PARTS OF SPEECH

Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, quality, or idea. When writing, avoid using vague nouns such as stuff, things,
people, and places. Be as specific as possible.

Common Noun: the general name of a person, place, thing, or idea; capitalized only when it is the first word
in a sentence
Examples: poem, nation, athlete, day, city, woman, school, newspaper

Proper Noun: always begins with a capital letter and names a particular person, place, thing, event, group, or
idea
Examples: Tuesday, Christmas Day, United States of America

Compound Noun: two or more words used together as a single noun; can be joined together, used together
but not joined, or joined by a hyphen
Examples: seafood, grasshopper, bedroom, daydream, lighthouse, lifetime, football field,
country club, mother-in-law

Collective Noun: names a unit or a group of people, places, things, or ideas. Collective nouns are always
singular in form
Examples: faculty, family, team, jury, audience, crew, committee, herd, club, Congress, pair, crowd,
community, orchestra
For more examples of collective nouns, see page 32.

The main problem with collective nouns is determining the number of the verb to use with the
noun. When referring to the group as a whole, a collective noun is singular. (The jury has reached
a decision.) When referring to individual group members, the collective noun is plural. (The jury
were unable to agree.)

Concrete Noun: occupies space and names a person, place, thing, or idea that can be recognized by one or
more of the five senses (something you can see, smell, taste, touch, or hear)
Examples: ocean, bird, teacher, steak, telephone

Abstract Noun: names an idea, a feeling, a quality, an attitude, or a characteristic

Examples: freedom, patriotism, objectivity, fairness, knowledge, humor, beauty, hate, hope

Singular Noun: names one thing (boy)

Plural Noun: names more than one thing (boys)

Possessive Noun: shows ownership. Both singular and plural nouns have possessive forms.
Billy’s book means the book belonging to Billy.
The students’ lockers means the lockers belonging to the students.

1
General Rules for Forming Plurals
Most plurals are formed by adding –s to the singular (book-books, chair-chairs, pencil-pencils). The general rules for
forming plurals are as follows:

• Add –es to nouns ending in s, ss, x, sh, and ch (glass-glasses, bench-benches, box-boxes).

• What if a noun ends in o?

If the o is preceded by a vowel, add –s (patio-patios, rodeo-rodeos).
If the o is preceded by a consonant, add –es (hero-heroes, tomato-tomatoes).
Exception: Add –s if the o is preceded by a consonant in musical terms
(piano-pianos, soprano-sopranos, alto-altos).

• What if a noun ends in y?

If the y is preceded by a vowel, add –s (essay-essays, toy-toys, boy-boys).
If the y is preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and add –es (penny-pennies).

• Go by pronunciation on nouns ending in f or fe. In some words, change the f to v and add –s or
–es. In others, add –s (chief-chiefs, knife-knives, leaf-leaves, wolf-wolves).

• What about compound words?

If a compound noun is used as one word, add –s or –es (grasshopper-grasshoppers).
If a compound noun is hyphenated or used as two or three words, make the modified noun plural
(country club-country clubs, mother-in-law-mothers-in-law, runner-up, runners-up).

• Add ’s to form plurals of letters, numbers, signs, and words referred to as words.
There are two r’s in embarrass.
To type $’s instead of 4’s, hold down the shift key.
There are two or’s in the word “corporation.”

These are the only situations when you should ever use ’s to form a plural, even if the noun is a family name.
Correct: The Halls visited us. Incorrect: The Hall’s visited us.

• Some nouns borrowed from other languages form the plural as they do in the original language (alumnus-alumni,
datum-data, analysis-analyses, phenomenon-phenomena, criterion-criteria).

• Some nouns are irregular (foot-feet, mouse-mice, moose-moose, deer-deer, fish-fish, man-men, woman-women,
child-children).

See page 33 for a discussion of confusing singular and plural forms.

2
Rules for Forming Possessives

• For singular nouns (even those ending in s), add ’s.

student’s report (the report belonging to the student) neighbor’s car (the car belonging to the neighbor)
waitress’s tips (the tips belonging to the waitress) dog’s bed (the bed belonging to the dog)
boss’s instructions (the instructions of the boss)

Some names of more than one syllable ending in s, as well as some ancient names, form the possessive by
adding only an apostrophe.
Jesus’ teachings (the teachings of Jesus) John Adams’ presidency (the presidency of John Adams)
Socrates’ philosophy (the philosophy of Socrates)

The apostrophe is left out of some names containing a possessive thought.

Harpers Ferry Pikes Peak Citizens Bank

• For plural words ending in s, add only an apostrophe.

girls’ friends (the friends of the girls) waitresses’ schedules (the schedules of the waitresses)

• For plural words not ending in s, add ‘s.

children’s toys (the toys belonging to the children) men’s shirts (the shirts belonging to the men)

A common mistake is to write childrens’, mens’, or womens’. However, the words children, men, and women
are already plural. You can’t add an –s and make them a “double plural,” before adding an apostrophe.

• If two or more people own the same thing together (joint possession), form the possessive on the last word.
These pictures are from John and Ted’s vacation trip. (John and Ted were on the same trip.)

If one of the words in a joint possession is a pronoun, each word must be possessive.
These pictures are from John’s, Ted’s, and my vacation trip. (John, Ted, and I were on the same trip.)
Have you seen Mary’s and his new house. (The house belongs to both of them.)

• If each of the words in a series possess something individually (individual possession), form the possessive on
each word.
Mrs. Gray’s and Mrs. Snow’s classrooms are on different floors of the school.

• If a possessive is followed by an appositive or explanatory phrase (phrase that renames or explains), form
the possessive on the explanatory word.
I was following my friend George’s advice.

• Don’t “pile up” possessives. Instead, use an “of phrase.”

Incorrect: Her brother’s friend’s bicycle is red. Correct: The bicycle of her brother’s friend is red.

• Form the possessive in compound words by adding the possessive on the last word.
Singular: notary public’s; comptroller general’s; supervisor in charge’s
Plural: notaries public’s; comptrollers general’s; supervisors in charge’s

3
 Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or more than one noun. A pronoun changes form to indicate number,
person, and case. The word the pronoun stands for is the antecedent. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
number (singular or plural), gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), and person (first, second, or third).

Personal Pronouns
First person: refers to the one speaking
Second person: refers to the one spoken to
Third person: refer to the one spoken about

Singular Plural
First Person I, me we, us
Second Person you you
Third Person he, him, she, her, it they, them

The cases of personal pronouns are nominative (subject or predicate nominative), objective (direct object, indirect
object, or object of the preposition), and possessive (replacement for possessive nouns). Below is a list of personal
pronouns and cases:
Singular Plural
Nominative (Subject) Case I, you, he, she, it we, you, they
Objective (Object) Case me, you, her, him, it us, you, them
Possessive Case* my, mine, your, yours, our, ours, your, yours,
her, hers, his, its their, theirs
*Notice that possessive personal pronouns do NOT use an apostrophe.

Its is the possessive form of the personal pronoun it. It’s is a contraction of it is or it has.
Its operation is simple. It’s simple to operate. It’s been a hot day.

Use an of phrase to avoid adding a possessive to a pronoun that is already possessive.

Incorrect: We are going to a friend of mine’s house.
Correct: We are going to the house of a friend of mine.

Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points out a specific person, place, thing, or idea. The demonstrative pronouns are this,
that, these, and those.

When one of these words comes before a noun, it is a demonstrative adjective. Consider the function of these
in the following sentences:
These are books. These books were inexpensive.

In the first sentence, these (the subject) points to something specific and is a demonstrative pronoun; in the
second sentence, these tells “which” books and is a demonstrative adjective.

This and that modify singular words; these and those modify plural words.

Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun introduces a question. The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and what.

Which is the best choice? What are you doing?

4
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to a person, a place, or a thing that is not specifically named. Most indefinite
pronouns can also function as adjectives.

Always Singular
each much no one anyone someone
either everyone nobody anybody somebody
neither everybody nothing anything something
one everything another

Always Plural
several few both many

Singular or Plural
some all most none
any enough more plenty

When else is used with an indefinite pronoun, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and s to else,
rather than to the indefinite pronoun.
anyone else’s idea; somebody else’s coat; no one’s idea; everybody else’s grades

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject and directs action back toward the subject. In other words, the subject
acts to, for, or upon itself. An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.

Singular Plural
First Person myself ourselves
Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person himself, herself, itself themselves

In the first sentence that follows, the word himself is necessary, or else the meaning of the sentence changes
(reflexive pronoun). In the second sentence (question) that follows, we can omit the word yourself and the
meaning of the sentence stays the same (intensive pronoun).
Bill enjoyed himself at the game.
Did you paint that picture yourself?

• Do not use hisself, ourself, theirself, and theirselves; they are nonstandard.
• A reflexive or intensive pronoun cannot be used by itself; it must have a clear antecedent.
Incorrect: Myself carried it up the stairs. (no I or me as an antecedent for myself)
Correct: I carried it up the stairs myself. (I is the antecedent of myself.)
Incorrect: The coach spoke to Tom and himself. (no antecedent for himself)
Correct: The coach spoke to Tom and him.

Reflexive/Intensive Pronoun Possible Antecedent(s)

myself I, me
yourself/yourselves you
himself he, him
herself she, her
itself it
ourselves we, us
themselves they, them

5
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun: (1) takes the place of a noun in the clause it introduces, and (2) connects its clause with the
rest of the sentence. See page 23. (In being a “connector,” a relative pronoun is similar to a conjunction.)

The boy whom we saw at the mall is my brother.

My parents said that I could not do whatever I wanted to.

who whose whomever that whoever

whom what whichever which whatever

Who and whoever are in the nominative (subject) case.

Whom and whomever are in the objective (object) case.

Whose is the possessive form of the relative pronoun who. Who’s is a contraction of who is or who has.
Whose mailbox is that? Who’s going with me? Who’s taken my notebook?

Verbs

Action Verbs
Action verbs express physical or mental action.
Examples: play, jump, shout, search, carry, laugh, worry, think, believe, imagine, know, suppose, love

Action verbs are either transitive or intransitive.

Transitive Verb: expresses action directed toward a person or thing (direct object – answers questions
“what?” or “whom?”); always takes a direct object (and may also take an indirect object)
The teacher read a poem. The teacher read “what” or “whom”? poem - transitive
Intransitive Verb: expresses the action of or tells something about the subject; nothing receives the action
of the subject (no direct object).
The teacher read aloud. The teacher read “what” or “whom”? nothing - intransitive

Linking Verbs
Linking verbs connect the subject with a noun (predicate nominative), pronoun (predicate nominative), or adjective
(predicate adjective) in the predicate.
am were appear look sound
is be become remain stay
are being feel seem taste
was been grow smell turn

All linking verbs except seem and the forms of be can also be action verbs.
The tomato looked rotten. (linking – connects tomato and rotten)
The boy looked at the tomato. (action – nothing being connected)

Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs

Verb phrases are made up of a main verb and at least one helping/auxiliary verb.
am be do had shall
is being did may should
are been does might will
was can have must would
were could has
6
Voice
The voice of a verb tells whether the subject performs or receives the action of the verb.

1. A verb is in the active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action.
The coach encouraged the team. (The subject, coach, is performing the action.)

2. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb.
The team was encouraged by the coach. (the subject, team, is not the one performing the action.)

The passive voice emphasizes the receiver, rather than the performer, of the action; it is formed by a form of
be with the past participle of the verb. With a passive verb, the person or thing creating the action is not always
stated. (The ordinance was overturned.) The tense of the helping verb determines the tense of the passive verb.

The active voice is more forceful and precise than the passive voice. Therefore, you should avoid writing long
passages in the passive voice. You should also avoid mixing the passive and active voice in the same sentence or in
related sentences.
Incorrect: She wrote the rough draft of the paper, and it was edited by her.
Correct: She wrote and edited the rough draft of the paper.

However, do not hesitate to use the passive voice in the following situations:
• when you want to emphasize the person or thing receiving the action,
• when the person or thing performing the action is unknown or difficult to identify, or
• when you do not want to give away the performer’s identity.
The performers were given a standing ovation.
The concert has been canceled without notice.

Singular and Plural Verbs

The verb must agree with the subject in number and in person (subject-verb agreement). If the subject is singular,
the verb form must also be singular; if the subject is in the third person (he, she, it), the verb must be in the third
person. Many times, the main problem is identifying the true subject of the sentence and determining whether it is
singular or plural. Remember, the subject of a sentence can never be in a prepositional phrase.

Verbs show a difference between singular and plural only in third person present tense. The third person
present tense ends in –s or –es. Nouns ending in –s are usually plural, but verbs ending in –s are usually singular.

Present Singular Plural

First Person I sing we sing
Second Person you sing you sing
Third Person he, she, it sings they sing

7
Principal Parts
Verbs are classified as regular or irregular, depending on how their principal parts are formed. Regular verbs
form the past and past participle by adding –d or –ed. The principal parts of irregular verbs are formed by changes in
the verb itself. While the base verb and the past form can be used alone as main verbs, the present participle
and the past participle must be used with one or more helping (auxiliary) verbs. The four principal parts are as
follows:

1. Infinitive/Base/Present: verb by itself

jump see
2. Present Participle: formed by adding –ing to the base verb preceded by auxiliary verbs am, is, or are
is jumping/am jumping/are jumping is seeing/am seeing/are seeing
3. Past: for “regular” verbs, add –d or –ed to the base; for “irregular: verbs, change the verb’s form
jumped saw
4. Past Participle: for “regular” verbs, add –d or –ed to the base verb preceded by auxiliary verbs has or have
in the active voice and was or were in the passive voice; for “irregular: verbs, change the verb’s form
have/has jumped have/has seen

Since “irregular” verbs form the past and past participle in some other way than by adding –d or –ed to the base
form, they must be memorized. Always remember to consult a dictionary if you are in doubt about whether a verb is
“regular” or “irregular.” (Some “regular” verbs change their spellings slightly when –ing or –ed is added to the base
form: trip, is tripping, tripped, has tripped/spy, is spying, spied, has spied.) The principal parts of a few troublesome
irregular verbs are as follows:

Present Present Participle (am/is/are –ing) Simple Past Past Participle (have/has – )
beat beating beat beaten
become becoming became become
begin beginning began begun
come coming came come
write writing wrote written

Tense and Form

All verbs change form to show the time when an action or state of being is taking place. These changes in form to
show time are called tenses. English verbs have three simple tenses (present, past, and future) and three
compound, or “perfect” tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect). We use these tenses to show
whether something is happening now, has happened in the past, or will happen in the future. The six tenses are formed
by using the principal parts of the verb and combining them with certain auxiliary (helping) verbs. A verb conjugation is
a list of all forms of the six tenses. A verb conjugation also changes in form for the first, second, and third persons
and for singular and plural.

Present Tense: the infinitive form (first principal part) or add –s or –es to the infinitive
• used to show an action that takes place in the present, an action that is repeated regularly, a condition
that is constant or generally true at any time, or any action expressing a general rule
I need help. We visit my grandmother every week. This book contains three parts.
• When writing about literature, use the “literary present.”
In Macbeth, William Shakespeare tells the story of a Scottish king and his ambitious wife.
• The “historical present” is used to tell of some action or condition in the past as though it were occurring in the
present, so as to give someone the sense of “being there.”

