nitrate
salts. These chemicals descend on the earth's surface in two forms: wet (as acidic rain, snow, fog and
cloud vapour) and dry (as acidic particles). The resulting mixture is called acid deposition, commonly
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called acid rain.
Acid deposition has many harmful effects especially when the pH falls below 5.1 for terrestrial systems
and below 5.5 for aquatic systems. It contributes to human respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
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asthma, which can cause premature death. It also damages statues, buildings, metals and car finishes.
Acid deposition can damage tree foliage directly but the most serious effect is weakening of trees so
they become more susceptible to other types of damage. The nitric acid and the nitrate salts in acid
deposition can lead to excessive soil nitrogen levels. This can over stimulate growth of other plants
and intensify depletion of other important soil nutrients such as calcium and magnesium, which in
turn can reduce tree growth and vigour.
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EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON LIVING ORGANISMS
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air pollution. The
hair in our nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the upper respiratory tract
captures smaller particles and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. When the upper respiratory system
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is irritated by pollutants sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus. Prolonged smoking
or exposure to air pollutants can overload or breakdown these natural defenses causing or con‐
tributing to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly people,
infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease, asthma or other respiratory diseases are
especially vulnerable to air pollution.
Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air
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containing even 0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma and
even death. As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a long time, it
accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking,
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slows reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon monoxide in heavy
traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis.
It also reacts with water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur‐containing acids. The acids
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can become attached to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to the lung.
Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and also
increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza or common colds.
Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to these particles over a long period
of time damages lung tissue and contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and
cancer.
Many volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (such as
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lead, cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone, a component
of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation of the eye, nose and
the throat.
EFFECTS ON PLANTS
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores, they damage the leaves of crop plants. Chronic
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exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive
water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such exposure interferes with
photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or
drop off altogether. At a higher concentration of sulphur dioxide majority of the flower buds become
stiff and hard. They eventually fall from the plants, as they are unable to flower.
Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air pollutants from smelters, coal burning power plants
and industrial units as well as from cars and trucks can damage trees and other plants.
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EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down exterior
paint on cars and houses. All around the world air pollutants have discoloured irreplaceable
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monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, etc.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE STRATOSPHERE
The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which works as an effective screen
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for ultraviolet light. This region called the ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the surface of the
earth. Though the ozone is present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains in the region between 20
to 25 kms. The ozone layer does not consist of solely ozone but a mixture of other common
atmospheric gases. In the most dense ozone layer there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000
gas molecules. Therefore, even small changes in the ozone concentration can produce dramatic
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effects on life on earth.
The total amount of ozone in a 'column' of air from the earth's surface upto an altitude of 50 km is the
total column ozone. This is recorded in Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone
layer by an equivalent layer of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level. This
means that 100 DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level.
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Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms instead of two. It is produced naturally from the
photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules in the atmosphere. The ozone thus formed is constantly
broken down by naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone layer. In the
absence of pollutants, the creation and breakdown of ozone are purely governed by natural forces,
but the presence of certain pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. Though it was known
earlier that ozone shows fluctuations in its concentrations which may be accompanied sometimes
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with a little ozone depletion, it was only in 1985 that the large‐scale destruction of the ozone also
called the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some British researchers published measurements
about the ozone layer.
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Soon after these findings a greater impetus was given to research on the ozone layer, which
convincingly established that CFC's were leading to its depletion. These CFCs (chloro‐fluro‐ carbons)
are extremely stable, non‐flammable, non‐toxic and harmless to handle. This makes them ideal for
many industrial applications like aerosols, air conditioners, refrigerators and fire extinguishers. Many
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cans, which give out foams and sprays, use CFCs. (eg: perfumes, room fresheners, etc.) CFCs are also
used in making foams for mattresses and cushions, disposable Styrofoam cups, glasses, packaging
material for insulation, cold storage etc. However, their stability also gives them a long‐life span in the
atmosphere.
Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain bromine atoms instead of chlorine. They are
more dangerous to the ozone layer than CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents as they do
not pose a harm to people and equipment exposed to them during firefighting.
The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they are released. As they are
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heavier than air they have to be carried by air currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and
then they slowly diffuse into the upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and can take as long as five
to fifteen years. In the stratosphere unfiltered UV‐radiation severs the chemical bonds releasing
chlorine from the rest of the CFC. This attacks the ozone molecule resulting in its splitting into an
oxygen molecule and an oxygen atom.
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Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute over the globe, the ozone depletion is especially
pronounced over the South Pole due to the extreme weather conditions in the Antarctic atmosphere.
The presence of the ice crystals makes the Cl‐O bonding easier. The ozone layer over countries like
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and parts of South America is also depleted.
India has signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992, which aims to control the production and consumption
of Ozone Depleting Substances.
OZONE DEPLETION‐WHAT DOES IT DO?
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Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.
Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by increased
ultra‐violet radiation. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the resistance of the whole body
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to certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic
diseases such as malaria introduced through the skin.
Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy during the
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process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen
especially in legumes and cabbage.
Plant and animal planktons are damaged by ultra‐violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic
animals) the breeding period is shortened by changes in radiation. As planktons form the basis of the
marine food chain a change in their number and species composition influences fish and shell fish
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production.
Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to fade faster.
Effect on climate: Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming, a
phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of certain gases like carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs. Observations of the earth have shown beyond doubt that
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atmospheric constituents such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and Chloro
Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra‐red radiation near the earth's surface. This is known as
the 'Greenhouse Effect'. The phenomenon is similar to what happens in a greenhouse. The glass in a
greenhouse allows solar radiation to enter which is absorbed by the objects inside. These objects
radiate heat in the form of terrestrial radiation, which does not pass out through the glass. The heat
is therefore trapped in the greenhouse increasing the temperature inside and ensuring the luxuriant
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growth of plants
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There could be several adverse effects of global warming.
- With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will melt causing a rise in ocean levels and flooding of
coastal areas.
- In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives this would be catastrophic. If the sea level rises by
3m., Maldives will disappear completely beneath the waves.
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- The rise in temperature will bring about a fall in agricultural produce.
- Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about changes in habitats. A previously
productive agricultural area will suffer severe droughts while rains will fall in locations that were
once deserts. This could bring about changes in the species of natural plants, agricultural crops,
insects, livestock and micro‐organisms.
- In the polar regions temperature rises caused by global warming would have disastrous effects.
Vast quantities of methane are trapped beneath the frozen soil of Alaska. When the permafrost
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melts the methane that will be released can accelerate the process of global warming.
CONTROL MEASURES FOR AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and effluent
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control.
One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place. This
includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases though scrubbers, closed collection
recovery systems through which it is possible to collect the pollutants before they escape, use of dry
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and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc. Providing a greater height to the stacks can
help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants as far away from the ground as possible. Industries
should be located in places so as to minimize the effects of pollution after considering the topography
and the wind directions. Substitution of raw material that causes more pollution with those that cause
less pollution can be done.
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Prevention and control of air pollution
A. Indoor air pollution
Poor ventilation due to faulty design of buildings leads to pollution of the confined space. Paints,
carpets, furniture, etc. in rooms may give out volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Use of disinfectants,
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fumigants, etc. may release hazardous gases. In hospitals, pathogens present in waste remain in the
air in the form of spores. This can result in hospital acquired infections and is an occupational health
hazard. In congested areas, slums and rural areas burning of firewood and biomass results in lot of
smoke. Children and ladies exposed to smoke may suffer from acute respiratory problems which
include running nose, cough, sore throat, lung infection, asthma, difficulty in breathing, noisy
respiration and wheezing.
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B. Prevention and control of indoor air pollution
Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as biogas, kerosene or
electricity. But supply of electricity is limited. Similarly, kerosene is also limited. Improved stoves for
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looking like smokeless chullahs have high thermal efficiency and reduced emission of pollutants
including smoke. The house designs should incorporate a well‐ventilated kitchen. Use of biogas and
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) need to be encouraged. Those species of trees such as baval (Acacia
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nilotica) which are least smoky should be planted and used. Charcoal is a comparatively cleaner fuel.
Indoor pollution due to decay of exposed kitchen waste can be reduced by covering the waste
properly. Segregation of waste, pretreatment at source, sterilization of rooms will help in checking
indoor air pollution.
C. Prevention and control of industrial pollution
Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by:
(a) use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in power plants, fertilizer plants etc. which
is cheaper in addition to being environmentally friendly.
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(b) employing environment friendly industrial processes so that emission of pollutants and hazardous
waste is minimized.
(c) installing devices which reduce release of pollutants. Devices like filters, electrostatic
precipitators, inertial collectors, scrubbers, gravel bed filters or dry scrubbers are described below:
(i) Filters ‐ Filters remove particulate matter from the gas stream. The medium of a filter may be
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made of fibrous materials like cloth, granular material like sand, a rigid material like screen,
or any mat like felt pad. Baghouse filtration system is the most common one and is made of
cotton or synthetic fibres ( for low temperatures) or glass cloth fabrics (for higher temperature
up to 290oC).
(ii) Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)‐ The emanating dust is charged with ions and the ionized
particulate matter is collected on an oppositely charged surface. The particles are removed
from the collection surface by occasional shaking or by rapping the surface. ESPs are used in
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boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal power plants, cement factories, steel
plants, etc.
(iii) Inertial collectors ‐ It works on the principle that inertia of SPM in a gas is higher than its
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solvent and as inertia is a function of the mass of the particulate matter this device collects
heavier particles more efficiently. ‘Cyclone’ is a common inertial collector used in gas cleaning
plants.
(iv) Scrubbers ‐ Scrubbers are wet collectors. They remove aerosols from a stream of gas either
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by collecting wet particles on a surface followed by their removal, or else the particles are
wetted by a scrubbing liquid. The particles get trapped as they travel from supporting gaseous
medium across the interface to the liquid scrubbing medium.
Gaseous pollutants can be removed by absorption in a liquid using a wet scrubber and depends on
the type of the gas to be removed e.g. for removal of sulphur dioxide alkaline solution is needed as it
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dissolves sulphur dioxide. Gaseous pollutants may be absorbed on an activated solid surface like silica
gel, alumina, carbon, etc. Silica gel can remove water vapour. Condensation allows the recovery of
many by products in coal and petroleum processing industries from their liquid effluents.
Apart from the use of above‐mentioned devices, other control measures are‐
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• increasing the height of chimneys.
• closing industries which pollute the environment.
• shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas.
• development and maintenance of green belt of adequate width.
(iv) Control of vehicular pollution
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• The emission standards for automobiles have been set which if followed will reduce the pollution.
Standards have been set for the durability of catalytic converters which reduce vehicular emission.
• In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need to obtain Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate at
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regular intervals. This ensures that levels of pollutants emitted from vehicle exhaust are not
beyond the prescribed legal limits.
• The price of diesel is much cheaper than petrol which promotes use of diesel. To reduce emission
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of Sulphur dioxide, sulphur content in diesel has been reduced to 0.05%.
• Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl lead was added in the petrol to raise octane level for smooth
running of engines. Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent emission of lead
particles with the vehicular emission.
Alternate fuels like CNG is being encouraged for use in public transport vehicles.

