Question 1- Elaborate Max Weber’s contribution to the study of Bureaucracy?

Explain
his model of Ideal Type of Bureaucracy.

Answer

Max Weber Bureaucracy Theory

Max Weber (1864–1920) is regarded as one of the founders of the modern discipline of
sociology. He described the relationship of the state so society, famously defining the
state as ‘a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate
use of physical force within a given territory’. Here he describes the workings of the
bureaucracy, either as it enacts the power of the state, or in bureaucratically managed
private enterprises.

He also instituted the belief that an organization must have a defined hierarchical structure and
clear rules, regulations, and lines of authority which govern it. Max Weber bureaucracy ideally
has the following characteristics:

 Specialization of labour
 A formal set of rules and regulations
 Well-defined hierarchy within the organization
 Impersonality in the application of rules

Bureaucratic organizations evolved from traditional structures due to the following

changes:

 In traditional structures, the leader delegates duties and can change them at any time.
However, over time, this changed and there was a clear specification
of jurisdiction areas along with a distribution of activities as official duties.
 In a bureaucratic organization, the subordinates follow the order of superiors but can
appeal if they feel the need. On the other hand, in traditional structures, the authority
was diffused.
 Rules are exhaustive, stable, and employees can learn them easily. Further, the
organization records them in permanent files.
  Personal property is separate from the office property. Also, the means of production
or administration belong to the office.
 The selection of officials is based on technical qualification and appointment and not
an election. Further, officials receive a salary as compensation for their work.
 The official is taken in for a trial period and then offered a permanent position with the
organization. This protects him from arbitrary dismissal.

Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Form – 6 Major Principles

Max Weber listed six major principles of the bureaucratic form as follows: According to
Weber, these are the six characteristics of bureaucracy: 

1. Task specialization (division of labor). Weber felt that task specialization promotes

the timely completion of work at the highest level of skill. Tasks, therefore, in
Weber's ideal organization are divided into categories based on team members'
competencies and areas of expertise. Employees and departments have clearly defined
roles and expectations in which they are responsible solely for the labor they do best.
This is designed to maximize efficiency for the organization. Overstepping one's
responsibilities, such as presenting new ideas outside of your department's scope, is
generally frowned upon. 
2. Hierarchical management structure. Weber advocated that management should be
organized into layers, with each layer being responsible for its team's performance.
Weber believed that each layer of management should provide supervision to the
layers below them while being subject to the control of those above them. Thus,
individuals at the top of the management hierarchy have the most authority, while
those at the bottom have the least power. This hierarchical structure clearly delineates
lines of communication, delegation and the division of responsibilities. 
3. Formal selection rules. In the ideal organization, Weber believed that employees
should be chosen based on their technical skills and competencies, which are acquired
through education, experience or training – no other factors should be considered.
And since workers are paid for their services, and services are divided by job position,
an employee's salary is entirely dependent on their position. Contract terms are also
 entirely determined by the organization's rules and regulations, and employees have
no ownership interest in a company. 
4. Efficient and uniform requirements. Employees, argued Weber, should always
know exactly what is expected of them. In the ideal organization, the rules are clearly
defined and strictly enforced. This promotes uniformity within the organization and
keeps the company running as smoothly and efficiently as possible. If new rules and
requirements need to be introduced, higher-level management or directors are
responsible for implementing and enforcing them. 
5. Impersonal environment. Under Weber's theory, relationships between employees
are to be only professional only. The impersonal environment characterized by
bureaucracies is designed to promote decision-making that is based solely on facts
and rational thinking. It prevents favouritism or nepotism as well as involvement from
outsiders or political influence, anything that could interfere with the mission of the
organization. 
6. Achievement-based advancement. Weber felt that promotions within an
organization should be based solely on achievement, experience and technical
qualifications. Personal favours, relationships or personality traits should not factor
into personnel decisions.

Why is a Bureaucratic Organization criticized?

