The Nomenclature of Jews in China 2

THE NOMENCLATURE OF JEWS IN CHINA*
by Rudolf Löwenihal m # ÌÉ
Thoughmuchhas beenwrittenaboutthe Jewsin Chinaone of

theproblems thathas notyetbeenproperly discusssdis theirnomen-
clature. The presentdata, containinga numberof new itemsand
correctionsof earlierstatements,have been dividedinto the four
followinggroups:
I. Chinese biblical names contained in the four Jewish stone inscriptionsof
1489, 1512, 1663, and 1679 at Kaifeng with their Mohammedan,Nestorian,
Catholic, and Protestant equivalents.
II. Jewish theological titles borrowedfrom the Mohammedanscontained in the
four stone inscriptions.
III. Jewish surnames contained in the four stone inscriptions.
IV. Chinese designations for Jews, Judea, Hebrew, etc.
I. CHINESE BIBLICAL NAMES CONTAINED IN THE FOUR

JEWISH STONE INSCRIPTIONS OF 1489,1512,1663,AND
1679 AT KAIFENG WITH THEIR MOHAMMEDAN,NES-
TORIAN, CATHOLIC, AND PROTESTANT EQUIVALENTS
Ninepersonaland twootherbiblicalnameshave beencompiled
fromtheJewishinscriptions.Theirrenderings in/theMohammedan
and Nestorianreligiouswritings and their contemporary standard
equivalentsin the Catholicand Protestant Bible have
translations
likewisebeengiven. It may be due to the differencesin pronuncia-
tionofsuchnamesin therespective languagesthattheyhavenothing
in common witheachother. But it is surprising thattheJewishand
Mohammedan transcriptionsare likewisedifferent,althoughtheJews
otherwise readilyadoptedMohammedan terms. Thisfactis themore
* This article appeared originally in the COLLECTANEA COMMISSIONS
SYNODALIS, Peiping, vol. XVII, May/December, 1944, pp. 354-370. Owing
to the Pacific War only some ten copies of the issue in question were actually
preserved. As the article contains, among other items, a number of historical
data related to the Yuan period, it has been thought worthwhileto republish it.
For this purpose it has been revised and considerablyenlarged (Editor).
97
MS. Vol. XII, 7
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98 RUDOLF LÖWENTHAL
LIST OF CHINESE BIBLICAL NAMES FROM THE FOUR JEWISH STONE
T7 «lieh inscription Chinese

No. Ennj£!h and
pagination* J e w i s h Mohammedan
1 Aaron 1512:63 A-ho-lien p¡m9 A-ìung Rlni

Ha-lun ftfò
2 Abraham 1489:36 A~wu-lo-hanRftftgK I-pu-la-hsin(-po)

1512:58,63 (Lo-han mm) tfc h tt tik(fi)
1663:65
1679:105,2:38/39Lo-han mm
3 Adam 1489:36 [P'an-ku] A-tan A-tan [jen-tsu]

1512:57,63 [• «IRUt W ft [K ■]
1663:65
1679:104,2:3031
4 Ezra 1489:39 Ai-tzu-la B^W I-ssu-la Jö^fö
5 Isaac 1512:63 I-ssu-ha-ko JKfiR»« I-ssu-ha-k'o ^.pJP&^
6 Jacob 1512:63 Ya~ho-ch'üeh~wu Yeh-erh-sun-po

mmm % w w mm
7 Joshua 1512:63 ¥üeh~shu~wo MMK Yu-ssu'îu tìJPr^
8a Moses 1489:38 Mieh-she MSk Mu-sa mWi

1512:58,63
8b „ 1663:66 Mo-she K^
9 Noah 1512:63 Nü-wa *j» Nu-hai &M

1679:105,2:34/35
10 Israel 1489:52 I-ssu~lo~yeh -» ** I^ssu-ma-erh-lai

1512:57 S K m m *
1663:65 L-ssu-la JgUSift
Ila Mt Sinai 1489:39 Hsi-na-shan ^âi

1663:66 Hsi-na-shan mffi<M
* The first figure refers to the year of the inscription concerned,while the
second figure indicates the pagination in Tobar, op. cit., for the inscriptions
of 1489, 1512, and 1663; or in White, op. cit., vol. II, for the inscriptionof
1679.

THE NOMENCLATURE OF JEWS 99
INSCRIPTIONS WITH THEIR MOHAMMEDAN, NESTORIAN,

CATHOLIC, AND PROTESTANT EQUIVALENTS
renderings** remark's
Nestorian Catholic Protestant
Ya-lung 5SH Ya-lun £4%
A-lo-han fSJ^ti Ya-pa-lang Ya-po~la-han

3S E, £ß ?& 'tì%LQ
A-t'an PM Ya-tang ö^r Ya-tang Rfê
Ai-ssu SJPr I-ssu-la £l#rti

T'e-la-ssu îèïTr O-tzu-la m:^J0
Ai-hsieh && I-sa-ko ft'Stt- I-sa &B
Ya-ko-po 5Sf§tì Ya-ko ffi^-
Yao-su-o Wf&JïLYüeh-shu-ya also Yüeh-she 1fàM

mm:>s
Mu-shih 2£jör Mei-she feg Mo-hsi Ä?S
No-o ifèJïi No-ya Ä3S formerlyalso

No-ya RSi
I-la-erh ÜÎM I-se-lieh JSlfeyöîor furtherCatholic render-
ings see part IV, nos. 26-38;
the Mohammedan terms are
also used forIsrael, the son
of Abraham.
Hfii-nai-shan Hsi-nai-shan
m 7b m pf ib ai
Hsi-yün-snan
mmm
** The Mohammedanequivalents are due to the kindnessof Mr. Yang Hsüeh-men
(Ju-chi) IS % P*l Afè), secretary at Yenching University. Regarding the
Nestorian names, the work by P. Y. Saeki, Nestorian documents (cf.
footnote 74), has- been consulted. The Catholic and Protestant renderings
were furnishedthroughthe courtesy of the Rev. PP. Gabriele Maria Allegra,
O.F.M., and Paul Chou Lien-ch'ih fft£| % of the China Synodal Commission,
Peiping.

understandable as New Persian,the linguafrancaall overthe Far

East duringtheMiddleAges,was presumably used by bothof these
minority groups. Regardingthe ChineseJewsLaufer-came to the
conclusion thatat thetimeoftheirimmigration "thelanguage-spoken
by them . . . was most probably New Persian."1
Although all these namesare Chinesephonetical transcriptions,
and therefore represent an indivisible
unit,theyhavebeentreatedin
the inscriptions like surnamesand given (personal) names. When
mentioned a secondtimeonlythe last twocharacterswererepeated
in case thenamecontainedmorethantwocharacters, e.g. thename
ofA-wu-lo-han |5õfffâff?g| (Abraham)was repeatedonlyin theform
Lo-hanfg$£. As a matterof fact,in the inscription of 1679,he
was onlycalledbythisabbreviated name.
Some of the namesnesd furtherelucidation.Adam is called
P'an-kuA-taniS^pflt (no. 3)2 in the inscription of 1489. P'an-
ku$jg"è1, a Chinesemythological figure has beendescribed by Giles3
as follows :
"The firstbeing broughtinto existenceby cosmogonicalevolution. The
Great Monadseparatedinto the Male and Female Principles(the Yin and the
Yang)."
The amalgamation figureshas led to
of thesetwo mythological
confusion.Accordingto the inscriptionof 1489 Adam (P'an-ku
A-tan) is an ancestorof Abrahamin thenineteenthgeneration.In
1) BertholdLaufer: "A Chinese-Hebrew manuscript, a new sourceforthe

historyof the ChineseJews." The AmericanJournalof SemiticLanguagesand
Literatures,46:3, April,1930,p. 192.
2) JérômeTobar. S.J.: Inscriptionsjuives de K'ai-fong-fou. 2nd rev. ed.,
Shanghai,1912. (Variétéssinologiques, no. 17; 1st ed.,1900.)p. 36; cf.also fn.2.
This work containsthe original Chinese text and an annotatedFrench
translationof the threestone inscriptions of 1489, 1512,and 1663,as well as
other materialspertinentto the Kaifeng Jews. The firstcompleteEnglish
translationof the threeinscriptionsand of thepartialreconstruction of a fourth
one of 1679,with notes and reproductions of the originalChinesetexts,are
containedin the workby WilliamCharlesWhite: Chinese- Jews. A compilation
of .mattersrelatingto the Jews of K'aifeng Fu. Toronto,1942. Part II
Inscriptional.
Throughout this articlethe paginationanentthe inscriptions followsTobar,
exceptin cases whenreference has beenmadeto the workof BishopWhite.
3) HerbertA. Giles: A Chinesebiographical dictionary.London-Shanghai,
1898; reprintedin Peiping,1939.p. 1607,no. 603.