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AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA
The World health Organization (WHO) which rates only mega cities of the world has rated Delhi the
fourth most polluted city ion the world. However, compared to other cities in India, Delhi is not at the
top of the list of polluted cities. Our country has several pollution hotspots. The recent release from
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Parivesh, January 2003 states that Ahmedabad's air is most
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noxious flowed by Kanpur, Solapur and Lucknow with small particulate levels (PM10) 3‐4 times the
standard of 60 microgram per cubic meter (mg/m3). The report has ranked 29 cities according to
Respirable Particulate Matter (RSPM) levels recorded during the year 2000. This report thus confirms
the fact that Indian cities show high particulate pollution with 14 cities hitting critical levels.
Nitrogen dioxide levels in most major cities are generally close to the acceptable annual standard of
60 mg/m3. However sharp increases have been noticed in a few cities with heavy vehicular traffic and
density as in a few locations in Kolkata and Delhi indicating stronger impact of traffic. The CPCB
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indicates vehicles as one of the predominant sources of air pollution. However the impact of hard
measures implemented in Delhi over the last few years such as introduction of Euro II standards,
lowering the sulphur content in fuel to 500 ppm and implementing Compressed Natural Gas program
has succeeded in improving the quality of air. Rapid urbanization of smaller cities especially those
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situated near the big commercial centers have an enormous increase in traffic load especially in the
most polluted segment such as two and three wheelers and diesel vehicles combined with poor quality
fuel contribute to the deteriorating air quality in a big way.
It is alarming to note that residential locations in India are fast outpacing industrial locations in air
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pollution implying that vehicular fumes are responsible for this trend. The Supreme Court's order of
April 5, 2002 has directed the Central Government for an action plan for other polluted cities. Absence
of any local initiatives for action and delay in air pollution control measures will only make the situation
worse.
The Supreme Court also played a vital role protecting the Taj Mahal. Being exposed to sulphur dioxide
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and suspended particulate matter, the Taj had contracted 'marble cancer', a fungal growth that
corroded its surface giving it a yellowish tinge. The SPM deposits blackened it. Shri MC Mehta an
environmental lawyer filed a public interest litigation in 1984 expressing concern over the havoc the
polluting units in Agra were wreaking on the Taj Mahal. Twelve years later the Supreme Court ordered
292 industries in the vicinity to either adopt pollution control measures or shut down. It also made it
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mandatory for these units to either switch over to eco‐ friendly fuels like natural gas or shift out of the
area.
Air quality monitoring
India does not presently have a well established system of monitoring air pollution. When air quality
monitoring began in India in the late 1960s planners focused only on a few pollutants namely sulphur
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dioxide, nitrogen oxides and suspended particulate matter. Other pollutants such as carbon monoxide
and lead were monitored only on a limited scale. The threat from other air toxins such as benzene,
ozone, other small particulates is not known as these are not monitored at all. A database on ambient
air quality in Indian cities has been prepared by the monitoring networks of the National Environ‐
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mental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
initiated its own national Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) program in 1985.
Ambient air quality standards in India developed by the Central Pollution Control Board
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Area Category SPM SO2 CO NOx