Here are some reasons:

 The rules are inflexible and rigid. Further, there is too much emphasis on these rules
and regulations.

 Informal groups do not receive any importance. In current times, informal groups play
a huge role in most business organizations.

 Typically, bureaucracy involves a lot of paperwork which leads to a waste of time,

money, and also effort.

 The rules and formalities lead to an unnecessary delay in the decision-making process.

 While Government organizations can benefit from a bureaucratic structure, business

organization need quick decision-making and flexibility in procedures. Therefore, it is
not suitable for the latter.
  While the technical qualifications of the employee is an important aspect of his
promotion, a bureaucratic organization does not consider the employee’s commitment
and dedication.

 There is limited scope for Human Resource management.

 Coordinating and communicating is difficult.

Question 2- What are the various principles and types of Budget Making

Answer 2

A budget is a quantitative plan for acquiring and using resources over a specified period.
Individuals often create household budgets that balance their income and expenditures for
food, clothing, housing, and so on while providing for some savings.

Four Main Types of Budgets

1. Incremental budgeting

Incremental budgeting takes last year’s actual figures and adds or subtracts a percentage to
obtain the current year’s budget.  It is the most common method of budgeting because it is
simple and easy to understand.  Incremental budgeting is appropriate to use if the
primary cost drivers do not change from year to year.  However, there are some problems
with using the method:

 It is likely to perpetuate inefficiencies. For example, if a manager knows that there is

an opportunity to grow his budget by 10% every year, he will simply take that
opportunity to attain a bigger budget, while not putting effort into seeking ways to cut
costs or economize.
 It is likely to result in budgetary slack. For example, a manager might overstate the
size of the budget that the team actually needs so it appears that the team is always
under budget.
 It is also likely to ignore external drivers of activity and performance. For example,
there is very high inflation in certain input costs.  Incremental budgeting ignores any
external factors and simply assumes the cost will grow by, for example, 10% this
year.
2. Activity-based budgeting

Activity-based budgeting is a top-down budgeting approach that determines the number of

inputs required to support the targets or outputs set by the company.  For example, a company
sets an output target of $100 million in revenues.  The company will need to first determine
the activities that need to be undertaken to meet the sales target, and then find out the costs of
carrying out these activities.

3. Value proposition budgeting

In value proposition budgeting, the budgeter considers the following questions:

 Why is this amount included in the budget?

 Does the item create value for customers, staff, or other stakeholders?
 Does the value of the item outweigh its cost? If not, then is there another reason why
the cost is justified?

Value proposition budgeting is really a mindset about making sure that everything that is
included in the budget delivers value for the business. Value proposition budgeting aims to
avoid unnecessary expenditures – although it is not as precisely aimed at that goal as our final
budgeting option, zero-based budgeting. 

4. Zero-based budgeting

As one of the most commonly used budgeting methods, zero-based budgeting starts with the
assumption that all department budgets are zero and must be rebuilt from scratch.  Managers
must be able to justify every single expense. No expenditures are automatically “okayed”.
Zero-based budgeting is very tight, aiming to avoid any and all expenditures that are not
considered absolutely essential to the company’s successful (profitable) operation. This kind
of bottom-up budgeting can be a highly effective way to “shake things up”.

The zero-based approach is good to use when there is an urgent need for cost containment,
for example, in a situation where a company is going through a financial restructuring or a
major economic or market downturn that requires it to reduce the budget dramatically.

Zero-based budgeting is best suited for addressing discretionary costs rather than essential
operating costs. However, it can be an extremely time-consuming approach, so many
companies only use this approach occasionally.

