A letter

A Word
A phrase: with me, play soccer tomorrow
A sentence
A simple sentence: subject+verb+complement

A complex sentence
A clause
A main clause (independent clause)
A subordinate clause (dependant clause)
A line
A paragraph
Subject
Complement
Object of a verb / object of a preposition
1 If we go on vacation next month, 2 we will probably
enjoy a lot because 3 it has been a long time since 4 we
last went on vacation.
Red: main clause (independent) Blue: subordinate clause (dependant)
count: how many clauses the complex sentence has (1,2,3,etc)

This is a good example of a complex sentence because: 1 it is composed by more than 2

clauses, main (2) and subordinate clauses (2). All clauses have a tense, all clauses have
subject + verbs + complements, this complex sentense also has connectors (2)
Main clauses have sence whereas subordinate ones don´t.

sumarise

Yesterday morning, my family ate in a Japanese restaurant because it whas

extremelly cold. My sister got sick but I believe that if she hadn´t eaten too
much, she wouldn´t have gotten stomachsick so next time she needs to be
more careful when eating.
 Eight Parts of Speech

Noun
Pronoun
Adjective
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Interjection

Conjunction
NOUN
A noun is a word used to
name a person, place, thing,
or idea
Types of Nouns
 Singular- a word used to name one
person, place, thing, or idea
 Plural- a word used to name more
than one persons, places, things

 Q: What is the easiest way to make a

singular noun plural?
 A: Add an –s or –es to the end of it!
Types of Nouns
 Proper- a word used to name a
particular person, place, thing, or
idea; this noun is usually capitalized
 Common- names any one of a group
of persons, places, things, or ideas,
and is not capitalized
Types of Nouns
 Concrete- names an object that can
be perceived by the senses (most
likely is tangible)
 Abstract- names an idea, a feeling, a
quality, or a characteristic (cannot
be physically touched)
Types of Nouns
 Collective- names a group; although
it contains individual members, it is
identified as a singular noun.
 Compound- consists of two or more
words used together as a single
noun; they may be written as one
word, two or more words, or as a
hyphenated word.
Pronouns
 Pronouns- a word used in place of
one or more nouns or pronouns
 Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
First Person I, my, mine, me We, our, ours, us
Second Person You, your, yours You, your, yours
Third Person He, his, him, They, their,
she, her, hers, theirs, them
it, its
Personal pronouns Object pronouns Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives
I Me Mine My
You You Yours Your
We Us Ours Our
They Them Theirs Their
He Him His His
SHe Her Hers Her
It It Its Its
They sub. the They sub. the They sub. What is They come before a
object of a possessed. noun
subject in a • My car is silver.
sentence preposition or • I have a black
• Their father was
verb in a car. Yours is
an important
sentence silver and red. person to us.
• My book is • Her husband
The PP always go before the verb in a interesting, will never
sentence, the OP always go after a but hers is surpass any law.
prep or a verb even more.
Pronouns
 Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
First Person Myself Ourselves
Second Person Yourself Yourselves
Third Person Himself, Themselves
Herself, Itself

 There is no such word as “hisself.” The grammatically

correct reflexive pronoun is himself.
Pronouns
 Interrogative Pronouns- used to begin
questions
Interrogative: who, whom, whose, which,
what
 Demonstrative Pronouns- used to point out
a specific person, place, thing, or idea
Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
 Indefinite Pronouns- used to refer to
people, places, things, or ideas in general;
frequently used without antecedents
Indefinite: all, any, either, many, none,
some, no.
Definite pronouns: a, an and the
Pronoun and Antecedent (referrals)

A pronoun usually refers to a noun that comes

before it or an object of a prep or verb in the same
sentence. This noun, called an antecedent, gives
the pronoun its meaning.
Example: Thomas closed his book and put it
down.
his refers to the antecedent “Thomas”;
it refers to the antecedent “book”
Pronoun and Antecedent
Pronouns and Antecedents must match in
number. Sig with sing, plural with plural

Example: The coach showed the players how they should

throw the ball.

They refers to the antecedent “players.” Since players is

plural, the plural pronoun must be used.
Pronoun and Antecedent
 A pronoun may appear in the same
sentence as its antecedent or in a
following sentence.