the inscription of 1663,4however,Adam has been presentedas a

descendant ofP'an-kuin thenineteenth generation.The inscriptions
of 1512,1663,and 1679,whereinAdamis simplycalledA-tanffcf £fc, .
agree in the statementthat Adam was followedby Noah and
Abraham;i.e., thatAdam and Abrahamwereonlytwo generations
apart. Apparently the authorof the inscriptionof 1663 made this
interpolationattempting to reconcilethe two versionsof the earlier
• The Mohammedan
inscriptions. termforAdamis A-tanjen-tsufõj
fi A flS• The firsttwocharactersrenderphonetically thesoundof
theforeignname,whilethe last two charactersdescribehimas the
"ancestorofman".
ThenameofNoah,Nü-wa lç í®, represents anothermythological
allusionas has alreadybeenpointedoutby D. MacGillivray :5
"The name adoptedfor Noah is ic Ä Nu Wa, who is one of the linf of
Chinesemythical said to )>ethe successorof Fu Hsi, 2738B.C. These
sovereigns,
twocharacterswerechosenbecauseNu Wa was fabledto have mendedthe skies
with five-coloredstonesand stoppedthe floodingwaters,and Noah's rainbow
was a sign that the floodswouldno moredescendto destroythe earth. (The
identification
of fç j® with Eve is forbiddenby the context.)"
The Chinesenamesof Moses (nos. 8a-b) and M* Sinai (nos.
lla-b) have bothbeen rendered
"intwo versionsin the inscriptions
of 1489and 1512on theonehandand in thatof 1663on theother.
- {|gg&m (Israel) in
The Jews called themselvesI-ssu-lo-yeh
the three inscriptions
of 1489, 1512, and 1663. They were not
familiarwiththe termYu-t'ai?g>fc, by whichtheyare generally
knowntoday,as we learnfromFatherRicci'sreport.6
II. JEWISH THEOLOGICAL TITLES BORROWED FROM THE
MOHAMMEDANSCONTAINED IN THE FOUR STONE IN-
SCRIPTIONS
The Jewsborrowed
twoChineserenderings of theological
terms
fromtheMohammedans, bothindicating
thetitleof "rabbi."
4) Tobar,op. cit.,p. 65; cf. also fn.2.

5) "The Jewsof Honan: A tragicstoryof submergence."Journalof the
NorthChinaBranchof theRoyalAsiaticSociety,Shanghai,LIX, 1928,p. 31.
Cf. also Giles,op. cit.,p. 601,no. 1578.- Accordingto one account,Nü Wa
was the sisterand successorof the legendaryemperorFu Hsi.
6) MatteoRicci,S.J.: Opere Storiche,ed. P. Pietro Tacchi-Venturi, v. II,
Lettere. Macerata,1931,p. -291.

a. MAN-LAffiM or flft «3 7
Thetermman-lahas beenmentioned six timesin theinscriptions
of 1489 and 1663,but not in thoseq£ 1512 and 1679. It has been
rendered by theChinesecharacters jftj%i) in the inscription
of 1489,8
whereitoccursonlyonceandis precededbya listoffourteen persons.
It has been expresslystatedthere,however,that somemorepeople
also carriedthistitle. In the inscription of 1663 the termappears
five times represented by slightlydifferent charactersof the same
soundvalueûjjg n$). Four personshave been enumerated as posses-
sing the titleof man-la;in all cases the titleprecedesthe nameof
thepersonconcerned.
It is ratherunusualthatthereshouldhave beenso manyrabbis
in sucha smallcommunity,10 butthatmaybe duetotheextraordinary
circumstances underwhichthe community lived in the diaspora.
Thetasksand qualifications attachedto thisrankhavebeengenerally
describedin the inscription of 1489.11A man-lawas well versedin
theHebrewscriptures, exhorted othersto lead a goodlife,and had to
take chargeof the synagogueand its affairs. As its "patron"he
was expectedto care forthe upkeepof the synagogueaccordingto
his means. On variousoccasions,whenthebuildingsweredestroyed
or damaged,theserabbisdischarged themselves oftheirresponsibility
mostgenerously.It was onlyafterdestitution had overcomethe
community and afterits absorption by the surrounding Chineseand
Mohammedans had advancedtoo far that the synagoguefell into
disrepairand graduallyintoruins.
Tobar quotes11the followingpassage fromTerriende Lacou-
perie12anentthisproblem :
"The mahometan influence was very great at K'ai-fung-foo, and many
Turkish and Arabian words were imposed on the Chinese; and as the Jews were
7) A more recent Chinese renderingis mu-la f§ n$, but at present the term
a-heng pj #S (usual Romanization "ahung") has replaced it.
8) Tobar, op. cit., p. 46; cf. also fn. 2. - Laufer, op. cit., p. 193.
9) Ibid., p. 75, cf. also fn. 2; and pp. 86 and 87.
10) Accordingto the Chinese-HebrewMS. described by Laufer (cf. p. 195,
fn. 1), the Kaifeng communitycounted 712 persons between 1660/70, 453 men
and 259 women. Including childrenthe population figurehardly exceeded 1,000
persons.
11) See footnote8.
12) Transact, of the Meriden Scient. Ass'n, vol. 7, 1895, p. 27.

confoundedwiththe Mahometans by the Chinese,it happenedthat this Chinese-

Turkishtitlewas bestowedby the emperoron severalof the Jewish'Sinagogue
rulers'."
Tobar is rightin rejectingthis statement, as thereexists no
indicationin the incriptionthatthe emperorconferred thistitleon
anyofthepersonslisted in thstext. Such an eventwould havebeen
ofgreatimportance to thecommunity and wouldcertainlyhavebeen
recordedin detail. Nor is thereany referenceto suóh an act in
Chinsse literature.
b. WU-SSU-TATl A SÊ
Five timesoccursthetermwu-ssu-ta 13signifying"rabbi"or -
if so pretentiousa titlebe admissiblein sucha smallcommunity -
"grand-rabbi."
1 and 2. In the inscriptions of 1489 and 1679 this termis linked
up withand following namesof Lieh Wei MWt14and Li
the
Wei ^ljt£15respectively.Bothof theseare phoneticrenderings
of thenameof Levi,who was chargedwiththe administration
of the Jewishcommunity and underwhose auspicesthe syn-
agoguewas builtforthefirsttimein 1163.
3 and 4. In the inscriptions of 1489 and 1679 the termrefersto
an unnamedrabbi,whorebuiltthesynagoguein 1279.
5. In the inscription of 1663 it refersto an unnamedrabbi,who
rebuiltthesynagogue in 1356.
Concerning thisproblemTobarinquiredfromtheFrenchconsul
and sinologue, GabrielDeveria. The latterfurnished the following
data afterconsultation withotherorientalists :16
13) Tobar, op. cit., pp. 44, 45, and 73. White,op. cit., II, 105, line 3,
nos. 34-38,and line 4, nos. 43-45.
14) White,od. cit.,Il, 37, lines3 and 4 fromthe right.
15) Ibid.,line 3. - On pp. 97 and 102, note 2, Whitegives the correct
Romanization of Li-weifor the inscription of 1679. But in the corresponding
Chinesetext on p. 105, line 3, nos. 34-35,he actually repeats the Chinese
charactersforLieh Wei 3?Q gt. That maybe due to a clericalerrorof the scribe
who preparedthe Chinesetext of the inscription for publication.But in the
Chinesetext of the inscription of 1489 (p. 37, line 3) the alternatecharacters
forbothtransliterations, Lieh Wei and Li Wei,are reproduced.
16) Tobar,op. cit.,p. 44, fn.1. - Cf. also Laufer, op. cit.,p. 192: "... the
ChineseJewsdesignatedthe rabbiby the wordustad ('teacher','master'),used
in the same sense by the PersianJews; thus our earliestinscription speaks of
a Lie-weiWu-se-ta,'Rabbi Levi'."

" . . . Ou-se-ta est la
transcriptiondu mot person Oustâd,. vulgo Oustâ, qui
signifie,maître (senior) d'une communautéou assemblé quelconques.- Les Juifs
persans on adopté ce terme pour traduire le mot Hébreu Râb (Rabbin) et les
rabbins .persans s'intitulentpar suite Oustâ", "Le titre de Oustjâ précède les
inoms: Oustâ Abrahim,Oustâ Mosé, &. Pour ma part, je trouve cette explication
plausible."
The titleof wu-ssu-tafollowsthe name of the personit refers-
to in thetwocases thatit has beengiven17.Nevertheless, the Indo-
PersianJewishimmigrants doubtlesslyborrowed thisChineserender-
ing fromtheirMohammedan neighbours.
The grand-rabbi as the spiritualhead of the community also
possessedjurisdiction over its an
members, arrangement similar to
thatof the Mohammedans.The wv^ssu-tawas responsibleforhis
flocktotheChineseauthorities andit is likelythattheordinary rabbis
(man-la)assistedhimin thistask,althoughnothing has been handed
downto us aboutsuch a tradition.
In the inscription of 1663 occurstwicethe titleof chang-chiao
^g[ or "chiefof the religion"18.It precedesin bothcases thename
of Li Chen ^H , the contemporary grand-rabbi of thatperiod. He
supervisedthe collation and revision of the saved scripturesand
repaireda copyhimself. The term chang-chiao at that time
had
superseded the earlierwu-ssu-ta.
c. YEN TV-LA% tflM (inscr.of 1489; in the inscr.of 1663
and 1679, the last character,la g), has been rendered
.
differently)
Yen Tu-la has been presentedby White"as a Chinesetrans-
literationof a non-Chinese name of probablyPersian origin,and
obviouslydesignatesthe officeof supervisorof buildings. For
instance,in theinscription Jgí£ $$ is seen
of 1679Chao Ying-ch;êng
to have been a Yen-tu-la."19
The last part of this statementmustbe consideredan error.
Even in his own translation of 1679 Whitedoes
of the inscription
notsay so20. It is truethatin 1423theemperorconferred uponthe
17) See footnotes15 and 16.
18) Tobar, op. cit., pp. 75 and 86.
19) White, op. cit., II, 21, note 16; cf. also II, 102, notes 3 and 11, and III,
120. In addition,Yen Tu-la is mentionedin the translations of the inscriptions:
II, 11 and 14 (1489); 62 (1663); 97 and 99 (1679).
20) Ibid., II, 99.