There are a few principles followed in budget preparation exercise. These are as follows:
 1. Principle of Annuality
This implies that a budget is prepared every year on annual basis. One year is considered
ideal period for budget because it’s an optimum period for which the legislature can afford to
give financial authority to the executive. Further, executive also needs this much time to
implement the budget proposals effectively. Further, a year corresponds with the customary
measures of human estimates.
Annuality in budget formation is a widespread phenomenon. In some countries of OECD,
yearly budgets are now framed within a multi-year framework.
2. Rule of Lapse
Principle of Annuality also implies that the money left unspent in a year must also lapse to
the public treasury and government should not be able to spend it unless it is re-sanctioned in
next year’s budget. This is called Rule of Lapse and is useful as an effective tool of financial
control.
3. Fiscal Discipline
Budget should be balanced and should be able to display congruence between the income and
expenditure. This is known as Fiscal Discipline and it adheres to the Keynesian School of
Thought. Fiscal discipline helps to eliminate fiscal deficits and offset fiscal surplus.
4. Inclusiveness
Budget should be comprehensive and inclusive of diverse budget estimates. An inclusive
budget includes all government revenue and expenditures and helps evaluating the much-
required trade-offs between different policy options.
5. Accuracy
Budget figures are essentially predictions of the amount of money to be generated in the
forthcoming year and its expenditure. The Finance Ministry is accountable for its formulation
with the help of the data and material from the various departments. These estimates need to
be accurate and precise. The preciseness is dependent real and credible input data,
information and unbiased information.
6. Transparency and Accountability
Budget transparency and accountability are two of the eight basic indicators of good
governance as propounded by United Nations. Budget transparency implies that government
gives out all data regarding budget. These two traits of budget also involve ethics on the part
of the Government. For the sake of clarity and transparency, the revenue and capital portion
of the budget are kept separate.
Budgetary Governance

Budgetary governance is the process of formulating the annual budget, overseeing its
implementation and ensuring its alignment with public goals. The Recommendation on
Budgetary Governance sets out ten principles which provide concise overview of good
practices across the full spectrum of budget activity and aim to give practical guidance for
designing, implementing and improving budget systems to make a positive impact on
citizens’ lives.

 The few principles are:

1. Manage budgets within clear, credible and predictable limits for fiscal policy.
2. Closely align budgets with the medium-term strategic priorities of government.
3. Design the capital budgeting framework in order to meet national development needs
in a cost-effective and coherent manner.
4. Ensure that budget documents and data are open, transparent and accessible.
5. Provide for an inclusive, participative and realistic debate on budgetary choices.
6. Present a comprehensive, accurate and reliable account of the public finances.
7. Actively plan, manage and monitor budget execution.
8. Ensure that performance, evaluation and value for money are integral to the budget
process.
9. Identify, assess and manage prudently longer-term sustainability and other fiscal risks.
10. Promote the integrity and quality of budgetary forecasts, fiscal plans and budgetary
implementation through rigorous quality assurance including independent audit.

Question 3: Explain in detail Likert’s 4 styles of system of leadership. Describe the

continnum of leadership behaviour.

Answer

Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades
at the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management
systems. The model was developed on the basis of a questionnaire administered to managers
in over 200 organizations and research into the performance characteristics of different types
of organizations. The four systems of management system or the four leadership styles
identified by Likert are:

 System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the people

at the upper echelons of the hierarchy. The superior has no trust and confidence in
subordinates. The decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel free at
all to discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or
communication is very little and the motivation is based on threats.
 System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial levels
but not at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior has
condescending confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant relationship).
Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job with their
superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and motivation is based on a
system of rewards.
 System 3 - Consultative: Responsibility is spread widely through the organizational
hierarchy. The superior has substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates.
Some amount of discussion about job related things takes place between the superior
and subordinates. There is a fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place
vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on rewards and involvement in
the job.
 System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving the organizational goals is
widespread throughout the organizational hierarchy. There is a high level of
confidence that the superior has in his subordinates. There is a high level of
teamwork, communication, and participation.