Example: Have the birds flown

south yet? They should start
migrating soon.
Example: Lee hit a home run. It was
his first of the season. He was
happy.
Adjectives
Adjective- a word used to modify (describe or make more definite) a noun
or pronoun
Adjectives will answer at least one of the following FIVE questions:
1.Which one?
2.What kind?
3.How many?
4.How much?
5.Whose?
Adjectives usually precede the words they modify (unlike other
languages).

Adjectives always adopt two positions:

1 Before the noun they describe: Sara has beautiful eyes.
2 After the verb “be” or any other linking verb (linking verbs: feel, sound,
seem, appears, smell, look)
My father seems sad She looked stunning on that dress
This is a difficult topic. He was amazed ath the happening.
Adjectives
 The most frequently used adjectives are called
ARTICLES. (the, a, an)
 Indefinite Articles are used for any general noun. They are
“A” and “AN.”
 Q: How do you know when to use “A” and when to use
“AN”?
 A: Look at the word that follows and choose:
A= word beginning with a consonant sound
AN= word beginning with a vowel sound
Adjectives
 Use the Definite Article “THE” to indicate
someone or something in particular.
 Q: How do you know when to use “THE”, and not
“A” and/or “AN”?
 A: It can precede any word, regardless of the initial
sound, but must indicate something in particular
 Adjectives are never pluralized:
• You have beautifuls eyes (incorrect)
• You have beautiful eyes (correct)
• They are intelligents (inc)
• They are intelligent (corr)
 • Numerals
• Demonstratives
• Possessives Op si a sh c o m p t + noun

Opinion size age shape colour origen mat purpose texture

• 1,2,3,46,1100
• First , second,
fifth,
twentieth, My nice, big, new, round, red, american, plastic, learning, soft, book(S)
one hundreth 4
• This, that, Adjectives in English are also Word ending in “ing”
These Or “ed”, ex:
these, those She is very an interesting scientist.
• My, your, his, I am interested in Maths.
her, our
Note: adjectives do never pluralize, they always come in singular form
Adjuncts: it´s an adjective that can be used as a noun or as an
adjective:
I have a plastic car (as an adj.)
Give me that plastic. (as a noun)
 The comparing and superlativeness concepts. What are they, what do they
consist of? When are they used?

Comparative adjectives are used to compare two people or things and

superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two people or things.
For example: My house is bigger than her house. (comparing two things) Out
of the 30 houses in the neighborhood, Reginald's is the biggest.
When we compare we can say that two things are of equal characteristics
and in that case we say “as + short adj as/ as long adjective as”
My car is as fast as a BMW is. She is as interesting as that other student.
Or we can simply describe that same subject:
Mexico is an ancient country. My friends are good people.
When things compared differ then in that case we may use the negative form
of the simple comparative or use the comparative difference form.
Mike is not old or Mike is older than anyone of us.
One thing is obvious, the superlative is used to describe number 1 or top of
their kind things. The longest river in the world is the Nile
The best competitor will get a million dollars-
Comparatives and superlatives
These are adjectives
that contain -6
letters or end in “-
ly”: friendly

These are adjectives

that contain +6
letters

Little/less/the least
 Verbs
 Verb- a word used to express an action or a state of being (a form of
the word “be”)
 ACTION VERBS- express physical or mental activity; it’s what you do!
 There are two types of ACTION verbs: Transitive and Intransitive
 The verb has 5 forms

 Simple form, Past form, Past participle, Present participle, Infinitive

do did done doing to do
play played played playing to play
go out went out gone out going out to go out
be was/were been being to be
Types of Action Verbs
 Transitive Verbs- action verbs that
express action directed toward a
person or thing named in the
sentence
Example: Neil rang the bell.
 Intransitive Verbs- action verbs that
express action without passing the
action from a doer to a receiver
Example: The children laughed.
Types of Verbs
 Linking Verbs- a verb that connects the subject to a word
that identifies or describes it
Example: The answer is three.
Other LVs can be: feel, seem, sound, smell, look, appear
 Many linking verbs can be used as action (nonlinking)
verbs as well.
She smells good. Please smell that food
They look great with that color Hey, look at my new car.
 Phrasal verbs: take out, come about, take on, walk around
 Auxiliary verbs: do, does, did, have, has, had, will, going to,
would, shall.
 Modal verbs, must, should, would, may, might, ought to,
can, could, able to, need to, have to, would
Modal verbs describe: obligation
We must pay He must go or he will pay the consequenses
You ought to see the doctor or you will die.