physicianYen Ch'êngfjg f£thenameof Chao Jgas surname,which

was theemperor's ownfamilyname,and promoted himto the rank
of colonel21.Anothermemberof the Yen familywas Yen PMng-t'u
$§ ¿p.|£ , one of the rabbis (man-la) in charge of the synagogue
accordingto theinscription of 148922.The nameof Yen also occurs
in the inscription of 1512,but withoutpersonalname23,referring
presumably to both,Yen Tu-la and Yen Ch'eng. It is onlynatural
thatthenameof Yen disappeared,afterthe emperorhad bestowed
his ownnameof Chao on Yen Ch'eng.
III. JEWISH SURNAMES CONTAINED IN THE STONE
INSCRIPTIONS AND IN THE CHINESE-HEBREW MS.
LIST OF CHINESE-JEWISH SURNAMES
. . ,,. v ,..,,. clan names contained
clan names, man-la (rabbis) listed in:
Jnchin..Hebrew MS.
inscr. of inscr. of Chin.-Hebrew H660/70i
1489 14891 16632 MS. (1660/70)3 K
men ^¿^
I I
Ai 3C 2 1 39 56 +
Changt 5M t 1 4 73 +
Chao tt - - 22 74 +
dhint Ô - " - 2 42 +
Chou M X - - - +
Huang ^ - - - - +
Kao M - - 7 76 +
Lit * 9 1 13 109 +
Mu i - - - - -
Nieh m - - - - -
Pai â - - - - +
Shih ~JB - 1 6 23 +
Tso tL - - - - +
Yen fa 1 - - - -
I
Total 14 4 93 453 men & 259 women,
excl. children5
1) Tobar, op. cit., p. 43. 4) Laufer, op. cit., pp. 194-196.

~2) Ibid., pp. 75, 86, and 87. 5) White, op. cit., III, 188-190.
3) White, op. cit., III, 35-71. y) This clan name is representedtwice.
21) Tobar, op. cit., 47, 64; White, op. cit., II, 12, 98.
22) Ibid., 46; ibid., II, 12.
23) Ibid., 64; ibid., II, 46.

Thereis, however, no reasonto assumethatYen Tu-la is nota

personalname. While'ssurmisethatit designatesa "supervisor of
buildings"has no basis. The Mohammedans do not use any such
term; butthenameofAbdullahis rendered withcharacters of similar
soundvaluein theirwritings.
The inscriptionof 1489 containsa list of seventeensurnames,24
threeof whichare represented twice: Chang,Chinand Li. Hence,
thereremainthe fourteenabove clan names.25The list'of man-la
includesfourteen nineof whombelongedto theLi family,
persons,26
two to the Ai family,and one each to the familiesof Chang,Chou,
and Yen.
In theinscriptionof 1663sevenclan namesare engravedon the
reverseof the stele,27their membershaving contributed to the
restaurationof the synagoguejust after the middleof the 17th
century.Theyincludethenamesof Ai, Chang,Chao,Chin,Kao, Li,
and Shih. Theylikewiseoccurin theChinese-Hebrew MS. (Codex).28
Lauferaffirms thatseveralofthemissingclannamesare to be traced
in this"register"amongthenamesof women.29Actually, thenames
of Chou,30Huang,31 and
Pai,32 Tso,33 are to be fpundthere, addition
in
to thesevenclannames. Whiteomitted to providethesefournames
with an asterisk (*) to denotethemas Jewishfamilysurnames
whichtheycertainly are,thuswrongly classingthemas "non-Jewish
Chinesenames."34
Four man-lahave been enumerated in the inscriptionof 1663,
belonging to
respectively the familiesof Li,35Ai, Chang, and Shih.36
Theyeach collatedand repaired one of the copies of the scriptures
whichweresaved afterthe floodof 1642. Li Gh'eng-hsien ^^c^fe,
24) Tobar, op. cit., p. 43.
25) Laufer, op. cit.,p. 194, made a slip here; he mentionssixteen clan names.
27) Ibid., p. 83.
28) White, op. cit., III, 35-71.
29) Laufer, op. cit., p. 194.
30) White, op. cit., III, 188, no. 446; cf. also p. 66t no. 639, and p. 71,
no. 699; cf. also III, 82.
31) Ibid., p. 189',no. 456; cf. also p. 66, no. 598.
32) Ibid., p. 190, no. 472; cf. also p. 57, nos. 395, 399, and p. 60, no. 486.
33) Ibid., p. 190, no. 482; cf. also p. 62, no. 529.
34) Ibid., see note on top of p. 188; cf. also the last column oí the above
"List of Chinese-Jewishsurnames."
35) Tobar, op. cit., pp. 75 and 86.
36) Ibid., p. 87.

who lias beenmentioned twice,watsin chargeof this workjointly

withthe grand-rabbi Li Chen^M-35 Withthe exceptionof the
firstmention of Li Ch'eng-hsien, thenamesof all of themappearon
thereverseside of thestele.
The 93 references to man-lain theabovelist,extracted fromthe
Chinese-Hebrew MS. (1660/70),in someinstances, includea number
of repetitionsand sometimes it is notquiteclearto whichclan they
belong. Nevertheless, that column gives a fairtygood idea of the
relativeimportance and traditionallearningof the variousclans.
Originally morethanseventy Jewishfamiliessettledat Kaifeng.37
The Rev.A. C. Moule'ssurmisethat" 'seventy'is perhapsa mistake
for'seventeen'/'38becauseof theseventeennamesgivenon the stele
çf 1489,is improbable. Mouleevidently confusesclansand families.
Even in 1901,whenthecommunity had dwindledto 250 souls,they
formedabout50 familiesof the namesKao, Li, Chao, Shih, Chin,
and Chang.39In addition,theinscription of 1679 containsa definite
^statementto thecontrary fortheyear1163,whenthesynagoguewas
firsterected: 'There were then 73 clans {Using5È ), morethan
500 families(chia ^ ) altogether".40 But Mouleis rightin saying
aboutthenamesthat"theseall exceptLi and Ai have beencarefully
erased,onlyKao, Mu, Chao,and Chinbeingrecognizable whilethe
remaining eleven are quite illegible" on the facsimilepublishedby
Tobar.41
The Li clan was leadingin numberas well as in importance, at
least untiltheendof the 17thcentury.Nine out of fourteen rabbis
listedin 1489 belongedto them,42 likewiseone out of fourin 1663,
In addition,theythenprovided thegrand-rabbi or "chiefofreligion".43
Their109individuals listedin theregisterbetween1660/70amounted
37) Ibid., p. 43; inscr. of 1489.

38) A. C. Moule: Christians in China before the year 1550. London, New
York and Toronto,1930, p. 2, fn. 3.
39) Laufer, op. cit., p. 196.
40) Whiê, op. cit., II, 97.
41) Moule, op. cit., p. 2, fn. 3. - Jhe present writer was quite unable to
decipher any but the names of Li and Ai on the rubbing of the inscriptionof
1489 in his possession.
43) Cf. footnote35.

to almosta quarterof thetotalmalepopulationat thattime.44The

numberoftheirman-lamentioned in thesameplace,accordingto the
abovetable,amounted to 13, as comparedto 39, belonging to theAi
clan and 22, belonging to the Chao clan.45
Whetheror not the Jewsadoptedothersurnamesthan those
enumerated aboveis a matterofconjecture.At leastonenameoccurs
in twotransliterations whichis notlistedabove,namelythatof the
grand-rabbi Lieh Wei (inscr.of 1489) or Li Wei (inscr.of 1679),
underwhoseauspicesthesynagogue was firsterectedin 1163.46These
phoneticrenderings ostensiblycorrespond to the name of "Levi";
theyare quiteexceptional, becauseLaufer affirms thatin theChinese-
HebrewMS. "thereis no relationbetweenthe Chineseand Hebrew
names".47The Rev. D. MacGillivray venturedguessesat identifying
the seventeenChinesesurnames,48 but his Hebrewequivalentsmust
be consideredas spurious.
The presentwriteris convincedthat for the past fiftyor a
hundredyearsthereexiste^no pure Jews. Most likelytheywere
absorbedby theirneighbours throughfrequentintermarriage with
Chineseand Mohammedan womenduringthe past threecenturies.
Actually,41 womenwithnon-Jewish Chinesenamesare enteredin
theregisterbetween1660/7049.BishopWhiteoftheCanadianChurch
of England,formerly stationedat Kaifeng,claims that the seven
clan namesmentioned by Ricci and includedin the inscription of
1663 "are bornetodayby theJewishremnant".50 According to him
" 'sevennamesor eightclans' is still
(ch'i-hsingpa-chia^jfA|)
theconventional accountoftheJewishcommunity".51 Thisstatement
is morespecified in his latestwork,wherehe writes:52
"Even todaythe Jewsof K'ai-fêngand theirneighboursspeak of the Jewish
community as the Seven Surnamesand Eight Families' (Ch'i Hsing Pa Chia),
becausethereare twobranchesof the surnameChao."
44) Laufer,op. cit.,p. 195.

