applied

sciences
Article
Effects of Solid Die Types in Complex and
Large-Scale Aluminum Profile Extrusion
Tat-Tai Truong 1,2 , Quang-Cherng Hsu 2, * and Van-Canh Tong 3
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hung Yen University of Technology and Education, Dan Tien,
Khoai Chau, Hung Yen 49000, Vietnam; cadcamtai@gmail.com
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology,
415 Chien-Kung Road, Kaohsiung City 80778, Taiwan
3 Department of Ultra-Precision Machines and Systems, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34103, Korea; canhtong@kimm.re.kr
* Correspondence: hsuqc@nkust.edu.tw




Received: 19 November 2019; Accepted: 26 December 2019; Published: 29 December 2019


Abstract: Increasing customer requirements for quality and productivity in extruding aluminum
products has led to the development of different types of extrusion dies. In this study, three different
types of dies, including traditional flat die, pocket die and spread die were designed to extrude
complex and large-scale solid profiles. The design parameters for these dies were used from actual
extrusion experience. The results obtained from steady-state simulation such as velocity, temperature,
extrusion force, and die deformation were used to assess the advantages and disadvantages of the
dies. Transient simulations were performed to analyze the evolution of transverse weld in the pocket
and spread dies. The effects of ram speeds on the related extrusion parameters were also investigated.
The research results provide useful guides for designers and engineers in selecting these types of
extrusion dies.

Keywords: solid die types; extrusion die design; pocket die; spread die; complex aluminum profile;
large-scale aluminum profile; metal flow; die deflection; transverse weld; ram velocity

1. Introduction
Aluminum extrusion dies can be divided into three basic types: solid die, semi-hollow die,
and hollow die, in which the solid and the semi-hollow dies are used for extruding solid profile
products, and hollow die is used for fabricating hollow profile products [1,2]. In the aluminum
extrusion with the solid die, a hot billet is supplied into the container of the extruder and then pushed
by a ram. The material flows through the die to form the product.
Die design plays a decisive role in the quality of extruded products. Unreasonable design can lead
to a variety of product defects such as wave, bending, tearing, etc. [3–5]. Figure 1 shows the typical
product defects when the extrusion dies are not designed properly. So far, the design of extrusion
dies is commonly based on the experiences of engineers and expensive die testing processes [6,7].
Hence, the die design still is a challenging task. Moreover, one of the most important factors of the
modern extrusion process is the transverse weld formed between new billet material and old material
in the cavity of the die. Therefore, to ensure the quality of extruded products, the extrusion die must
be designed to provide the necessary pressure for the transverse weld forming orifice [8,9], as well
as to maintain continuity of extrusion. Because the complexity of the extrusion process, numerical
simulation is commonly used to predict the process performance, which will aid for the design of
the extrusion dies. Presently, with the development of computer and simulation software, complex

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263; doi:10.3390/app10010263 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

studied. To balance the metal flow in the extrusion product, the dies were designed with a 3D model
using practical experience parameters. After that, numerical simulations of extrusion were
conducted by HyperXtrude 2017 software (Altair Engineering, Inc., Michigan, USA) with the
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) algorithm. The steady-state extrusion parameters, such as
extrusion force,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263velocity, temperature, and die deformation, were investigated. The transient 2 of 19
simulation is utilized to explore the evolution of transverse weld in the billet-to-billet extrusion
process of the pocket, and the spread dies. Finally, the effects of ram speeds on the related extrusion
parameters were
parameters of extrusion
examined.process
The can be obtained
advantages and such as extrusion
drawbacks velocity,
of these product
die types temperature,
are analyzed and
die deformation, die stress, welding seam etc. [10–12].
evaluated based on the obtained parameters from simulations.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Product
Productdefects
defectswith
withan
animproper
improper extrusion
extrusion die
die design.
design. The
Thedefects
defectsconcern
concernwith
withsignificant
significant
bending
bending and
and twisting
twisting of
of the
the profile.
profile.