Past Tense: the past form listed as one of the principal parts
• used to describe an action that was started and completed entirely in the past
Two weeks ago, we traveled to Richmond. I slept four hours last night.

8
Future Tense: use will or shall with the infinitive form of the main verb
• used to describe an action that will take place in the future.
My family will go to Pigeon Forge.
Future time, not tense, may be shown by using the present tense in combination with an adverb or phrase that tells
time (We pick up our bus passes next week), by using going to with the present tense of be and the base form of a
verb (He is going to buy a car), by using about to with the present tense of be and the base form of a verb (He is
about to buy a car).

Present Perfect Tense: use has or have with the past participle form of the verb
• used to describe an action that was completed at an indefinite time in the past or one that began at some
time in the past and is either still going on in the present (or has just been completed).
I have seen this movie. He has not visited recently. He has left without his books.

Past Perfect Tense: use had with the past participle form of the verb
• used to describe an action that was completed by a certain time in the past and before some other action
was completed.
We had fished for several hours before we caught anything. I had already finished when you called.

Future Perfect Tense: use will have or shall have with the past participle form of the verb
• used to describe a future action or condition that will begin and end at a specific time before another future
event starts.
By the time I see her, I will have bought a birthday present. By then, we will have played eleven games.

Each tense also has a progressive form, which is used to describe continuing action. To create progressive forms,
use a form of be (am, is, are, was, were) with the present participle form of the verb.

Present Progressive Form: to show ongoing action that is taking place now or to show future time when a sentence
contains an adverb or phrase (such as tomorrow or next week) that indicates the future
They are walking now. We are leaving for Detroit tomorrow.

Past Progressive Form: to show an ongoing action that took place in the past
They were walking.

Future Progressive Form: to show ongoing action that will take place in the future
They will be walking until two o’clock.

Present Perfect Progressive Form: to show ongoing action continuing in the present
They have been walking for an hour.

Past Perfect Progressive Form: to show ongoing action in the past interrupted by another past action
They had been walking since noon.

Future Perfect Progressive Form: to show future ongoing action that will have taken place by a stated future time
They will have been walking a very long time.

The present and past tenses have emphatic forms that give special stress and emphasis to the verb itself.
Present Emphatic Form: use the helping verb do or does with the present form of the main verb.
I do agree with you.
Past Emphatic Form: use the helping verb did with the present form of the main verb.
I did call you yesterday.
When the emphatic form is used in negative statements or questions, there is usually no special emphasis intended.
Did you call yesterday?

9
Shifts in Tense and Form
Always be sure that your verbs express a consistent, logical time sequence.

Use the same tense to show two or more actions occurring at the same time. Within a paragraph or between
sentences, do not shift tenses unless the meaning calls for a change. Use the same tense for the verbs in most
compound sentences and in sentences with a compound predicate.
Incorrect: We washed the car, and then we polish it.
Correct: We washed the car, and then we polished it.

A shift in tense is not necessarily incorrect. There are times when a writer must use a tense shift to express a
logical sequence of events or the relationship of one event to another (one event follows another, for example). To
show one action occurring before or after another action, two different tenses are needed.
After we had walked (past perfect) all day, we slept (past).
You will have heard (future perfect) from your friends by the time I arrive (present).
I see (present) that you have already read (present perfect) the book I lent you.
We finished (past) that story, and now we will read (future) another one.

Three “Problem” Verbs

Three irregular verbs are be, do, and have. Below are the correct present and past tense forms of these verbs.

Present Tense Past Tense

Singular Plural Singular Plural
be I am we are I was we were
you are you are you were you were
he, she, it is they are he, she, it was they were
Always incorrect: you was, we was, they was

Present Tense Past Tense

Singular Plural Singular Plural
do I do we do I did we did
you do you do you did you did
he, she, it does they do he, she, it did they did
Always incorrect: I done, he done, she done, it done, we done, you done, they done

Present Tense Past Tense

Singular Plural Singular Plural
have I have we have I had we had
you have you have you had you had
he, she, it has they have he, she, it had they had

10
Commonly Confused Verbs
Three pairs of verbs are commonly confused: lay-lie, rise-raise, sit-set. Because of the related meanings of each
pair, it is important that you know these meanings in order to use these verbs correctly.

1. Lay and Lie

Lay: means “to put or place down somewhere” – has direct object (transitive) unless in passive voice
Active: We will lay bricks this afternoon. Passive: The bricks were laid.

Lie: means “to rest in a flat position” or “to be in a certain place”; never takes a direct object (intransitive)
Our cat always lies in the middle of the couch.

Principal Parts of lay and lie

Base/Infinitive lay lie
Present Participle (is) laying (is) lying
Past laid lay
Past Participle (have) laid (have) lain

Tricky: Note that the past tense of lie is lay.

I am going to lie in the sun. I lay in the sun too long yesterday.

2. Rise and Raise

Rise: means “to go up” – no direct object (intransitive)

The sun will rise in another hour.

Raise: means “to lift or make something go up” – has direct object (transitive) unless in passive voice
Active: The custodian raises the flag every morning. Passive: The flag is raised.

Principal Parts of rise and raise

Base/Infinitive rise raise
Present Participle (is) rising (is) raising
Past rose raised
Past Participle (have) risen (have) raised

3. Sit and Set

Sit: means “to occupy a seat; to place oneself in a sitting position” – no direct object (intransitive)
Please sit with me on the bus.

Set: means “to place or put something down” – has direct object (transitive) unless in passive voice.
Active: He set a book on the floor. Passive: A book was set on the floor.

Principal Parts of sit and set

Base/Infinitive sit set
Present Participle (is) sitting (is) setting
Past sat set
Past Participle (have) sat (have) set

11
 Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to describe or modify (make the meaning more specific) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives
answer one of the following questions:
• What kind? (large box)
• How much? (ten gallons)
• Which one? (that boy)
• How many? (several times)

A, an, and the are special adjectives called articles. A and an are indefinite articles. Use a before nouns
beginning with a consonant; use an before nouns beginning with a vowel and before the consonant h when the h is
not pronounced. The is a definite article, referring to something or someone in particular.
• An article used before each of two connected nouns or adjectives indicates that the words refer to
different people or things.
We elected a secretary and a treasurer. (two persons)
He uses a tan and green typewriter. (one typewriter)
• Do not use a or an after sort of, kind of, manner of, style of, or type of.
Incorrect: What kind of a book do you want?
Correct: What kind of book do you want?
• Do not use the before both.
Incorrect: We’ll buy the both of them.
Correct: We’ll buy both of them.

Adjectives usually appear directly before the noun or pronoun they modify, but the placement can vary.
Green as emeralds, the leaves shook in the breeze.

Adjectives may come after a linking verb (predicate adjective).

Billy was sick.

Demonstrative, possessive, indefinite, and interrogative pronouns may be adjectives.

that book, his hat, one student, which girl

A noun can serve as an adjective to show whose or which.

April showers, summer heat

A proper adjective, formed from a proper noun, is capitalized. Sometimes we use -ian, -n, -ish, and -ese to
create proper adjectives.

Proper Noun Proper Adjective

Viking Viking ship
America American history
England English language
China Chinese food
Mexico Mexican celebration

12
Adverbs
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs answer the following
questions:
• Where? (I left the book downstairs.)
• When? (Mary went to the mall today.)
• How? (He walked slowly.)
• To what extent? (The neighbor is very friendly.)
• How long? or How often? (Last summer, we visited the farm daily.)

Most of the time, an adverb modifies a verb (modifies the entire verb phrase).

If an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it comes immediately before the word it modifies.
very big fish, quite carefully, extremely long line

The following negatives are used as adverbs: not, never, n’t, nowhere, cannot, hardly, scarcely, barely.

Adverbs often end in –ly. Sometimes, we add -ly to adjectives to turn them into adverbs. Do not assume,
however, that all words ending in –ly are adverbs. Some are adjectives (lonely, early, jolly, friendly, silly,
lovely), and others are nouns (lily, Billy, Molly, Polly, belly, jelly, holly),

In informal speech, we sometimes drop the –ly ending from some often-used adverbs. You should not
drop the ending in formal writing.
Incorrect: I am real glad you came.
Correct: I am really glad you came.

The following words may be either adjectives or adverbs depending on their use:
above cheap early hard much slow
bad close fast late only very
better deep first long quick well

We arrived early. (Early is an adverb telling when.)

The early bus leaves at six o’clock in the morning. (Early is an adjective telling which one.)

Adjectives and Adverbs: Common Problems

1. Good and Well

Good is always an adjective (good bread). Do not use good as an adverb to tell “how” something is done.
Well is an adverb, meaning “to perform capably” and telling “how” something is done (sing well). If well means “in
good health,” it can be used as an adjective. (Yesterday, she was sick. However, today, she is well.)

2. Bad and Badly

Bad is an adjective (bad food).

Badly is an adverb telling “how” something is done. (We played badly last night.) Feel badly is incorrect.

3. Most and Almost

Most is an adjective meaning “the greatest in number or amount.” (Most crimes go unpunished.)
Most is an adverb when used to form the superlative of an adjective. (She is the most intelligent.)
Almost is always an adverb meaning “nearly”; modifies every and all.
almost every person agreed, NOT most every person agreed
almost all the people came, NOT most all the people came
13
 Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

Coordinating conjunctions join two or more words, phrases, or sentence parts of equal rank (words with words,
phrases with phrases, clauses with clauses). The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and so. We
use coordinating conjunctions to avoid repetition and bring separate items together in a sentence.
Dates and figs grow on trees. (joins two words)
John has been to France but not to England. (joins two phrases)
The mail is late, or there is no delivery. (joins two sentences)

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are always found in pairs that have other words separating them. They emphasize the
words being joined, and they join items of equal rank. The correlative conjunctions are both . . . and,
either . . . or, neither . . . nor, just as . . . so, not only . . . but also, and whether . . . or.
Neither the dog nor the cat would eat the burned steak.
We not only went to dinner but also drove to Pigeon Forge.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join elements of unequal rank, specifically subordinate clauses in complex sentences.
See page 23. When Johnny went fishing, he fell into the river.

after as much as how inasmuch as so that whenever

although as soon as if insofar as supposing where
as as though before once though wherever
as far as because considering (that) provided (that) unless whereas
as if even if in case since until whether
as long as even though in order that so long as when while
why

Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb joins sentence elements of equal weight. Many times, a conjunctive adverb connects
independent clauses that can stand alone as complete sentences. Although the clause introduced by the conjunctive
adverb is grammatically independent, it is logically dependent upon the preceding clause for its complete meaning. In
these situations, a conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.
The student made good grades; therefore, he received an A.
Incorrect: The student made good grades, therefore, he received an A.
The team had a good season; however, it did not win the championship.
Incorrect: The team had a good season, however, it did not win the championship.

accordingly consequently hence instead nevertheless so

also conversely however later next still
anyhow equally in addition likewise nonetheless then
anyway finally incidentally meanwhile otherwise therefore
as a result further indeed moreover similarly thus
besides furthermore

When conjunctive adverbs do not connect main clauses, place commas around the words.
Several students, however, did not come to school today.
The verdict, therefore, was unsurprising.

14
 Prepositions

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun and a pronoun and the rest of the sentence. This noun or
pronoun that follows the preposition is called the object of the preposition. Words that modify the object may come
between the preposition and the object. See page 20 for a discussion of prepositional phrases.

In questions, the preposition can come after the object. Whom did you go with? – With whom did you go?

As a general rule, you should not put a preposition at the end of a sentence or in a sentence without an
object. Where are you? – not Where are you at?

Commonly Used Prepositions

aboard at concerning into over underneath
about before despite like past until
above behind down near pending unto
across below during of regarding up
after beneath except off respecting upon
against beside excepting on since with
along between for onto through within
amid beyond from opposite to without
among but* in out toward
around by inside outside under
*meaning “except”
Compound (Phrasal) Prepositions
according to by reason of in case of with respect to owing to
ahead of by way of in front of next to prior to
along with due to in spite of on account of up to
apart from because of instead of on the side of with the exception of
aside from by means of in lieu of on top of with reference to
as well as in addition to in regard to out of with regard to
as to in care of

Interjections

An interjection is a word used to express strong emotion or get the reader’s attention.

ah hey oh
alas hooray oh no
congratulations hurry ouch
gee my goodness outstanding
good grief never ugh
great no why
help no way wow

An interjection is not grammatically related to other words in the sentence, and it is punctuated by an
exclamation point or a comma. Strong interjections are capitalized and followed by an exclamation point, and
the first word following the exclamation is capitalized since it is the first word in a new sentence.
Gee! The sunset is beautiful. Why, I thought today was Thursday. Oh no, I forgot to study.

The “good news” about interjections is that there are no “rules” for using them; the “bad news” is that you should
not use them in formal writing. They appear frequently in advertisements, promotional material, fiction, informal
writing, and personal letters.

15
 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS
What is a Sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that (1) expresses a complete thought (says something that makes sense by itself),
(2) begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark, and (3) contains a subject and a predicate. The
basic parts of the sentence are the subject, predicate, and complement. Every sentence has a subject and
predicate. Many sentences have complements. Modifiers and connectives support this basic sentence structure.
Modifiers make the meaning more exact; connectives show the relationship between parts.

Types of Sentences

1. Declarative. A declarative sentence expresses a statement of fact, wish, intent, or feeling and ends with a
period. (John left the house.)
2. Imperative. An imperative sentence gives a command, request, or direction and ends with a period or an
exclamation point. (John, leave the house!)
3. Interrogative. An interrogative sentence asks a question and always ends with a question mark. (Has John left
the house?)
4. Exclamatory. An exclamatory sentence shows excitement or strong feeling and is followed by an exclamation
point. When an exclamatory sentence is preceded by a separate exclamation, either a period or exclamation point
can be used at the end of the sentence. (I left John at the house!)

Subject
The subject is the word or group of words that names the person, place, thing, or idea about which a sentence
makes a statement (what the sentence is about). The subject may come at the beginning, middle, or end of the
sentence. The subject may be a noun, pronoun, gerund, infinitive, phrase, or clause.

Noun: The director called the meeting for this afternoon.
Personal Pronoun: He wants everybody to attend.
Demonstrative Pronoun: That is going to be a different task.
Interrogative Pronoun: What are your plans for doing this?
Indefinite Pronoun: Everyone is eager to have you succeed.
Gerund: Walking is good exercise.
Infinitive: To run is more tiring than to walk.
Gerund Phrase: Adopting that kitten was a mistake.
Infinitive Phrase: To learn as much as possible is your goal.
Dependent clause: Whoever answers the telephone will win.

• Complete Subject. The complete subject includes all words that identify the person, place, thing, or
idea that the sentence is about. (The four students arrived early.)

• Simple Subject. The simple subject is the main word or words in the complete subject. Modifiers are not
part of the simple subject. (The four students arrived early.)

• Compound Subject. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects sharing the same verb.
Compound subjects are joined by and or or/nor (either . . . or/neither . . . nor).

Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb, but they can name only one person or thing.
Billy and Tom were best friends.
Macaroni and cheese is her favorite food.
Her favorite singer and entertainer is Cher.
Singular subjects joined by or or nor (either . . . or/neither . . . nor) take a singular verb.
Mr. White or the clerk is in the office today.
When a singular subject and plural subject are joined by or or nor (either . . . or/neither . . . nor),
the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb.
Neither my parents nor my sister is in the audience tonight.
Neither my sister nor my parents are in the audience tonight.

16
 Tips for Finding the Subject of a Sentence

1. Find the verb, and ask “who?” or “what?” before the verb. From the distance came the howl of a timber wolf.
The verb is came. “What” came? Howl came. Therefore, howl is the subject.

2. The subject is never in a prepositional phrase. Two of my friends came over. (Two is the subject.)

3. In most questions, the subject follows the verb or the helping verb. Questions usually begin with words such as
what, when, where, how, and why. A good way to find the subject in questions is to turn the question into a
statement. When will someone announce the winners? Someone will announce the winners.

4. Although the words here or there may begin a sentence, neither can be the subject. Here and there may be
used as expletives or as adverbs telling “where.” In sentences beginning with here and there, the subject usually
follows the verb. There are some shoes under my bed. (Shoes is the subject.)

5. In commands and requests, the subject is usually unstated. You is “understood” to be the subject of most
imperative sentences. Even if an imperative sentence contains a person’s name, the name is not the subject;
rather, it is a noun of direct address. (you) Help me, Bill. (you) Come here, Sam.

6. Reorder the sentence. Putting the words in a different order often makes the subject easier to identify. After
the rain came the wind. The wind came after the rain. Wind is the subject.

Predicate
The predicate tells what the subject is or does (an expression of action or state of being of the subject) or what
something else does to the subject. The verb is an essential part of the predicate. The verb may be a phrase
consisting of more than one word (had seen, was singing, had been saying). Phrasal verbs are verbs followed by a
preposition (particle); examples of phrasal verbs are look up, turn off, burn down, watch out, phase out, put off,
and try on. Modifiers may interrupt the words making up the verb phrase. Such modifiers are not part of the verb
(We will not be going to the lake.) Verbals (infinitives, participles, and gerunds), although they come from verbs, cannot
serve as verbs in the predicate.

1. Complete Predicate. The complete predicate includes the verb phrase and all words that say something about
the subject; it can include adverbs, prepositional phrases, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives,
and predicate adjectives. The bus driver drove around a sharp curve in the road.

No word ending in –ing can be the complete predicate, unless it is a one syllable word (sing, bring, or
ring, for example). In order to be the complete predicate, a two-syllable word ending in –ing needs a
helping verb.
They sing beautifully. (sentence)
They singing. (not a sentence)
They are singing. (sentence)

2. Simple Predicate. The simple predicate is the main word or words in the complete predicate; it does not include
modifiers and words that complete the meaning of the verb. The bus driver drove around a sharp curve in the road.
The simple predicate may be a single verb or a verb phrase.

3. Compound Predicate. A compound predicate consists of two or more verbs or verb phrases (connected by and,
or, or but) with the same subject. Over the weekend, I took my English book home and finished my homework.
Note: A comma does not come before the coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS) in a sentence with
a compound predicate.

17
Complements
A word group may have a subject and verb and still not express a complete thought (This picture looks). A complement
is a word or group of words that follows the verb and completes its meaning. Complements may be compound, and
complements are never in a prepositional phrase. The two major types of complements are objects (direct
objects, indirect objects, and object complements) and subject complements (predicate nominatives and predicate
adjectives).

An object is a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb in the active voice (page 7); an object does not refer
back to the subject. A subject complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that follows a linking verb (page 6)
and explains, renames, identifies, or describes the subject.

1. Direct Object. A direct object is a noun (or other word or word group functioning as a noun) that receives the
action of a transitive action verb (requires an active voice sentence). The direct object tells what or whom
the subject acts upon. (The boy threw the ball to home plate. Boy threw “what”? Boy threw “ball.”)

Direct objects may be compound. (I lost my notebook and pencil.) Verbs expressing mental
action (study, understand, etc.) are action verbs. (I studied art in college.)

Do not confuse a direct object with an adverb that follows an action verb. Look at the
following sentences: We followed the trail. We followed closely. The first sentence tells what
we followed (trail – direct object). The second sentence tells how we followed (closely – no direct
object).

In the following sentences, notice how clauses and phrases may serve as direct objects:
Give me whatever information you have (clause telling what).
I need to study for the test (infinitive phrase telling what).

2. Indirect Object. An indirect object is a noun (or other word or word group functioning as a noun) that names
a person or thing to what, to whom, for what, or for whom an action is done.

Indirect objects follow action verbs and come before direct objects in active voice
sentences. They “indirectly” receive the action of the verb.
Amanda made Ted a blue sweater.

A sentence can only have an indirect object if it also has a direct object.

The words to and for never appear before an indirect object; to and for are prepositions
when followed by a noun or pronoun. In the following sentence, a clause serves as the indirect
object:
Give whoever answers the door a cookie.

3. Object Complement. An object complement is a word or group of words that follows a direct object and
completes the meaning of the direct object by identifying, renaming, or describing it.

An object complement may be a noun, adjective, or pronoun; it answers the questions

“what?” or “to be?”

Object complements follow certain verbs and their synonyms: appoint, call, choose,
consider, elect, find, make, keep, name, and think.

We consider Jimmy [to be] intelligent. (adj.) I called the dog Fido. (n.)
Sherry considers Jimmy [to be] hers. (pn.) Jeanie considers our house [to be] hers. (pn.)
The accident rendered her car [to be] useless. (adj.) The board named Tim president and treasurer. (n.)

18
4. Predicate Nominative. A predicate nominative is a noun (also called a predicate noun) or other word or word
group functioning as a noun (pronoun, verbal, phrase, or clause) in the predicate following a linking verb that
renames or identifies the subject. Predicate nominatives may be compound.
Noun: He is chairman of the committee.
Pronoun: They thought the author was she.
Gerund: My favorite hobby is fishing.
Infinitive Phrase: The purpose of this drive is to test the car.
Noun Clause: The winner will be whoever writes the best essay.

5. Predicate Adjective. A predicate adjective is an adjective or adjective phrase in the predicate that follows a
linking verb and describes the subject. Predicate adjectives may be compound. Sometimes, a predicate
adjective comes before the subject of a sentence or clause. (I noticed how tall he was.)
Her sister is beautiful.
The soup smells delicious.
Medieval castles were cold, damp, and gloomy.
This material is over my head.
He appears enthusiastic about learning to dance.

Order of Subject and Predicate

1. Regular Order. In regular order sentences, the most common type, the subject comes before the predicate.

Pattern Example Symbols

S + V The children did not listen S = Subject
S + V + DO Mice frighten elephants. V = Verb
S + V + IO + DO Jan showed Carl the book. DO = Direct Object
S + LV + PN My friend is Bill. IO = Indirect Object
S + LV + PA The sweater is green. OC = Object Complement
S + V + DO + OC He appointed his brother sheriff. PN = Predicate Nominative
PA = Predicate Adjective

2. Commands and Requests (Imperative Sentences). The subject of an imperative sentence is always you
“understood.” (you) Look at these pictures. (you) Speak to the landlord tomorrow.

3. Inverted Order. In inverted order sentences, the verb or part of the verb phrase comes before the subject.

• Sentences beginning with prepositional phrases. For emphasis or variety, a speaker or writer intentionally
places the verb before the subject. At the end of a dark path was a deserted house.

• Questions. In most questions beginning with interrogative words where, when, why, how, or how much,
the subject appears between words that make up the verb phrase. (Have you called yet? Where will you
go tonight?) In questions beginning with an interrogative pronoun or adjective, the verb may follow the
subject in normal order. (Which picture fell off the wall? What happened?)

• Sentences beginning with here or there. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject usually
follows the verb. Here and there are never subjects of a sentence. (Here is your passport. There are
my red shoes). Sometimes there is an expletive, a word that merely helps get a sentence started. If
you can rearrange the sentence and drop the word there, you can assume it is an expletive. (There were
several people in line. Several people were in line.) Here and there can also be adverbs. (There is the
computer lab.) Occasionally, a sentence beginning with the adverb here or there will follow regular subject-
verb order. (Here she comes. There she is.)

19
 PHRASES
A phrase is a group of grammatically related words used as a single part of speech. Lacking a subject, predicate, or
both, a phrase cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

1. Verb Phrase. A verb phrase, consisting of the main verb and any helping verbs, serves as a predicate.
The flowers have wilted.

2. Noun Phrase. A noun phrase includes a noun and any modifiers and serves as a subject, object, or complement.
The heavy freeze killed fruit trees.

3. Prepositional Phrase. A prepositional phrase, the most common type, begins with a preposition, ends with a noun
or pronoun called the object, and includes any of the object’s modifiers.
We went into the damp cave.
preposition = into object = cave adjectives (modifiers) describing cave = the, damp

The object of the preposition may be compound.

The fire station is behind the grocery store and the new restaurant.
preposition = behind
objects = grocery store (modified by the), restaurant (modified by the and new)

Prepositional phrases are used as adjectives or adverbs.

The man in the red shirt is my father - tells which one (adjective)
The boy ran up the hill - tells where the boy ran (adverb)

Prepositional phrases may modify the objects of other prepositional phrases.

Some of the books on the table were discounted.
In the above sentence, on the table modifies books (tells which ones), the object of the phrase of
the books.

4. Appositive Phrase. An appositive phrase, containing appositive and any of its modifiers, is used to explain or
rename a noun or pronoun.

An appositive phrase usually follows the noun or pronoun it refers back to and is often set off
by commas.

If the phrase is not needed for the meaning of the sentence to stay the same, use commas.
The violin, a stringed instrument, is featured in every symphony.

Do not use commas if the appositive phrase is necessary to identify the word or words it
follows.
My friend Steve is a computer technician.

Do not use a comma to set off an appositive that is part of a proper name.
Jud the Juggler is an important part of the circus act.

Sometimes the appositive or appositive phrase comes before the word it identifies or
explains.
A noted pilot of her era, Anne Morrow Lindbergh was also a writer of exceptional ability.

Appositives may be compound.

Billy, a musician and actor, wrote his first book when he was seventeen.

20
5. Verbals and Verbal Phrases. A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech (noun, adjective, or
adverb). Like verbs, verbals express actions and may take complements. However, a verbal or verbal phrase cannot
be the predicate of a sentence. The verbal phrase consists of the verbal and any complements and modifiers.

Participles (Participial Phrase). A participle, formed from the verb’s present or past participle, is a verb form
used as an adjective.

A participle cannot stand alone as a verb. In fact, no word ending in –ing can be the
complete verb, unless it is a one syllable word (sing, bring, or ring, for example). In
order to be the complete verb, a two-syllable word ending in –ing needs a helping verb.
They sing beautifully. (sentence)
They singing. (not a sentence)
They are singing. (sentence)

A participle should be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies. Many

adjectives are participles.
The baked potatoes were delicious. (past participle of bake)
Some of his forgotten songs are worth hearing. (past participle of forget)
We got a new frying pan. (present participle of fry)

A participial phrase consists of the participle and any modifiers and complements, and it
can appear at various places in the sentence. In order to avoid confusion, a participial
phrase should be placed as closely as possible to the word(s) it modifies. See page 30.
Correct: Preparing for the lunar eclipse, we set our alarm clock.
Misplaced: We set our alarm clock preparing for the lunar eclipse.
Correct: Fishing for trout, I caught a catfish.
Misplaced: I caught a catfish fishing for trout.

An absolute phrase is a participial phrase grammatically independent of the rest of the

sentence.
I’m afraid of his reaction, his temper being what it is.

Gerunds (Gerund Phrase). A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that is used as a noun.

Do not confuse a gerund with a present participle used either as part of the verb
phrase or as an adjective.
The cleaning [pres. part.] crews removed the stains by scrubbing [gerund] the carpet.

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and any modifiers and complements. The entire
phrase acts as a noun.
Subject: Playing instruments well is difficult.
Predicate Nominative: Louis Armstrong’s great talent was playing the trumpet.
Direct Object: Audiences loved listening to his music.
Object of Preposition: Armstrong would often interrupt his playing by singing well.
Indirect Object: Why not give singing a try?
Appositive: His major achievement, playing music, won him many fans.

Any noun or pronoun coming in front of the gerund must be both possessive in form and
part of the gerund phrase. (Sandra’s singing woke the neighbors.)

21
 Infinitives (Infinitive Phrase). An infinitive is the basic part of the verb. Preceded by the word to, an
infinitive can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

He went to town. Town is a noun, so to town is a prepositional phrase.

He wanted to see his girlfriend. See is a verb, so to see is an infinitive phrase.

The infinitive plus all modifiers and complements make up the infinitive phrase.

Infinitive phrases may have a subject, may be followed by a complement, and may express action
or condition (she wanted me to help her). Occasionally, the word to may be left out. (The janitor
helped us [to] string the lights in the auditorium.)

Look at the following uses of infinitive phrases:

Subject (noun): To waltz is fun.
Direct Object (noun): She loved to waltz.
Predicate Nominative (Noun): Her goal is to make good grades.
Adjective: The waltzes to hear are those of Strauss. The person to ask is your teacher.
Adverb: The conductor raises his baton to begin. She worked to make money.

Breaking up an infinitive with one or more adverbs is called “splitting” the infinitive.
Avoid splitting unless there is a valid reason for doing so.
We expect the population to more than double in the next twenty years.

The chance that you will ever be asked to explain the differences between these types of phrases is unlikely.
So why learn about them? First of all, if you understand how they work, you can avoid mistaking them for
sentences. In addition, you can avoid misplacing them or leaving them dangling in sentences. Also, you can learn
to use phrases effectively in combining sentences. In your own writing, a series of short, choppy sentences can
be turned in to a more mature, effective sentence by using phrases and clauses.

22
 CLAUSES
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. The two types of clauses are independent
(main) and subordinate (dependent).

1. Independent/Main Clauses. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence. Every sentence has or is an independent clause.

2. Subordinate/Dependent Clauses. A subordinate clause has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a
sentence. (The word subordinate means “less important.”) A subordinate clause must be joined to an
independent clause. A subordinate clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction, relative pronoun, or
interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, what

Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, what, whomever, whichever, that, which, whoever, whatever
Subordinating Conjunctions:
after as soon as even though inasmuch as provided (that) though where
although as though how insofar as since till wherever
as because if lest so long as unless whereas
as far as before in case no matter how so that until whether
as if considering (that) in that now that supposing that when while
as long as even if in order that once than whenever why

Adjective Clauses. An adjective (relative) clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun; they can be essential (restrictive) or
non-essential (non-restrictive).

An essential clause, necessary for the meaning of the sentence, is not set off by commas. In
most cases, the word that makes the clause essential.
The room that was near the elevator is mine.

A non-essential clause, which merely adds information to the sentence, is set off by commas. In
most cases, the word which makes the clause non-essential.
Room 314, which was near the elevator, was the bridal suite.

Sometimes the relative pronoun is left out. History is the course [that] I like best.

Be careful to select the correct relative pronoun to introduce an adjective clause. Who and whom
refer to persons; what, that, and which refer to things; that usually refers to things, but that
sometimes refers to persons.
The trainer who tamed this lion has had extensive experience.
The homework assignment, which is due tomorrow, will contain that information.
The crowd that is gathering outside is rowdy.