45) Cf. the above "List of Chinese-JewishSurnames",col. 4.
46) Tobar,op. cit.,p. 44.
47) Cf. footnote44.
48) "The JewsTof Honan",op. cit. (cf. fn. 5), p. 30.
49) White,op. cit.,Ill, 188-190.- The names of Chou,Huang, Pai, and
Tso are likewiseJewish;cf.footn.30-33of the presentarticle.
50) WilliamC. White: "Chinese'Jews."Asia, New York,36:1, Jan.,1936,
p. 61, leftcolumn.
51) Cf. Moule,op. cit.,p. 10,fn. 11.
52) White,op. cit.,III, 3.

It is truethattheYen clan adoptedthesurnameof Chao,as we

have seenabove. On theotherhand,the Chang,Chin,and Li clans
hadlikewisetwobrancheseach.53Hence,it maybe opento discussion
how the termch'i-hsing pa-chiaoriginated;the moreso, as recent
informants claimthatboth,theLi and Changclans,havetwobranches
each.
The latestavailablereportson the KaifengJewsare due to the
Japanesewho,duringtheiroccupation of thatcity,tooka particular
interestin them. Apparently theysuspectedthese descendantsof
Perso-Indian immigrants eitherof Communistic tendencies or of pro-
Alliedleanings. Twoarticles,althoughthatis notespeciallymention-
ed,evidently theresultsofthesesemi-official
represent investigations.
Mikami54 and Sogabe,55bothof whomvisitedKaifengin the autumn
of 1940,eachwrotea ratherweakarticlfe which,nevertheless,contain
a fewusefulitemsforourpurpose.
In bothinstancesthesurvivalof descendants of the sevenclans
has beenconfirmed.Bothauthorsmentionthe designation of ch'i-
hsingpa-chia, thattheLi clan has two branches,and that the where-
aboutsof the Changclan are unknown.Sogabe claimsthat there
are also twobranchesof the Chang'susingdifferent charactersfor
theirnames,namely,3J|and ^ . The Rev. P. AntonioCattaneo,
P.I.M.E.,thenRectoroftheRegionalSeminary oftheCatholicMission
at Kaifengconfirmed this statementby letterin 1943. He also
informed thepresentwriterthattherewerea few Jewsleftwithin
and outsideofthatcityand thattheShihfamilyhac'becomeCatholic
in 1924. Actually,one of theirmembersenteredthe seminaryto
becomea priestin 1941, but later on changedhis mind.56 The
conversionto Catholicism of this familyaccountsperhapsfor the
fact that the surnameof Shih has been omittedin the articleof
Sogabe. Mikami states that the Jewish communitynumbers
approximately a hundredpersons. Accordingto Sogabe thereare
53) Cf. the above "List of Chinese-Jewish Surnames",col. 1.

54) Mikami,Teichõ = _t»B:|liilífii;*:»fê<D*ft{R-&. ("Report on
the actual conditions
of the KaifengJewishcommunity.") Shina Bukyõshigaku
3£Ü5« « j& *-, Tokyo,5:1, June25, 1941,76-77.
55) Sogabe,Shizuo W & U W J£:HüÜ" <?>« * A. "The KaifengJews."
Revue Diplomatique(The Gaiko Jihoft £ 8$ ffi),Tokyo,97:4 (869), Febr. 15,
1941,65-67.
56) Cf. Benedictine Orient,Lisle, 111.,5:3, Ap., 1941,1-2.

180Jewslocally,withanother80 members ofthecommunity residing

at Shanghai.
Hence,becauseoftherecentoriginofthetermch'i-hsingpa-chia,
it appearsmorelogicalto thepresentwriterthateithertheLi or the
Changclan is referredto as theeighthfamily.
IV. CHINESE DESIGNATIONS FOR JEWS,JUDEA, HEBREW,
ETC.
(a) Nomenclature fromdocuments of the Yuan dynasty.
The earliestChinesenamesgivento theJewsduringtheMongol
periodwerederivedfromtheNewPersianDjuhudorDjahud.51They
are documented in decreeswhichwerepromulgated in theyears1280,
1320,1329,1340, and 1354.58These are reproducedin the Yßan-shih
7C¿1 and the Yüan-tien-changté||$'
(1) CHU-HU HUI-HUI MEI % % [pJ 'ñ'$ .
The decreeof January27, 1280,59representstheoldestreference
to the ChineseJewsduringthe Yuan period. Khubilaikhanissued
it to prohibitthe ritual slaughtering
of sheep60accordingto the
Mohammedan and Jewishcustom(?Sunnah). He recalledin the
introductorypart of the edictthatalreadyChinghiskhanhad for-
biddenthepracticeof thisritual,becauseas conqueredslaves61they
shouldbe contentto eat Mongolfood. Chinghishad providedfor
theirpunishment in case of disobedience,
but this injunctionhad
fallenintooblivionanddisuse. Khubilaikhan,however, re-introduced
57) Laufer,op. cit., pp. 192-193.

58) The author gladly acknowledgeshis indebtedness to Dr. Wêng Tu-
chienffrÍS isafor his kind help with the referencesdating fromthe Mongol
period,problemson whichhe is workingfromthe Mohammedan angle. He and
Dr. Walter Fuchs drew the attentionof the presentwriterto a numberof
referenceswhichgreatlyfacilitatedthe compilation.
59) Yiian-tien-chang, 57, 16a-17a.
60) By opening the jugular vein and drawingoffthe whole blood of the
animal.
61) The Rev. P. Ed. Noyé,O.F.M., has compileda list of appellationsin
the secondand thirdinstalments of his article"Les Juifsen Chine",Bulletin
catholiquede Pékin,22:268,Dec, 1935,650-651;23:269,Jan.,1936,22-29. Most
of thetermsdate fromthe Yuan period.
In this instanceNoyé was mistaken,because, accordingto him, ritual
slaughtering was punishedwithenslavement.Ibid.,Jan.,1936,24-25.

this prohibition and strictlyforbadethe ritualkillingof animals,no

matterbywhomit was practiced, and transgressors werethreatened
with severe punishment. Thus the Mongolway of eatingwas made
obligatoryfor everybody, includingthe Mohammedans and Jews,
notwithstanding theirpeculiarreligiousprescriptions.
Both,theMohammedans and Jews,are designatedin the decree
bythecollective termofHui-hnifn] |3], whichat thattimewas applied
to all CentralAsiaticpeoples,althoughoriginallyonlythe Ouigours
werecalledby thatname.
The Mohammedans werenamedin thisedictMu-su-hi-man Hui-
hui mei^fc^#@[l]EI S and the Jews Chu-huHui-huimei. The
finalparticlemei if denotesthe Chineseplural-affix of thattime.
(2) CHU-HU%&.
This term,whichoccursin decreesdatingfrom1329 and 1354,
coincideswiththepreceding one,butthefinalcompound Hui-huihas
beenomitted.
The edict of April 19th, 1329, deals with the taxation of
Nestorians, Jews,and Mohammedans,62 whilethatof the fifthmoon
(May 23rd to June 20th), 1354, pertainsto the summonsof the
wealthyMohammedans and Jewsto thecapitalformilitary service.63
Bothdocuments wereconsulted by theArchimandrite Palladius,who
firstidentified thisparticulartermas designatingJews.64He was,
however, mistaken in his notionthatthereference of 1329represents
the earliestmention, becausehe overlooked the decreesof 1280 and
1320.65 Yet, his meritto priorityover otherauthorsremainsun-
impaired.Noyéhas discussedbothof theseedicts,66 butthatof 1329
escaped his attention. Moule67 as well as Haenisch68have examined
62) Yüan-shih,Po-na-pen "ñ~$ft;fc, Shanghai (Commercial Press), chiian 33,

f. 37b.
63) Ibid., chiian 43, f. 10b.
64) Palladius: "Elucidations of Marco Polo's travels in North China drawn
from Chinese sources." Journal of the N.-Ch. Branch, RAS, Shanghai, New
Series, no. 10, 1876, p. 3&.
65) Cf. terms no. 1 and 3.
66) Noyé, op. cit., Bull, cath., 23:269, Jan., 1936, pp. 24 and 28.
.67) Cf. Moule, op. cit., p. 221, fn. 14 (edict of 1329); p. 224, fn. 17 (edict
of 1320).
68) Erich Haenisch: Steuergerechtsameder chinesischenKlöster unter der
Mongolenherrschaft.Leipzig, 1940,(pp. 38-39.

,the decree of 1320. But none of these authors has realized and
correctedthe error of Palladius.
(3) CHU-HU Yl & •
In the edict of 1320, issued betweenJuly7th and August 4th,69
the firstcharacter chu Yi has replaced the earlier form jJl. This
decree, like that of 1329, regulatedthe taxation of minorities,such
as Mohammedans,Nestorians, Jews, and Dasmans.
The remark by Haenisch that behind the term Chu-hu the
characterta fgfhas to be supplemented,70 is quite uncalled for. In
six instancesdo we findthirdfinalcharacters. Their sound values,
however,differ;namely,te fâ. (nos. 11 and 17) or Ê§ (nos. 13 and
14), Ve í$ (no. 10), and tai ft (no. 15).
(4) CHU-WU-&&.
The charactersemployedhere entirelydifferfromthe preceding
transliterations.Chu-wuwas used by the censorShih T'u-erh fgR
who,on November24th,1340,71advised the governmentto forbidthe
Dasmans, Mohammedans,Jews, and others to marrytheir paternal
cousins.72
Thirteenmore Chinesetransliterationsof the word Djuhud have
been traced fromsecondarysources. But these deviationsare due to
the jumblingof characters,because the authorshad in mind onlythe
sound value of the Chinese rendering.
(5) CHU-HU [HUI-HUI] * gg [ ® 0"] .
The term Chu-hu (no. 5) is mentionedin a work by Yang Yü
m$| , the preface of which is dated 1360.73 The passage under dis-
cussion contains the followingstatement:
69) Yiian-tien-chang,suppl. II, f. 35b.