pg/m3 pg/m3 pg/m3 pg/m3
Industrial and mixed use 500 120 5000 120
Residential and rural 200 80 2000 80
Sensitive 100 3 1000 30
Data to the NAAQM is supplied by the respective state pollution control boards, which is then
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transmitted to the CPCB. Experts feel that the present air quality‐monitoring network cannot capture
the true profile of urban air pollution due to the lack of adequate monitoring stations. Moreover,
critical toxins have still not been included in the list of pollutants to be monitored.
Legal aspects of air pollution control in India The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was
legislated in 1981. The Act provided for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. In areas
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notified under this Act no industrial pollution causing activity could come up without the permission
of the concerned State Pollution Control Board. But this Act was not strong enough to play a
precautionary or a corrective role. After the Bhopal disaster, a more comprehensive Environment
Protection Act (EPA) was passed in 1986. This Act for the first time conferred enforcement agencies
with necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity that can harm the environment. To regulate
vehicular pollution the Central Motor Vehicles Act of 1939 was amended in 1989. Following this
amendment the exhaust emission rules for vehicle owners were notified in 1990 and the mass
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emission standards for vehicle manufacturers were enforced in 1991 for the first time. The mass
emission norms have been further revised for 2000.
Air quality management as a well‐defined program has yet to emerge in India. We need a much more
strengthened air quality management with continuous monitoring of air if we are to have a better
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quality of air. This would also need an integrated approach with strict air pollution control laws. Some
of the suggestions for doing this include:
- Putting a greater emphasis on pollution prevention rather than control
-
-
-
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Reducing the use of fossil fuels
Improving the quality of vehicular fuel
Increasing the use of renewable energy
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Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor
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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC Module VI
MODULE 5
Syllabus:
Hazard and disaster management plans for floods, tidal waves.
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FLOOD PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION
INTRODUCTION
Floods are high stream flows, which overlap natural or artificial banks of a river or a stream and are
markedly higher than the usual as well as inundation of low land. Sometimes copious monsoon rains
combine with massive flows from the rivers, then the floods indeed become calamitous. Through
geophysical studies, it has been found that more than one and half billion people on the earth planet
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reside on riverside or coastal flood plains where they produce 1/3 of world’s food production. At least‐
some fraction of these plains go under flood water one or the other day, hence causing widespread
losses to human lives, devastated homes and heads of cattle dead, destroy agricultural crops and
disrupt the communication links such as railways, roads as well health hazards (i.e. spread of diseases
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such as cholera or Gastrointestinal symptoms, etc.). Even after the receding of floods, it takes several
months or even years for the community to come to the pre‐flood status.
The vulnerability of states or Union Territories of India due to floods was not observed seriously in the
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past due to low developmental activities and less population pressure. However, in the present time,
unabated population and high rate of developmental activities have forced the people to occupy the
flood plains and making the society highly vulnerable for flood losses. Other factors like lack of
adequate sites for rescue operations above flood levels, accessed routes for reaching these sites, lack
of public information system for escape routes and other appropriate response activities may be
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rendered to make communities more sensitive. The protected area (32 mha) sometimes becomes
more vulnerable to floods as the flood control measures mainly the embankments may breach during
a severe flood and the protected area may be inundated.
In India, 25 states and one Union Territory (Andaman & Nicobar) are susceptible to floods. However,
the most vulnerable states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa,
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Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. District wise, there
are 137 districts vulnerable to floods.
Causes: The primary causes for Floods are‐
1) Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff from the tributaries and river
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carrying flows in excess of their capacities.
2) Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.
3) Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their tributaries.
4) Intense rainfall when river is flowing full.
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5) Poor natural drainage system.
6) Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
7) Cyclone and very intense rainfall when the EL Nino effect is on a decline.
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On account of frequent occurrence of floods since time immemorial, people have learnt to live
with them. They have generally set up settlements away from frequently flooded areas, which have
been used for less important activities such as agriculture, grazing of cattle etc. The crops that can
sustain submergence, are grown in the flood prone areas, during monsoon. The crops grown in the
areas that were inundated during floods, result in bumper yields. Traditional methods based on locally
available resources have been used to minimize the damage during floods. With the increase in
population, these areas have been occupied and as a result floods cause huge damage to lives, cattle,
property and infrastructure. The flood management measures can be categorized into structural and
non‐structural measures. Structural measures for flood management are physical in nature and aim
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Module VI Dept. of Civil Engineering, MEAEC
to prevent flood waters from reaching potential damage centres, whereas non‐ structural measures
strive to keep the people away from flood waters.
STRUCTURAL MEASURES FOR FLOOD MANAGEMENT
The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been on
structural measures.
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1. Embankments/Banks, Flood Walls, Flood Levees
The embankment system in the river restricts the river to its existing course and prevents it from
overflowing the banks. Embankments are constructed generally with earth easily available from
nearby areas. In developed areas where adequate space is not available or land is very expensive,
concrete or masonry floodwalls are constructed. Embankments (including ring‐ bunds and town‐
protection works) are the most popular method of flood protection and have been constructed
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extensively in the past. Embankments are designed and constructed to afford a degree of protection
against floods of a certain frequency and intensity or against the maximum recorded flood depending
upon the location protected and their economic justification.
Divergent views have however emerged on the utility of embankments as a means for flood
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protection. While some NGOs have voiced serious criticism of existing embankments and advocated
their removal, others favour construction of additional lengths of embankments as the only practical
medium/short‐term solution for the flood problem. Embankments have provided positive benefits by
ensuring protection against floods and river spills. Embankments with proper roads have provided
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useful communication link in the area. These are generally the only means of communication during
floods and thereafter. They also provide shelter to the villagers during floods. However, breaches in
them have resulted in large‐scale flooding in the protected areas. Poor drainage in the protected area
also leads to drainage congestion. The embankments may lead to deposition of silt and rise in bed
levels, thus decreasing the carrying capacity of the river and aggravating drainage congestion. They
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interfere with natural drainage and deprive protected areas of fertile soil and groundwater recharge.
They are also generally unable to withstand erosion unless adequately protected. These concerns can,
however, be taken care of while designing the embankments i.e. by locating them away from active
river edge, keeping sufficient space between the embankments on two banks of the river, keeping
height, width, side slopes and slope protection to withstand the design flood, providing required
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number of sluices of adequate size for drainage and spilling sections/ breaching sections for allowing
water to spill/flood the protected area after water level in the river reaches a certain stage etc.
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Embankment Flood wall
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2. Dams, Reservoirs and other Water Storages
Lakes, low lying depressions, tanks, dams and reservoirs store significant proportions of flood water
and the stored water can be released subsequently when the flood has receded. The stored water
can also be used subsequently for irrigation, power generation, and meeting industrial and drinking
water needs. In the case of large multipurpose reservoirs, a proper reservoir regulation schedule can
be worked out for optimum benefit from the project as a whole. Their capacities can be improved by
desilting and constructing embankments around them. some of the water stored in these water
bodies percolates below the ground thereby adding to the groundwater storage. Thus, in addition to
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flood moderation, these water storages also help in water conservation and groundwater recharge.
(a) Natural Detention Basins
Detention basins are usually formed by utilising natural depressions/swamps and lakes by
improving their capacity through construction of encircling embankments and providing suitable
devices for regulating the release of stored water.
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Moderation of floods by utilising natural depressions, swamps and lakes to which a portion of
floodwater can be diverted, is an effective method of protection from floods depending on
topography of the particular area. It is an economical alternative to construction of dams and
reservoirs especially for flood moderation.
(b) Dams and Reservoirs
Dams and reservoirs store water during floods the quantum of which depends on the availability
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of space in the reservoir thereby reducing the flood peak downstream. The stored water is
released from the reservoir for meeting water requirements for irrigation, power generation, and
drinking and industrial purposes. The water is also released into the river downstream subject to
its safe carrying capacity to make space in the reservoir for accommodating future floods as per
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the reservoir regulation manual.
Reservoirs provide a good long‐term solution to the problem of floods. They are more effective
for flood control if a designated space is reserved. The National Water Policy 2002 has
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recommended the provision of an adequate flood cushion in water storage projects and that flood
control be given overriding consideration in the reservoir regulation policy
Reservoirs themselves may not offer complete flood protection for various reasons.
Embankments along the river in the downstream reaches are often required as a supplementary
measure to contain the residual floods. Reservoirs, to the extent technically and economically
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feasible, are an important component in any package of measures for FLOOD MANAGEMENT.
Reservoirs also ensure optimum utilisation of water resources.
3. Channel Improvement
A channel can be made to carry flood discharge at levels lower than its prevailing high flood level by
improving its discharge carrying capacity. Channel improvement aims at increasing the area of flow
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or the velocity of flow (or both) to increase its carrying capacity. Channel improvement has not been
resorted to widely in India mainly because of the high costs involved and topographical constraints.
However, it is of advantage to take up such work for local reaches.
4. Desilting/Dredging of Rivers
The studies carried out so far indicate aggradation/degradation of riverbeds in certain reaches, but
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they do not confirm the common belief of a general rise in river beds. silting at places where the rivers
emerge from the hills into the plains, at convex bends and near their outfall into another river or lake
or sea, is a natural phenomenon. Accordingly, rivers exhibit a tendency to braid/meander/form deltas.
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Various committees/ experts appointed to look into this problem have not recommended
desilting/dredging of the rivers as a remedial measure. Selective desilting/dredging at
outfalls/confluences or local reaches can, however, be adopted as a measure to tackle the problem
locally.
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5. Drainage Improvement
Surface water drainage congestion due to inadequacy of natural or manmade drainage channels
results in flooding in many areas. In such cases constructing new channels and/or improving the
capacity of existing channels constitute an effective means of flood control. However, the possibility
of drainage congestion and flooding in the downstream area is to be kept in mind while formulating
such schemes.
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6. Diversion of Flood Water
Diverting all or a part of the discharge into a natural or artificially constructed channel, lying within or
in some cases outside the flood plains is a useful means of lowering water levels in the river The
diverted water may be taken away from the river without returning it further downstream or it may
be returned to the river some distance downstream or to a lake or to the sea.
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This measure can be used successfully to prevent flooding around cities. The flood spill channel
skirting Srinagar city and the supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of diverting excess water to
prevent flooding of the urbanised areas.
7. Catchment Area Treatment/Afforestation
Watershed management measures such as developing the vegetative cover i.e. afforestation and
conservation of soil cover in conjunction with structural works like check dams, detention basins etc.
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serve as an effective measure in reducing flood peaks and controlling the suddenness of the runoff.
This, however is not very effective during a large flood although, it does help in reducing the siltation
of reservoirs and to some extent, silt load in the rivers as well.
8. Anti‐erosion Works
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Alluvial rivers are usually meandering in nature and, therefore, raise problems of erosion and silting
at various locations. This is a natural phenomenon and results in loss of land at one location and gain
at some other. Generally, there is a tendency of the meander to shift progressively downstream. The
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process of bank erosion is, therefore, consistently active and measures for protection of banks are a
recurring necessity
Anti‐erosion works are normally taken up only for protection of towns, industrial areas, groups of
thickly populated villages, railway lines and roads where re‐location is not possible on socio‐techno‐
economic grounds, long lengths of vital embankments benefitting large areas in case retirement is
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not technically or otherwise feasible and agricultural lands where the cost‐benefit ratio justifies such
works.
Bank erosion can be minimised by adopting measures that aim at deflecting the current away from
the river bank or which aim at reducing the current along the bank of the river and induce silt. The
anti‐ erosion measures in the form of revetment or pitching along with launching apron and spurs of
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earth protected by armour of stones or spurs of loose stones or stones in wire‐mesh crates aim at
increasing resistance of the bank to erosion and deflecting the current away from the bank. These
generally shift the problem in the upstream or the downstream and necessitate further works to
safeguard the land against erosion. Measures such as permeable spurs, porcupine spurs made of
bamboos or of reinforced cement concrete elements reduce the velocity of flow and thus prevent
erosion and induce siltation in the vicinity of the bank.
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Geo‐synthetic material (woven geotextile) available in various forms like big bags and tubes etc. can
be filled in‐site with riverbed sand to form the groynes, spurs and revetments. The dredging of the
channels in the selected reaches which have silted up can be tried. Geo web filled with concrete
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overlaid on geo‐fabric filters in lieu of stone revetment and launching apron is also a new
development. Pilot schemes using these and other new technologies will be taken up to evaluate
their performance and techno‐economic viability.
Since it is not techno‐economically feasible to prevent river erosion completely, national and state
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rehabilitation and resettlement (RR) policies will be revisited to include provision for resettlement
and rehabilitation of victims of river erosion.
9. Sea Walls/Coastal Protection Works
The erosion of land by the sea waves in coastal areas is a serious problem. Sea walls/coastal protection
works in the form of groynes etc. are constructed to prevent flooding erosion in coastal areas by sea
water.
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NON‐STRUCTURAL MEASURES
Non‐structural measures strive to keep people away from flood waters. It contemplates the use
of flood plains judiciously, simultaneously permitting vacating of the same for use by the river
whenever the situation demands. This technique allows the use of flood plains by reducing the
disaster dimension, while retaining its beneficial effects.
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1. Flood Plain Zoning
It is natural for a river to overflow its banks in the event of heavy rainfall in its upper catchments and
spill into the flood plains, which are basically its domain. Extensive and often unplanned use of flood
plains by man disregarding the basic fact that it is part and parcel of the river leads to damage. This is
one of the main factors responsible for the flood damage reported from different parts of the country
in spite of substantial investments in the flood sector
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Increased encroachment of flood plains has been responsible for ever‐growing damage over the years.
The basic concept of flood plain management is to regulate the land use in flood plains in order to
restrict the damage due to floods, while deriving maximum benefit from them. This is done by
determining the location and extent of the areas likely to be affected by floods of different
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magnitudes/frequencies and to develop those areas in such a fashion that the resulting damage is
minimal.