Adverb Clauses. An adverb clause always begins with a subordinating conjunction and modifies a verb,
adjective, or another adverb. Wherever I go, I take a magazine.

Noun Clauses. A noun clause functions as a noun. Noun clauses are introduced by the words that, what,
whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, which, whichever, whether, how, where, when, whose, and why.
Subject: What I want for dinner is a hamburger.
Direct Object: Give whoever shows up a free ticket.
Object of Preposition: Tell them about what we are planning.
23
 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS

1. Simple Sentence. A simple sentence contains only one independent (main) clause and no dependent (subordinate)
clauses. This does not mean, however, that it must be short; it may have a compound subject, a compound
predicate, and any number of phrases.
We went to the mall.
I went to the mall and bought some clothes.
Notice that a comma does not come before the coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS) in a simple
sentence with a compound predicate (went and bought in second example above).

2. Compound Sentence. A compound sentence contains two or more independent (main) clauses, each of which
could be rewritten as a simple sentence. In a compound sentence, the main clauses are joined by (1) a comma
and a coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS), (2) a semicolon, or (3) a semicolon and a conjunctive
adverb followed by a comma.
We went to the mall, and I bought some clothes.
We went to the mall; I bought some clothes.
We went to the mall; furthermore, I bought some clothes.

3. Complex Sentence. A complex sentence contains one independent (main) clause and one or more dependent
(subordinate) clauses.
When we went to the mall [dependent], I bought some clothes [independent].
I bought some clothes [independent] when we went to the mall [dependent].
When a dependent clause comes before the main clause in a complex sentence, put a comma after the
dependent clause.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence. A compound-complex sentence contains more than one independent (main) clause
and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.
When we went to the mall [dep.], I bought some clothes [indep.]; however, I did not buy anything else [indep.].
Since they moved to town [dep.], the river flooded three times [indep.], and the stores all shut down [indep.].

24
 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES

Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a word group that does not express a complete thought. Oftentimes, a fragment looks like a
sentence and is punctuated as one. Do not let the length of the word group be your guide.
Fragment: Unless you want more coverage than the newspaper story.
Complete Sentence: He jumps.
No word ending in –ing can be a complete predicate unless it has one syllable (sing, ring, bring).
Fragment: The man ringing the bell.
Complete Sentence: The man is ringing the bell.
When you write a sentence beginning with a subordinating conjunction, be certain you have an independent (main)
clause following the subordinate (dependent) clause and a comma following the subordinate clause. See page 23.
Fragment: Because he was sick.
Complete Sentence: Because he was sick, he did not come to school.
Fragment: When I went to town.
Complete Sentence: When I went to town, I saw my friends.
Note that a comma does not immediately follow the subordinating conjunction in the above examples.

Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence is a word group containing more than one complete thought and lacking complete punctuation. In
other words, a run-on contains two or more complete sentences written as one sentence. Examples of incorrectly
punctuated (run-on) sentences are as follows:
• a comma instead of a semicolon or period is placed between main clauses (comma splice)
The current was swift, he swam to shore.
• no punctuation at all between two main clauses
The current was swift he swam to shore.
• no comma before coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS) joining two main clauses
The current was swift and he swam to shore.

Ways to Correct Run-On Sentences

1. Use a comma and coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS). Remember that a comma alone can never
join independent clauses. The current was swift, but he swam to shore.
2. Use a semicolon to separate main clauses. The current was swift; he swam to shore.
3. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb/transitional phrase (followed by a comma).
The current was swift; however, he swam to shore.
The current was swift; as a result, he found it difficult to swim to shore.
Do not use a comma to join a clause beginning with a conjunctive adverb/transitional phrase.
Incorrect: The current was swift, however, he swam to shore.
Incorrect: The current was swift, as a result, he found it difficult to swim to shore.
4. Use end marks and capital letters. The current was swift. He swam to shore.
5. Rewrite the sentences. He swam to shore in the swift current.

For a list of coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) and conjunctive adverbs, see the quick reference sheet on
page 65-66. Some transitional phrases may be found on page 60.

25
 USING MODIFIERS CORRECTLY

Degrees of Comparison and “Irregulars”

Modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) have three degrees (forms) of comparison: the positive (base), comparative,
and superlative.

1. Positive: the form found in the dictionary; never used to make a comparison
The brown calf is heavy.
The cat ran swiftly.

2. Comparative: shows two things being compared; in general, form by adding –er to the positive form or putting
more or less before the positive
The white calf is heavier than the brown calf.
My dog ran more swiftly than the cat. (There is no such word as swiftlier.)

3. Superlative: shows more than two things being compared; in general, form by adding –est to the positive form or
by putting most or least before the positive
The spotted calf is the heaviest calf in the herd.
I ran most swiftly at all. (There is no such word as swiftliest.)

Things to Understand

1. There is no difference in meaning between –er and more/less or between –est and most/least.

2. Either method may be used with some modifiers (able, abler, more able, ablest, most able).

3. Most one-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding –er or –est to the positive
form. Some words change spelling when –er or –est are added.
• If the modifier ends in e, drop the final e before adding –er or –est.
sure, surer, surest
• If the modifier ends in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i before adding –er or –est.
angry, angrier, angriest happy, happier, happiest
• Before adding –er or –est, double a final consonant after a short vowel sound.
wet, wetter, wettest

4. Most modifiers with two syllables, all modifiers with three or more syllables, and all adverbs ending in –ly are
compared by the use of more and most (or less and least), rather than by the endings –er and –est.
often, more often, most often tightly, more tightly, most tightly

5. In choosing which method should be used with some modifiers, you may use either choice, depending on emphasis.
By adding –er and –est to the root word, you emphasize the quality; using more or most emphasizes the
degree (extent) of comparison.
Should I have been kinder or harsher in handling that call?
Of the forms, this one is the most simple and that one is the least simple to fill out.

26
Irregular Comparisons

Positive (1 thing) Comparative (2 things) Superlative (3+ things)

good (describes something or someone) better (the) best
well (“in good health” or telling “how” something is done) better (the) best
bad (describes something or someone) worse (the) worst
badly (tells “how” something is done) worse (the) worst
far (describes distance) farther (the) farthest
far (describes extent, degree, or time) further (the) furthest
late later, latter (the) latest, last
little (describes amount) less (the) least
many, much more (the) most
ill worse (the) worst

Therefore, the saying “Put your best foot forward” contains an incorrect comparison.

Some adjectives and adverbs express qualities you really cannot compare. They show the highest degree
something and, as a result, cannot be improved. Some of these words are listed below:
complete exact perfect round supreme
correct horizontally perfectly secondly totally
dead immortally perpendicularly square unique
deadly infinitely preferable squarely uniquely
pregnant universally

However, there may be times when the you need to use a comparative form of these words (like if you are using them in
a relative or approximate sense). However, it is usually better to say more nearly round or more nearly perfect than
rounder or more perfect.

27
 Double and Incomplete Comparisons

1. Avoid double comparisons containing both –er and more/less or –est and most/least.
Incorrect: Texas is more larger in area than Oklahoma.
Correct: Texas is larger in area than Oklahoma.
Incorrect: Mount Everest is the most tallest mountain in the world.
Correct: Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.

2. Do not make an incomplete or unclear comparison by leaving out other or else when you compare one member
of a group with another.
Incorrect: Our house is cooler than any house on the block.
(If our house is on the block, it cannot be cooler than itself.)
Correct: Our house is cooler than any other house on the block.
(Our house is one of the houses.)
Incorrect: My aunt has more pets than anyone.
Correct: My aunt has more pets than anyone else.
Incorrect: New York has more skyscrapers than any city in America.
Correct: New York has more skyscrapers than any other city in America.

3. When you compare two items, be sure that both terms of the comparison are named clearly. Be sure the
listener or reader understands what your meaning.
There have been more successful ad campaigns in our district this year.
(Do you mean more than in any other district? or more than in any previous year?)

4. Whenever a comparison is not completed, the meaning of the sentence is unclear.

Incomplete comparison with a possessive:
Unclear: Joe’s letter states the problem better than John.
Is it John or John’s letter that is stating the problem?
Clear: Joe’s letter states the problem better than John’s.
Incomplete comparison with a conjunction:
Unclear: This text is as good, if not better than that one.
Because there is no as after good, the sentence reads “. . . as good than, if not . . . . ”)
Clear: This text is as good as, if not better than, that one.
Clear: This text is as good as that one, if not better.
Incomplete comparison with a verb:
Unclear: I enjoy this kind of work more than John.
Someone could read this as I enjoy this kind of work more than I enjoy John.
Clear: I enjoy this kind of work more than John does.
Unclear: I have known him longer than John.
Clear: I have known him longer than I have known John.
Clear: I have known him longer than John has known him.

28
 Double Negatives

Do not use a double negative (two negative words in the same clause). Most words with negative meanings begin
with the letter n (not, n’t, never, no, none, and nobody, for example). Use only one negative word to express a
negative idea. Most negative words have positive forms. Oftentimes, you can use positive forms to correct double
negatives.

Negative Word Positive Form

neither either
never ever
no any, a
nobody anybody
nothing anything
nowhere anywhere
none any
no one anyone

Incorrect Correct
We haven’t been to no games this year. We have been to no games this year.
We haven’t been to any games this year.

She never goes nowhere. She never goes anywhere.

She goes nowhere.

He says he never did nothing wrong. He says he never did anything wrong.
He says he did nothing wrong.

Do not use subtractive adverbs (hardly, scarcely, only, barely) together with other negatives.

Incorrect Correct
They haven’t only a single blanket. They have only a single blanket.
I don’t have hardly any money. I have hardly any money.
He couldn’t barely see anything. He could barely see anything.

29
 Placement of Modifiers

• Place a modifier (whether it be a single word, phrase, or clause) as close as possible to the word or words it
modifies in order to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Notice how the placement of the word just
influences the following sentences:
Laura went out with just her coat on.
Laura just went out with her coat on.
Just Laura went out with her coat on.

• Some adverbs (only, almost, nearly, also, quite, merely, actually) frequently cause problems. Be sure to
place them before the words they modify, or the meaning of the sentence may be unclear.
Unclear: Dan only has art on Monday.
Clear: Dan has only art on Monday.
Clear: Dan has art only on Monday.
Clear: Only Dan has art on Monday.

• Whenever possible, avoid placing a modifier between subject and verb and between verb and object.
Awkward: The driver, to save money on fuel, switched to a smaller car.
Clear: To save money on fuel, the driver switched to a smaller car.

• “Misplaced modifiers” cause confusion because they modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one
word in a sentence. To correct a misplaced modifier, move the modifier as close as possible to the word it
modifies.

Misplaced: We need someone to design buildings with architectural experience.

Clear: We need someone with architectural experience to design buildings.

Misplaced: Mr. Smith noticed rotting wood painting his house trim.
Clear: Painting his house trim, Mr. Smith noticed rotting wood.

• “Dangling Modifiers” do not seem to modify any word in the sentence. (The modifier is missing the word it
modifies.) To correct a dangling modifier, insert a word the dangling modifier can sensibly modify.

Dangling: With much effort, the assignment was completed on time.

Clear: With much effort, we completed the assignment on time.

Dangling: After a valiant effort, the game was won by the team.
Clear: After a valiant effort, the team won the game.

Dangling: To get the most out of this course, careful study is necessary.
Clear: To get the most out of this course, you must study it carefully.
Clear: If you are to get the most out of this course, you must study it carefully.

Dangling: To apply for this job, an application must be completed.

Clear: To apply for this job, the applicant must complete an application.
Clear: When the applicant applies for the job, an application must be completed.

Dangling: Weeding the garden, a worm crawled across my arm.

Clear: Weeding the garden, I felt a worm crawl across my arm.

Dangling: To win the election, money is essential.

Clear: To win the election, a candidate needs money.

30
 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
If a subject is singular, the verb form must also be singular. If the subject is in the third person (he, she, it), the verb
must also be in the third person. Many times, it is difficult to find the true subject of the sentence and
determine whether it is singular or plural.

Verbs show a difference between singular and plural only in third person present tense. The third person present
singular tense ends in –s or –es. Nouns ending in –s are usually plural, but verbs ending in –s are usually singular.
Present Singular Plural
1st Person I sing we sing
nd
2 Person you sing you sing
3rd Person he, she, it sings they sing

The verb be may cause problems in agreement because be does not follow any of the usual verb patterns. Be has
special forms for singular and plural in both present and past tenses and in all three persons.
Present Tense Singular Plural Past Tense Singular Plural
1st Person I am we are 1st Person I was we were
nd nd
2 Person you are you are 2 Person you were you were
3rd Person he, she, it is they are 3rd Person he, she, it was they were
The most common errors involving the verb be are using you was, we was, and they was.

Words appearing between the subject and verb do not change the number or person of the subject. Locate the
real subject of the sentence and make the verb agree with it. The object of the preposition is never the
subject, so ignore prepositional phrases.
The amount shown, plus interest, is due within thirty days.
The letter with its several attachments was received this morning.
Our manners, like our speech, are indicators of the character.
No one but those present knows of this bargain.
The speakers on that car stereo are not working properly.
Loyalty, in addition to common interests, is necessary for lasting friendship.

Subjects Joined by or or nor

When singular subjects are joined by or or nor (or either . . . or/neither . . . nor), the subject is considered
singular.
Neither the cat nor the mouse knows that he is being watched.
Neither heat nor cold nor sun nor wind affects this material.
When one singular and one plural subject are joined by or or nor, the subject closer to the verb determines the
number of the verb.
I believe that she or her sisters have the keys to the car.
I believe that her sisters or she has the keys to the car.
Advice: In these situations, place the plural noun/pronoun nearer the verb if possible.

31
Subjects Joined by and
When two or more subjects are joined by and (or both . . . and), whether the subjects are singular or plural, they
form a compound subject, which is considered plural.
The date and time of the party have not been decided. (Think: They have not been . . . .)

EXCEPTION: When the subjects joined by and refer to the same person/object or represent a single idea, the
whole subject is considered singular.
Macaroni and cheese is her favorite food. (Think: It is her favorite food.)

An article (a, an, the) or personal pronoun used before each member of a compound subject shows whether
the subject is singular or plural.
My teacher and friend helps me with my problems. (Think: He/she helps me . . . .)
My teacher and my friend help me with my problems. (Think: They help me . . . .)
The lead actor and star of the film has arrived. (Think: He/she has arrived.)
The lead actress and the star of the film have arrived. (Think: They have arrived.)

Collectives
A collective is a single word that names a group of people or things. A collective is either singular or plural depending
on the meaning of the sentence.

Singular: when you are talking about the group as one unit
The survey committee is visiting the district this week. (Think: It is visiting . . . . )
Plural: when you are talking about the members of the group
The jury are unable to agree. (Think: The members of the jury are . . . .)

Commonly-Used Collectives
assembly class couple group pair
association commission crowd jury press
audience company department majority public
board corporation family minority staff
cabinet council firm number United States
orchestra

Titles
Even though a title may be plural in form, use a singular verb with the title of a book, play, short story, article,
film, television program, or musical composition.
David and Goliath was painted for the King of France in 1295.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is perhaps America’s greatest novel.
The Grapes of Wrath was written by John Steinbeck.