70) Haenisch, op. cit., p. 38, fn. 3.
71) Yiian-shih,chiian 40, f. 9a.
72) This is in line with the Chinese social customs. Actually,m the
seventhmoon(betweenJuly25thand August23rd) of the same year a similar
provisionhad beenmade againstleviratemarriage(Yiian-shih,chiian40, f. 7b).
By decreeforeignerswereprohibited fromleviratemarriage,an abomination in
the eyes of the Chinese,whichwas practicedamong Mohammedans and Jews.
(Cf. Laufer, op. cit., pp. 190-191.)
73) Shan-chü hsin-hua LÜ)g#ífí. In: Chih-pu-tsu-chaitsung-shu ^l^Ä
5& Wi#, ti-shih-erh-chigg + n íg , f. 7a. Photolithographedin Shanghai from
the woodblock ed. of Pao Ting-po f®m If by the Ku-shu liu-t'ung ch'u # B äfc

of the HangchowSugar Bureauwereall wealthymerchants

"The officers of
Jewish( ? and Mohammedan)extraction."
Chu-huHui-huiin termno. 5 maybe a tautological designation
and simplyapplyto "Jews",as in termno. 1, wheresucha compound
expressionhas beenused,or it maymean"Jewsand Mohammedans.
Althoughgrammatically both views are tenable,the compileris
inclinedto the secondalternative.
A list of appellations,
compiledby the JapanesescholarP. Y.
Saeki74containsthe followingfour,whichhave not been mentioned
elsewhere.
(6) CHU-HUIflcft.
(7) CHU-HO&m.
(8) CHU-HU&L&.™
(9) CHU-YÜEËM .76
Noyéhas contributed
two moreterms:77
(10) CHU-HU-T'E%&1&.
(11) CHU-HU-TE¿fe¥ f#.
The Rev. C. F. Hogg has collectedthe followingthreerender-
ings:78
(12) CHU-HUUfe-
(13) CHU-HU-TEiftföfä.
(14) CHU-HU-TEm ¥ ® •
Cf. also Ch'enYuan pfcfg: K'ai-fengI-ssu-lo-yeh chiao k'ao 0g $f - |g IB

m ft %. 1st ed. Shanghai,1923,p. 30.
74) P. Y. Saeki {£ fâ ÍÍ £l>: The Nestoriandocuments and relicsin China.
Tokyo,1937,p. 239.
75) Ibid.,p. 518. Saeki states therethat this termis to be foundin the
decreeof April19th,1329,in the Yiian-shih, chiian36. But,actually,thatdecree
is in chiian33, while chiian36 does not containany referenceto the Jews.
Moreover,Saeki gives the firstcharacterwronglyas gfc , insteadof ^l. (Cf.
termno. 2 and footn.62.)
76) Presumablythis appellationis identicalwith term no. 4; i.e., Saeki
apparentlyconfusedthe secondcharacteryii |§ withthe similarcharacterwu
^ whichoccursin the Yiian-shih underthe year 1340 (cf. footn.71).
77) Noyé,op. cit., 22:268,Dec, 1935, 651. - These termsare, however,
also mentioned elsewhere.
78) "Mahommedanism." ChineseRecorder,Shanghai,23:2, Feb., 1892,61.
MS. Vol. XII, 8

The Rev. Isaac Mason,amongothers,has mentionedthe following

:79
transliteration
(15) CHU-HU-TAI JEN ¿fc^fftA •

The presentwriterhas added two more terms:80
(16) CHU-HO =fe«.81
(17) CHU-HU-TE fgn # -
(b) RenderingsadoptedbytheJeivs,Catholics,Protestants,
and Mohammedans.
(18) rU-T'AIfè±.
The mest general termfor Jews is Yu-t'ai. It was presumably
introducedby the early Jesuit missionaries,most likely by Father
MatteoRicci. He used it in his work Tien-chu shih-i5£ ^ "g£j§ (De
Deo vera ratio) of whichthe firsteditionappeared in 1595, although
Pfistermentionsan earlier version entitledTien-h&U<eh shih-i5Ç i£
Ä^.82 Ricci stated in his letter of July 26th, 1605, to the Jesuit
General83that the Jews were not familiar with this name.
Other renderingsmust be considered merely as variant con-
temporarytranscriptions :
(19) YU-T'AIfèm.
(20) YU-T'E |ft2$ .
Ju-te-ya(no. 21) is the equivalentforJudea,Syria,and Palestine.
The authorshipfor this termmust be likewiseascribed to Ricci who
used it in his famous world map84which was firstdressed in 1584.85
This name has been generallyacceptedand kept in constantuse until
79) List of Chinese-Moslem terms. Shanghai,firstpubi,in 1919,rev. ed.

1928. (The Societyof Friendsof the Moslemsin China.) p. 4.
80) "The Jewsin China,an annotatedbibliography."The ChineseSocial
and PoliticalScienceReview,Peking,July/Sept.,1940,24:2, p. 127,termsno. 4
and 7.
81) Cf. termno. 5. The secondcharacterho % (no. 16) representsap-
parentlyan erroneoussubstitutefor the characterhu ft (no. 5).
82) Louis Pfister, S.J.: Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les
Jésuites de l'ancienne Mission de Chine 1552-1773. v. I, p. 34, no. 1.
83) Ricci, op. cit., v. II, Lettere, p. 291.
84) **H » H & H .
85) Pfister,op. cit., p. 39, no. 17.

today, togetherwith Yu-fai-kuo $£ -% ^ (cf. no. 18). The con-

temporaryterm for Palestine is Pa-le-ssu-t'anELjjgj®fffi. The
Mohammedanshave a differentname for Judea, namely, Yu-na-ni
(no, 22). 86
(21) JU-TE-YA intiffi.
(22) YU-NA-NI fi M % •
The Jews called themselvesin the three stone inscriptionsof
1489, 1512, and 1663, I-ssu-lo-yeh(Israel).87 Possibly they adopted
this appellationalreadyat the timeof theirarrival at Kaifeng during
or previousto the 12th century;they certainlycould not have done
so before the 10th century,when they first entered China in the
companyof the Mohammedan-Arabic traders. If that should be the
case, this might be considered their oldest authenticname.
(23) I-SSU-LO-YEH - |g *fêH .
The Mohammedantransliterationsof "Israel" are I-ssu-ma-erh-
lai (no. 24),88whichalso representsthe personal name of Israel, the
son of Abraham,and I-ssu-la (no. 25). 89
(24) I-SSU-MA-ERH-LAI % Oft i$ ff <& .
(25) I-SSU-LA £J.ffift .
The richestharvestof Chinese renderingsof this name is to be
foundin the Catholictheologicalliteraturewhich dates back further
than that of most of the other alien religiousgroups.90
(26) /-LA-BíHJlítl.
(27) I-LA-ERHmmm.
(28) I-SA-O-ERH £fe » M IÜ •
(29) I-LA-ERH & ü ff.
(30) I-SA-ERH&fò M*
(31) I-LA-ERH Tjf& ff .
(32) I-SA-O-ERH /#Jft jg ff •
86) Mason,op. cit. (cf. footn.79), p. 4.

87) Tobar,op. cit., p. 52 (inscr. of 1489); p. 57 (inscr. of 1512); p. 65
(inscr.of 1663).
88) Throughthe kindnessof Mr.Yang Hsüeh-men(Ju-chi)fô @ f1]{ìk fè)
89) Mason,op. cit. (cf. footn.79), p. 4.
90) Throughthe courtesyof the Rev. P. G. M. Allegra,O.F.M. - Cf. also
Dictionaryof religiousterms. Hankow,1935. (LutheranBoard of Publications.)

(33) I-SA-ERHfòffltm.
(34) I-LA-ERHft flft ft .
(35) I-SSU-LA-ERH« ®fÖ M •
(36) I-SSU-LA-ERHPI ^ i£ fB.
(37) I-LA-O-ERHÃ A PS5 .
(38) O-SE-LIEH fc & ?l].
The Protestants use the followingtranscription:
(39) I-SE-LIEH.EXfi #J .
MostlikelytheCatholicmissionaries introduced
also thephonetic
renderingof theword "Hebrew" :
(40) HSI-PO-LAI # fflt ^5 .
Ch'i-hsing pa-chiaor "seven[clan] namesor eightfamilies"is a
populardesignationappliedat thepresenttimeto theKaifengJewish
community.91
(41) CH'I-HSING PA-CHIA -£tt A £ •
(c) Unauthenticated "Nestorian"name.