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The basic concept of flood plain zoning is to regulate land use in the flood plains to restrict the damage
caused by floods. Flood plain zoning, therefore, aims at determining the locations and the extent of
areas for developmental activities in such a fashion that the damage is reduced to a minimum. It,
therefore, envisages laying down limitations on development of both the unprotected as well as
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protected areas. in the unprotected areas, boundaries of areas in which developmental activities will
be banned, are to be established to prevent indiscriminate growth. In the protected areas, only such
developmental activities can be allowed, which will not involve heavy damage in case the protective
measures fail. Zoning cannot remedy existing situations, although, it will definitely help in minimising
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flood damage in new developments.
Flood plain zoning is not only necessary in the case of floods by rivers but it is also useful in reducing
the damage caused by drainage congestion particularly in urban areas where, on grounds of economy
and other considerations, urban drainage is not designed for the worst conditions and presupposes
some damage during storms whose magnitude frequently exceeds that for which the drainage system
is designed.
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Pre‐requisites for the Enforcement of Flood Plain Zoning
The basic requirements to be taken care of before implementing flood plain zoning are as follows:
(i) Broad demarcation of areas vulnerable to floods.
(ii) Preparation of a large‐scale maps (1:10,000/1:15,000) of area vulnerable to floods with
contours at an interval of 0.3 m or 0.5 m.
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(iii) Marking of reference river gauges with respect to which, the areas likely to be inundated for
different magnitudes of floods will be determined.
(iv) Demarcation of areas liable to inundation by floods of different frequencies, e.g., like once in
two, five, ten, twenty years and so on. Similarly, demarcation of areas likely to be affected on
account of accumulation of rainwater for different frequencies of rainfall like 5, 10, 25 and
50.
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(v) Marking of likely submersion areas for different flood stages or accumulation of rainwater on
the maps.
Regulation of Land Use in Flood Prone Areas
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There can be different considerations for such regulations. For example, the area likely to be
affected by floods up to a 10‐year frequency should be kept reserved only for gardens, parks,
playgrounds, etc. Residential or public buildings, or any commercial buildings, industries, and public
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utilities should be prohibited in this zone. In area liable to flooding in a 25‐year frequency flood,
residential buildings could be permitted with certain stipulation of construction on stilts (columns),
minimum plinth levels, prohibition for construction of basements and minimum levels of approach
roads, etc. In urban areas there should be double‐ storeyed buildings. Ground floors could be utilised
for schools and other non‐residential purposes.
Categorisation and Prioritisation of Structures in Flood Plains Zoning
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In the regulation of land use in flood plains, different types of buildings and utility services can be
grouped under three priorities from the point of view of the damage likely to occur and the flood
plain zone in which they are to be located:
1. Priority 1: Defence installations, industries, public utilities like hospitals, electricity
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installations, water supply, telephone exchanges, aerodromes, railway stations, commercial
centres, etc. ‐Buildings should be located in such a fashion that they are above the levels
corresponding to a 100‐ year frequency or the maximum observed flood levels. Similarly they
should also be above the levels corresponding to a 50‐year rainfall and the likely submersion
due to drainage congestion.
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2. Priority 2: Public institutions, government offices, universities, public libraries and residential
areas. ‐Buildings should be above a level corresponding to a 25‐year flood or a 10‐year rainfall
with stipulation that all buildings in vulnerable zones should be constructed on columns or
stilts as indicated above.
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3. Priority 3: Parks and playgrounds. ‐Infrastructure such as playgrounds and parks can be
located in areas vulnerable to frequent floods. Since every city needs some open areas and
gardens, by restricting building activity in a vulnerable area, it will be possible to develop parks
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and play grounds, which would provide a proper environment for the growth of the city.
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2. Flood Proofing pa
Flood proofing measures help greatly in the mitigation of distress and provide immediate relief
to the population in flood prone areas. it is essentially a combination of structural change and
emergency action, not involving any evacuation. The techniques adopted consist of providing raised