32
Units of Measure
When a number is used with a plural noun to indicate a unit of measurement (money, time, fractions, portions,
distance, weight, and quantity, for example), a singular verb is used. When you are talking about the individual
parts, a plural verb is used.
Ten years seems like a long time. (Think: It seems like a long time.)
Ten years have gone by since I last saw him. (Think: They have gone by since . . . .)
Twenty-one pages is our homework for each day. (Think: It is our homework for . . . .)
Twenty-one pages are needed to finish the job. (Think: They are needed to finish . . . .)
What percentage of the information is available? (Think: What percentage of it is . . . .)
What percentage of the items were lost? (Think: What percentage of them were lost?)

Confusing Forms
It is sometimes hard to tell by its form whether a word is singular or plural. Some words that end in –s may be
singular, and some words that look singular may be plural.

These words are singular, although they may seem plural: apparatus, news, mumps, measles, mathematics,
summons, whereabouts.
The news was disturbing. (Think: It was disturbing.)
Mathematics is difficult for some people. (Think: It is difficult for some people.)

These words are plural in form, although they are singular (or collective) in meaning: assets, earnings,
means (income), odds, premises, proceeds, quarters, savings, wages, winnings, scissors, binoculars, pliers,
trousers, congratulations.
Where are the scissors? There they are. (However, the scissors are one unit.)

These words may be either singular or plural, depending on their meaning, even though they may seem plural
in form: ethics, goods, gross, headquarters, mechanics, politics, economics, civics, athletics, series,
species, statistics, tactics.
Ethics is a subject on which he is well qualified to speak. (Think: It is a subject . . . .)
His business ethics are above question. (Think: They are above question.)
Statistics is the only course I failed in school. (Think: It is the only course . . . .)
The statistics prove that I am right. (Think: They prove that I am right.)

These nouns are plural, although they appear to be singular because they have foreign or unusual plural
forms.
The analyses have been completed. (Analyses is the plural of analysis.)
What are your bases for these conclusions? (Bases is the plural of basis.)
Some interesting phenomena were discovered. (Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon.)
His conclusion is sound, but his criteria are not valid. (Criteria is the plural of criterion.)

Hyphenated compound nouns usually form the plural on the important part.
editors-in-chief, daughters-in-law, attorneys general

Solid compound nouns always take a plural form at the end of the word.
stepdaughters, bookshelves

33
Indefinite Pronouns

Always Singular
each much no one anyone someone
either everyone nobody anybody somebody
neither everybody nothing anything something
one everything another

When “Always Singular” indefinite pronouns are used as subjects, they require singular verbs. When
“Always Singular” indefinite pronouns are used as antecedents, they require singular pronouns. On “Always
Singular” indefinite pronoun issues, ALWAYS ignore prepositional phrases.
Either of the alternatives is suitable.
Incorrect: Either of the alternatives are suitable. (Ignore of the alternatives.)
Anyone is welcome, as long as he or she behaves appropriately.
Incorrect: Anyone is welcome, as long as they behave appropriately.

When two “Always Singular” indefinite pronouns are joined by and, they are singular in meaning.
Anyone and everyone is invited. Nothing and no one escapes her attention.

When each or every is used to modify/describe a compound subject (subjects joined by and), the subject is
considered singular.
Every ticket holder and fan has sent in a request. Each car and truck on the lot is on sale this week.

When each is inserted between a plural or a compound subject and its plural verb, neither the plural form
of the verb nor the plural form of the pronoun is affected.
The customers each have requested permission to change their method of payment.

Many a (unlike many) is singular in meaning.

Many a boy and girl is coming to the game tonight.

More than one, though its meaning is plural, is singular.

More than one vacation plan was changed last night.

Always Plural
several few both many others

When “Always Plural” indefinite pronouns are used as subjects, they require plural verbs. When “Always
Plural” indefinite pronouns are used as antecedents, they require plural pronouns. On “Always Plural”
indefinite pronoun issues, ALWAYS ignore prepositional phrases.
Both of us have received new assignments. Few will be able to finish their work on time.
Several writers have submitted their stories. Others have not yet finished theirs.

Singular or Plural
some all most none any enough more plenty

The “Singular or Plural” indefinite pronouns may depend on prepositional phrases to determine the number
for subject-verb or pronoun-antecedent agreement issues.
Some of the forest was destroyed by fire. (Some refers to part of the forest.)
Some of the trees were hundreds of years old. (Some refers to several trees.)

34
 CLEAR AND CORRECT PRONOUN REFERENCE
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular, plural), in person (first, second, third), and in
gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). Of the three, gender causes the writer the least difficulty. The main
problem is identifying the antecedent and determining its number and person. If the antecedent of a pronoun is
singular, a singular pronoun is required; if the antecedent is plural, a plural pronoun is required.

Pronouns should follow as closely and as logically as possible the antecedent to which they refer.

Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
Nominative (Subject) Case I, you, he, she, it we, you, they
Objective (Object) Case me, you, her, him, it us, you, them
Possessive Case my, mine, your, yours, our, ours, your, yours,
her, hers, his, its their, theirs

Indefinite Pronouns: Always Singular

each much no one anyone someone
either everyone nobody anybody somebody
neither everybody nothing anything something
one everything another

Indefinite Pronouns: Always Plural

several few both many

Indefinite Pronouns: Singular or Plural

some all most none
any enough more plenty

• Most indefinite pronouns are singular.

Incorrect: Has anyone turned in their report?
Correct: Has anyone turned in his or her report?
Incorrect: Anyone is welcome, as long as they behave appropriately.
Correct: Anyone is welcome, as long as he or she behaves appropriately.
Incorrect: Everyone must buy their book for the course.
Correct: Everyone must buy his or her book for the course.

• A few indefinite pronouns are plural.

Correct: Few will be able to finish their work on time.
Correct: Several of the students have submitted their stories.

• Indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural are singular when they refer to one thing and plural when
they refer to several things. Oftentimes, the object of the preposition is the “clue.”
Some of the forest was destroyed by fire. (Some refers to part of the forest.)
Some of the trees were hundreds of years old. (Some refers to several trees.)

• In sentences that contain the phrases one of the or one of those, the antecedent of the relative pronoun is
not one, but the plural words that follow.
One of those tools that were on my table has disappeared.
Here is one of the men who are moving the piano.
One of the women who are attending the conference is wanted on the telephone.

35
• Once you establish a word as singular or plural, keep it the same throughout the sentence. Be sure that all
verbs and all pronouns referring to that word agree with it in number.
Incorrect: A person needs someone to turn to when they are in trouble.
Correct: A person needs someone to turn to when he or she is in trouble.
Incorrect: When someone has had a difficult day, it is important that they be able to relax in the evening.
Correct: When someone has had a difficult day, it is important that he or she be able to relax in the evening.

• Don’t shift the person (first, second, third) of pronouns referring to the same antecedent.
Incorrect: When one is happy, it often seems as if every one around you is happy, too.
Correct: When one is happy, it often seems as if every one around him or her is happy, too.
Incorrect: As the ship entered her berth, its huge gray shadow seemed to swallow us.
Correct: As the ship entered its berth, its huge gray shadow seemed to swallow us.
Correct: As the ship entered her berth, her huge gray shadow seemed to swallow us.

• Avoid using the expletive it and the personal pronoun it in the same sentence.
Incorrect: I haven’t read the book yet; it has been hard for me to find time for it.
Correct: I haven’t read the book yet; I haven’t been able to find time for it.

• Avoid unclear references, and do not use forms of the same pronoun to refer to different antecedents. Be
certain each pronoun you use has one specific, stated antecedent.
Incorrect: The letter is on the conference table that we received yesterday.
Correct: The letter that we received yesterday is on the conference table.
Incorrect: On the postcard, it has a place for your return address.
Correct: The postcard has a place for your return address.
Incorrect: Bob saw Andy on his way home.
Correct: While Bob was on his way home, he saw Andy.
Correct: While Andy was on his way home, Bob saw him.
Incorrect: The copies of these letters were not initialed by the writers, so we are sending them back.
What are we sending back? The copies of the letters or the writers?
Correct: We are sending back the copies of the letters because they were not initialed by the writers.
Incorrect: When you have finished the book and written your summary, please return it to the library.
What is going to be returned, the book or the summary?
Correct: When you have finished the book and written your summary, please return the book to the library.
Incorrect: In the instructions it says to make three copies.
Correct: The instructions say to make three copies.
Incorrect: In the letter it says he will be here on Thursday.
Correct: The letter says he will be here on Thursday.
Correct: He says, in his letter, that he will be here on Thursday.
Incorrect: They say in the almanac that we are in for a warm, dry winter. Who are the “they people?”
Correct: The almanac predicts a warm, dry winter.

36
 USING THE CORRECT PRONOUN
You should do the following things before trying to choose which pronoun to use in a sentence:

1. Identify all clauses (main and subordinate) in the sentence. You must do this because you have to see the
pronoun within its own clause. There may be only one clause in the sentence, but sometimes the pronoun in
question will appear in a subordinate clause. Look at the following sentence:
The man (who/whom) we saw was my uncle.
In the above example, the main clause (sentence) is underlined. Since the pronoun in question appears in the other
clause, he only part you need to be concerned about is (who/whom) we saw.

2. Find the verb in the clause with the pronoun in question and figure out if it is an action verb or a linking
verb. Remember, the linking verbs are as follows: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been, appear, become, feel,
grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn. All linking verbs except seem and the forms of be
may also be action verbs.

Making the Correct Choice

• If the pronoun is the subject of the verb(s) in the clause, pick the nominative (subject) case.
(They/Them) were the winners. (one main clause)
(Us/We) members voted on the project. (one main clause)
I wonder (who/whom) will play.
Main clause: I wonder. Subordinate clause: _____ will play

Nominative (Subject) Pronouns

I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
who, whoever

• If the pronoun follows a linking verb and it renames the subject, pick the nominative (subject) case.
The one who answered the phone was (her/she).
Main clause: The one was _____. Subordinate clause: who answered the phone
The winners were (we/us). (one main clause)
It appeared to be (her/she) on the phone. (one main clause – linking verb)
Jim asked (whom/who) the leader was.
Main clause: Jim asked. Subordinate clause: the leader was _____ (inverted order)

Nominative (Subject) Pronouns

I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
who, whoever

• If the pronoun receives the action of a verb (action verb), pick the objective (object) case.
David met (we/us) at the library. (one main clause)
Grandma treated Jim and (I/ me) to a movie. (one main clause)
(Whom/Who) shall we choose? (one main clause) Think: We shall choose _____. (inverted order)
That is the man (who/whom) we saw at the mall.
Main clause: That is the man. Subordinate clause: _____ we saw at the mall
Think: We saw _____ at the mall (inverted order)

Objective (Object) Pronouns

me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
whom, whomever

37
• If the pronoun is the object of a preposition, pick the objective (object) case.
I got a postcard from (she/her). (one main clause)
This letter is addressed to Jan and (he/him). (one main clause)
(Who/Whom) will you vote for? (one main clause) Think: For _____ will you vote? (inverted order)

Objective (Object) Pronouns

me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
whom, whomever

Commonly Used Prepositions

aboard at concerning into over underneath
about before despite like past until
above behind down near pending unto
across below during of regarding up
after beneath except off respecting upon
against beside excepting on since with
along between for onto through within
amid beyond from opposite to without
among but* in out toward
around by inside outside under
*meaning “except”

Therefore, between you and I is always incorrect.

“Red Herrings” on Pronoun Choice: Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Singular (Possible Antecedents) Plural (Possible Antecedents)

First Person myself (I, me) ourselves (we, us)
Second Person yourself (you) yourselves (you)
Third Person himself (he, him), herself (she, her), itself (it) themselves (they, them)

• Do not use hisself, ourself, theirself, or theirselves. These words are nonstandard.
• A reflexive or intensive pronoun cannot be used by itself; it must have an antecedent in the same sentence.
Incorrect: The coach spoke to Tom and myself. (no I or me as antecedent for myself)
Correct: The coach spoke to Tom and me.
Incorrect: I’m doing fine. How about yourself? (no you as antecedent for yourself)
Correct: I’m doing fine. How about you?

Possessive Forms Before Gerunds

If you are asked to choose which pronoun to use before an –ing form used as a noun (gerund), pick the
possessive.
We got tired of (him/his) whining.
(She/Her) singing woke the neighbors.

38
 CONNECTIONS AND PARALLEL STRUCTURE
• Use the same grammatical construction (part of speech, phrase, or clause) for each of the words or ideas
in a sentence if these words or ideas require balance, according to the meaning of the sentence.
Incorrect: Singing and to dance are not permitted here.
Correct: Singing and dancing (or to sing and to dance) are not permitted here.
Incorrect: The children are learning the value of courtesy and being kind.
Correct: The children are learning the value of courtesy and kindness.
Incorrect: He likes hunting, to fish, and golfing.
Correct: He likes hunting, fishing, and golfing.
Incorrect: What counts isn’t how you look but your behavior.
Correct: What counts isn’t how you look but how you behave.

The length of items in a series does not affect the parallel structure.
Correct: He likes hunting in the Rocky Mountains, fishing in Canada, and golfing.

• When you have more than one verb in a sentence, be sure to make the verbs parallel by not shifting tenses
unnecessarily. Also, do not shift from active to passive voice.
Incorrect: Kate prepared the speech on the plane, and it was delivered by her at the conference.
Correct: Kate prepared the speech on the plane and delivered it at the conference.

Sometimes sentences use a single verb form with two helping verbs.
Incorrect: Robert has in the past and will in the future continue to support the measure.
(to support belongs with will continue, but not with has)
Correct: Robert has in the past supported, and will in the future continue to support, the measure.
Correct: Just as Robert has supported this measure in the past, he will continue to support it in the future.

• When using words such as to, a, an, his, her, or their with items in a series, you can use the word with the
first item. You may also repeat the word with each item. If you repeat it, however, you must do so with
all the items, not just some of them.
Incorrect: She saw a van, a car, and truck collide.
Correct: She saw a van, car, and truck collide. She saw a van, a car, and a truck collide.

• Correlative conjunctions (both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, just as . . . so, not only . . . but
also, and whether . . . or) work in pairs to show that words and ideas are parallel.
Correct: Either the doctor or the lawyer must attend.
Correct: The report is designed not only to present a list of the problems facing us but also to recommend
possible solutions to these problems.
Incorrect: Either fish of this type are much fewer in number or are not easily caught.
(Either is followed by a noun, fish; or is followed by a verb phrase.)
Correct: Fish of this type either are much fewer in number or are not easily caught.
Incorrect: His reply not only was prompt but also complete. (verb was matched with adjective complete)
Correct: His reply was not only prompt but also complete. (adjective matched with adjective)
Incorrect: The picnic was a disappointment not only to me but also my boyfriend.
(Not only is followed by the prepositional phrase to me; but also is followed by a noun.)
Correct: The picnic was a disappointment not only to me but also to my boyfriend
(Note that each of the correlative conjunctions is followed by a prepositional phrase.)
Incorrect: We expected not only to be late but also we expected to be exhausted.
Correct: We expected not only to be late but also to be exhausted.
Correct: We expected to be not only late but also exhausted.