Describe advice:
They should do that. I think you should go.
Describe ability:
I can speak Japanese. I could understand everything I will be able to answer the exam
Describe permition:
Can I go to the restroom? Yes, you can You can play here You may go
Describe possibility:
It may rain tomorrow You might go if you have the money.
Describe deduction:
Listen to his pronunciation, he must be american
Look at his walking, he can probably be a handicaped
Look at the sky, it´s cloudy and windy; it may rain
Describe “need”:
I need to go She needs to speak to us
They show degrees of obligation:
I ought to go I must go I should go I have to go I need to go
I ought to be there at 5pm I must be there at 5pm I should be there at 5pm
Describe imaginary future: I would like to be a president.
Verb Phrases
 Verb phrases- consist of a main verb
preceded by at least one auxiliary verb.
 VP= AV + V
 All forms of the verb be are auxiliary
verbs:
Am Are Were Being
Is Was Be Been
Auxiliary verbs
 Besides all forms of the verb be, helping
verbs include:

Have Do Shall Would

Has Does Will
Had Did Going
to
Most common forms of be
 Present:
Singular Plural
1st person I am We are
2nd person You are You are
3rd person He/She/It is They are

 Past:
Singular Plural
1st person I was We were
2nd person You were You were
3rd person He/She/It was They were
Future of the verb BE
Singular Plural
1st person I will be We will be

2nd person You will be You will be

3rd person He/She/It will be They will be

Verb Tenses
 Present tense- there is no distinctive
form by which it can be recognized, other
than the –e(s) ending used with 3rd
person singular pronouns (he, she, it) or
the noun for which a 3rd person singular
pronoun can substitute
Example: John looks terrific.
He
 The only two irregular verbs in 3rd person
singular are be (is) and have (has).
• In present tense we add “-s” to all verbs ending in a consonant:
Work Works Call calls playplays
• In present tense we add “-ies” to all verbs anding in “y” preceded by a
consonant:
Study studies cry cries pry pries
• In present tense we add “-es” to all verbs ending in S, SS, O, X, CH, SH
Teach teaches dress Dresses go goes fish fishes

This rule applyes only to present tense, third person singular or singular
subject.
My father Works in that Factory. Susan plays soccer in the school´s team
The dog eats its meal everyday he can He reads a book every class.
Verb Tenses
 Past tense- there are typically two
main ways to form the past tenses,
called regular and irregular verbs
 Regular: formed by adding –(e)d
Dictionary form Past tense form
Pass Passed
Cough Coughed
Smile Smiled
Dread Dreaded
To form the past form of regular verbs we add:
“-ed” to all verbs ending in a consonant
Work worked walkwalked watch watched
“-ied” to all verbs ending in “y” preceded by a consonant
Study studied cry cried apply applied
“-d” to all verbs ending in “e”
Dance danced free freed argue argued
Verb Tenses
 Irregular: these verbs drastically change from
one form to the other or they do not change
at all or they do not end in “-ed”

Dictionary form Past tense form

Dig Dug
Ring Rang
Freeze Froze
See Saw
Run Ran
Verb Tenses
Caution:
 There are verbs with past tenses that are
a mixture of regular and irregular forms,
i.e., they have both a vowel change and a
regular ending (sell-sold).
 There is a group of verbs that have no
distinct past tense form at all; the verbs
in this group are single-syllable verbs that
end in –t or –d; for example hit-hit; slit-
slit; cut-cut; rid-rid; shed-shed.
 Use of auxiliaries chat
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