2. DieThere
Designare many parameters involved in the die design. Among them, the parameters of bearing
length were considered by many designers [2,13,14]. Using variable bearing length is one of the
In this study, the cross-section geometry of the product is asymmetric, the wall thickness varies
traditional methods for adjusting the balance of material flow [2,14]. The adjustment results usually rely
from 2.0 to 5.0 mm, and the main body region of the product attaches four snap-fit elements. Figure 2
on the experience of the engineer because of the complexity of the natural flow in the die. Several studies
shows the 3D model (Figure 2a) and the essential dimensions of the geometry of the extruded
have introduced the methods for determining the appropriate bearing length. Miles et al. [13] proposed
product (Figure 2b). Stenger and Laue [29] evaluated the complexity of product geometry through a
some standards and rules for the bearing length calculation based on their practical experiences.
geometric classification of extrusion profiles, where solid profiles were classified into seven groups
Lee et al. [15] used the numerical simulations to formulate an equation of bearing length in flat die hot
from the simplest geometry group (group A) to the most complex geometry group (group G). The
extrusion. The bearing length equation is a function of the cross-sectional thickness and distance from
product profile in this study is in group F, which has geometries with abrupt and thin wall
the die center. The relationship between minimum bearing length and flow pressure was studied by
cross-sections or wide cross-sections. Therefore, the 3D model shown in Figure 2 is a complex
Van Ouwerkerk [16]. Viswanath et al. [17] proposed a method for calculating bearing lengths of simple
geometry profile. The maximum height and width of the products are 240.35 and 40 mm,
solid geometry using numerical simulations. This method was verified by extrusion experiments for
respectively. Based on the largest size of the product profile, the traditional flat die and pocket die
traditional flat-face die. In general, the calculation of bearing length is relatively complicated and
are selected to extrude on a machine with a container diameter of 310 mm (corresponding to a
time-consuming, especially in the case of complex cross-sectional profiles [16,18].
4000-ton extruder); the spread die is chosen to extrude on an extruder with a container diameter of
Besides the bearing length, the design of solid extrusion dies also concerns with the geometries of
186 mm, (corresponding to an 1800-ton machine).
the entrance and the pocket [14]. The pocket extrusion die provides the pressure needed for charge
weld [2,14]. On the other hand, using the pocket in front of the die exit is an effective solution for
controlling the distribution of the velocity of metal flow in the die [2,14,19,20]. The pocket geometry
can be designed with single or multiple steps. Multiple cavity pocket is more advantage compared to
single cavity one [21]. The design of the pocket has been considered by many authors. Li, Q et al. [22]
investigated the effect of the angle and volume of the cavity on metal flow in the pocket extrusion
die using 2D finite element (FE) analysis. They showed that adjusting the pocket angle is an effective
solution to balance the flow. Li, Q et al. [23] revealed the effect of the entrance geometry and the pocket
structure on flow in the solid die using simulation. They pointed out that using multiple steps can
reduce the volume of the dead-metal zone, and the entrance geometry of the pocket can be used to
eliminate the concave effect formed on the flat surface of a profile after extrusion. Fang et al. [21]
studied the influence of pockets in the two-cavity die extrusion employing three-dimensional (3D) FE
simulations. They showed that the designed die with multi-step pockets can reduce extrusion pressure
and distribute the flow more evenly. Lee et al. [24] studied the optimal pockets’ geometry of solid die
for H-shaped aluminum profiles. The entrance geometry of the cavity was described by a B-spline
curve, in which the control points of the curve were modified to achieve optimal geometry with the
least deviation of velocity. Zhang et al. [25] designed the pocket geometry for complex aluminum
profile production using an automatic mesh deformation method. Xavier [19] compared the relevant
extrusion parameters of the flat-face, and the feeder dies by a 3D FE analysis. They indicated that the
metal flow and temperature in extruded products are more evenly distributed when using the die with
a feeder.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 3 of 19

When the size of the extrusion product is larger than the container diameter, the spread dies can be
used [14]. The spread dies are usually equipped with a spreader plate placed in front of the die orifice,
which is responsible for adjusting the flow expansion to provide enough material to the die opening.
Similar to the pocket die, the spread die creates the necessary pressure to ensure that the transverse
weld is maintained during continuous extrusions. The design of the spread die for a large and complex
profile is more difficult compared to the traditional flat and pocket dies. The main obstacles for the
designer are the entrance geometry and the configuration parameters of the die so that the material can
be distributed evenly, and to ensure the die strength. Kim et al. [26] optimised the opening geometry
of the spread die for extruding a flat panel profile with a size larger than the container diameter of
the extruder. Liu et al. [27] studied the types of inlets for the spread die of solid aluminum profile.
They showed that the fan-shaped entrance is consistent with the flat plate profile, with this type of
entrance, better extrusion parameters can be achieved in terms of temperature, velocity distribution in
extrusion profiles, and die deformation. Imamura et al. [28] conducted an experimental extrusion of a
simple flat profile. They reported that the extrusion force of the spread die was reduced by about 30%
compared to the traditional flat die.
From the above literature review, the design parameters of dies and die types play an important
role in ensuring product quality and extrusion productivity. The pocket and variable bearing length
have been widely used in the die design for solid profiles. However, most studies have focused on
simple aluminum profiles. There has been a lack of design guidelines for solid extrusion dies, and an
in-depth comparison between the three types of solid extrusion dies for complex geometry profiles has
not been reported.
In this paper, three types of dies for extruding complex, large-scale aluminum profiles were
studied. To balance the metal flow in the extrusion product, the dies were designed with a 3D
model using practical experience parameters. After that, numerical simulations of extrusion were
conducted by HyperXtrude 2017 software (Altair Engineering, Inc., Michigan, USA) with the Arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) algorithm. The steady-state extrusion parameters, such as extrusion force,
velocity, temperature, and die deformation, were investigated. The transient simulation is utilized to
explore the evolution of transverse weld in the billet-to-billet extrusion process of the pocket, and the
spread dies. Finally, the effects of ram speeds on the related extrusion parameters were examined.
The advantages and drawbacks of these die types are analyzed and evaluated based on the obtained
parameters from simulations.