39
• Also, a weak connective, should not be used in place of and.
Incorrect: He writes poems, stories, also art reviews.
Correct: He writes poems, stories, and art reviews.

• Avoid stringing together a group of sentence elements connected by and’’s.

Incorrect: The evaluation of the training program was planned and conducted and reported to the officials.
Correct: The evaluation of the training program was planned, conducted, and reported to the officials.

• When either that or which introduces one of a series of parallel clauses, the same conjunction must
introduce the other clauses in the series. Do not shift conjunctions or omit the conjunction in later clauses.
Incorrect: He said that he would call me before noon and his brother would meet me.
Correct: He said that he would call me before noon and that his brother would meet me.

That may be omitted in noun clauses (especially those following such verbs as say, think, feel, believe,
hope) and in adjective clauses, if the meaning of the sentence is clear.
Noun clause: He said (that) he would call me before noon.
Adjective clause: The instructions (that) she gave were perfectly clear.

Do not use that twice to introduce the same noun clause. This error most often occurs in a long sentence in
which a long interrupting expression occurs between that and the rest of its clause.
Incorrect: I am sure you understand that, in order to serve as many guests as possible, that we must move.
Correct: I am sure you can understand that, in order to serve as many guests as possible, we must move.

• Avoid using when to introduce a definition unless the definition pertains to time.
Incorrect: Their first important step in improvement was when they thoroughly surveyed the situation.
(step was not “when”)
Correct: Their first important step in improvement was the thorough survey of the situation.
Correct: Three o’clock is when the meeting will be held.

• Avoid using where to introduce a definition unless the definition pertains to place or location.
Incorrect: A sentence is where you have a subject and a verb. (sentence is not “where”)
Correct: A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.
Correct: The large conference room is where the meeting is being held.

• Avoid substituting where for that.

Incorrect: I saw in the bulletin where the new law has been put into effect.
Correct: I saw in the bulletin that the new law has been put into effect.

• While indicates duration of time; when indicates a fixed or stated period of time.
When I return to work, I will take you out to lunch. (at that fixed time)
While I am shopping, I will look for that skirt. (During the time I am shopping . . . .)

While pertains to time and should not be substituted loosely for though, although, whereas, and, or but.
Incorrect: While I did not remember the woman’s name, I thought I could recognize her face.
Correct: Although I did not remember the woman’s name, I thought I could recognize her face.

• In antithetical situations, something is true of one thing and not another. But not and rather than are used
to set up these grammatical constructions. Both parts of antithetical constructions should be parallel.
Incorrect: The administration approved his right to drop the class but not meeting with the professor.
Correct: The administration approved his right to drop the class but not to meet with the professor.
Incorrect: The committee chose to table the motion rather than voting on it.
Correct: The committee chose to table the motion rather than to vote on it.

40
 USING CAPITAL LETTERS CORRECTLY

• Capitalize the first word in every sentence and the first word in a line of “traditional” poetry.

Capitalize the first word of a sentence that is a direct quotation, if it is a complete sentence.
“When I went hunting yesterday,” Scott said, “I killed a deer.”

Do not capitalize the first word of a quotation, unless the entire quotation can stand alone as a sentence.
Scott said that he “killed a deer.”

• Capitalize the first word used in the greeting of a letter. Also, capitalize the title, person’s name, and
words such as Sir and Madam. Capitalize only the first word in the complimentary close.
Dear Sir or Madam:
To Whom It May Concern:
Respectfully,
Sincerely yours,

• Capitalize the name of a school subject if it is a language course, a course containing a proper adjective, or
a course followed by a number.
This year, I am taking English, Spanish, Chemistry II, German history, and art.

• Capitalize class names (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior) only when they refer to a specific event, are
used in direct address, or are part of a proper name.
All juniors should meet after school to discuss the Junior-Senior Prom.
The Senior Superlatives will meet in the gym after school.
Two sophomores misbehaved at the ball game.
Good luck, Seniors, as you graduate and meet new challenges.

• Capitalize words showing family relationships when used with or in place of a person’s name, but not when
preceded by a possessive (noun or pronoun).
Aunt Ellen, Cousin Bill, Grandfather, my grandmother, your father, Henry’s uncle
Exception: A relationship that is a name or that is part of the name can be capitalized and used after a possessive.
My Uncle John is my favorite uncle.

• Capitalize Personal Titles.

Capitalize a personal or official title (or its abbreviation) when it comes before a person’s name or is used in
direct address.
Professor White, Dr. Bixby, Mrs. Smith, Reverend Tucker, Queen Elizabeth

Capitalize a title used alone or following a person’s name, if it refers to a high official or someone whom
you wish to show special respect. Capitalize academic honors following a name (M.D. or Ph.D., for example),
as well as the abbreviations Jr. and Sr.
I saw the President speaking outside the White House.
The Reverend spoke at the graduation ceremony.
Paul Jacobs, the president of our class, is an excellent speaker.
An important event in 1968 was the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
I talked about health issues with Art Smith, Sr., M.D.

When a title is used alone in direct address, it is usually capitalized.

Well, Doctor, what is your diagnosis?
I think, Senator, that military spending is a critical issue.

41
• Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives. Capitalize the first, last, and all important words in a proper
name

common noun proper noun proper adjective

a writer Shakespeare Shakespearean play
a country Africa African tribes
a queen Queen Victoria Victorian furniture

Do not capitalize prefixes such as pre-, un-, and pro- attached to proper nouns and adjectives.
un-American pre-Civil War

Do not capitalize prepositions of fewer than five letters unless one is the first word in the title.

Commonly Used Prepositions

aboard at concerning into over underneath
about before despite like past until
above behind down near pending unto
across below during of regarding up
after beneath except off respecting upon
against beside excepting on since with
along between for onto through within
amid beyond from opposite to without
among but* in out toward
around by inside outside under
*meaning “except”

Do not capitalize a, an, or the, unless one is the first word in the title.

Do not capitalize one of the FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), unless it is the first word
in the title.

Books and Periodicals: The Grapes of Wrath; the New York Times; the New Yorker magazine

Movies: Gone with the Wind; And Then There Were None; The Day After Tomorrow

Historical Documents: the Declaration of Independence; the Treaty of Paris

Ships, Trains, Aircraft, and Planets/Celestial Objects: the Mayflower; the Titanic; the Orient Express;
Spirit of St. Louis; the Milky Way; Gemini; the North Star
Do not capitalize sun, moon, and earth, unless listed with other celestial objects.
Never capitalize earth if it is preceded by the word the.

Geographical Names: New England; Western Hemisphere; the United States of America
Do not capitalize north, south, west, and east to show direction.
We were traveling north on the highway.
Last summer, we drove through the Southeast.
Many states in the South have experienced drought this year.
Alabama is south of Tennessee.
Capitalize the first word modified by a proper adjective, only if the noun and adjective together
form a geographical name (English Channel; English accent).

42
Organizations, Institutions, Laws, and Government Bodies: United Way; Kellogg Company; Pizza Hut; the
University of Tennessee; Indian Path Hospital; the House of Representatives; the Department of the
Interior; the Federal Reserve Act
Do not capitalize the noun (showing the type of product) that follows a brand name.
Charmin tissue, Teflon pan, Minute Maid juice, Nike shoes
Do not capitalize words such as college, university, high school, hospital, society, club, party,
building, or store, unless they are used as part of the proper name.
Indian Path Hospital is in Kingsport.
She is in the hospital at Indian Path.
Mountain Empire is a community college.
He attends Mountain Empire Community College.
Two early political parties were the Federalists and the Republicans.
Alexander Hamilton was a leader of the Federalist Party.
Thomas Jefferson was a leader of the Republican Party.

Historical Events and Periods, Calendar Items, and Special Events: the Boston Tea Party; the Middle
Ages; Labor Day; Final Four Championship
Do not capitalize names of seasons unless they are part of the names of an event.
He had a wonderful summer.
Our school is having a Winter Carnival this year.
Do not capitalize a general time span (if clear from the context).
He grew up in the fifties.
I enjoy learning about the twenties.
During the mid-nineteenth century, America grew quickly.

43
 PUNCTUATION

Colons
A colon means “look at what comes next.”

• Use a colon to introduce material that illustrates, explains, or restates an idea. A colon often follows the
words this, these, the following, or as follows.
We visited the following countries on our trip: France, Spain, and Germany.
My question is this: Are you willing to put forth the effort to win the game?
In sentences containing two independent clauses, use a colon before a final clause that extends or explains
what the first clause says.
Football in the South is not simply a sport: it is part of life.

• Do NOT use a colon to introduce a list that immediately follows a verb or preposition.
Incorrect: Mike is interested in: movies, music, and girls.
Correct: Mike is interested in movies, music, and girls.
Incorrect: For dinner, we had: steak, potatoes, and salad.
Correct: For dinner, we had steak, potatoes, and salad.

• Use a colon to introduce a quotation lacking explanatory words such as said or asked.
Correct: The girl turned around: “You will regret this decision.”
Incorrect: The girl turned around and said: “You will regret this decision.”

Semicolons

• Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when the items contain commas.
Members of our group came from Kingsport, Tennessee; Nickelsville, Virginia; and Atlanta, Georgia.

• Use a semicolon alone to join two short, related independent clauses not joined by one of the FANBOYS.
Anne is working here on Monday; Peggy will take over on Tuesday.

• Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb or a transitional
expression. In such situations, a comma must follow the adverb or transition.

Common Conjunctive Adverbs: however, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, furthermore,

consequently, accordingly, otherwise, meanwhile, besides, indeed, instead, also, therefore, likewise

Common Transitional Expressions: in other words, in fact, in addition, as a result, in conclusion, that
is, for instance, for example, on the contrary, on the other hand, of course, after all, by the way

We went to the track; however, the race was rained out.

A storm swept through the area; as a result, the race was rained out.

A semicolon comes before a coordinating conjunction (to avoid confusion) only if the first clause has two or
more commas.
Jim has done research, taken notes, and made an outline; but he has not started writing.

44
Parentheses and Brackets

• Use parentheses to set off matter that is not intended to be part of the main statement, yet important
enough to be included. Use a comma if the information is important enough to be included in the sentence.

• A reference in parentheses at the end of a sentence is placed before the period, unless it is a complete
sentence in itself.
The specimens show great variation. (See exhibit 6.)
The specimens show great variation (exhibit 6).

• Use brackets to enclose something you add to quoted material. Such an addition is often a correction, an
explanation, or a warning that the material quoted is in error.
“July 3 [sic] is a national holiday.” “They [Americans] are a proud people.”

• Use brackets to enclose parenthetical material appearing within a parenthesis.

(The result [see fig. 2] is most surprising.)

Ellipsis Points
An ellipsis is three spaced periods. If the material deleted includes a final period, insert four spaced periods.
The space precedes and follows each ellipsis point.

• Use an ellipsis to show that something has been left out of a direct quotation.

“The country is excited from one end to the other by a great question of principle. On that question the
Government has taken one side.”

“The country is excited . . . by a great question . . . . On that question . . . .”

A writer should use four spaced periods to show that a sentence or more has been omitted. To indicate the
omission of an entire paragraph or more, end the previous paragraph with a period and ellipsis (four dots) and
begin the next paragraph with an ellipsis (three dots).

Apostrophes

• Insert an apostrophe in place of the omitted letter or letters in a contraction. Use an apostrophe to show
the omission of figures.
have + not = haven’t class of 2009 = class of ’09

• Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of singular and plural nouns. When indicating possession, the
apostrophe means belonging to everything to the left of the apostrophe.
lady’s = belonging to the lady ladies’ = belonging to the ladies

• Use an apostrophe to form the plural of numbers and letters, and words referred to as words.
49’ers YMCA’s 2’s 3’s three R’s

45
Hyphens

• Use a hyphen to connect the elements of some compound words.

English-speaking nation sister-in-law t-shirt

• Use a hyphen to separate the letters of a spelled word.

I said, “Someone needs to give the dog a b-a-t-h.”

• Use a hyphen in spelled out numbers from twenty-one/twenty-first to ninety-nine/ninety-ninth.

• Use a hyphen in fractions used as adjectives, not ones used as nouns.

two-thirds majority two thirds of the population

• Use a hyphen after certain prefixes.

after any prefix joined to a proper noun or proper adjective

pre-Civil War un-American attitude

after the prefixes all-, ex-, and self- joined to any noun or adjective
ex-boyfriend ex-girlfriend

after the prefix anti- when it joins a word beginning with i
anti-immigration anti-inflammatory

after the prefix vice-, except in vice president
vice-chairman

to avoid confusion in words beginning with re- that look alike but are different in meaning and
pronunciation
re-cover a sofa recover a sofa

Dashes
A dash consists of two hyphens and indicates a sharp separation. The majority of word processors have automatic
formatting features that will show a dash as a single line, rather than as two hyphens. Leave no spaces on either side
of a dash.

• Use a dash for emphasis or to set off an explanatory group of words or “extra” information from the rest
of the sentence. Oftentimes, a dash means namely, that is, in other words, or a similar expression that
comes before an explanation.
The man looked everywhere--under the seat, in the aisle, in the lobby--before he found his keys.
The winner of today’s game--assuming it isn’t rained out--will play in the regional semi-finals.

• Dashes must be used in pairs unless the set-off expression ends a sentence or (in dialogue) marks a sudden
break in thought or speech that leaves a sentence unfinished.
“No! Don’t open that--”
“When I talked to her yesterday, she said--oh, I really shouldn’t repeat it.”

46
Quotation Marks

• All directly quoted material must be enclosed by quotation marks.

The first word of a quotation is capitalized if the quotation is a sentence. Words not quoted directly (e.g.,
explanatory words such as he said, he wrote, she said, or she wrote) must remain outside the quotation marks.
If a quotation is divided, both parts of the quotation are enclosed in quotation marks. The first word of
the second part is not capitalized unless it begins a new sentence.
“If it is hot on Sunday,” she said, “we will go to the beach.”

An indirect quote must not be enclosed by quotation marks.

She said that we might go to the beach.

When a multiple-paragraph passage is quoted, each paragraph of the quotation must begin with quotation
marks, but ending marks are used only at the end of the last quoted paragraph.

When writing dialogue, you should begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes.

• Slang terms, “tech-terms,” and words used in unusual ways (including things intended in an ironic sense) may
be placed inside quotation marks.
A surfer who “hangs ten” is performing a tricky maneuver on a surfboard.
Our “gourmet dinner” turned out to be a bologna sandwich and potato chips.

• Use quotation marks around titles of the following:

short stories: “The Most Dangerous Game” magazine articles: “Good Food for Healthy Bodies”
poems: “Mending Wall” book chapters: “Chapter 9: The Progressive Spirit”
essays: “The Joys of Silence” songs: “Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door”
newspaper articles: “Gas Prices on the Rise” single episodes of TV series: “Citizen’s Arrest”

• Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

She said, “In reply, I will quote our mayor: ‘Recycling is a community effort.’”