1 Simple NO auxiliaries Don´t / Do? / Does? 9 Present Am/is/are+ - Am not/is Am/is/are+ -

present used, just the Doesn´t Wh…do?/ cont. ing not/are not+ ing?
use of “+S” in does? -ing Wh…is/are/
the third Note: do ingFV am…?
person or sing. (1 and 2) ingFV
persons) In formal
Or does SFV
English we
for 3rd ingFV
ommit
apostrophes,
SFV this aplies to al
negative forms

2 Simple past NO auxiliaries Didn´t Did? / 10 Past cont. Was /Were Wasn´t/ Was / were+
used, just the Wh…did? +ing Weren´t +ing -ing?
use of “+ed” in Wh…was/
Note: did
the third for all
were/ing…?
person or sing. persons SFV ingFV ingFV

SFV ingFV
3 Simple Have / has Haven´t / Have? / has? 11 Present Have been… Haven´t
present hasn´t Wh_have? / perfect cont. ing / has been…ing /
perfect has? been…ing hasn´t been…
PPFV Note: ing
have (1
and 2)
persons)
PPFV
PPFV Or has
ingFV ingFV ingFV
for 3rd
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

4 Simple past Had Hadn´t Had? 12 Past Had been… Hadn´t Hadn´t …?
perfect Wh…had? perfect cont ing been…ing Wh…hadn´t
been?
PPFV PPFV
PPFV ingFV ingFV ingFV
ingFV
5 Simple Will Won´t Will…? 13 Future Will be…ing Won´t be … Wil…be…
future Wh…wil? cont ing ing?
Wh…be…
PPFV ing?
PPFV PPFV ingFV ingFV ingFV
ingFV
6 Future Am Is/are/am Is/are/am 14 Future Is/are/am… Is/are/am… Is/are/am…
“going to” or Are going to… not going not going “going to” or Going to Not going to Going to
idiomatic Is to… to…? idiomatic be…ing be…ing be…ing
future future cont. Wh…is/are/
am…going
to be…?

PPFV PPFV PPFV ingFV ingFV

7 Future Will have Will have Will… ingFV
15Future Have been… Have not Have not
perfect not have? perfect cont. ing been…ing been…ing?
ingFV
Wh…
have…?

PPFV PPFV
ingFV ingFV ingFV ingFV
PPFV
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

8 Simple Would Would not Would …? 16 Would Would …be… Would not… Would not…
would What cont ing be…ing be…ing?
would…? What would… What would…
not be…ing not be…ing?
SFV SFV
SFV ingFV ingFV

ingFV ingFV
Verb tenses (18)
Simple tense Continous tense
Simple present Present cont.

Simple past Past cont.

Present perfect Present perfect cont.

Past prefect Past prefect cont.

Simple future “will” Future cont.

Idiomatic future “going to” Idiomatic future “going to” cont

Future perfect Future perfect cont.

Future would Future would cont.

Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Simple He plays He does´t Does he Present He is He isn´t Is he

present They play plays play? cont. playing playing playing?
They don´t Do they They are They are Are they
play play? playing not playing playing?
What does What is he
he play? playing?
What do What are
they play? they
playing?
Simple past He played He didn´t Did he play? Past cont. He was He wasn´t Was he
They ate play Did they playing playing playing?
They didn´t eat? They were They werent When was
eat What did he eating eating he playing?
play? Where were
What did they eating?
they eat?
Present He has He hasn´t Has he Present She has She has not Has she
perfect arrived arrived arrived? perfect been been been
You have You haven´t Have you cont. working working working?
made made made? I have been I have not Have you
When has talking been talking been
He he arrived? talking?
Ha, When have Who has
Han you made? been
working?
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Past perfect He had He hadn´t Had he Past perfect I had been I hadn´t Had you
watched watched watched? cont. sleeping been been
They had They hadn´t Had they She had sleeping sleeping?
gone gone gone? been She hadn Had she
When had sleeping ´tbeen been
Habia, he sleeping sleeping?
Habían, watched? Why had
Habiamos Why had you been
they gone? sleeping?