2. Die Design
In this study, the cross-section geometry of the product is asymmetric, the wall thickness varies
from 2.0 to 5.0 mm, and the main body region of the product attaches four snap-fit elements. Figure 2
shows the 3D model (Figure 2a) and the essential dimensions of the geometry of the extruded product
(Figure 2b). Stenger and Laue [29] evaluated the complexity of product geometry through a geometric
classification of extrusion profiles, where solid profiles were classified into seven groups from the
simplest geometry group (group A) to the most complex geometry group (group G). The product
profile in this study is in group F, which has geometries with abrupt and thin wall cross-sections
or wide cross-sections. Therefore, the 3D model shown in Figure 2 is a complex geometry profile.
The maximum height and width of the products are 240.35 and 40 mm, respectively. Based on the
largest size of the product profile, the traditional flat die and pocket die are selected to extrude on a
machine with a container diameter of 310 mm (corresponding to a 4000-ton extruder); the spread die is
chosen to extrude on an extruder with a container diameter of 186 mm, (corresponding to an 1800-ton
machine).
Figure 3 shows the layout of the die exit of the flat-face die and the 3D model of the flat-face die.
Die structure consists of the main die plate, die bearing region, and three run-out steps. The maximum
diameter and height of the die are 360 and 90 mm, respectively. The maximum taper angle of run-out
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 4 of 19

is 3◦ . The geometry of these steps is determined empirically to ensure the die strength and to provide
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21
enough safety when the extruded metal flow does not touch the run-out surfaces.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. The geometry of the extruded product: (a) The 3D model; (b) The cross-section geometry
with essential dimensions of the product (unit: mm).

Figure 3 shows the layout of the die exit of the flat-face die and the 3D model of the flat-face
die. Die structure consists of the main die plate, die bearing region, and three run-out steps. The
maximum diameter and height of the die are 360 and 90 mm, respectively. The maximum taper
angle of run-out is 3°. The geometry of these steps is determined empirically to ensure the die
(a) (b)
strength and to provide enough safety when the extruded metal flow does not touch the run-out
2. The geometry
Figure 2.
surfaces. geometry of the extruded
extruded product:
product: (a) The 3D model;
model; (b) The
The cross-section
cross-section geometry
geometry
with essential
with essential dimensions
dimensions of
of the
the product
product (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).

Figure 3 shows the layout of the die exit of the flat-face die and the 3D model of the flat-face
die. Die structure consists of the main die plate, die bearing region, and three run-out steps. The
maximum diameter and height of the die are 360 and 90 mm, respectively. The maximum taper
angle of run-out is 3°. The geometry of these steps is determined empirically to ensure the die
strength and to provide enough safety when the extruded metal flow does not touch the run-out
surfaces.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Design
Figure 3. Design of
of the
the traditional
traditional flat
flat die:
die: (a)
(a) Layout
Layout of
of the
the die
die exit;
exit; (b)
(b) the
the 3D
3D model
model of
of the
the flat-face
flat-face
die (unit: mm).
die (unit: mm).

Figure 44 displays
displaysthethelayout
layoutfor
forthe
thedie
dieorifice
orificewith
withbasic dimensions,
basic dimensions,andand
thethe
3D 3D
model of the
model of
pocket
the pocket die.die.
TheThemaximum
maximum diameter
diameterandandheight of of
height thethe
pocket
pocketdie
dieare
aredesigned
designedsimilarly
similarly toto the
traditional flat
flat die,
die, in
in which
whichthe
thedepth
depthof ofthe
thecavity
cavityisis32
32mm;
mm;thetheminimum
minimumdistance
distance
ofof
thethe entrance
entrance is
is
3232
mm; mm; the
the maximumcircle
maximum circlediameter
diameterofofthethedie
dieentrance
entranceisis280280mm.
mm. The
The run-out
run-out of
of this
this die is also
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW(a) (b) 5 of 21
designed with the same geometry and structure as the traditional flat die. die.
Figure 3. Design of the traditional flat die: (a) Layout of the die exit; (b) the 3D model of the flat-face
die (unit: mm).

Figure 4 displays the layout for the die orifice with basic dimensions, and the 3D model of the
pocket die. The maximum diameter and height of the pocket die are designed similarly to the
traditional flat die, in which the depth of the cavity is 32 mm; the minimum distance of the entrance
is 32 mm; the maximum circle diameter of the die entrance is 280 mm. The run-out of this die is also
designed with the same geometry and structure as the traditional flat die.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Design
Design for
for the
the pocket
pocket die:
die: (a)
(a) Layout
Layout for
for the
the entrance;
entrance; (b)
(b) Simplified
Simplified 3D
3D model
model (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).