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platforms for flood shelter for men and cattle, raising the public utility installation especially the
platforms for drinking water hand pumps and bore wells above flood level, promoting construction
of double‐storey buildings wherein the first floor can be used for taking shelter during floods.
In case of urban areas, certain measures that should be taken up as soon as flood warning is received,
are installation of removable covers such as steel or aluminium bulk heads over doors and windows,
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permanent closure of low level windows and other openings, keeping store counters on wheels,
closing of sewer wells, anchoring and covering machinery and equipment with plastic sheets, etc.
In the existing developed areas, possibilities of protecting against submergence or relocating to safer
areas vital installations like electricity sub‐stations/ power houses, telephone exchanges, the pumping
stations meant for drinking water supply etc., will be seriously examined and appropriate measures
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will be undertaken by the state governments/SDMAs, to make them safe against floods.
3. Flood Forecasting and Warning
Flood forecasting (FF) enables us to be forewarned as to when the river is going to use its flood plain,
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to what extent and for how long. The forecast of a flood may be for the water level (stage forecast),
discharge (flow forecast) and area likely to be submerged (inundation forecast) at various
points/particular stations at a specific time.
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Of all the non‐structural measures for flood management, which rely on the modification of
susceptibility to flood damage, the one which is gaining sustained attention of the planners and
acceptance of the public is flood‐forecasting and warning. A nationwide flood forecasting and warning
system covering major inter‐state rivers has been established by the Central Water Commission
(CWC). The system under CWC is often supplemented by the states that make arrangements for
advance warning at other stations strategically important to them. The CWC also extends FF services
to such stations at the request of the states concerned. With reliable advance information/warning
about impending floods, loss of life and property can be reduced to a considerable extent. People,
cattle and valuable assets can be shifted in advance to safer places.
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Methodology
Flood forecasting services include the following phases:
(i) Data Collection
Real time hydrological data viz. gauge and discharge and meteorological data, viz. rainfall, are the
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basic requirements for the formulation of a flood forecast. The hydrological and hydrometeorological
data from over 945 stations in the 62 river sub‐basins are daily collected, analysed and utilised for
formulation of flood forecasts. While most of the hydro‐meteorological data are observed and
collected by the field formations of CWC, flood management offices of the IMD supply the daily
rainfall data of their rain gauge stations besides synoptic situation including heavy rainfall warning for
next 24 hours and range of quantitative precipitation forecasts for various river basins to the
respective FF centres of the CWC. The CWC provides communication facilities to the flood
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management offices in transmission of rainfall data of rain gauge stations located at the various CWC
gauge and discharge stations.
(ii) Transmission of Data to the Forecasting Centers
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Transmission of data on a real‐time basis from the hydrological and hydrometeorological stations
to the flood forecasting centers is a vital factor in the FF system. Landline communication i.e., by
telephone/telegram was the commonly used mode for data transmission in FF services till the
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beginning of the 1970s. The communication is mainly by VHF/ HF wireless sets at the data
observation/collection sites and at the FF centers. There are over 500 wireless stations of the CWC all
over the country for communication of real‐time data related to flood forecast.
In addition to wireless communication, telephone/telex/fax/V‐SAT/Internet facilities are also
being utilised. During the flood season, the data is communicated two to three times in a day. The
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frequency of transmission is increased to an hourly basis, if the flood situation so demands. Thus, the
CWC is maintaining a reliable and quick system of data transmission.
(iii) .Data Processing and Formulation of Forecasts
Historical data like gauge, discharge and rainfall are utilised for the development of techniques
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for formulation of forecasts on a real‐time basis. Forecasts are formulated at the FF stations by
predicting river stage/inflow with time of occurrence. After receipt of the hydrological and
meteorological data from field formations, the data is processed in FF centers/control rooms to check
its consistency and the data is modified, if any inaccuracy is found, before using in forecast
formulation. All the forecasting centres of the CWC have been provided with computer facilities for
data processing.
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The inflow forecasts are mainly formulated by using rainfall runoff correlation developed for the
particular catchment. Computer‐based watershed model MIKE‐11, developed under CWC‐DHI
collaboration, is being used for inflow forecasts. Computers enable frequent updating of predictions
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based on the observed part of the flood hydrographs of FF and base stations during the flood period.
The forecasts obtained from the coaxial correlation diagram or mathematical models/
computerised watershed models are modified, if required, to obtain the final forecast based on the
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prevailing conditions in the river and heavy rainfall warnings etc. In the CWC, the forecasts are
formulated by a dedicated and experienced team of hydro‐meteorologists and hydrologists.
Forecasts (stage/inflow) are issued whenever the river stage at the FF site exceeds or is likely to
exceed a specified level called warning level of the site which is fixed in consultation with the
concerned state government. The warning level is generally 1 m below the danger level of the site,
although there is no‐ common format designed for issuing flood forecasts by various field divisions,
as forecasts are issued according to the users’ convenience. In the forecast, the current date and time
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of issue of forecast, present water level/inflow and anticipated water level/inflow with corresponding
date and time are normally included.
(iv) Dissemination of Flood Forecasts and warnings
The final forecasts are then communicated to the user agencies such as the concerned
administrative and engineering authorities of the state/central governments including railways,
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defence and other agencies connected with flood protection and DM by special messenger/
telegram/wireless/ telephone/fax/e‐mail etc. Flood forecasts are also passed on to the All India Radio
(AIR), Doordarshan and local newspapers for wide publicity in the affected area.
MEDICAL PREPAREDNESS
After‐effects of Floods Requiring Medical Attention
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Floods as a natural disaster have a high potential of precipitating the incidences of mass
casualties. There is the risk of drowning and physical trauma along with the threat of diseases
associated with contamination of water and the creation of mosquito‐ breeding sites. Direct health
effects of a flood may include: drowning; injuries like cuts, sprains, fractures, electric shocks;
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diarrhoea, vector‐and rodent‐borne diseases like malaria, leptospirosis; skin and eye infections; and
psychological stress. The indirect health consequences of floods are usually due to damage caused to
health care infrastructure and loss of essential drugs, damage to water and sanitation infrastructure,
damage to crops and disruption of food supplies, destruction of property causing lack of shelter that
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may lead to increased exposure to disease‐vectors.
Adverse effects of floods on health can be prevented by medical preparedness. Medical
preparedness for floods constitutes the following components.
Creating Awareness
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The state governments/SDMAs will take steps to create awareness to the type of illnesses and
other health problems that can result in the aftermath of floods, to all the medical teams and the
community at large. Hygienic practices such as hand washing with soap and use of the toilet for
defecation, use of boiled water or adding chlorine to water and safe food cooking by disease‐free
persons will be promoted.
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Medical Stores
Medical kits will be prepared for the management of flood casualties. intravenous (IV) fluid,
ventilators, oxygen, dressing materials, tetanus toxoid, antibiotics, vaccines, anti‐snake venom and
anti‐diarrhoea drugs will be the most commonly needed medical resources. Large‐ scale medical
stores from where these materials can be procured will be identified.
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Patient Evacuation Plan
Paramedical staff must be trained for resuscitation, triage and to maintain vital parameters like pulse,
blood pressure, respiration and intravenous drip during evacuation. Heli‐ ambulances need to be
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deployed to aid in the evacuation of flood casualties collected at high points. The ambulances should
have standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for treatment.
Disaster Management Plans
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Disaster Management Plans need to be prepared by all hospitals. Medical facilities, training of
medical personnel, creating awareness about drowning and its management will be a part of the
plan. Hospitals must nominate an officer for coordinating management for flood casualties.
Contingency plans will be made ready for providing additional beds. Oxygen cylinders, continuous
positive air pressure (CPAP) ventilators, dressing materials, blood and IV fluid for transfusion will be
stocked. The hospital casualty room is to be equipped with resuscitation equipment like suction
apparatus, airways laryngoscope, pulse oxymeter, defibrillator and lifesaving drugs. In the aftermath
of a flood, public health response is one of the prime responsibilities of medical authorities.
They will ensure safe water supply and clean food availability along with maintenance of hygiene and
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sanitation by proper bio‐waste disposal. Water testing and food inspection is required to be carried
out regularly to prevent outbreak of any epidemic. An effective communication system is an essential
requirement for prompt medical response
FLOOD RESPONSE
Response System
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Management and control of the adverse consequences of floods will require coordinated and
effective response systems at all levels‐national, state, district, local and community. Many of the
components of response initiatives will remain the same for different types of disasters. These
systems need to be developed considering the multi‐hazard scenario of the region to optimally utilise
available resources.
Institutionalization
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The scale of response for floods and the corresponding role players will be identified and
mobilised at the district, state or national levels depending on the magnitude and the severity of the
event. Systems will be institutionlised by the DMAs, at various levels, for coordination between the
various agencies like central government ministries and departments, state governments, district
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administration, ULBs, PRIs and other stakeholders for effective post‐flood response.
Evacuation Plan
Evacuation of human population and livestock is the only prescribed means to save them from the
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fury of floods. Evacuation of flood affected communities can be one of the most difficult response
operations, especially, when it involves large population. Evacuation needs to be carried out as a
precautionary measure based on warning indicators, prior to impact, in order to protect flood‐
threatened persons from the full effects of the disasters. Evacuation may also be necessary after the
area has been flooded in order to move persons from a flood‐affected area to safer and better
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surroundings. For carrying out successful evacuation, the threat perception on the part of DM officials
is essential. Continuous dialogue with stakeholders such as, early warning providers, transportation
authorities, health‐care authorities/ personnel, food and essential commodity suppliers, civil
societies, NGOs and last but not the least, the communities including the Decision Support System
(DSS) and inputs based on Geographical Information System (GIS) platform are essential for carrying
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out successful evacuation. Responsibilities of each organization need to be fixed beforehand in the
form of SoPs. other important points that need to be considered for the development of evacuation
plan including the action points, are listed below:
i) Designing department‐specific customised action plans to save lives immediately following or
before an emergency as per the local scale flood risk profile of the region and to respond to
any eventuality/emergency
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ii) Preparing plans of all the organisations involved in the emergency evacuation for all types of
emergencies; validating plans; evaluating staff competency; testing the established
emergency operational procedures
iii) Making on‐line inventory of emergency relief resources available with the local government,
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public and corporate institutions for possible accessing during the emergency.
iv) Evolving coordinated EEP institutional mechanism and triggering actions with joint
partnership at the state/district level involving all concerned departments and agencies,
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armed forces, paramilitary forces, NDRF, SDRF, civil society, CBOs, PRIs, ULBs, Civil Defence
(CD), etc.
v) Building confidence among the populace that their belongings will be protected when
they are away from their own houses.
Estimation of the Severity of a Flood
As the local communication infrastructure often fails, the severity of a flood cannot be estimated
immediately after its occurrence. The preliminary assessment of the severity of a flood should be
based on water level and the estimate of the area flooded as assessed from satellite imageries. Field
observation data will be used to modify this assessment once available.
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Flood management Plans
Flood management Plans (FMPS) prepared by all agencies will incorporate detailed guidelines for
prioritised implementation of various activities depending on magnitude and the severity of floods.
Response component of DM plans will involve rapid deployment of supplies and logistics, along with
the duration of potential deployment. These plans will prescribe appropriate coordination mechanism
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with other agencies working in the affected areas.
EMERGENCY SEARCH AND RESCUE
Neighborhood Community
The local community in the affected neighbourhood is always the first responder after a disaster.
Experience has shown that over 80 per‐cent of search and rescue is carried out by the local
community before the intervention of the state machinery and specialised search and rescue teams.
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Thus, trained and equipped teams consisting of local people will be set up in flood prone areas to
respond effectively in the event of floods.
Search and Rescue Teams
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Community level teams will be developed in each district with basic training in search and rescue.
Training modules will be developed for trainers of community level search and rescue teams by the
NDRF training institutes. On the ground, besides others, the NDRF battalions will also assist the state
government/district authorities in training communities. They will be further assisted by the ATIs,
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CD, Home Guards and NGOs, Youth organisations such as the NCC, NSS and NYKS will provide support
services to the response teams at the local level under the overall guidance and supervision of the
local administration.
EMERGENCY RELIEF
Trained community level teams will assist in planning and setting up emergency shelters,
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distributing relief among the affected people, identifying missing people, and addressing the needs
of education, health care, water supply and sanitation, food etc. of the affected community.
Members of these teams will be made aware of the specific requirement of the disaster‐affected
communities. It will be ensured by the concerned authorities that the stockpiling of the essential
commodities has been carried out. These teams will also assist the government in identifying the
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most vulnerable people who may need special assistance following floods.
SPECIALISED TEAMS FOR RESPONSE
National Disaster Response Force
In terms of the DM Act, 2005, eight battalions of the NDRF are being set up to provide specialised
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response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster. Out of these seven battalions are already
in position. Each of these battalions will have 18 teams with high skill training and latest equipment
for water rescue. In order to ensure prompt response to any flood situation, each of these battalions
will also have Regional Resource Centres (RRCs) in high vulnerability areas, where boats and other
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water rescue equipment will be pre‐positioned. The NDRF units will maintain close liaison with the
state administration and will be available to them proactively, thus avoiding long procedural delays
in deployment in the event of any serious threatening disaster situation.
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Fire and Emergency Services in the Urban Local Bodies
The fire and emergency services in the ULBs of various states are being used as an emergency‐
cum‐fire services force. The fire and emergency services in the flood prone areas will develop
adequate capacity to respond to serious flood situations, in addition to managing fires.
Police Force
The police play an important role in the aftermath of floods in maintaining law and order,
assisting in search and rescue, and in the transportation and certification of casualties. It is equally
important that the police forces are properly equipped and trained.
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Home Guards
The Home Guards serve as an auxiliary arm of the police force and support the district
administration in various tasks. They will be trained for carrying out search, rescue and relief
operations on occurrence of floods.
Civil Defense
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The community has a major role to play both as a victim and necessarily as a first responder
Integration of the CD organization into disaster management can work as a great catalyst for
organizing community capacity building. CD has been authorized in 225 designated towns in the
country out of which 121 have already been activated where volunteers have been recruited and
trained. There is a plan to revamp CD, extending its coverage to all the districts in the country and
assigning it an important role in DM framework. According to the proposal for revamping, the primary
role of CD will be community capacity building and creating public awareness in pre‐disaster phase.
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The proposal envisages converting the town specific setup of CD to a district specific set up. It is
proposed to have 18 persons employed on full time basis in each district‐specific set up, out of which
eight will be the trainers and their duty will be to train volunteers. Till the revamping is finalized, states
should start using the existing set up for training more and more volunteers and spreading awareness
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on the different aspects of DM. The state governments will also activate the remaining non‐activated
towns in a phased manner. The state governments/SDMAs and DDMAs will coordinate the human
resources of the CD set up as well as those of other agencies for performing/ responding to various
disaster‐related activities.
EMERGENCY LOGISTICS
Equipment
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Motor launches, country boats, inflatable rubber boats, life jackets, life buoys and other
equipments will be required immediately after floods to carry out search and rescue of trapped
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people. State governments will compile a list of such equipment, identify suppliers thereof and enter
into long‐term agreement for their quick mobilization and deployment in the event of floods. The
IDRN, which is a web‐based resource inventory of information on emergency equipment and
response personnel available in every district, will also be used for this purpose.
Relief Camps
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The setting up of relief camps for the people whose houses have been damaged by floods and
the provision of basic amenities in such camps involves complex logistics of mobilising relief supplies,
tents, water supply and sanitation systems, transport and communication systems, and medical
supplies. The panchayat buildings in the villages in flood prone areas will be made flood proof as by
raising their plinth level at least 0.6 m above the drainage/flood submergence line and making them
at least double storeyed or constructing ring bunds around them. Wherever the panchayat building
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is single storey, a stairway will invariably be provided to the roof so that people can take shelter there
temporarily. The DM plans at the state and district levels will address this issue in detail.
Identification of the Deceased
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In the event of mass casualties, states will develop systems for proper identification of the
deceased, recording the details of victims, and making use of DNA fingerprinting.
EMERGENCY MEDICAL RESPONSE
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Emergency Treatment at Site of Floods
Prompt and efficient emergency medical response will be provided by Quick Reaction Medical
Teams (QRMTs), mobile field hospitals, including floating hospitals for riverine islands and areas
inaccessible by roads, Accident Relief Medical Vans (ARMVs) and heli‐ambulances. They will be
activated to reach the flood‐affected areas immediately, along with dressing material, splints,
portable X‐ray machines, mobile operation theatres, resuscitation equipment and life‐saving drugs,
etc. Resuscitation, triage and medical evacuation of victims who require hospitalisation will be done
in accordance with SoPs.
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Medical Facilities and Medical Treatment at Hospital
A well‐rehearsed medical preparedness plan is required to provide intensive care to cases
rescued from drowning. An emergency medical plan will be triggered immediately on receiving
information about imminent threat of flood. The action will be immediately initiated for crisis
expansion of required number of beds. The medical superintendent should be able to forecast the
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requirement of enhanced manpower and medical stores after knowing the number of causalities
likely to be received at the hospital. Special efforts will be made for the availability of IV fluid,
antibiotics vaccines etc. Children, women, elders and other vulnerable casualties will be attended to
on priority basis.
Mortuary Facilities and disposal of Dead Bodies
The state will develop contingency plans to have sufficient mortuaries to preserve the dead
bodies. After proper identification, dead bodies will be immediately disposed through district
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authorities, to prevent outbreak of an epidemic and environmental pollution.
Public Health Issues in Aftermath of Floods
Safe and sufficient drinking water will be ensured. Protecting existing water sources from
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contamination, adding chlorine tablet in the water for residual disinfection effect and provision of
latrine and proper waste disposal to avoid contamination through flies and other insects are
important steps required immediately in the aftermath of a flood. Vector control will be done by
spraying of shelters with residual insecticides. Provision of insecticides treated mosquito nets are
recommended.
Psychosocial Aspects
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A large number of victims will suffer from psychosocial effects in the aftermath of a flood. The
psychosocial impact of floods will be manifested as psychosocial reaction in the form of post‐
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traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) and other psychosocial ailments in displaced people due to flood.
A team comprising a social worker, a psychologist and a psychiatrist will provide counselling to them.
Documentation of Medical Response
Documentation of the medical response provided after a flood will be done by a medical
administrator. This documentation will be used as feedback for future improvement of the response
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strategies.
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HAZARD & DISASTER MANAGEMENT FOR TIDAL WAVES
COASTAL PROTECTION STRATEGIES
A. Hard Engineering Strategies
 Building or creating something which will interfere with coastal processes – usually to reduce
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the power of breaking waves against cliffs.
 E.g., Groynes, Gabions, Rock Armour/Rip‐Rap, Sea dike, Revetments, Breakwater, Sea wall
(a) Groynes
# A barrier extending from the beach or offshore into the sea in the transverse direction to the
sea shore.
# Groynes are used to reduce the loss of beach grade sediment through long shore drift.
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# With proper groyne field design, beach erosion can be reduced due to trapped sediment
on the up‐drift side of the groyne.
# Groynes can be constructed out of wood, stone or concrete depending on the size of native
beach material.
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# Although acting to reduce the erosion on site, groynes typically cause sediment starvation
down‐drift, shifting the erosion further down the coastline.
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(b) Gabions
# Wire cages filled with stones/rocks stacked along the cliff base protect the shore.
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Advantages Disadvantages
 Easily installed ൈ Not very attractive
 Cheaper than sea wall ൈ Needs frequent checking
& repair
ൈ Not easy for people to get
over to get to beach
ൈ May contain rats nests