(42) SHIH-HU(-JEN)#& ( A ) .
The termShih-huor Shih-hu-jen, menof the Shih-hucountry,
was discovered bySaeki. He assertsthatitappliesto Jews. It occurs
tentimesin "The Lord of the Universe'sDiscourseon Alms-giving,
Part III" (Shih tsunpu shihlunti san -fft
S ^ 2fë fra^1 H ) .92 Saeki
ascribesit to the NestorianBishopAlopên (A-lo-penfõf $| ;£ ), or,
as he calls him, Abraham.93ProbablySaeki is right,when he
identifies
Shih-hu-jenas Jews,thoughthereis no real indication that
Alopên is the authorof the documentunder consideration.In
addition,it wouldbe morecorrectto call this Chineseaaaptationof
the"SermonoftheMount"94 ChristianratherthanNestorian, forits
91) See sectionIII, p. 10; cf. also footn.50-52. Mikami(footn.54) and

Sogabe (footn.55), both of^whomvisitedthe Kaifeng Jews in 1940, confirm
the use of thisterm.
92) Saeki, op. cit.,pp. 211 (verse 66), 212 (v. 71), 216 (v. 119, 123), 217
(v. 132-133),218 (v. 137), 223 (v. 191,193, [194], 196).
93) Ibid.,pp. 84-85,note 10; and p. 113. - The Syriac name of Alopên
was Jab-allaha.
94) Ibid.,p. 232,note2; p. 242,note18.

characteris quiteMonophysitewhichis in contrastto the Nestorian

beliefs.95
It willlargelybe thetaskof thephonologist
to solvethisriddle,
beforeit can be decided,whetheror not Shih-hu-jen reallyapplies
to Jews. In anycase,Saeki has toucheduponan important problem
thatmayshednewlighton theJewishnomenclature. Shih-huwould
representby far the oldestChinesenameif Saeki's contention were
becausethe document
provedtp be correct,
definitely datesfrom642
A.D.
It is, however, to agreeto twootheridentifications
impossible of
Saeki. He claimsthatFu-lin$ fó, a name frequently substituted
for that of the countryof Ta-ch'in^ ^ , representsthe "Chinese
phonetization" of the Syriac word "Phrim" or "Ephrim"; i.e.
Ephraim.96Secondly,in "The Lord of the Universe'sDiscourseon
Alms-giving" is mentioned"the walled city of Itar" (I-ta-ch'eng
fF1^COc) 9TwhichS?.ekiidentifies with Judea.98It appears rather
implausiblethat Judea,a country, shouldbe introduced here as a
"walledcity",apartfromthe factthatthe obscurecontextdoes not
justifysuchan assumption.99
(d) Names indicatinga Mohammedan connotation.
betweenthe ChineseJewsand Moham-
The close relationship
medansis clearlyindicatedbytheChinesenomenclature, particularly
by thosetermscoinedwiththe compoundHui-hid[g]'ñ', whichhas
also beenusedin thedecreeof 1280 (no. 1; cf. also no. 5). Hui-hui
mayeitherprecedeor followthe actualname.
(43) HUI-HUI KU-CHIAO 0 0 * ffc .
"Old Mohammedan Religion"is a termto whichthe Bishop
and the Rev. W. C. Milne101
J. Rizzolati100 drewattention(cf. also
termno.'52).
95) The attentionof the presentwriterwas drawnto this fact by Prof.

WilliamHung ìft^jt,whomhe has consultedaboutthis intricateproblem.
96) Ibid.,pp. 109-111,note32; cf. also p. 83, n. 5; p. 89, n. 16; and p. 241,
n. 16.
97) Ibid.,p. 223, verse 194.
98) Ibid.,p. 244, note 28.
99) Cf. reviewby Otto Franke: "Die Spurender Nestorianerin China."
Orientalistische
Literaturzeitung,42:4, April,1939,col. 201-209.

(44) LAN-MAO (-TZU) HUI-HUI f| iff(?) pj m .

"Mohammedanswith blue turbans" representsa name given to
the Jews in order to distinguishthem fromthe Mohammedanswho
used to wear turbansof different colours.102Accordingto Noyé this
term is still being used in Sian.103
(45) CH'ING HUI-HUI ft (gj (gj.
"Blue Mohammedans",a name mentionedby two writers,104
mightconceivablyallude to the blue turbansof the Jews (cf. no. 44).
(46) CHEN HUI-HUI jft|B| M .
"True Mohammedans" is a popular contemporaryappellation
applied to the Kaifeng Jews.105
100) "Noticesof the Catholicreligionin China,in a letterfromthe Rt.

Rev. JosephRiz¿olati,Vicar Apostolicof Hu-kwang." The ChineseRepository,
Canton,15:1,Jan.,1846,pp. 43-44.
101) Real lifein China.2nd ed. London,1858,p. 411.
102) Alexander Wylie: Chinese researches. Shanghai, 1897, part II,
"Israelitesin China",p. 7. - Cf. also S. M. Perlmann: The historyof the Jews
in China. London,1913,p. 25.
103) Noyé,op. cit.,Bull,cath.,22:268,Dec, 1935,p. 650.
104) Liu Lung-kuangW m ft: m ¿S ëftM M m * k ft 9$ $t ("The myth
of the Kaifeng Jews.") ^ X ( ^ §£fë B ) . (The Kabun Osaka Mainichi),
4:56, Febr.15, 1941,p. 23.
Liu extractedhis facts froma "Guide to Kaifeng"PH$í ^c ft, whichthe
presentcompilerhas been unableto obtain. That articlehad been contributed
by a Japanesevisitorto Kaifeng,who had receivedhis information froma
Mr. Shih ft of the local Jewishcommunity.
Sogabe, Shizuo ©»«RflfüiH«"©«* A ("The Kaifeng Jews.")
W3cB$!R (Revue Diplomatique[The Gaiko Jiho],Tokyo,97:4 (869), Febr. 15,
1941,p. 66.
Bruno Navarra mentionsin his book, China und die Chinesen,Bremen-
"
Shanghai,1901,p. 38,thatthe KaifengJewswereknownby the nameof 'Huei
Tse', d.h. sieben Stämme."
The termHui-tzuM ¥ , however,applies to Mohammedans, whilethe com-
poundexpressionLan-maoHui-tzu(or Hui-hui)has beenused to designateJews.
Perhapsthatis the reasonforNavarra'sclaim. His explanationof the Chinese
termas 'seven tribes'or 'clans' is evidentlydue to a confusionof his data.
Presumablyhe had some information in regardto the seven clans (cf. no. 41)
and, by mistake,threwthe two unconnected itemstogether.
105) This information was furnished by the courtesyof Dr. HellmutWilhelm
afterhis visitto Kaifengin 1934/35.

(47) TIAO-CHIN-CHIAO #fc ffift •

(48) TIAO-CHIN HUI-HUI $fcffîHI JOJ ..
(49) TIAO-CHIN-CHIAO ?J (not too 73) Sí ft .
A differentiation
fromthe Mohammedansis indicatedby the two
rendering'sT'iao-chin-chiao(no. 47) and Tiao-chin-chiao(no. 49) ;
i.e., "the sect whichextractsthe sinews",alludingto Jewishprescrip-
tionsforthe slaughteringof animals.106Ricci was the firstto mention
this popular distinctionbetween the Mohammedans,who were not
allowed to eat pork,and the Jews,who ate no sinews ("huomini che
non mangiano nervi").107 T'iao-chin Hui-hiä (no. 48), or "the
Mohammedanswho extract the sinews", is an expressionfound by
the AmericanChargé d'Affaires,Charles D. Tenney,who visited the
Kaifeng Jews in 1918.108 This term again proves that the Chinese
considerthe Jews merelya Mohammedansect.
(50) TIAO-CHING-CHIAO «Aft.
T'iao-ching-chiao,according to Liu Lung-kuang,109means "the
sect which does not accept Christianity."110This term as well as
Chiao-cking-chiao(no. 5,6) evidentlyform substitutesfor the some-
what disparagingtermsT'iao-chin-chiao(no. 47) and Tiao-chhi-chiao
(no. 49).
(51) ERH SHIH CHIH JEN rft £ A .
Literally,this expressionmeans "membersof the two families
(religions)."111Originallyit was used by the Confucianiststo denote
106) "The childrenof Israel eat not (of) the sinew." Genesis,32, 32. J. de
Mailla,in his Histoiregénéralede la Chine,v. XIII, éd. by Grosier,Paris, 1785,
p. 616, explainsthis customas follows: "Tiao-kin-kiao, pour signifierqu'ils
s'abstiennentdu sang,& qu'ils coupentles nerfs& les veinesdes animauxqu'ils
tuent,afinque toutle sang s'écouleplus aisément."
107) Ricci,op. cit.,v. I, Commentarij, p. 470.- Cf. also MarshallBroomhall:
Islam in China,London,1910,p. 176.
108) "The Jewishcolonyat Kaifeng." Millard's Review,Shanghai,12:1,
March6, 1920,p. 11.
109) Liu Lung-kuang, op. cit. (cf. footn.104), p. 24.
110) Liu asserts that this termactuallyrefersto the Nestorians,whose
creedhas beenknownby the nameof Ching-chiao j& $±.
Ill) Mason,op. cit. (cf. footn.79), p. 4V- Cf. also Liu Chih m ^> tzu
Chieh-nien if M. hao I-chai- & : T'ien-f ang chih-sheng shih-lunien-p'uX Jj
3è li ^ %k*£35F • Nanking,1st ed. 1775. The ed. consulteddates Nanking,
1872,chiian1, sectionfan-liM,M , fol. 90b. - The passage underdiscussion

the Buddhistsand Taoists,but it has also been adoptedby the Moham-

medans as a technicaltermfor Jews and Christians.
(e) Designations anent the Jewish religion.