The nature of these four management systems has been described by Likert through a profile
of organizational characteristics. In this profile, the four management systems have been
compared with one another on the basis of certain organizational variables which are:

 Leadership processes
 Motivational forces
 Communication process
 Interaction-influence process
 Decision-making process
  Goal-setting or ordering
 Control processes

On the basis of this profile, Likert administered a questionnaire to several employees

belonging to different organizations and from different managerial positions (both line and
staff). His studies confirmed that the departments or units employing management practices
within Systems 1 and 2 were the lease productive, and the departments or units employing
management practices within Systems 3 and 4 were the most productive.

Advantages

With the help of the profile developed by Likert, it became possible to quantify the results of
the work done in the field of group dynamics. Likert theory also facilitated the measurement
of the “soft” areas of management, such as trust and communication.

Conclusion

According to Rensis Likert, the nearer the behavioural characteristics of an organization

approach System 4 (Participative), the more likely this will lead to long-term improvement in
staff turnover and high productivity, low scrap, low costs, and high earnings. If an
organization wants to achieve optimum effectiveness, then the ideal system.

Question 3: Elaborate upon the following Content Theories of Motivation:

a. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

b. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Answer

A) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of
Human Motivation" and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This hierarchy
suggests that people are motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other, more
advanced needs.
As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized, that
is, to be all they can be. In order to achieve these ultimate goals, however, a number of more
basic needs must be met such as the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem. There are
five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Let's take a closer look at Maslow’s
needs starting at the lowest level, known as physiological needs. 
Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs
Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating
behaviour. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise
due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid
unpleasant feelings or consequences. Maslow termed the highest level of the pyramid as
growth needs. These needs don't stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to
grow as a person.
While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the
order in which these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression. For
example, he noted that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than
the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfilment may supersede even the most
basic needs.
Physiological Needs

The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent—these include the things that are
vital to our survival. Some examples of physiological needs include:

 Food
 Water
 Breathing
 Homeostasis

In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air and temperature regulation, the
physiological needs also include such things as shelter and clothing. Maslow also included
sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy of needs since it is essential to the survival
and propagation of the species.

Security and Safety Needs

As we move up to the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the requirements start to
become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security and safety become primary.
People want control and order in their lives. So, this need for safety and security contributes
largely to behaviours at this level. Some of the basic security and safety needs include:
  Financial security
 Health and wellness
 Safety against accidents and injury

Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing money to a savings
account, and moving into a safer neighbourhood are all examples of actions motivated by the
security and safety needs. Together, the safety and physiological levels of the hierarchy make
up what is often referred to as the basic needs.

Social Needs

The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance, and
belonging. At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behaviour. Some
of the things that satisfy this need include:

 Friendships
 Romantic attachments
 Family
 Social groups
 Community groups
 Churches and religious organizations

In order to avoid problems such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for
people to feel loved and accepted by other people. Personal relationships with friends, family,
and lovers play an important role, as does involvement in other groups that might include
religious groups, sports teams, book clubs, and other group activities.
Esteem Needs

At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. When the
needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to play a more
prominent role in motivating behaviour.

At this point, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of others.
People have a need to accomplish things and then have their efforts recognized. In addition to
the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, esteem needs include such things
as self-esteem and personal worth.

Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team

participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs. People
who are able to satisfy the esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the recognition of
others tend to feel confident in their abilities. Those who lack self-esteem and the respect of
others can develop feelings of inferiority. Together, the esteem and social levels make up
what is known as the psychological needs of the hierarchy.

Self-Actualization Needs

At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-actualization needs. "What a man can be,
he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need people have to achieve their full
potential as human beings.

According to Maslow’s definition of self-actualization, "It may be loosely described as the

full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to be
fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people
who have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they capable."

B) Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for
existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for
long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existant at
workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those
factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not
make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also
called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are required to avoid
dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene
factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and
expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
  Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must
be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
 Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should
not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible
working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
 Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans
(Mediclaim), benefits for the family members, employee help programmes,
etc.
 Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean
and hygienic. The work equipment should be updated and well-maintained.
 Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and
retained.
 Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers,
superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should
be no conflict or humiliation element present.
 Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.

b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded

as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are
inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance.
These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job.
Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the
psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors
include:
 Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
 Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement.
This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
 Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.
  Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the
work. The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should
minimize control but retain accountability.
 Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two-factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the
research conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters
may spoil the findings by analysing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two-factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at
work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure,
company policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to
themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-
Factor theory is acceptable broadly.

Question 4

Answer

Ombudsman is a quasi-judicial officer who acts independently and non-patricianly to perform

his duty to supervise the administration. He performs the duty of inquiry and investigation to
deal with the specific complaints from the public against administrative injustice and
maladministration. In essence, the primary duty of an Ombudsman is to investigate
complaints and attempt to resolve them, usually through recommendations or mediation.
Since nation prosperity typically depends on the proper and efficient functioning of the
administrative side of the nation, ensuring that no corruption takes place is of significant
value. The Ombudsman plays an important role in tackling the issue of corruption and in
India; this role is efficiently played by the Lokpal at the Centre level and the Lokayuktas at
the State level.

Institution of Ombudsman in the States

In India, the notion of constitutional ombudsman was first proposed by the law
minister Ashok Kumar Sen in the early 1960s. The term ‘Lokpal’ and ‘Lokayukta’ were
coined by Dr. L.M. Singhvi. In 1968, Lokpal Bill was passed in Lok Sabha but lapsed with
the dissolution of Lok Sabha and was lapsed eight times afterwards till the year 2011. In
2002, M.N Venkatachaliah, the chairman of the review commission asked for the
appointment of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas with a recommendation that the Prime Minister
should not be included within the purview of its authority.
It was in the year 2011, the Lokpal Bill was passed and it eventually led to the establishment
of the institution of Ombudsman (Lokpal) at the Centre and Lokayukta at State level. Lokpal
is the Indian Ombudsman and Lokayuktas is the State Ombudsman. Lokpal in India is a
national anti-corruption ombudsman to look into complaints against public servants and
officials which are defined under the Lokpal Act 2013. This quasi-judicial body was
constituted with an aim to check the menace of corruption in India.
The composition of the Lokpal office comprises a chairman and up to 8 members. The
chairman of the Lokpal can be a current or retired judge of the Supreme Court or the chief
justice of High Courts or an eminent person having special knowledge and expertise of not
less than 25 years in the matters relating to:

 Anti-Corruption Policy
 Public administration
 Vigilance
 Law and Management
 Finance including insurance and banking

Section 25 of the Lokpal Act 2013 deals with the powers of Lokpal. The provision states that
once the Lokpal receives a complaint governing under the Prevention of Corruption Act
1988, it can initiate the investigation. If the complaint is found to be true in the investigation,
then he can ask the government to take disciplinary action against the concerned public
servants or file a corruption case in a special court.
Working of Lokayuktas
In spite of several attempts on the introduction of the Lokpal Bill, the institution of the
Ombudsman (called Lokpal) has not been established at the Centre. However, some states
have adopted the Ombudsman system (called Lokayukta) with the institution of Lokayukta
being established in several States with an enactment of a statute. Some states have even
Uplokayuktas been appointed. In India, the first state was Maharashtra to introduce Lokaykta
through the Maharashtra Lokayukta and Uplokayuktas Act in 1971. Presently there are no
Lokayuktas in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and West Bengal.

The Lokayukta under the State Acts is generally a retired Judge of the Supreme Court or a
retired Chief Justice or Judge of a High Court. The appointment of Lokayukta is done by the
Governor as a result of consultation between the Chief Minister, Chief Justice of High Court
concerned and the Leader of the Opposition. But notably, the entire appointment procedure is
solely reliant on the opinion of the Chief Justice who has the primacy to recommend names
of a retired Chief Justice or a Judge.
The tenure of Lokayukta is for five or six years, he gets the same salary, perquisites and
privileges which he was enjoying as a Judge or Chief Justice before retirement. In states
where the Lokayukta is appointed, provision is made for the role of Uplokayukt to share the
workload of the Lokayukta but mainly the complaints against ministers and officers of the
rank of Secretary are generally to be enquired into by the Lokayukta.