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(c) Rock Armour/Rip‐Rap
# Huge blocks of rocks is placed along the shore
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 Popular option in recent ൈ Not very attractive
years – seen to be effective ൈ Not easy for people to get
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 Cheaper than sea wall over to get to the beach
(broken ankles)
ൈ Rats may live in spaces
(d) Sea dike
events.
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# Large land‐based sloped structures used to prevent overtopping during high tide and storm
# Instead of providing protection against wave action, sea dikes fix the land‐sea boundary in
place to prevent inland flooding.
# They are typically created out of sand, clay or mud often incorporating a grass cover layer
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(e) Revetments
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# Onshore sloped structures used to reduce the landward migration of the beach due to coastal
erosion.
# The Structure reduces the water energy and thus reduces the erosive power of the wave
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# They can be constructed out of concrete, stone or asphalt. The structure should be designed
to have a crest sufficiently high to stop wave overtopping during a storm event
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(f) Breakwater
# These are offshore sloped or vertical structures reducing incoming wave energy arriving at
the coastline.
# As well as reducing erosion, this also creates calmer waters for harbors and shipping.
# They can be constructed out of concrete or stone and rock.
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(g) Sea wall
# Vertical or near‐vertical structures designed to limit erosion due to wave attack.
# Typical construction materials include concrete, steel and timber.
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# Concrete curved superstructures can be incorporated to reduce wave overtopping of sea
water.
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 Provides hard face to cliff ൈ Not very attractive
 Easily installed ൈ Can be eroded from below
 Cheaper than sea wall easily
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 Deflects wave power ൈ Needs frequent repair

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B. Soft Engineering Strategies
 With the natural processes of sea and sand.
 E.g., Beach, Offshore Reef
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 Provides inshore area of calm ൈ Very expensive
water ൈ Need openings for fishing
 Effective at preventing the boats to get to sea

cause of cliff erosion ൈ Damages fish nets.
ൈ Can be breached in stormy
conditions and need repair.
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(a) Beach
# Beach ‐ a beach in itself acts as a coastal defense as it reduces wave impact and prevents
inland flooding.
# However the beach needs to be properly managed to ensure, it is wide and high enough to
prevent from being overtopped during high sea levels. This can be done through beach
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replenishment where beach‐grade sediments are used to „top‐up‟ the beach, increasing its
level of protections.
(b) Offshore Reef
# Man‐made or natural reefs built just out to sea to for the waves to break on them and
create calmer water at the coast.
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
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Advantages
Deflects Waves
Disadvantages
ൈ Expensive

 ൈ Likely to need repair fairly
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Strong
 Effective regularly
 Lasts a long time ൈ Deflected waves can ‘scour’
sea bed and undermine the
sea wall foundations

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NATURAL HAZARDS IN THE COASTAL STATES IN INDIA
The following hazards are seen to occur in the coastal areas:
1. Earthquakes
2. Cyclonic wind
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3. Storm surge in cyclones
4. Flooding by incessant rain
5. Tsunami
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Fire is also known to occur quite frequently in many such areas
APPROACH TOWARD MULTI HAZARD SAFETY MEASURES IN COASTAL AREAS
General Measures
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 Adopting integrated multi‐hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and tsunami risk
mitigation in coastal areas
 Implementation of early warning system for cyclones and tsunamis
 Streamlining the relief distribution system in disaster affected areas (preparation of a data
base of people living in tsunami hazard prone areas)
 Design, practice and implementation of evacuation plans with emphasis on self reliance for
sustenance with the locals (coastal community)
 Component on planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added in disaster
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management plans at all levels
 Emphasis on mental health and to socio‐psychological issues during post disaster period
should be accorded in every plan
 Identification and strengthening of existing academic centers in order to improve disaster
prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities
 Capacity building programmes to be taken up on priority basis
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 Training of all concerned including community
 Public awareness programmes
 Enhancing capabilities of the Institutes working in field of disaster mitigation and
management
Specific Measures for safety from Tsunamis/Storm Surges
Structural measures:
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1. Construction of cyclone shelters
2. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line
3. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the coast lines to
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provide necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time.
4. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts
5. Development of well‐designed break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion
against cyclone and tsunami hazards
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6. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning dissemination centres
7. Development of a “Bio‐Shield” ‐ a narrow strip of land along coastline. Permanent
structures, if any in this zone with strict implementation of suggested norms. Bio‐Shield can be
developed as coastal zone disaster management sanctuary, which must have thick plantation
and public spaces for public awareness, dissemination and demonstration.
8. Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone
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resistance of all such buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of new
facilities like:
 Critical infrastructures e.g. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage tanks etc.
located along the coastline.
 All other infrastructure facilities located in the coastal areas
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 Public buildings and private houses
 All marine structures
 Construction and maintenance of national and state highways and other coastal roads
Non‐Structural Measures:
1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line with
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elevation of less than 10 m above mean sea level) Table 5.1 is a proposed damage Risk Zone
classification on sea coast for consideration.
Table: Proposed Damage Risk Zone Classification on Sea Coasts
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0‐1 m above High tide Level Very High Damage Risk Zone
1‐3 m above High tide Level High Damage Risk Zone
3‐5 m above High tide Level Moderate Damage Risk Zone
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5‐10 m above High tide Level Low Damage Risk Zone
10m or more above high tide Level No Damage Risk Zone
2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis upto taluk/village
level. Development of Disaster Information Management System (DIMS) in all the coastal
states.
3. Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people and the administration for
facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone, ‘based on cutting edge level’
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4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly vulnerable areas
5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area by various
means includingAIR, Doordarshan & Other Media.
6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning dissemination and evacuation techniques
7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials from fisheries
department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection with evacuation
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and post tsunami storm surge management activities. Regular drills should be conducted to
test the efficacy of the DM plans.
8. Studies focusing on the tsunami risk in India may be taken under NCRM project.
Actions Required in Coastal Areas for Protection against Tsunami / cyclone mitigation
To achieve the satisfactory level of disaster mitigation in coastal areas, following activities need to be
carried out.
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 Revision of Coastal Zone Regulation Act in wake of tsunami storm surge hazards and strict
implementation of the same. The current Coastal Regulations Zone (extract) is attached as
Appendix A to this chapter. This responsibility may be given to respective state disaster
management authorities. A special task force for this purpose may be constituted comprising the
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representatives from various departments of the government and other relevant organizations
(e.g. Departments of Forestry, Fisheries. Soil Conservation, Town and Country Planning
Organization, Navy, Coast Guard, IMD,ISRO/DOS etc.)