The followingtwo terms are perhaps intended to express a
contrastto Islam:
(52) KU-CHIAO -& ifc.
"Loi ancienne" is mentionedby two Jesuit fathers,namely,by
Gozani in his letter of November5th, 1704, from Kaifeng,112and
repeatedby de Mailla in his Histoire générale de la Chine (1785) 113
(cf. also no. 43).
(53) CHIU-CHIAO fë ft .
"Ancientfaith"is anotherdesignationof the same meaning,cited
by the Rev. F. Porter Smith.114
(54) T'lEN-CHU-CHIAO % » % .
"The religionwhichcame fromIndia" is a termwhichwas chosen
because the firstJewish immigrantscame either from or through
India.115 It was droppedby the Jews duringthe Christianpersecu-
tions. They wanted then to avoid disadvantageousconsequencesby
being confusedwith the Catholics,116who had adopted a name of
almost the same sound, though of a differentmeaning and written
in different characters: Tien-chu-chiao^^K'.
has also been mentioned by Gabriel Deveria : "Notes d'épigraphie mongole-

chinoise." Paris, 1896, pp. 43-44, fn. 2. (Extraits du Jl. Asiat., Sept.-Déc.
1896.)
112) Lettres édifiantes,nouv. éd., Paris, 1781, XVIII, 45. (Ed. Panthéon
littéraire,III, 149-154.)
113) Vol. XIII, éd. by Grosier,Paris, 1785, p. 616.
114) A vocabularyof propernames in Chinese and English of places, persons,
tribes, and sects. Shanghai, 1870, p. 22.
115) Tobar, op. cit., p. 43 (inscr. of 1489); p. 57 (inscr. of 1512); p. 72
(inscr. of 1663).
116) W. A. P. Martin: A cycle of Cathay, 2nd ed., London, 1897, p. 277. -
Cf. also [George Smith and W. H. Medhurst]: "A narrative of a mission of
inquiryto the Jewish Synagogue of K'aifùng fu, on behalf of the London Society
for promotingChristianityamong the Jews." The Chinese Repository,Hongkong,
20:7, July,1851, art. 7, p. 449.

(55) TIEN-CHI AO Ji & .

"Religion of Heaven" was formerly used, but eventually
abandoned.117
(56) CHIAO-CHING-CHIAO mU%k-
"The Religionwhichteaches the Scriptures"is a termof similar
nature as the above two118(cf. also nos. 47-50).
(57) "MUSSAUITES".
Mitssauites,"followersof Moses", derivedfromMussau - Moses
(cf. table of Chinese renderingsof Biblical names, nos. 8a-b), is a
termmentionedby Sir HenryYule in the Introductory Notice to "The
journeyof BenedictGoes fromAgra to Cathay."119a
(f) Modern coinages.

(58) YI-TI-SHIH(-TI) Sl±(fi«|).
Yi-tishih is a proposedphoneticrenderingof the word "Yiddish"
which is usually circumscribedby a whole sentence.
(59) YI-TI YÜ fl*flfe !ß .
Yi-ti yu,a veryappropriatephoneticequivalentfor the "Yiddish
language," was formedby Keng Sheng gT¿fe.n»b
(60) HSIN-FENG YU CHIH-MIN CHU-I(-CHE) f§ ^ gg flg
(61) YU CHIH-MIN CHU-I ®igìi«

(62) CHI-AN-HUI ft*#..
(63) HSI-AN CHU-I ffi3? £ |fe.
(64) YU-TAI MIN-TSU CHU-I m ± S 2££ Ü •
(65) HSÜN-KUANG YÜN-TUNG flf# 8 #J.
(66) HSÜN-SHAN YÜN-TUNG -05lUS 16 .
117) Gozani,op. cit. (cf. footn.112), p. 45.

118) Liu Lung-kuang, op. cit. (cf. footn.104), p. 24.
119a) HenryYule: Cathayand thewaythither, London,1916,vol. IV, p. 175.
Most likelythis name is based on the Mohammedan Mu-sa ^ We
transliteration
(Moses) whichhas also been used by Yü Cheng-hsieh ¡E ^ : Kuei-ssuts'un-
ffc
kao §| B & Sí. The 1st ed. was pubi,in 1849; the ed. consultedwas pubi,in
Shanghai,1941,tse 2, chiian13, fol. 397.
119b) TientsinYi-shih-paofí ft ffl,Kuo-chichou-k'anm ß£ffl?IJno. 38, in a
noteon "International terminology" Kuo-chitzu-linffiVkfâfâ,Ap. 23, 1947.

Thesevenaboveexpressionsfor"Zionist"(no.60) and"Zionism"
or "Zionistmovement"(nos. 61-66) have been newlycreatedfrom
contemporaryconcepts.120
(g) of names.
Erroneousidentifications
In additionto the above nomenclature of sixty-five termsthere
havetobe mentioned threemorebecauseofthefrequent andpersistent
misconcept thattheyapplyto Jews:
(1) The oldestoftheseis theconjecture of theRev.Alexander
Wyliethatthe Hsien-chiao mentioned
jjiftüc, in the Chineseannals,
referredto the Jewishreligion.121 The followersof this sect have
meantimebeen identified as fire-worshippers or Parsees. Wylie's
assumption facts,as both,theChinese
was in so farcloseto historical
Jewsand ParseescamefromIndia.
(2) Thetermwo-t'oi& fljfc has beenwrongly identifiedas apply-
ingtoJewishmoney-lenders, whileactuallyit refersto "Mohammedan
commercial themembers
organizations", ofwhichinvestedmoneyfor
theMongols. Thishas firstbeenexplainedby Paul Pelliot.122 Wêng
Tu-chien^ $?§ßg inhisarticle,"A studycfwo-t'o",123 andthepresent
writerin his bibliography124 have dealtin detailwiththisproblem.
Lack of space doesnotpermitto repeatthedetailshere.
The originalmistakecan be tracedback to Hung Chüngt §f|,
from1887to 1890Chineseminister toRussia. Therehe hadapparent-
ly the opportunity to consulta rare fragment of the Ching-shih ta-
chien¡£gJU; , withor withoutthe assistanceof foreign
-fcJÖL scholars.
In his Supplementto the translationof the historyof the Yuan
dynosly, dealingwiththevariousreligioussects,125 he sets forthhis
120) The terms no. 60-62 were taken from Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
^MQtf&^X: $:&*$& , Shanghai, 1933; while the nos. 63-66 were traced
in various modern dictionaries.
121) Chin, researches, op. cit., part II, pp. 1-23.
122) "Notes sur le Turkestan' de M. W. Barthold." Toung Pao, v. 27, 1930,
p. 33, fn..l. - "Sao-houao, Sàu7a, Sau7at, Saguate." Ibid., v. 32, 1936, p. 232,
end of footn. 4 from p. 231.
123) ft Hörm m* Yenching Jl. of Chin. Studies ft £ £ ff, Peking, June,
1941, pp. 201-218.
124) Löwenthal, op. cit., pp. 130-132.
125) £ ft.» 3t HEÍÉ, 1897, chiian 29, 5t Ut 3- # £ ^ , fol. 3a.

argument : thatwo-Vohas the same soundvalue as Yu-t'e{£ $$ and

Ju-teix' ig.126 He thenconcludesthatthe Jewsare identicalwith
thewo-t'v.121 But fromhis ownwordingit is quiteobviousthatthe
Ching-shih ta-chiennevercontainedsuch a statement,it represents
merely his erroneoustheorybased on superficialphonologicalcom-
parisons. A numberof Chinese,Japanese,and foreignauthorshave
acceptedand reproducedhis contentionas provedfacts, without
Questioning and testingtheir linguisticand historicalaccuracy.
Hence,Hung'smistakehas beenperpetuated in therelatedliterature.
(3) Saeki has listedthe termch'ing-chen as a Chinese

fffJp£
nameforthe Jews,128That assumptionappears to be ratherfar-
fetched.The expressionoccurseighttimesin the Jewishdocuments
in variouscombinations:129
nos. 1-4. ch'ing-chen-ssu
fä jR ^ "the true and pure Temple"
(synagogue),180the customarytechnicalterm for
Mohammedan mosques,whichwas also adoptedby the
Jews.
no. 5. ch'ing-chen jft%. A , "descendantsof the
hou-jenfjtf
trueand pure (Law)."131
126) Cf. termsno. 20 and 21.