The Apex court in the case of Dinesh Trivedi v. Union of India recommended that till the
institution of the ombudsman is constituted, a High-Level Committee to be appointed by the
President in consultation with the Prime Minister and Speaker. Following the disclosures
made in the Vohra Committee Report, the Committee was directed to monitor the
investigation with regard to the nexus between criminals and politicians, bureaucrats, media
persons and some members of the judiciary.
In another case of Justice K.P. Mohapatra v. Ram Chandra Nayak, the Hon’ble Supreme
Court while dealing with functions of Lokpal under section 7 of Orissa Lokpal and
Lokayukta Act, 1995 held that:

“In the context of the functions which are to be discharged by the Lokpal, it is apparent that
they are of utmost importance in seeing that unpolluted administration of the State is
maintained and mal-administration, as defined under Section 2(h), is exposed so that
appropriate action against such maladministration and administrator could be taken. The
investigation which Lokpal is required to carry out is that of quasi-judicial nature which
would envisage not only knowledge of the law, but also of nature and work which is required
to be discharged by an administrator.”

The Lokpal Bill 2018 was passed under Article 252 of the Indian Constitution, which
envisages provision pertaining to the power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States
by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State. In 2019, Former Supreme
Court Judge Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose was appointed as India’s first Lokpal, the anti-
corruption ombudsman.

Question 5- Vroom’s Valency Expectancy Theory

Answer

In fact, Porter and Lawler’s theory is an improvement over Vroom’s expectancy theory. They
posit that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model suggested by
them encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive
relationship between satisfaction and performance. They proposed a multi-variate model to
explain the complex relationship that exists between satisfaction and performance.

Effort:
Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much effort an
employee will put in a task is determined by two factors-

(i) Value of reward and

(ii) Perception of effort-reward probability.

Performance:
One’s effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be. However, the
amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and role
perception of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability and/or makes wrong
role perception, his/her performance may be low in spite of his putting in great efforts.
Satisfaction:
Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the number of
rewards one achieves. If the number of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable
rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. On the country, if actual rewards fall short of
perceived ones, he/she will be dissatisfied.

Rewards may be of two kinds- intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards
are such as sense of accomplishment and self-actualisation. As regards extrinsic rewards,
these may include working conditions and status. A fair degree of research support that, the
intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related
to performance.

There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter and Lawler is
quite complex than other models of motivation. In fact motivation itself is not a simple cause-
effect relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon Porter and Lawler have attempted to
measure variables such as the values of possible rewards, the perception of effort-rewards
probabilities and role perceptions in deriving satisfaction.

They recommended that the managers should carefully reassess their reward system and
structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should be made integral to the entire
system of managing men in organisation.

Significance of the Porter and Lawler Model:

Porter and Lawler model is a departure from the traditional analysis of satisfaction and
performance relationship. In practice, we find that motivation is not a simple cause and effect
relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon.

This model is of great significance to managers since it sensitises them to focus their
attention on the following points to keep their employees motivated:
a. Match the abilities and traits of individuals to the requirements of the job by putting
the right person on the right job.
b. He should carefully explain to the subordinates their roles or what they must do to be
rewarded. Then he must make sure that they understand it.
c. Prescribe in concrete terms the actual performance levels expected of the individuals
and these levels should be made attainable.
d. To achieve and maintain motivation, the appropriate reward must be associated with
successful performance.
e. Make sure that the rewards dispensed are valued by the employees. Thus, he should
find out what rewards are attractive to the employee and see if such rewards can be
given to him.