Figure 5a shows the structure, and main dimensions of the spread die. Figure 5b shows the 3D
model of this die. With the same cross-section geometry of the product, the spread die uses the
billet with a diameter smaller than the size of the product, which is the main difference in this die
design compared to other dies. Therefore, it is necessary to use appropriate tactics to distribute the
material evenly in the extrudate. Previous studies have shown that the structure and entrance
 (a) (b)
Figure 4. Design for the pocket die: (a) Layout for the entrance; (b) Simplified 3D model (unit: mm).
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 5 of 19
Figure 5a shows the structure, and main dimensions of the spread die. Figure 5b shows the 3D
model of this die. With the same cross-section geometry of the product, the spread die uses the
billetFigure
with a5adiameter
shows the structure,
smaller than andthe main
size ofdimensions
the product, of which
the spreadis thedie.
mainFigure 5b shows
difference the 3D
in this die
model of this die. With the same cross-section geometry of the product, the
design compared to other dies. Therefore, it is necessary to use appropriate tactics to distribute spread die uses the billet
the
with a diameter smaller than the size of the product, which is the main
material evenly in the extrudate. Previous studies have shown that the structure and entrance difference in this die design
compared
geometry to other
plays a dies.
vital Therefore,
role in theitspread
is necessary to use [26].
die design appropriate
Thus, thistactics
ledtotodistribute the material
the fact that this die
evenly in the extrudate. Previous studies have shown that the structure
design becomes very complicated. Although the design of spread die is complicated, this kind and entrance geometry playsof
adies
vitaloffer
role some
in the advantages
spread die design [26]. Thus, this led to the fact that this die
over the other die types. In practice, designers and engineers oftendesign becomes very
complicated. Although geometry
modify the entrance the design of of spread
spreaddie dieis complicated,
design to meet this the
kindcustomer
of dies offer some advantages
requirements. It is
over the other die types. In practice, designers and engineers often modify
necessary to provide a suitable die structure and incorporate the use of supporting solutions such the entrance geometry of
spread die design to meet the customer requirements. It is necessary
as bearing length adjustment or pocket to achieve a high-quality product. The spread die is to provide a suitable die structure
and incorporate
designed with athe use of supporting
maximum diametersolutions
of 360 mm, suchinaswhich
bearing thelength adjustment
maximum heightorof pocket to achieve
the leading die
aplate
high-quality product. The spread die is designed with a maximum diameter
(lower die) and the spreader die (upper die) are 90 and 90 mm respectively, the maximum of 360 mm, in which the
maximum
spread angle height of the
of the leading
upper die30°.
die is plate
The (lower
upperdie)
dieand the spreader
consists of a step diewith
(upper die) are
a depth 90 mm
of 30 and 90 mm
placed
respectively, the maximum spread angle of the upper die is 30 ◦ . The upper die consists of a step with
before the die entrance. Moreover, a pocket is designed in front of the die orifice of the lower die to
asupport
depth of 30 mm
flow placed The
correction. before the die entrance.
maximum Moreover,
circumferential circleadiameter
pocket isof designed in front
the material flow ofthrough
the die
orifice of the lower die to support flow correction. The maximum
the die is 280 mm. Design for run-out is similar to the two dies mentioned above. circumferential circle diameter of the
material flow through the die is 280 mm. Design for run-out is similar to the two dies mentioned above.

(a) (b)
Figure5.5. Design
Figure Design for
for the
the spread
spread die:
die: (a)
(a) Layout
Layout of
of the
the die;
die; (b)
(b) Simplified
Simplified 3D
3D model
model (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).

After the
After thepreliminary
preliminary designs,
designs, the bearing
the bearing lengthlength
will bewill be calculated.
calculated. In this
In this study, study, the
the calculation
calculation
of the maximumof thebearing
maximum bearing
length (Bmax )length (Bmax
is based on) an
is based on an
empirical empirical
formula, formula,
which relateswhich
to the relates
width ofto
the product
the width ofasthe product as follows:
follows:
Bmax = Kw t, (1)

where Kw is the coefficient of the effect of the die orifice width (or product thickness) and t is the main
width of the die orifice (in this study t = 3.15 mm). The value of Kw is from 2.0 to 3.0, which is often
used in practice with a pocket combination. According to Miles et al. [13], Kw from 1.4 to 3.5 were
recommended. For the investigation purpose, this study adopts the values of Kw = 2.5 for calculating
the bearing lengths of the initial extrusion dies.
Because of the complexity of the cross-section geometry of the product, variable bearing lengths
are used to balance material flow. Some experience indicators are used in this study, as listed below:

1. The bearing area further away from the center will have a smaller length value.
2. Bearing lengths for regions with complex geometries (such as grooves for assembling, branches
with changing directions) will be shorter than that for adjacent areas (multiplied by a coefficient
from 0.75 to 0.9).
3. The bearing length at the tip of the product profile is calculated to be approximately 0.6 times
smaller than the adjacent bearing.
1. The bearing area further away from the center will have a smaller length value.
2. Bearing lengths for regions with complex geometries (such as grooves for assembling,
branches with changing directions) will be shorter than that for adjacent areas (multiplied by a
coefficient from 0.75 to 0.9).
3. Sci.
Appl. The bearing
2020, 10, 263 length at the tip of the product profile is calculated to be approximately 0.6 6times
of 19
smaller than the adjacent bearing.
Calculation scheme
Calculation scheme for
for bearing
bearing length
length is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 6.6. Product
Product profile
profile is
is divided
divided into
into 18
18
primary regions. The maximum bearing length value is in the area closer to the center (region 7 with7
primary regions. The maximum bearing length value is in the area closer to the center (region
with
the thethickness
wall wall thickness of the product
of the product t = 3.15tmm).
= 3.15Calculated
mm). Calculated
bearingbearing values
values for for the of
the regions regions of are
the dies the
dies are listed
listed in Table 1.in Table 1.

Figure6.6. Calculation
Figure Calculation scheme
schemefor
for bearing
bearingregions
regionsof
ofthe
thedies.
dies.