Observe the following rules for using marks of punctuation with quotation marks:
1. A period always goes inside the quotation marks.
Jane explained, “The house is just around the corner.”
The first chapter of that book is entitled “The Country of Lost Borders.”
2. A comma always goes inside the quotation marks.
“I really must go home,” said our guest.
Two stories in your English book are “Another April” and “The Catbird Seat.”
3. Colons and semicolons always go outside the quotation marks.
He said, “War is destructive”; she added, “Peace is constructive.”
4. A question mark goes inside the quotation marks when the quotation is part of the question. If the entire
sentence containing the question is a question, the question mark goes outside the quotation marks.
He asked, “Was the airplane on time?”
Did you spend much time in class reading William Faulkner’s “A Rose for Emily”?
5. An exclamation mark goes inside the quotation marks when only the quoted words are part of an
exclamation; the exclamation mark goes outside the quotation marks if the entire sentence including the
quotation is an exclamation.
The guard shouted, “Stay where you are!”
I thought you were one of my “friends”!

47
Commas
Notice how the position of a comma influences the meaning of the following sentences:
When my sister called Mary, Ellen answered. When my sister called, Mary Ellen answered.
Still water should be transported to the school. Still, water should be transported to the school.

The length of a sentence does not determine whether or not a comma is needed. A long sentence may be
correct without commas.

Where you pause or breathe in a sentence does not reliably indicate where a comma belongs. Different readers
pause or breathe in different places.

• Use a comma after the salutation of a personal letter and after the complimentary close of all letters.
Dear Aunt Mary, (personal letter)
To Whom It May Concern: (business letter)
Yours truly, (complimentary close)

• Use commas to set off a noun of direct address from the rest of the sentence.
When you finish your homework, students, please remain quiet.
Jennifer, why are you tardy?
Good luck, Seniors, as you graduate and begin a new stage in life.

• Use a comma between the day number and year in a date. (Do not put a comma between the name of the
month and the day number.) In European and military style dates, however, the comma is never used.
We left for Europe on October 6, 2004, and returned home the following week.
He joined the navy on 31 October 1956.

• In dialogue (people speaking), use a comma before (or after) a quotation to separate the quotation from
parts of the sentence that are not part of the quotation. Do NOT use a colon to introduce dialogue.
She said, “I must leave work on time today.”
INCORRECT-> She said: “I must leave work on time today.”
“Tomorrow,” he told us, “I begin my new job.”

• Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun equally.

Test: If you can say “and” between the words and reverse their order without changing the meaning of the
sentence, use a comma.
He went to a strange, new place. (He went to a new and strange place.)
She is a kind, considerate person. (She was a considerate and kind person.)
Words describing size, age, and shape usually do not take a comma.
He wore a dark blue jacket.

• Put commas between three or more items (words, phrases, or clauses) in a series or list. A final comma
does NOT go after one of the FANBOYS.
Parents, teachers, and students attended the meeting.
He is either in the house, at the playground, or at school.
I left school, went home, and rode to town with my uncle.
Someone knocked at the door, I was startled, and the dog started barking.

• Use commas to set off “interrupters” that appear within a sentence.

I think, however, that a move might not be wise.
David did not study and, as a result, failed the exam.
Our car, I believe, is parked over there.
The weather, I am happy to say, caused school to be canceled today.
48
• Put a comma before one of the FANBOYS that joins two complete thoughts (independent clauses).
The wheel was turning, but the hamster lacked energy and enthusiasm.
Do not use a comma before one of the FANBOYS that join two things, unless both things are sentences.
I went to the mall and bought a CD.
Incorrect: I went to the mall, and bought a CD.

Exception: Use a comma when words or phrases could be misunderstood.

Unclear: He saw the woman who had rejected him and blushed.
Clear: He saw the woman who had rejected him, and blushed.

• Use commas to separate nonrestrictive (“nonessential” or “unneeded”) parts of a sentence.

Ask yourself, “Can I leave this out without changing the meaning of the sentence?”
Yes: separate with commas
No: do not separate with commas

“which” clauses: can leave out – separate with commas

Our new sailboat, which has bright orange sails, is very seaworthy.

“that” clauses: cannot leave out – no commas

A sailboat that is without sails is useless.

Appositives and appositive phrases (words or groups of words that rename) are usually separated by
commas.
Amanda, a student at Twin Springs, is very shy.
Mr. Wilson, our counselor and friend, came to the meeting in town.
My friend Steve is a computer programmer.

• Use commas after introductory words, phrases, or clauses (small, medium, and large) to let the reader know
that the main subject and main verb of the sentence come later.
Generally, she is a helpful person.
Moreover, the baby was so hungry that he ate his blanket.
In fact, we were pleased to hear the results.
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President.
In the large, spacious cabin, we found a place to sleep.
Because the prisoner attempted to break out of jail, he was placed under heavy guard.
When I saw my school picture, I laughed out loud.

Note: A comma is not generally used before a subordinate clause that ends a sentence.
The prisoner was placed under heavy guard because he attempted to break out of jail.
I laughed out loud when I saw my school picture.

49
 ITALICS (UNDERLINING)
• Underline (Italicize) titles of the following:

books: The Scarlet Letter newspapers: Kingsport Times-News

long poems: the Odyssey magazines: Newsweek magazine
plays: Julius Caesar software: Word Perfect
movies: Forrest Gump ships: U.S.S. Missouri
television series: Friends trains: Clinchfield Railroad
genera, species: homo sapiens airplanes: Spirit of St. Louis
paintings/sculptures: Mona Lisa spacecraft: Columbia
long musical compositions: The Magic Flute periodicals: Atlantic Monthly
court cases: Roe v. Wade CD/album titles: Life is Peachy

Well-known documents (the Bible, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Gettysburg Address,
etc.) do not need to be underlined (italicized) or put inside quotation marks.

The articles a, an, and the are capitalized only when they are part of the title.

Do not underline (italicize) the word magazine unless part of the title.

Do not underline (italicize) the apostrophe and s in possessive of italicized titles.

Roe v. Wade’s impact on the abortion issue has been significant.

• Underline (Italicize) foreign words and expressions not frequently used in English.
Luminarias are part of the Mexican Christmas tradition.

• Underlining (Italicizing) a word can indicate emphasis.

The boy said that was not his problem.

• Underline (Italicize) words, letters, and numerals used to represent themselves. Use quotation marks and
italics (underlining) to refer to a word as a word.
There is no 9 in my phone number. The word “Halloween” has two l’s and two e’s.

50
 USING NUMBERS AND NUMERALS
Some numbers are spelled out (one-hundred), and others are expressed in figures/numerals (100).

Spelled Out

• cardinal (one, two, and three, for example) and ordinal (first, second, and third, for example) numbers that
can be written in one or two words
two people eighty-six apples first in line eighty-second congress

• any number that begins a sentence

Nineteen eighty-three was a good year. Two hundred forty men were hired.

• centuries, round numbers, indefinite expressions, and decade when the century is clear from the context
hundreds of people less than a million dollars nineteenth century

• fractions standing alone or followed by of a or of an

one-half inch three-fourths of a pie

• expressions of time that do not use abbreviations A.M. or P.M.

seven o’clock half past nine

• streets and avenues with numbers of ten or less

First Avenue Ninth Street

Expressed in Figures/Numerals

• numbers that would be written in more than two words

Enrollment reached 16,847. 952 ballots 101 districts

• fractions that would be awkward if spelled out

8 1/2 –by-11-inch paper

• all numbers referring to the same category in a single passage if the largest is over one hundred
Of the 137 delegates present, only 9 opposed the plan.

• streets and avenues above ten and all house, apartment, and room numbers
41st Street Apartment 14 Room 32

• decimal fractions and percentages:

10.5 percent profit $84.95 3.42 G.P.A.

Large Numbers
Large numbers are usually expressed in numerals/figures; however, numbers from a million up which end in four or
more zeroes may be expressed in text by combining figures and words. Preference is based on the ease in which the
number can be read.
$12,000,000 Preferred: $12 million Acceptable: 12 million dollars
3,250,000 Preferred: 3.25 million Acceptable: 3 ¼ million
9,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 Preferred: 9 million to 1 billion

51
 USAGE PROBLEMS/WORDS COMMONLY CONFUSED
their/there/they’re

their possessive pronoun showing ownership The students forgot their books.
(something belonging to them); followed
by a noun or a noun phrase

there expletive or adverb; as adverb means “in There is a horse in the field.
or at that place” Put your books there on the table.

they’re contraction meaning “they are” They’re going to win the game.
They’re putting their books over there.

its/it’s

its possessive pronoun showing ownership The dog wagged its tail.
(something belonging to it)

it’s contraction meaning “it is” or “it has” It’s a lovely house.
It’s been a long day.

your/you’re

your possessive pronoun showing ownership Is that your hat?

(something belonging to you)

you’re contraction meaning “you are” You’re late for school.

whose/who’s

whose possessive pronoun showing ownership Whose book is this on the table?

who’s contraction meaning “who is” or “who has” Who’s going with me?
Who’s seen the new student?

alot/a lot

alot not a word; do not use

a lot colloquial (conversational) expression A lot of people went to the game.

meaning “a large amount”; should not be Many people went to the game.
used in formal English; use “many” instead

amount/number

amount use with nouns that cannot be counted Ft. Knox contains a large amount of gold.

number use with nouns that can be counted Ft, Knox contains a large number of gold bars.

52
 fewer/less

fewer use with nouns that can be counted Fewer students came to this week’s game.

less use with nouns that cannot be counted
or with figures that are seen as single
amounts or general quantities
This year there is less interest in Chemistry
among the students. (not countable)
We traveled to New York City in less than
two hours. (single unit of time)
It costs less than twenty dollars to go by
train. (single sum)

many/much

many use with nouns that can be counted Not many minutes are left in the game.

much use with nouns that cannot be counted Not much time is left in the game.

affect/effect

affect verb meaning “to influence, to cause a Drought affected the entire region.
change in, or to pretend” Absences affect your grade.
He affected a love for opera, though in fact
it bored him.

effect noun (most common use) meaning “a Studying has a positive effect on grades. (n)
result”; verb meaning “to bring about We effected our goals in every area. (v)
or accomplish”

accept/except

accept verb meaning “to receive, to take Accept this gift.

when offered, or to agree to” Please accept my apologies.
The girl would not accept defeat.

except preposition (most common use) Everyone except Jill attended the meeting. (p)
meaning “but, excluding, or other The final report will except all data that does
than”; verb meaning “to leave out” not conform to standards. (v)

among/amongst/between

among preposition used to show a relationship We’re not among the crowd.
involving more than two persons/things The four women talked among themselves.

amongst should not be used

between preposition used to show a relationship The race was between Jim and Joe.
involving two persons/things Let’s keep the secret between you and me.

53
 can/may

can helping verb indicating the ability to do You can find many interesting books in the
something library.

may helping verb indicating permission to May I go to the bathroom?

do something or the possibility of
doing it

than/then

than conjunction used to introduce part of Justin is taller than Chris.

something in a comparison; also shows Our guest was none other than Kobe Bryant.
exception

then adverb meaning “at that time, soon My grandmother was a young girl then.
afterward, the time mentioned, at Bobby read and then turned out the light.
another time, for that reason, or in By then the party was almost over.
that case” If it rains, then we cannot go.

snuck/brung

snuck should not be used; the past tense of Matt sneaked into his room.
sneak is sneaked

brung should not be used; the past tense of I brought in the mail.
bring is brought

advice/advise

advice noun meaning a “helpful opinion” or She asked for advice in choosing a college.
“something given”

advise verb; meaning “to give advice or offer Her teacher advised her well.
counsel to”

cloths/clothes/close

cloths noun referring to materials The dress was made of fine cloths.

clothes noun meaning “what one wears” She wears very expensive clothes.

close verb meaning “to shut” Close the door when you leave.

quite/quiet

quite adverb meaning “very” She is quite happy with her gift.

quiet adjective meaning “silent” It was not quiet during the movie.
I was quite quiet during the movie.

54
 role/roll

role noun meaning “a part played” or a She has an important role in the play.
“function or position” He has an important role on the team.

roll verb meaning “to move forward or
around and around” or “to happen
periodically”; noun meaning “a rounded
portion of bread” or “list of persons in
a group”
The chair rolls on wheels.
The school year rolls around quickly each year.
The boy ate a roll at lunch.
The student is not on the class roll.
The student made first honor roll for grades.

sale/sell

sale noun meaning “the act of selling” or The television is on sale at Wal-Mart.
“availability for purchase” We are having a yard sale on Saturday.

sell verb meaning “to exchange goods or He decided to sell his car.
services for an amount of money”

desert/dessert

desert noun meaning “a dry, sandy place Some people ride camels across the desert.
defined by the amount of rainfall it The soldier will not desert his friends.
receives” verb; means “to abandon”

dessert noun meaning “sweet food usually Cheesecake is my favorite dessert.

served at the end of a meal”

borrow/lend/loan

borrow verb meaning “to take something with May I borrow ten dollars?
the understanding that it must be
returned”

lend verb meaning “to give something with Will you lend me ten dollars?
the understanding that it will be
returned”

loan noun meaning “something given”; do not Correct: Did the bank give you a loan?
use as a verb Correct: Please lend me some money.
Incorrect: Please loan me some money.

stationary/stationery

stationary adjective meaning “not moving” The stationary bleachers were attached to
the grandstand.

stationery noun meaning “writing paper” She used new stationery for the letter.

55
 capital/capitol

capital noun referring to a city or to money Richmond is the capital of Virginia.

You need capital to start a business.

capitol noun referring to a building Congress meets at the Capitol.

irregardless/regardless

irregardless do not use; contains a double negative

(prefix ir- and suffix –less)

regardless adverb expressing a condition Regardless of what the critics said, I liked
the movie.

loose/lose

loose adjective meaning “free, not firmly He is wearing loose-fitting jeans.

attached, or not fitting tightly”;
rhymes with “goose”

lose verb meaning “to have no longer, to Which team do you think will lose the game?
misplace, or to fail to win”

allusion/illusion

allusion noun meaning “an indirect reference” The author made an allusion to mythology.

allude verb meaning “to make an indirect The author alluded to mythology.
reference to”

illusion noun meaning “a false idea or It is an illusion that salaries will be raised.
appearance”; no such word as illude

elude verb meaning “to avoid” or “to escape”; The man eluded the police.
elusion is “the act of eluding”

weather/whether

weather noun showing condition in the We are having hot weather this summer.
atmosphere (humidity, barometric
pressure, precipitation, and
temperature, for example)

whether conjunction used to introduce an I don’t know whether we will go out to eat or
alternative stay at home.

56
 precede/proceed

precede verb meaning “to go before” Our band preceded the homecoming float.

proceed verb meaning “to continue” or “to move The parade proceeded through town.
along”

principal/principle

principal adjective meaning “chief or main”; noun His principal motive is to make money.
meaning “someone in charge” That man is the principal of the school.

principle noun meaning “an idea or ideal” She has high moral principles.

breath/breathe

breath rhymes with death; it means “the air His breath smells like fish nuggets.
drawn in and out of the lungs”

breathe has a long e sound (like feet); it means You must breathe to live.
“the act of drawing air into the lungs”

conscience/conscious

conscience noun meaning “the inner voice that My conscience will not let me tell a lie.
tells you right from wrong”

conscious adjective meaning “being awake or The victim was conscious after the accident.
aware of your surroundings”

threw/through/thorough

threw verb; past tense of “to throw” The boy threw the ball.

through preposition showing movement The boy walked through the door.

thorough adjective meaning “complete” The boy did a thorough job on the assignment.

farther/further

farther used in reference to physical distance Richmond is farther south than Baltimore.

further used in reference to degree or time I refuse to discuss this issue further.