Simple They will Future cont We will be

future travel writing
“will” Charly will Celia will be
play cooking
Future I am going Future I am going
“going to” to close “going to” to be talking
Idiomatic She is going cont Raul and
future to open Marc are
You are going to be
going to discussing
drive
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Future I will have Future I will have

perfect concluded perfect cont been
They will cooking
have finished She will
He will have have been
completed speaking
They will
Habrá have been
Habrán ordering
habremos
Habrá
estado
Habrán
estado
Habremos
estado

Future I would like to Future I would be

would play would sleeping
They would Cont You would
go be speaking
She would He would
love to act be
conducting
Terminación
“ia” , me
gustaría,
amaría,
comeria
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Modals I ought to go Ought not Ought Modals You ought Ought not Ought you
“Ought to” now to you/he “Ought to” to be to be to be
La You ought to to…? cont working sleeping?
obligación see the She ought We ought Ought he to
es vital, doctor She ought Ought she to be not to be be resting?
moral, You ought to not to talk to take resting speaking
mortal, de take your (oughtn´t) medication?
salud, etc. medicine He ought
She ought to not to be
Proofreadin stay indoors running
g
Proofwritin
g
Proofspeaki
ng
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Must I must pay Must cont You must be

They must talking
return that He must be
book playing
Should We should go Should cont I should be
She should writing
watch It should be
running
May/ might You may go May/ might We may be
now cont seeing you
She may She might
speak be coming
They might It might be
play raining

Podría como
posibilidad o
permiso
Can I can speak “Can” cont I can be
She can cook Reading
Saul can be
Podré typing
Podremos
Podrá Podrían
podrán estar
Podría estar
Podrá estar
Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question Conjugation Affirmative Negative Question

Have to
 Verb “to be” and “can”
Verb “be”
Present simple I am intelligent
She is pretty
We are here
Simple past I was there
We were in the classroom
She was inside
Yo fui/ Yo estuve loco
Nos fuimos/ Nos estuvimos
El fue malo/ El estuvo enfermo
Simple future I will be outside
He will be sick
We will be on time
Estaré fuera/ Yo seré ingeniero
Estarás fuera/ Serás artista
El estará listo/ El será mi amigo
Present perfect I have been busy
They have been healthy
She has been fine
Yo he estado/yo he sido
Nosotros hemos estado/ Nos hemos sido
El ha sido/El ha estado
Past perfect I had been busy
You had been recommended
Memo had been feeling sick
Yo había sido/Yo había estado
Tu habias sido/ Tú habías estado
Ella había sido/Ella había estado
Verb “can”
Present simple I can play soccer
She can speak
 Verb “can”
Present perfect I have been able to play soccer
She has been able to speak many languages
Yo he podido
Ellas han podido manejar
Ella ha podido trabajar
Past perfect You had been able to drive that car
He had been able to write many essays
Yo había podido
Nosotros habíamos podido
Ella había podido
Simple Future I will have to study
She will have to work
Yo podré
Tú podras
El podrá
Future going to I am going to have to pay
He is going to have to wake up early
Yo voy a poder
Tú vas a poder
El va a poder
Future perfect I will have to be able to conclude my task
He will have to be able to finish that Project
Yo habré podido
Nosotros habremos podido
Ella habrá podido
 Expletive “there”
Simple present There is a car in front of the house
There are many people here
Hay un carro
Hay gente
Simple past There was a car
There were many players
Había un coche
Habían muchos jugadores
Past perfect There has been a car
There have been many people
Han habido
Había habido muchos eventos
Future simple There will be a student
There will be many people
Habrá un estudiante
Habrá mucha gente
Future going to There is going to be a car
There are going to be many students
Va a haber un carro
Van a haber muchos estudiantes
Future perfect There have been to be a car
There have been to be many girls
Habrá habido un coche
Habrán habido muchas chicas
 Other conjugations
Conditionals

Active, and passive voice

Reported speech

Affirmative, questios, negatives, interrogaties

Declarative sentences.