Table 1. The bearing lengths in the regions for the extrusion dies.
Table 1. The bearing lengths in the regions for the extrusion dies.
BearingLengths
Lengths Bearing
BearingRegion
Region
Bearing
with
with Kw K w 11 22 33 44 5 5 6,14 6,14 7 8 8 9 9 1010 1111 1212 13 13 15 1516 16 17 1718 18
(K(Kw w= =
2.5)
2.5) 3.1
3.1 5.2
5.2 5.9
5.9 33 5.35.3 6.9
6.9 7.9 3.9 6.5
7.9 3.9 6.5 3.6
3.6 5.85.8 5.75.73.43.4 5.55.53.9 3.93.43.42 2

3. Finite Element Modelling

3. Finite Element Modelling
Steady-state and transient simulations are carried out. The models of the dies created by CATIA
Steady-state and transient simulations are carried out. The models of the dies created by CATIA
V5R20 software ((Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) are saved to STP file format and
V5R20 software ((Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) are saved to STP file format and
transferred to the simulation environment by HyperXtrude 2017 software. All exposed material
transferred to the simulation environment by HyperXtrude 2017 software. All exposed material areas
areas are extracted for simulating the extrusion process. Figure 7a–c show the FE models with the
are extracted for simulating the extrusion process. Figure 7a–c show the FE models with the flat-face,
flat-face, pocket, and spread dies, respectively. The meshing process is automatically generated by
pocket, and spread dies, respectively. The meshing process is automatically generated by the software,
the software, in which the selection of the fine mesh size is based on the software recommendation.
in which the selection of the fine mesh size is based on the software recommendation. Then, rough
Then, rough mesh with a size of 13 mm is assigned to the billet area. The mesh size decreases
mesh with a size of 13 mm is assigned to the billet area. The mesh size decreases gradually in the
gradually in the spread and pocket chambers. Fine mesh with a size of 0.4 mm are created in the
spread and pocket chambers. Fine mesh with a size of 0.4 mm are created in the bearing region,
bearing region, where the large plastic deformation occurs. The element type used for the bearing
where the large plastic deformation occurs. The element type used for the bearing and profile regions
and profile regions is the triangular prism, while the tetrahedral element type is suitable for the
is the triangular prism, while the tetrahedral element type is suitable for the other areas. The total
other areas. The total numbers of elements used for the flat die, pocket die, and spread die are about
numbers of elements used for the flat die, pocket die, and spread die are about 1,300,000, 900,000,
1,300,000, 900,000, 1,400,000, respectively.
1,400,000, respectively.
In this study, the billet material is AA6063. The continuous equation with the Sellar–Tegart
In this study, the billet material is AA6063. The continuous equation with the Sellar–Tegart model
model is used to describe the behavior of flow stress of AA6063 shown in Equation (2):
is used to describe the behavior of flow stress of AA6063 shown in Equation (2):
1
1 Z n
σ= sinh−1 ( ) , (2)
β A

where σ indicates the flow stress of the material; β and A are the material coefficients; n is the exponent;
Z is the Zener–Hollomon coefficient and is calculated by formula Equation (3):
. Q/RT
Z= e , (3)
ε
where ε. is the effective strain rate; Q, R, and T are the activation energy, gas coefficient, and absolute
temperature, respectively.
Material parameters of the constitutive equation are listed in Table 2. The material of the tools
(ram and container) and the die is H13. The physical and thermal parameters of AA6063 and H13 are
shown in Table 3. The extrusion parameters such as container diameter, billet length, billet temperature,
die and tools temperature, and ram speed are shown in Table 4. The simulations were conducted
on the HP-Z420 workstation. The average time for steady-state simulations of the traditional flat,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 7 of 19

the pocket, the spread die were about 4, 1.4, and 2.5 hours, respectively. The average time for transient
simulations for the pocket and the spread die were roughly 31.1 and 42.2 hours, respectively.

Table 2. Material parameters of the constitutive equation [30].

β (m2 MN−1 ). A (s− 1 ) N Q (J · mol− 1 ) R (J mol− 1 · K− 1 )

0.04 5.90152 × 109 5.385 1.4155 × 105 8.314

Table 3. Physical and thermal parameters of the billet and tools material [4].

Density Young Modulus Thermal Conductivity Heat Capacity

Material Poisson’s Ratio
(Kg/m3 ) (GPa) (W/m.K) (J/(kg ◦ C))
AA6063 2700 40 0.35 198 900
SKD61 7870
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW
210 0.35 24.3 460 7 of 21

Table 4. Extrusion parameters1 in simulation

1/n of different die types.
σ = sinh-1 (AZ) , (2)
β
Extrusion Parameters Traditional Flat Die Pocket Die Spread Die
where σ indicates
Container thediameter
flow stress
(mm)of the material;
310 β and A are the 310 material coefficients;
186 n is the
exponent; Z is the Zener–Hollomon
Billet length (mm) coefficient and
200 is calculated by formula
200 Equation
200 (3):
Extrusion ratio 72.5 Q/RT 72.5 26.1
Billet temperature (◦ C) = ε̅̇ e
Z 480 , 480 480 (3)
◦
where ε̅̇ is Container temperature
the effective ( C) Q, R, and450
strain rate; 450 energy, gas450
T are the activation coefficient, and
Die temperature (◦ C) 450 450 450
absolute temperature, respectively.
Ram speed (mm/s) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Meshing for the extrusion
extrusion dies:
dies: (a)
(a)The
Theflat-face
flat-facedie;
die;(b)
(b)The
Thepocket
pocketdie;
die;(c)
(c)The
Thespread
spreaddie.
die.