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A state of the art EOC may be established with in the authority for monitoring purpose.
Initiating disaster watch (bay watch) safety measures along important beaches in the country,
providing round the clock monitoring, warning, lifeguard facilities & creation of website for
missing personal etc.
Organization of sensitization workshops on cyclone/tsunami risk mitigation in various states for
senior bureaucrats / politicians for these states.
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 Organizing drills on regular basis to check the viability of all plans and to check the readiness of
all concerned
 Training of professionals, policy planners and others involved with disaster mitigation and
management programmes in the states
 Retrofitting of important buildings
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I. Fire stations / police stations/ army structures/ hospitals
II. VIP residences / offices/ railways, airport, etc.
III. Schools/colleges
IV. Hazardous industries
V. Other critical structures (i.e. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage tanks etc)

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Designing incentives: Providing legislative back up to encourage people to adopt cyclone, tsunami
resistant features in their homes e.g. tax rebate in terms of house tax and/or income tax.
 Developing public ‐private partnerships.
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SPECIFIC MEASURES FOR SAFETY FROM TSUNAMIS
Tsunami Effects and Design Solutions
The important observed effects of Tsunamis and possible preventive design solutions are listed in
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Table below

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Table : Phenomenon of Inundation
EFFECT DESIGN SOLUTION
Flooded basement Choose sites at higher elevations
Flooding of lower floors Raise the buildings above flood elevation
Flooding of mechanical electrical & Do not stack or install vital material or equipments on
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communication system & equipment floors or basement lying below tsunami inundation
Protect hazardous material storage facility located in
Damage to building materials & contents
tsunami prone area.
• Locate mechanical systems & equipments at higher
Contamination of affected areas with location in the building
water borne pollutants • Use corrosion resistant concrete & steel for the
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portions of the building.
• Elevate building above flood level.
Hydrostatic forces (Pressure on walls by • Provide adequate openings to allow water to reach
variation in water depth on opposite equal heights inside & outside of buildings.
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sides • Design for static water pressure on walls.
• Consider suction tensions on walls under receding
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Buoyancy floatation or uplift forces • Elevate building to avoid flooding.
caused by buoyancy • Anchor building to foundation to prevent floatation
and/or loss of bearing capacity
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Saturation of soil causing slope instability
• Evaluate bearing capacity & shear strength of soil
that support building foundation & embankment
slopes under condition of saturation.
• Avoid slopes or setbacks from slope that may be
destabilized when inundated.
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Table: Phenomenon of Currents, (wave break & bore)
Hydrodynamic forces (pushing forces on • Elevate building to avoid
the front face of the building and drag • Design for dynamic water forces on walls & building
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caused by flow around the building elements.
• Anchor building to foundation.
Debris Impact • Elevate building to avoid.
• Design for Impact loads.
Scour • Use deeper foundation (piles or piers).
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• Protect against scour and erosion around foundation.
Table: Phenomenon of Drawdown
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Embankment instability • Design water front slopes, walls & buttresses to
resist saturated soils without water in front
• Provide adequate drainage.
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Scour • Design for scour & erosion of soil around foundation
& piles.
Table: Phenomenon of Fire
Waterborne flammable materials and • Use fire resistant materials
ignition increase in buildings • Locate flammable materials storage outside of high
‐ hazard areas.
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SPECIFIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR TSUNAMI
(a) Know the Tsunami Risk at the site
• Distance from the sea
• Elevation above mean sea level
• Height of high tide above m. s. l.
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• Maximum run‐up of the tsunami above the site elevation
• Depth and speed of the tsunami wave for design purposes.
(b) Avoid new developments in Tsunami Run‐up Areas
• Role of land Use Planning
- Local Context
- Understanding Trade offs
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- Review and update existing Safety elements
- Review and update existing Land Use Elements
- Review and update existing Zoning, and other regulations
• Land Use Planning Strategies
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(c) Site Planning Strategies to reduce Tsunami Risk
• Avoiding the impact of tsunami by building on high ground ‐ necessary for vital installations.
• Slowing the tsunami wave by frictional techniques ‐ forests, ditches, slopes and berms
•
•
•
•
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Deflecting the tsunami away by using angled walls ‐ suitable for important installations
Brute resistance through stiffened strong structural design ‐ costly buildings
High rise buildings with open ground storey, designed for wave forces ‐ Hotels, offices etc
Stilted buildings for various uses.
(d) Tsunami Resistant Buildings ‐ New Developments
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•Locally applicable Tsunami Hazard Information on Design Intensities
•Performance Objectives
•Mandatory use of building Codes ‐ Design Criteria
•Safety under Multi‐hazard environment
•Qualified Engineers and Architects ‐ knowledge about Earthquake, Wind and Tsunami
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resistant planning and design
• Ensure quality construction
(e) Protection of existing buildings and infrastructure ‐ Assessment, Retrofit, Protection measures
• Inventory of existing assets
• Assessment of Vulnerability and deficiencies to be taken care of through retrofitting
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• Methods of retrofitting and use in design
• External protection methods from the onslaught of tsunami
(f) Special Precautions in locating and designing infrastructure and critical facilities
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• Considerations in relocating and redevelopment of infrastructure
• Considerations in relocating and redevelopment of critical facilities such as lifeline buildings
(health, education, community etc.).
(g) Planning for Evacuation
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• Vertical evacuation ‐ High rise buildings, special shelters
• Horizontal evacuation ‐ Locating high grounds, building high enough mounds
• Awareness about evacuation areas and routes
(h) Planning for Rescue and Relief
• Role of District Disaster Management Committees.
• Role of Armed forces/Ministry of Defence in these tasks.
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TSUNAMI WARNING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The Present status of Tsunami Warnings in India.
Tsunami is very low probability event in India. As such, there are no Codal provisions for Tsunami
warnings in India as yet though; there is a good seismological network in India to record any
earthquake within the country and its neighborhood. The need of a Tsunami Warning Centre (TWC)
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in India is now being conceptualized at the Government of India level.
India Meteorological Department (IMD), is working on a proposal to set up a real time earthquake
monitoring system in India. The Department of Ocean Development in collaboration with
Departments of Space and IMD under Department of Science and Technology is evolving a plan of
tsunami warning system in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The data from observing points to
Warning Centre(s) will be sent through satellite links. Specific systems called Deep Ocean Assessment
and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) using Bottom Pressure Recorder, acoustic modem, acoustic release
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system, battery pack bolted to platform and float action and recovery aids will be deployed. The
warning centres in the Indian context could be the Emergency Operation Centre at the State & District
level, which are being designed to function round the clock under the District Collector at District
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level and under the Chief Minister at State level.
International Status of Tsunami Warning and Communication System
Present techniques of Tsunami prediction are severely limited. The only way to determine, with
certainty, if an earthquake is accompanied by a Tsunami, is to note the occurrence and epicenter of
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the earthquake and then detect the arrival of the Tsunami at a network of tide stations. While it is
possible to predict when a Tsunami will arrive at coastal locations, it is not yet possible to predict the
wave height, number of waves, duration of hazard, or the forces to be expected from such waves at
specific locations. Computer programmes need to be developed for this purpose.
Tsunami Warning System is based on the concept that Tsunamis travel at much slower velocity (500
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to 700 km per hour or 0.20 km/sec) as compared to seismic waves (6 to 8 km per second). That is
seismic waves move 30 to 40 times faster than Tsunami waves. Thus, after the occurrence of a
damaging earthquake and quick determination of epicenter, warning time of a few minutes to 2 to 3
hours is available depending upon the distance from the epicenter to the coast line. This time can be
utilized for warning the coastal community if quick detection and rapid communication systems are
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established.
Tsunami Warning System
Following most common methods of detection is in use:‐
 Japan has a network of land/sea sensors that records seismic activity and feeds information
to a national agency able to issue evacuation warnings within a minute of occurrence of any
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earthquake. Earthquake warning issued by Japan Meteorological Agency are relayed via
satellite to the Municipal offices and automatically broadcast from several sets of
loudspeakers.
 Pacific Ocean warning system at Hawaii issues warnings of tidal waves heading in a particular
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direction.
 Presently, land and sea‐based sensors connected to satellite‐based link are available.
 Satellite telemetry is used for data collection and dissemination; receive and display of
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Tsunami warning utilizing existing Geostationary operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)
and Data Collection Interrogation
 System (DCIS). An earthquake activates seismic instrument, which transmits signal to the
GOES platform which responds automatically transmitting an alert code to an active device at
warning site.
 Developing Tsunami and earthquake data base verification, Tsunami model, preparation of
hazard assessment maps for the coast line combing historical and modeling result,
establishment of seismic and tidal sensors using satellite telemetry to provide early warning
information.
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 Extensive network of seismic and tidal station, as well as communication systems, to ensure
that the warning information is prompt and accurate.
System performs with detection of an earthquake, which has required magnitude to trigger the alarm
attached to the seismograph. The alarm thresholds are set so that ground vibrations of the amplitude
and duration associated with an earthquake of approximate magnitude 6.5 or greater or Richter scale
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anywhere in Pacific will cause them to sound.
The Tsunami Warning System
Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific, comprised of 28 participating international Member
States, has the functions of monitoring seismological and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin
to evaluate potentially Tsunamigenic earthquake and disseminating Tsunami warning information.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is the operational center of the Pacific TWS. Located near
Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides Tsunami warning information to national authorities in the Pacific
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Basin.
(a) Instrumentation
PTWS has the following components:
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i) Seismometers including ocean bottom seismometers
ii) Tide gauge stations/Sea level recorder.
iii) Pressure recorder in the ocean bottom by moored systems
iv) Satellite based communication links.
(b) Tsunami Warning Centers pa
As part of an international cooperative effort to save lives and protect property, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Weather Service operates two Tsunami warning
centres. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (ATWC) IN Palmer, Alaska, serves as the regional
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Tsunami Warning Center for Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California (U.S.A) &
Canada.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Ewa Beach, Hawaii, serves as the regional Tsunami Warning
Centre for Hawaii and as a national/international warning center for Tsunamis that pose a Pacific‐
wide threat. This international warning effort become a formal arrangement in 1965 when PTWC
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assumed the international warning responsibilities of the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS).
The PTWS is composed of 26 international Member States that are organized as the International
Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific.
(c) Tsunami Watch and Warning Dissemination
The objective of the PTWS is to detect, locate, and determine the magnitude of potentially
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Tsunamigenic earthquake occurring in the Pacific Basin or its immediate margins. Earthquake
information is provided by seismic stations operated by PTWC, ATWC, the U.S. Geological Survey’s
National Earthquake Information Centre and international sources. If the location and magnitude of
an earthquake meet the known criteria for generation of a Tsunami, a Tsunami warning is issued to
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warm of an imminent Tsunami hazard. The warning includes predicted Tsunami arrival times at
selected coastal communities within the geographic area defined by the maximum distance the
Tsunami could travel in a few hours. A Tsunami watch with additional predicted Tsunami arrival times
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is issued for a geographic area defined by the distance the Tsunami could travel in a subsequent time
period. If a significant Tsunami is detected by sea‐level monitoring instrumentation, the Tsunami
warning is extended to the entire Pacific Basin. Seal level (or tidal) information is provided by NOAA’s
National Ocean Service, PTWC, ATWC, university monitoring networks and other participating nations
of the PTWS. The International Tsunami Information Center, part of the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, monitors and evaluates the performance and effectiveness of the Pacific
Tsunami Warning System. This effort encourages the most effective data collection, data analysis,
Tsunami impact assessment and warning dissemination to all TWS participants.