57
 hanged/hung

hanged past and past participle of hang; use Between 1900 and 1950, three convicts were
when you mean “to put to death by hanged in New Hampshire.
hanging”

hung past and past participle of hang; use in The lady hung a picture on the wall.
all other instances The teacher hung the bulletin board.

where at

Never use at after where. Correct: Where is Billy?

Incorrect: Where is Billy at?

could of/must of/might of/should of/would of

After helping verbs (could, might, must, Some historians suggest that the U.S. could
should, would, and had, for example), use the have avoided the stock market crash of 1929.
helping verb have and not the preposition of

58
 WAYS OF ORGANIZING IDEAS AND INFORMATION
1. Chronological (Time) Order: describe events in the order they happen
key transitional words and phrases: first, to begin, then, next, second, finally

2. Spatial Order: how something is arranged – physical location (descriptive)

top to bottom, left to right, near to far, inside to outside, etc.
key words: above, beside, below, behind, next to

3. Logical Order: grouping related details together (music, cars, etc.)

4. Cause and Effect: what causes specific things to happen or what happens as a result of something
key words and phrases: because, as a result, consequently, since, therefore

5. Order of Importance: details from least to most important (or reverse) according to significance

6. Order of Impression: organizes details in the order they are experienced or noticed

7. Comparison and Contrast: shows similarities and differences among objects, persons, or incidents; draws
conclusions and finds relationships
key words and phrases: like, unlike, similarly, on the other hand, moreover, instead, however

8. Evaluation: judging the worth of a person, place, or thing

Pro and Con: positive and negative aspects of a product or course of action

9. Problem and Solution: examines a problem and proposes possible solution(s)

key words and phrases: solve . . . , deal with . . . , overcome . . . , the problem

10. Building a Hypothesis: uses patterns of facts to offer explanations or predictions; then tests the hypothesis

11. Examples and Illustration

example: case used to represent a category or general rule
illustration: extended example that includes specific details

12. Process Explanation: explain how something happens, works, is done

key words and phrases: first, second, then, next, after that, finally, etc.

59
 TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES
Whether your writing is made up of a single paragraph or many paragraphs, you will always be connecting ideas. If you
use transitional words and phrases that make the right connections, the reader will be able to move from one
idea to the next. Below are many of the words and phrases that can be used as “transitions” between ideas.

Comparing and Contrasting Ideas also, although, and, another, but, consequently, even more,
however, in contrast, in the same way, just as, like, on the
contrary, on the other hand, similarly, too, unlike, yet

Showing Cause and Effect (Narration) as a result, because, by, consequently, for, for that reason,
since, so that, then, therefore, thus

Showing Time (Narration) after, always, before, eventually, finally, first (second, etc.),
immediately, in the first place, later, meanwhile, next, now

Showing Place/Description above, ahead, around, before, below, beside, down, for, here,
in, inside, into, near, next to, opposite, outside, over, there,
under, within

Showing Order of Importance first, formerly, letter, mainly, less important(ly), least
important(ly), more important(ly), most important(ly),
primarily, secondarily

Showing Example along with, for example, for instance, likewise, namely, that
is, together with

Other Transitional Expressions after all, at any rate, at the same time, by the way, even so,
in addition, in fact, in other words

60
 SOME WRITING GUIDELINES AND STRATEGIES
1. Write your body paragraphs first. On your rough draft, focus on content. Get as much information as you can
to support your position/argument. If an idea doesn’t seem to fit your outline/purpose, leave it out. Remember,
each body paragraph must develop the same main idea.

If you are writing a persuasive essay (to change someone’s mind), your body paragraphs should also anticipate
opposing points of view and address them.

2. Choose the most descriptive, specific diction. You want the reader to get a clear impression of what you’re
saying. Use precise, vivid nouns and verbs. Don’t repeat words unnecessarily. Think of synonyms whenever
possible. Think about your overall meaning; then use words and phrases to express your intended meaning to the
reader. Circle verbs and adjectives in second draft. Ask yourself, “Is this the best word?”

3. Think of the best possible title. (You might do this after you’ve written the essay.) Your title should be
centered on the top line. (Skip one line before the first line of your introduction.) Titles are not complete
sentences. They should not be too broad or too narrow. Some words are not capitalized in titles. Do not put
quotation marks around or underline the title of your essay.

4. Neatness Counts. Stay within the margins. Everybody prints the final copy in the test booklets.

5. Read your paper backwards to find misspelled words. Do not worry about correcting mistakes in spelling until
you’re finished writing the second draft.

6. Avoid using “here” and “there” to begin sentences.

7. Plan and Revise – Write at least two drafts before writing the final copy.
Write first two drafts with end punctuation only.
Add commas and apostrophes on the third (or later) draft. Ask yourself, “Why does this go here?”
Do not worry about correcting mistakes in spelling until you’re finished writing the second draft.

8. Don’t use ! to end sentences.

9. Remember that “Writer’s Block” Happens. The good news is that the people scoring your essay don’t know you.
On certain topics, you have room for creativity.

10. Things to Avoid

“I think . . . .”
“In this paper I am going to . . . .”
“because . . . that is why . . . .” (just say it)
you (choose the third person: one, students, or teenagers, for example)
non-descriptive elements/abbreviations and symbols: etc., wonderful, good, great, bad, happy, sad

11. Keep in mind the general problems with grammar, usage, and mechanics that we have discussed.
Do not let the sound of something (spoken quickly) confuse you.
e.g., of cannot be used as a verb
not I would not of known, but I would not have known.
Keep the point-of-view, verb tense, and verb voice (active and passive) consistent.
Active: The boy threw the ball.
Passive: The ball was thrown by the boy.
Always write a lot as two words. (Avoid the expression if possible. Use much or many.)
Keep in mind rules for plurals (apostrophe problems). Remember, possessive pronouns do not use apostrophes.

61
 PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH
A paragraph is a series of sentences developing a specific thought (main idea). A successful paragraph captures the
reader’s attention, develops the topic fully, and builds to a close. The parts of a paragraph are as follows:

1. Topic Sentence: states the main idea of a paragraph. A topic sentence is like a “preview,” but it can be at the
beginning, middle, or end (not necessarily the first sentence)

2. Supporting Sentences: give details explaining/proving what is stated in topic sentence

Vary sentence structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex).
Vary word order in sentences: don’t begin every sentence with a subject.
Begin sentences with a single word modifier. Suddenly the wind rushed into the room.
Begin sentences with a modifying phrase or clause.
In front of the audience, she was a star. Relatively inexpensive, the Internet is a powerful force.
When the salesman said how much the new car cost, I nearly fainted.
Begin sentences with an appositive. A frequently misdiagnosed condition, iron overload leads to diseases.
Put the verb before the subject. Directly behind him sat his ex-girlfriend.
Delay completing your main statement.
We saw the ballot measure, so important to the students, the faculty, and everyone in the community,
fail by a close margin.
Insert an interruption (surprise element) in a sentence; use parentheses or dashes.
My hometown--it is closer to being a junction than a town--just got a red light.

3. Concluding Sentence: brings paragraph to a close - restates idea introduced in topic sentence

PARTS OF AN ESSAY
The parts of an essay are connected; they work together to make the entire work successful.

1. Introduction
• state/introduce main idea and set tone
• make a strong first impression (“hook” the audience by arousing curiosity); ways to make interesting: ask a
question, use an anecdote, tell an interesting fact
• thesis statement: main idea of the entire essay
• identify points and details supporting the thesis statement

2. Body
• join ideas into clear sentences
• each paragraph needs a topic sentence, strong supporting sentences, concluding sentence
• each paragraph should have its own purpose, and it should develop and support the thesis statement
• transitions between paragraphs (so ideas are connected and paper moves smoothly)
• use clear organization (chronological order, spatial order, order of importance)

3. Conclusion
• echo or reinforce the main idea
• build to a close
• make strong, clear final impression (satisfy the reader; should clearly be an end)

62
 WRITING A NARRATIVE
In writing a personal story (narrative), remember that you are the narrator (storyteller). In this type of assignment,
you will use the first person (using words like I, me, mine, we, us, and our).

Keep in mind the following points:

1. Your narrative should include elements of setting, character, and plot (including conflict, climax, and resolution).

2. Do not include events that do not move your story forward.

3. Keep the point of view consistent, and stick to writing about one experience. Do not confuse the reader.

You might want to use the following method of organization:

• In your opening paragraph, introduce the main character(s), establish the setting, and introduce the plot.

• The body paragraphs might introduce new characters, but be certain they develop the plot (rising action). Each
body paragraph should develop a major idea and move the plot forward (internal or external conflict). Your body
paragraphs should build to a climax and a resolution, each of which may “stand alone” as its own paragraph or be
included within other paragraphs.

• Your concluding paragraph (which might contain the resolution) should tell what you learned from your experience
and provide your overall thoughts on the subject. The final sentence of the essay should clearly be an end. Do not
introduce new material at the end.

If you use spatial order (describing objects as they are arranged) or order of impression (describing objects/events in
the order you notice them), you might not be able to use the above method. However, be certain to sum up your
experience and overall thoughts in your conclusion.

Topics for Thought: The Biggest Lie You Ever Told and Its Consequences, The Weirdest Thing That Ever Happened to
You, The Best Decision You Ever Made, Your Favorite Childhood Memory/Pet, Your Favorite Summer Vacation

Note: You may also be able to use the five-point model on some of these topics.

63
 FIVE-PARAGRAPH EXPOSITORY ESSAY
Your paper should have five paragraphs. Each paragraph should have five sentences.

Paragraph 1: Introduction
• General Statement about Subject
Get reader’s attention (anecdote, interesting fact)
• Thesis Statement: “preview” of entire paper (your “main idea”)
• Main Point (Reason) #1
• Main Point (Reason) #2
• Main Point (Reason) #3

Paragraph 2: First Body (Supporting) Paragraph

• Topic Sentence – Restate Main Point (Reason) #1
• First Supporting Detail or Example
• Second Supporting Detail or Example
• Third Supporting Detail or Example
• Transition

Paragraph 3: Second Body (Supporting) Paragraph

• Topic Sentence – Restate Main Point (Reason) #2
• First Supporting Detail or Example
• Second Supporting Detail or Example
• Third Supporting Detail or Example
• Transition

Paragraph 4: Third Body (Supporting) Paragraph

• Topic Sentence – Restate Main Point (Reason) #3
• First Supporting Detail or Example
• Second Supporting Detail or Example
• Third Supporting Detail or Example
• Transition

Paragraph 5: Conclusion
• First Sentence – Reflect back on your thesis – Begin with In conclusion,
• Comment on/restate main points (reasons)
• Clincher: a strong ending statement that provokes thought – no new material or information

64
 PARTS OF SPEECH QUICK REFERENCE
Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
Nominative (Subject) I, you, he, she, it we, you, they
Objective (Object) me, you, her, him, it us, you, them
Possessive my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

Nominative (Subject) Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they, who, whoever

Objective (Object) Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them, whom, whomever

Demonstrative Pronouns
this that these those

Interrogative Pronouns
who whose whom which what

Indefinite Pronouns
Always Singular
each much no one anyone someone
either everyone nobody anybody somebody
neither everybody nothing anything something
one everything another

Always Plural
several few both many

Singular or Plural
some all most none
any enough more plenty

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Singular (Possible Antecedents) Plural (Possible Antecedents)
First Person myself (I, me) ourselves (we, us)
Second Person yourself (you) yourselves (you)
Third Person himself (he, him), herself (she, her), itself (it) themselves (they, them)

Relative Pronouns
who whose whomever that whoever
whom what whichever which whatever

Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

and or for so
but nor yet

Correlative Conjunctions
both . . . and either . . . or whether . . . or
not only . . . but also neither . . . nor just as . . . so

65
 Subordinating Conjunctions
after as much as how inasmuch as so that whenever
although as soon as if insofar as supposing where
as as though before once though wherever
as far as because considering (that) provided (that) unless whereas
as if even if in case since until whether
as long as even though in order that so long as when while
why

Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly consequently hence instead nevertheless so
also conversely however later next still
anyhow equally in addition likewise nonetheless then
anyway finally incidentally meanwhile otherwise therefore
as a result further indeed moreover similarly thus
besides furthermore

Commonly Used Prepositions

aboard at concerning into over underneath
about before despite like past until
above behind down near pending unto
across below during of regarding up
after beneath except off respecting upon
against beside excepting on since with
along between for onto through within
amid beyond from opposite to without
among but* in out toward
around by inside outside under
*meaning “except”

Compound (Phrasal) Prepositions

according to by reason of in case of with respect to owing to
ahead of by way of in front of next to prior to
along with due to in spite of on account of up to
apart from because of instead of on the side of with the exception of
aside from by means of in lieu of on top of with reference to
as well as in addition to in regard to out of with regard to
as to in care of

Linking Verbs
am were appear look sound
is be become remain stay
are being feel seem taste
was been grow smell turn

Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs

am be do had shall
is being did may should
are been does might will
was can have must would
were could has

66
 GUIDE TO FINDING OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS
1. Locate and ignore all prepositional phrases. Objects and complements are never in prepositional phrases. If
you are completing a worksheet or taking a test, mark out the prepositional phrases before you begin. (Do not
mark in a textbook.) That way, you will eliminate needless confusion.

2. Find the subject and the verb. Ask yourself, “Is the verb action or linking? A discussion of action and linking
verbs is on page 6.

If the verb is an action verb: If the verb is a linking verb:

• You can’t have a predicate nominative or predicate • Look for the word in the predicate that is
adjective, since those follow linking verbs. connected (linked) to a word in the subject.

• Ask yourself “what?” or “whom?” the verb acts
upon; whatever answers one of those questions is
the direct object.
• If that word is an adjective, it is a predicate
adjective.
Remember, an adjective describes, so a predicate
adjective follows a linking verb and describes the
subject.

• If you have a direct object, ask yourself “to
what?,” “for what?,” “to whom?,” or “for
whom?” the direct object is done; whatever
answers one of these questions is the indirect
object. Important: If the words to or from
appear before the noun, it is a prepositional
phrase and cannot be the indirect object.
You must have a direct object to have an indirect
object, but you may have a direct object by itself.
(I threw the ball. Threw what? ball – DO)
• If that word is a noun or pronoun (or a group of
words acting as a noun), it is a predicate
nominative (sometimes called predicate noun).
If you “nominate” someone for class president, you
name or identify that person to be voted on.
Therefore, a predicate nominative follows a linking
verb and renames or identifies the subject. It can’t
describe the subject, since nouns don’t describe
anything.

• A word or group of words following the direct

object which identify, rename, or describe that
object is an object(ive) complement; may be a
noun, adjective, or pronoun. An object complement
answers the questions “what?” or “to be” and
follows certain verbs and their synonyms: appoint,
call, choose, consider, elect, find, make, keep,
name, and think. You cannot have an objective
complement without a direct object

Basic Sentence Patterns Basic Sentence Patterns

S – AV – DO S – LV – PN
S – AV – IO – DO S – LV – PA
S – AV – DO – OC

67
NOTES

68
NOTES

69
NOTES

70