Material parameters of the constitutive equation are listed in Table 2. The material of the tools
(ram and container) and the die is H13. The physical and thermal parameters of AA6063 and H13 are
shown in Table 3. The extrusion parameters such as container diameter, billet length, billet
temperature, die and tools temperature, and ram speed are shown in Table 4. The simulations were
conducted on the HP-Z420 workstation. The average time for steady-state simulations of the
traditional flat, the pocket, the spread die were about 4, 1.4, and 2.5 hours, respectively. The average
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 8 of 19

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Extrusion Velocity of the Product

The goal of the extrusion die design is to ensure the velocity in the extruded product is evenly
distributed, and it is a decisive factor in the quality of the extruded product [31,32]. The velocity
relative difference (VRD) shown in Equation (4) is used to assess the overall level of the velocity
distribution of the extruded product [10,31,33].
Pn |Vi −Va |
i=1 Va
VRD = × 100% (4)
n
where Vi is the speed at node i; Va is the average velocity of all nodes; n is the number of nodes
considered in cross-section of product. The smaller the VRD value, the better the flow distribution.
Smaller VRD also means that product quality is better. The value of VRD for balancing metal flow is
defined by the designer, which is expected when the die design is as small as possible. In this study,
if VRD is less than 2% of the metal flow is considered to be balanced [11,27].
Figure 8 shows the flow distribution in the extrudate of the conventional flat die obtained from
simulation with bearing length calculated by Equation (1) with Kw = 2.5. The velocity distribution on
the
Appl.product
Sci. 2019, is uneven
9 FOR PEERin this case. Velocity tends to be faster and uniform in the region near the 10
REVIEW center
of 21
and slow in the region far from the center (region 1 and region 2). The velocity in region 1 is slowest,
which
value is can be explained
0.43%. by theof
The geometry obstruction
the productformed
is not by the complex
warped or bent.geometry. The difference
With a maximum between
bearing length
the maximum
of 7.9 mm (Kw and minimum
= 2.5), velocity
the material flowincan
the be
product profile
balanced. is 20.37 mm/s.
However, The calculated
controlling VRD in
the metal flow value
the
is 4.23%. However, this value is too large and
spread die is more difficult compared to the other dies. needs to be further improved.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Velocity
Velocity distribution
distribution in
in the
the extrudate
extrudate of
of the
the traditional
traditional flat
flat die
die with
with the
the calculated
calculated bearing
bearing
length of Kw = 2.5.
length of Kw = 2.5.

To balance the metal flow in the extruded product of traditional flat die, the bearing length needs
to be increased. Then Kw coefficient should be increased accordingly. Table 5 lists bearing lengths of the
regions in traditional flat dies with different Kw values. The simulation results of velocity distribution
for Kw coefficient of 3.5 and 4.5 are shown in Figures 9a and 9b. It is observed that the differences
between the maximum and minimum velocity are reduced from 10.37 to 5.37 mm/s. In other words,
increasing Kw leads to the fact that the material flow becomes more balanced. Hence, the traditional
flat die must use a coefficient of Kw = 4.5 (corresponding to the maximum bearing length of 14.2 mm)
to balance the metal flow in the extrudate.
Figure 10 indicates the velocity distribution in the pocket and spread dies. It shows that the
velocity distribution with spread die is nearly even (Figure 10b). In this case, the calculated VRD value
is 0.43%. The geometry of the product is not warped or bent. With a maximum bearing length of
(a)
7.9 mm (Kw = 2.5), the material flow can be balanced. However, controlling the metal flow in the
spread die is more difficult compared to the other dies.
 Figure 8. Velocity distribution in the extrudate of the traditional flat die with the calculated bearing
Appl. Sci. 10,K263
2020,of
length w = 2.5. 9 of 19

(a)

(b)
Figure
Appl. Figure
Sci. 9.9Velocity
2019,
9. Velocity
FOR PEERdistribution
REVIEW in
distribution inthe
theproducts
products of
of the
the traditional
traditionalflat
flatdies
dieswith
withdifferent
differentKKww coefficients
coefficients
11 of 21
at the
at the ram
ramspeed
speedof
of11mm/s:
mm/s: (a)
(a) KKww =
= 3.5;
3.5; (b)
(b) K
Kww==4.5.
4.5.

(a)

(b)
Figure10.
Figure 10.Velocity
Velocitydistribution
distributionininthe
theproducts
productsatatthe
theram
ramspeed
speedofof11mm/s
mm/sofofthe
thedies:
dies:(a)
(a)The
Thepocket
pocket
die;(b)
die; (b)The
Thespread
spreaddie.
die.

To further investigate the effect of ram speed on velocity distribution on the profiles of
different die types, a series of steady-state simulations were conducted with ram speeds of 3, 5, 7,
and 9 mm/s. Figure 11 demonstrates the changing trend of VRD with the ram speeds. In the case of
the pocket die, the velocity remains almost balance with a slight vary in VRD when changing the
 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 10 of 19

Table 5. Bearing lengths for the regions with different Kw coefficients.