Indicative, and subjunctive sentences

Is it a VERB?
 Two very simple tests:
1. Recast the word in past tense.
2. Add will to form a future tense.
Examples:
Sentence: The children love New York.
Past tense: The children loved New York.
Will: The children will love New York.
Sentence: Children love spinach.
Past tense: Children love spinached.
Will: Children love will spinach.
Adverbs
 Adverb- a word used to modify a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb
Adverbs will answer at least one of
the following FIVE questions:
1.Where?
2.When?
3. How?
4. Why?
5. To what
extent?
Adverbs
 Asking “to what extent” means how far,
how often, and so on.
 Adverbs also have three forms to show
comparison:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Big Bigger Biggest
Fast Faster Fastest
Late Later Latest

 Add –er or more to form the comparative.

 Add –est or most to form the superlative.
Adverbs
 The easiest way to recognize adverbs is
to look for words ending in –ly. Be
careful; ask the five questions to
double-check the word usage.
 If a word is normally considered a noun,
but answers one of the five questions,
it should be labeled as adverb.
Adjectives and Adverbs
 Please remember, if you locate a word
that modifies a noun or pronoun, it is an
adjective. If you locate a word that
modifies that adjective, it is considered
an adverb (not another adjective).
Adjective Adverb
Nouns Verbs
Pronouns Adjectives
Adverbs
Adverbs
 Some of the most common adverbs
are:
Quite Very Much Too

Rather Not Never -n’t

Prepositions
 Preposition- a word used to show the
relationship of a noun or pronoun to
some other word(s) in the sentence
 A preposition ALWAYS introduces a
phrase. The noun or pronoun
that ends the prepositional phrase
is called the object of the
preposition.
…………………….(PREP…..N/PR)
………………..
Prepositions
 Prepositions cannot stand alone!
 A prepositional phrase starts with a
preposition and ends with the first noun
or pronoun that follows that preposition.
 PLEASE NOTE: Some words on the list
of prepositions may also be used as
adverbs. Remember than an adverb is a
modifier and does NOT take an object!
Ask the adverb questions!
Prepositions
 Please be cautious of compound
prepositions. These are
prepositions that are made up of
several words, but counted as one
preposition.
EXAMPLES: as of today; in addition to
the assignment; next to Fred; in spite
of your objections; aside from that;
in case of an accident, etc…
Preposition or Adverb?
 Prepositions have objects; adverbs
don’t!
EXAMPLES:
Pr. V. ADV.
1. I went inside.
Pr. V. Prep. Adj. N.
2. I went(inside the house).
Types of Prepositional Phrases
 Adjective- refers to a noun or
pronoun; tells which one or what kind
EXAMPLES:
1. The squirrel in the tree attacked me.
2. Let’s take a picture of that squirrel.
 Sometimes there are more than one
prepositional phrase in a row
EXAMPLE:
1. We bought tickets for the trip to the
museum.
Types of Prepositional Phrases
 Adverb- refer to a verb, adjective or
adverb; tell where, when, or how
VERB: The squirrel ran past us.
ADJECTIVE: The squirrel is small in size.
ADVERB: We arrived late for class.
 Sometimes more than one prepositional
phrase modifying the same word
In the afternoon, we went to your home.
Conjunctions
 Conjunction- joins words or groups
of words
 THREE TYPES:
1. Join words or groups of words together as
equals (coordinating)
2. Considered two-part conjunctions, used
with words and phrases (correlative)
3. Join groups unequally, that is that
subordinate one group of words
to
another (subordinating)
Coordinating Conjunctions
 There are 7 coordinating conjunctions:
And But Or Nor
For Yet So

 The conjunctions and and or are used to

join words, phrases, and sentences.
Examples: John and Mary, apples or oranges
 The remaining conjunctions are normally
used to join sentences.
Example: He went to Chicago and New York.
Correlative Conjunctions
 Words may come before, between,
and/or after the correlative
conjunctions.
Both… and Either… or Not only… but also
Whether… or Neither… nor

EXAMPLES:
Either Mary loves John, or Alicia loves Fred.
Mary went not only up the stairs, but also down
the hall.
Interjections
 Interjection- a word used to express
emotion. It has no grammatical relation
to the rest of the sentence.
 Interjections are set off by exclamation
points (!) to indicate strong emotion
and/or commas (,) indicate mild
emotion or indifference.
EXAMPLES:
Hey! Be careful of that wire!
Well, I guess that’s that!