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(d) Tsunami Warning Dissemination
Tsunami watch, warning and information bulletins are disseminated to appropriate emergency
officials and the general public by a variety of communication methods.
• Tsunami watch, warning and information bulletins issued by PTWC and Atlantic Tsunami Warning
Centre (ATWC) are disseminated to local, state, national and international users as well as the
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media. These users, in turn, disseminate the Tsunami information to the public, generally over
commercial radio and television channels.
• The NOAA Weather Radio System, based on a large number of VHF transmitter sites, provides
direct broadcast of Tsunami information to the public.
• The US Coast Guard also broadcasts urgent marine warnings and related Tsunami information to
coastal users equipped with medium frequency (MF) and very high frequency (VHF) marine radios.
• Local authorities and emergency managers are responsible for formulating and executing
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evacuation plans for areas under a Tsunami warning. The public is advised to stay‐turned to the
local media for evacuation orders and latest Tsunami warnings. People are advised not to return
to low lying coastal areas until all clear signals are issued from the Warning Centre.
Some concepts of Work Plan for the Tsunami Warning System in India
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• Assumption: Low probability event. Return period in a given coastal area once in several decades
or hundred years. No parallel in recorded history like Tsunami of 26 December 2004. Proposed
system should be sustainable and cost ‐ effective.
•
•
•
•
•
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Observational system should be of multi use type (Oceanography, Meteorology, Geophysics)
Policy decision: Codal Provision to issue Tsunami warning.
Identification/Establishment of Nodal Department
Identification of Vulnerable area
Fixation of critical value for the issuance of Tsunami warnings (Tsunamigenic earthquake of
Magnitude 7.0 or above in Richter Scale )
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• Assessment of Present Capacity: (observation network and communication of data & warnings,
gap areas and needs)
• Cost effective and sustainable communication system (Radio and Satellite based communication)
• Awareness Programme ‐ Targets
i. For Scientific communities (ThoseResearchers connected with aspects of Tsunami)
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ii. Coordinators and Operators of Warning System

iii. Disaster Managers
iv. General Public
• Research
i. Compilation of historical records
ii. Development of model to predict probable maximum Tsunami heights along different
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coastal locations in India.
iii. Propagation time charts (preparation of Tsunami Travel Time Charts for Northern Indian
Ocean including 37 countries are under preparation by IIT Kharagpur).
• Mitigation measures
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Since the return period of destructive Tsunami are very large , Tsunami mitigation measure should
be considered along with mitigation measure of other natural hazards like tropical cyclone, coastal
flooding, coastal erosion (due to strong monsoon and other natural hazards) etc. However, specific
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Tsunami protective measures may be undertaken for the vital coastal installations like important
ports, nuclear plants along the coast high value coastal installation properties.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND DESIGN CRITERIA FOR TSUNAMI / CYCLONE MITIGATION
Institutional Arrangements
 The present three‐tier disaster management structure i.e. national, state and district to
continue, with tsunami risk management added to the natural hazards.
 Development of ‘Disaster Management Information System’ (DMIS) upto village level
 Development of Disaster Management Sanctuaries along the coast, which will have facilities
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like simulators, museums, mock ups, plantation, capacity building training facilities etc.
 Constitution of special Task Force with representation from IMD, MUD, DST, Department of
Forest and Environment, ISRO/DOS, AIR, Doordharshan, Fisheries, soil conservation, Town
and Country Planning Organization, Navy, Coast Guard etc. under respective state disaster
management authorities.
 Capacity building at the local level in terms of
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 Training
 Organization development o Institutionalization of the programmes and o Public
awareness
 Research and Development by academic institution/ISRO/DoD etc.
o Mitigation measures. o Preparation of tsunami
vulnerability maps. o Tsunami travel time charts.
o Detailed coastal GIS maps at 1:4000 scale with thematic information.
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Development of Design Criteria
Basis of Design Criteria
1.
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Considering the multi‐hazard proneness of the coastal districts, the design criteria will have
to cover the following aspects:
2. Design wind velocity under cyclone condition.
3. Effective wind pressure near sea coast.
4.
5.
6.
Tsunami effects pa
Height of storm surge with concurrent tide level.
o Height & velocity of Tsunami wave o Hydrostatic water pressure.
o Debris Impact o Wave break impact.
Earthquake effects ‐ Design seismic co‐efficient
7. Fire safety
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8. Flood inundation & flood flow (velocity of flow).
9. Building aspects
 Shape, Size & Height of building. o Use importance of the
building.
 On stilts or without stilts
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 The roof to act as shelter, hence flat (in that case design live load for the roofs.
 Choice of building material and construction technology o Durability of the building
(design life).
 Thermal comfort.
Use Importance of the Buildings
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1. Ordinary (housing, storage)
2. Important (hospital, school, fire station, power house, substation, telephone exchange, VIP
residence etc.)
3. Very important installations, cyclone/tsunami shelters
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Performance Level Desired
 Minimum ‐ Non‐collapse though structurally damaged.

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Safe ‐ Damaged but without significant structural damage.
 Operational ‐ Capable of avoiding/resisting all expected hazards & forces.
*******************************
Prepared By
NAJEEB. M
Assistant Professor

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2. Floods 1954 China 40,000

4. Bangladesh Cyclone, 1991 Bangladesh 139,000

6. Tsunami 2004 Malaysia, 230,210

S.No Name of Event Year State & Area Fatalities

20. Cyclone Nisha 2008 Tamil Nadu

23. Cyclone Hud‐Hud 2014 India/Nepal 124 Deaths

25. Cyclone Roanu 2016 Bangladesh, India, Myanmar 227 Deaths

26. Kerala floods 2018 Kerala 417

27. Cyclone Titli 2018 Andhra Pradesh & Odisha 89

1999 Storm 9,843 2,500,000

the atmosphere, the longer it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to recover from any change

Some significant earthquakes in India

THE CIRCULATIONS INSIDE EARTH

part of the Mantle

portions of the Earth undergoing different directions of

– These are also called secondary waves.

– S-waves do not travel through liquids.

epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale.

(a) Depth of focus as basis:

environment and quality of life following an earthquake.

QUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS

– Entire structure should acts as a unit

speed of failure is quite rapid

rocks and cohesive soil.

curved in character and the speed of failure is

movement of the mass takes the form of a sort of

may include determination that the landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.

 For partially jointed rocks it may range from 60ᵒ -90ᵒ.

(iv) Geological Structures

(a) Bedding planes

promote the failure.

section of Western Ghats and

is the main factor in the

Human intervention by way of

MONITORING OF MASS MOVEMENTS

CONTROL OF MASS MOVEMENTS

 Construct series of ditches

compressed and hence stabilized against falling.

field of the rock to a considerable extent.

• Wavelength is defined as the distance between two identical points on a wave (i.e. between

Sl No Year Area Death toll

CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

the soil’s composition/structure.

SOLUTIONS OF SOIL DEGRADATION

SOLUTIONS FOR DESERTIFICATION

 Education: In developing countries, education is an incredibly important tool that needs to be

PREVENTIVE ACTIONS INCLUDE:

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

There are mainly three factors that will be affecting erosion

(ii) Terrace Construction

Dept. of Civil Engineering

Carbon compound (CO Automobile exhaust • Respiratory problems

Sulphur compounds Power plants and • Respiratory problems in humans

(NO and N2O) atmospheric reaction • Low productivity in plants

SPM (Suspended Thermal power plants, • Poor visibility, breathing problems

General term for particles suspended in air

Sprays from pressurized cans

Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are

Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a

Cigarette smoke, smoke from

Geometrical shape or form of the smoke

Term used to describe a mixture of smoke

Area Category SPM SO2 CO NOx