Bearing Lengths
(b) Bearing Region
with Kw 1 2 3 in the
4 products
5 6,14 at the
7 ram
8 speed
9 10 1 mm/s
11 12 13dies:
15 (a)16
Figure 10. Velocity distribution of of the The17 18
pocket
die; (b) =3.5)
(KwThe spread die.
5.2 8.6 9 4.4 7.3 10 11 5.5 9.1 4.8 8 7.9 4.7 8.5 6.2 5.4 3.2
(Kw =4.5) 7.1 11.8 12.2 5.8 9.6 13.2 14.2 7 11.7 6.3 10.5 10.4 6.2 11.5 8.5 7.4 4
To further investigate the effect of ram speed on velocity distribution on the profiles of
different To
diefurther
types,investigate
a series ofthe
steady-state
effect of ramsimulations weredistribution
speed on velocity conductedon with
the ram speeds
profiles of 3, 5, 7,
of different
and 9die types,Figure
mm/s. a series11
ofdemonstrates
steady-state simulations were trend
the changing conducted withwith
of VRD ram speeds
the ram of speeds.
3, 5, 7, and
In 9the
mm/s.
case of
Figure 11 demonstrates the changing trend of VRD with the ram speeds. In the
the pocket die, the velocity remains almost balance with a slight vary in VRD when changing the case of the pocket
speeddie,
of the
ram.velocity remains
With the almost balance
traditional flat die,with a slight vary
the velocity tendsin VRD
to bewhen
morechanging
uniform thewithspeed
the of ram.
increasing
With the traditional flat die, the velocity tends to be more uniform with the increasing ram speed,
ram speed, indicated by a significant decrease of VRD. For the spread die, the velocity distribution
indicated by a significant decrease of VRD. For the spread die, the velocity distribution becomes more
becomes more uniform when the ram speed is low (at 1 mm/s) or high speed (at 9 mm/s). At the
uniform when the ram speed is low (at 1 mm/s) or high speed (at 9 mm/s). At the ram speed of 3 mm/s,
ram VRD
speed of 3 mm/s, VRD of the spread die is maximized. The changing trend of VRD of the
of the spread die is maximized. The changing trend of VRD of the spread die when increasing the
spread die of
speed whenram increasing
up to 3 mm/s the speed
can of ram up
be explained by to
the3factors
mm/s that
can cause
be explained byof
the impact thethefactors that cause
die structure
the impact of the die structure and the effect of braking the
and the effect of braking the metal flow by the dead-metal zone. metal flow by the dead-metal zone.

Figure 11. Influence

Figure of ramofspeeds
11. Influence to velocity
ram speeds distribution
to velocity in the
distribution product
in the productofofthe
theextrusion dies.
extrusion dies.

4.2. Extrusion Force

Extrusion force is one of the crucial parameters in designing dies. It is also a criterion to evaluate
the rationality of die design and is the basis for selecting the appropriate extruder [30]. Excessive
extrusion force increases wear and can destroy the die, and this affects die life and cost [34].
Figure 12 shows the effect of ram speed on the required extrusion force. One can see an increasing
linear trend of extrusion force. Hence, increasing ram speed negatively affects the extrusion process.
With increasing the ram speed from 1 to 9 mm/s, the extrusion force is increased about 370 tons by using
traditional flat and pocket die, and about 126 tons by using the spread die. This increased amount of
extrusion force is indispensable because it will require extra work for the deformation process. At the
same ram speed, the pocket die requires the highest extrusion force, which is about 2.5 times larger
than that of the spread die. That can be explained by the increase in the extrusion ratio. Moreover,
at the same speed, the extrusion force required by the pocket die is always higher than that of the
traditional flat die. This is because using pocket die results in higher friction between the extruded
material and the die walls.
deformation process. At the same ram speed, the pocket die requires the highest extrusion force,
which is about 2.5 times larger than that of the spread die. That can be explained by the increase in
the extrusion ratio. Moreover, at the same speed, the extrusion force required by the pocket die is
always higher than that of the traditional flat die. This is because using pocket die results 11
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263
inofhigher
19
friction between the extruded material and the die walls.

Figure 12. 12.

Figure Effects of of
Effects ram speed
ram speedon
onthe
theextrusion forceininthree
extrusion force three die
die types.
types.