127) Cf. Löwenthal,op. cit.,pp. 242-243.
128) Saeki,op. cit.,p. 239,termno. 9.
129) Laufer,op. cit.,p. 193,has objectedto the translation"pureand true."
Accordingto him that expression"is the technicalterm for 'Allah*,"and
eh'ing-chen-ssu"is simplya mosque; for Jews it signified'templeof God' or
simply'synagogue'." But on inquirythe presentwriterhas been unable to
corroborate the firstpart of this statement.
Gozani,throughout his letterof 1704,op. cit. (cf. footn.112), pp. 31-48,
calledtheKaifeng synagogueli-pai-ssujp§f¥^ . This is also the technicalterm
for Mohammedanmosques. Whereas the Jews themselvesspeak of their
synagogueas I-ssu-lo-ychtien - HgIß it Hi, or "Temple of Israel", in the
inscriptionof 1489 (cf. Tobar,op. cit.,p. 52).
130) Tobar,op. cit.: (1) p. 52 (inscr.of 1489); (2) p. 65 (headingof the
inscr.of 1663); (3) p. 20 (tablet formerly placed above the big entrancegate
of the synagogue;1658); (4) White,op. cit., II, 104, line 1, characters5-7
(inscr.of 1679).
131) Tobar,op. cit.,p. 54 (inscr.of 1489).

no. 6. ch'ing-chenchiao-chufilÄ it ± "theLordofthepure

and true [Law]."132
no. 7a. ch'ing-chenfangffij^^ "theCh'ing-chen(synagogue)
archway"333 whichwas erectedbytheChao Jgfamily.
The characterfangi% standshereforthe compound
expressionpfai-fangftfi
£§ (archway).
4<'this'
no. 7b. H - £&,
ch'ing-chen i fang fjtf Ch'ing-chen
(synagogue)archway"134likewise.refersto the Chao
archway.
Saeki apparentlybased his-claimon the strengthof the fifth
term,thoughhe doesnotexpressit explicitly.In thatparticularcase
the Jewshave been alludedto by implication.But in noneof the
abovequotationsdoesch'ing-chendirectlyapplyto theJewishpeople
or theirreligion.It maynot,therefore,
be classedas an appellation
of the Jews.
CONCLUSION
A reviewof the findings of this articleshowsthatthe biblical
namesfromthe fourJewishstoneinscriptions representphonetic
renderings.Theyare unrelatedto any Chinesenamesand to sub-
sequentMohammedan, Catholic,and Protestantrenderings, or to
previousNestoriantransliterations.
Thefamily andpersonalnamesadoptedbytheJewishimmigrants
likewisebear no relationto theiroriginalHebrewnames,withtwo
exceptions:(1) thenameof thefirstgrand-rabbi Lieh-ioeior Li-wei,
the phoneticrendering of "Levi"; and (2) the nameof Yen Tu-la,
of"Abdullah"or someothernameofNew Persian-
thetransliteration
Hebreworigin. Both of these personslived in the 12th century,
duringtheearliestknownhistoricalperiodof the ChineseJews.
Manifoldrelationsare shownbetweenthe two neighbouring
Semiticraces,theJewsand Mohammedans:
132) Ibid., p. 17 (tablet formerlyplaced outside the front-buildingof the

synagogue; 1679).
133) White, op. cit., II, 104, line 2, characters 4-6 (inscr. of 1679).
134) Ibid., II, 106, line 13, characters 4-7.

(1) The theologicaltitlesof man-laand wu-ssu-tathroughthe

mediumof New Persian,theircommonlanguage,and the
expressionsch'ing-chen and li-pai-ssuwereborrowed by the
Jewsfromthe Chinese-Islamic terminology.
(2) A numberof official and popularappellations, particularly
thoseformed withthecompound Hui-hui,alludeto theclose,
ofthetwominorities
association inthemindsoftheirChinese
hosts.
(3) The Kaifengsynagogue"was built afterthe modelof a
mosque"accordingto the assuranceof Laufer.135
(4) Intermarriage withMohammedan womenwas veryfrequent.
The Jewsand theirreligionwere called by numerousChinese
names. Theythemselves adoptedthetermI-ssu-lo-yeh (Israel). It
represents probably their oldest and
appellation it is firstdocumented
in 1489. It may,however, datebackto thetenthcentury, whenthe
firstJewsenteredthiscountry by sea in the companyof the Arabic
Mohammedan traders.
The rendering of Chu-hu(Jews) in a numberof different trans-
literations the
during Mongolperiod, fell intodisuse afterthe over-
throwof the Yuan dynastyby the Chinese.
PossiblythetermShih-hu,employed in a Christiandocument of
642A.D.,refersto theJews. It wouldantedateanyotherdesignation
byseveralcenturies, if thatfactwereto be definitely established.
A number oftermswereintroduced bytheearlyJesuits.Among
them are designationslike Yu-t'ai (Jews) and Ju-te-ya(Judea,
Palestine)whichare in current use eventoday. Presumably theword
Hsi-po-lai(Hebrew) too has to be classed in this category. Most
of theothernamesweregivenbytheChinesereferring to theorigin
of the Jewishreligionand to the relationship of the two Semitic
races,whiletherestconsistsmoreor less of localpopularnicknames.
135) Laufer, op. cit., p. 193. His statementis somewhatcontradicted by

Smith-Medhurst,"A narrativeof a missionof inquiry"(cf. footn.116), p. 445.
The two Chineseemissaries,who visitedthe synagoguein 1850/51,reportedas
follows: "The Jewishsynagogueat K'ai-fungfu resemblesa Chinesetemple,
with ornaments, &c, and many Chinesecharactersare writtenthere,by the
front,and above the doors."

Modernequivalents forsuchtermsas "Zionism","Zionist",and

"Yiddish"represent paraphrasescombinedwithphonetictranscrip-
tions.
The small,but interesting
groupof Jewishsettlers,
who shared
the Vagariesof Kaifeng'sfate for about a millennium, have been
graduallyabsorbedintothe greatmass of the Chineseand of the
local Mohammedan population. The Jewishcommunities in South
ChinaalongtheArabictraderoutehavelongsincedisappearedwith-
out leavinga trace; no recordsby or aboutthemhave as yetbeen
found.
N.B. While this article is in press, ProfessorBoris Pankratoff

kindlyfurnishedthefollowing information:te (termsno. 11,
&
13, 14, 17) or t'e Chinese
(no. 10) represent phonetizations
of theMongolpluralsuffix "-d",whiletai (no. 15) rendersin
ChinesetheMongolsuffix addedto tribalnames.
R.L.


The Nomenclature of Jews in China 2

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The Nomenclature of Jews in China 2

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THE NOMENCLATURE OF JEWS IN CHINA*

Thoughmuchhas beenwrittenaboutthe Jewsin Chinaone of

I. CHINESE BIBLICAL NAMES CONTAINED IN THE FOUR

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LIST OF CHINESE BIBLICAL NAMES FROM THE FOUR JEWISH STONE

T7 «lieh inscription Chinese

1 Aaron 1512:63 A-ho-lien p¡m9 A-ìung Rlni

2 Abraham 1489:36 A~wu-lo-hanRftftgK I-pu-la-hsin(-po)

3 Adam 1489:36 [P'an-ku] A-tan A-tan [jen-tsu]

4 Ezra 1489:39 Ai-tzu-la B^W I-ssu-la Jö^fö

5 Isaac 1512:63 I-ssu-ha-ko JKfiR»« I-ssu-ha-k'o ^.pJP&^

6 Jacob 1512:63 Ya~ho-ch'üeh~wu Yeh-erh-sun-po

8a Moses 1489:38 Mieh-she MSk Mu-sa mWi

9 Noah 1512:63 Nü-wa *j» Nu-hai &M

10 Israel 1489:52 I-ssu~lo~yeh -» ** I^ssu-ma-erh-lai

Ila Mt Sinai 1489:39 Hsi-na-shan ^^ai

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INSCRIPTIONS WITH THEIR MOHAMMEDAN, NESTORIAN,

Nestorian Catholic Protestant

Ya-lung 5SH Ya-lun £4%

A-lo-han fSJ^ti Ya-pa-lang Ya-po~la-han

A-t'an PM Ya-tang ö^r Ya-tang Rfê

Ai-ssu SJPr I-ssu-la £l#rti

Ai-hsieh && I-sa-ko ft'Stt- I-sa &B

Ya-ko-po 5Sf§tì Ya-ko ffi^-

Yao-su-o Wf&JïLYüeh-shu-ya also Yüeh-she 1fàM

No-o ifèJïi No-ya Ä3S formerlyalso

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understandable as New Persian,the linguafrancaall overthe Far

1) BertholdLaufer: "A Chinese-Hebrew manuscript, a new sourceforthe

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the inscription of 1663,4however,Adam has been presentedas a

4) Tobar,op. cit.,p. 65; cf. also fn.2.

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confoundedwiththe Mahometans by the Chinese,it happenedthat this Chinese-

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physicianYen Ch'êngfjg f£thenameof Chao Jgas surname,which

1) Tobar, op. cit., p. 43. 4) Laufer, op. cit., pp. 194-196.

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Thereis, however, no reasonto assumethatYen Tu-la is nota

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who lias beenmentioned twice,watsin chargeof this workjointly

37) Ibid., p. 43; inscr. of 1489.

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to almosta quarterof thetotalmalepopulationat thattime.44The

44) Laufer,op. cit.,p. 195.

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It is truethattheYen clan adoptedthesurnameof Chao,as we

53) Cf. the above "List of Chinese-Jewish Surnames",col. 1.

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180Jewslocally,withanother80 members ofthecommunity residing

57) Laufer,op. cit., pp. 192-193.

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this prohibition and strictlyforbadethe ritualkillingof animals,no

62) Yüan-shih,Po-na-pen "ñ~$ft;fc, Shanghai (Commercial Press), chiian 33,

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69) Yiian-tien-chang,suppl. II, f. 35b.

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of the HangchowSugar Bureauwereall wealthymerchants

Cf. also Ch'enYuan pfcfg: K'ai-fengI-ssu-lo-yeh chiao k'ao 0g $f - |g IB

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The Rev. Isaac Mason,amongothers,has mentionedthe following