4.3. Extrudate Temperature

4.3. Extrudate Temperature
The evolution of temperature in aluminum extrusion die is of great interest for both designers and
The evolution Because
manufacturers. of temperature in aluminum
heat can affect extrusion
the mechanical die and
properties is ofmicrostructure
great interest of for both designers
the product, it is
and manufacturers. Because heat can affect the mechanical properties and microstructure
an essential criterion for evaluating the validity of the designed die. In practical extrusion, increasing of the
product, it is speed
extrusion an essential
is always criterion
desired for evaluating the
by manufacturers validity
because of the designed
it increases productivity.die. However,
In practical
extrusion, increasing
this also leads to an extrusion speed
increase in the is always
temperature of thedesired
extrudedby manufacturers
product because itexceeds
[35]. If the temperature increases
productivity. However, this also leads to an increase in the temperature of the extruded product
the melting point of the material, surface defects may occur [34,36]. With AA6063, the maximum
extrusion
[35]. If temperature
the temperature of the desired
exceeds productpoint
the melting is lessofthan
the about 560 ◦ surface
material, C [27]. Indefects
this study,
may theoccur
standard
[34,36].
deviation of temperature (SDT) is used to evaluate the temperature distribution
With AA6063, the maximum extrusion temperature of the desired product is less than about 560 °C in the product:
[27]. In this study, the standard deviation of temperature s (SDT) is used to evaluate the temperature
Pn 2
distribution in the product: i=1 (T i − Ta )
SDT = , (5)
n
∑ni=1 (Ti −Ta )2
√ (5)
where Ti is the temperature at node i; Ta SDT is the=averagentemperature
, of all nodes; n is the number of
nodes considered in a cross-section of the product. Figure 13 shows the temperature distribution in the
where Ti is the temperature at node i; Ta is the average temperature of all nodes; n is the number of
extruded products at a ram speed of 1 mm/s. It can be seen that the temperature distribution for the
nodestraditional
considered flatin
diea iscross-section
more uniformofthan the those
product. Figure
of other dies.13 shows
This the temperature
is attributed distribution
by two reasons: 1) the in
the extruded products
contact area between at flat
a ramdie speed of 1 mm/s.
and material in dieItexit
can be seen
region that
is less thethat
than temperature distribution
of other dies and 2) the for
the traditional flat die is more uniform than those of other dies. This is attributed
bearing length in this area of the traditional flat die is longer than the other dies leading to increasedby two reasons: 1)
the contact area between
heat transfer. flat die and
The temperature material
tends to reach in its
diehighest
exit region
value is
inless than that
the middle ofof
part other dies and 2)
the product,
and minimal temperature occurs at the left or right edges of the profile. As
the bearing length in this area of the traditional flat die is longer than the other dies leading a result, the region near the to
centerheat
increased experiences
transfer.severe deformation. The
The temperature tends maximum
to reachtemperatures for thein
its highest value traditional
the middle flat, part
pocket,
of the
and spread dies are 497.5 ◦ C, 504.9 ◦ C, and 490.6 ◦ C, respectively. The higher temperature results from
product, and minimal temperature occurs at the left or right edges of the profile. As a result, the
the increased friction and work required for the deformation process corresponding to the die with
region near the center experiences severe deformation. The maximum temperatures for the
more contact area and the larger accumulative volume of material flow.
Figure 14 shows the relationship between the maximum temperature and the ram speed for
different extrusion dies. Figure 14 demonstrates that the temperature rises with the increase of extrusion
speed. The temperature quickly increases in the initial speed range from 1 to 3 mm/s, but the increasing
rate is diminished as the speed greatly increases. The total amount of increased temperatures in the
flat, pocket, and spread dies are about 33 ◦ C, 39 ◦ C, and 59 ◦ C, respectively. It is noted that at the ram
speed of 9 mm/s, the maximum temperature of all three die types is less than 560 ◦ C. Hence, the defects
caused by the overheating problem can be avoided because maximum extrusion temperature is lower
than the allowable extrusion temperature for AA6063 material.
 Figure 14 shows the relationship between the maximum temperature and the ram speed for
different extrusion dies. Figure 14 demonstrates that the temperature rises with the increase of
extrusion speed. The temperature quickly increases in the initial speed range from 1 to 3 mm/s, but
the increasing rate is diminished as the speed greatly increases. The total amount of increased
temperatures in the flat, pocket, and spread dies are about 33 °C, 39 °C, and 59 °C, respectively. It is
noted that at the ram speed of 9 mm/s, the maximum temperature of all three die types is less than
560 °C. Hence, the defects caused by the overheating problem can be avoided because maximum
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 12 of 19
extrusion temperature is lower than the allowable extrusion temperature for AA6063 material.

(a)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

(b)

(c)
Figure 13. Temperature distribution in extrusion products of the dies, (a) The flat-face die; (b) The
Figure 13. Temperature distribution in extrusion products of the dies, (a) The flat-face
pocket die; (c) The spread die.
die; (b) The
pocket die; (c) The spread die.

Figure 15 illustrates the effect of ram speed on the SDT and the difference between the maximum
and minimum temperature (∆T) in the extruded products of different dies. SDT and ∆T exhibit a
general decrease tendency with increasing ram speed, except that the spread extrusion die shows a
short increase in SDT and ∆T at low ram speed range. SDT and ∆T of the flat die are the smallest among
the others. Moreover, SDT and ∆T of the spread die are minimal at the ram speed of 1 mm/s, while SDT
and ∆T of the other two dies reach the minimum at the maximum ram speed of 9 mm/s. Therefore,
increasing the ram speed has a positive effect on the temperature distribution in the products of the
pocket and flat extrusion dies. This is because the temperature distribution becomes more uniform
with increasing ram speed. However,
Figure 14. increase
Effect of ram speed ram speed
on the maximum extrudate also increases
temperature of the dies.the maximum extrusion

Figure 15 illustrates the effect of ram speed on the SDT and the difference between the
maximum and minimum temperature (∆T) in the extruded products of different dies. SDT and ∆T
exhibit a general decrease tendency with increasing ram speed, except that the spread extrusion die
shows a short increase in SDT and ∆T at low ram speed range. SDT and ∆T of the flat die are the
smallest among the others. Moreover, SDT and ∆T of the spread die are minimal at the ram speed of
1 mm/s, while SDT and ∆T of the other two dies reach the minimum at the maximum ram speed of
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 13 of 19

(c)
temperature and
Figure 13. required extrusion
Temperature force
distribution in as shownproducts
extrusion in Figures
of 12
theand
dies,14.
(a)Hence, the ram
The flat-face die;speed should
(b) The
be well controlled in practice.
pocket die; (c) The spread die.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 Figure

FOR PEER
Figure 14. REVIEW
14. Effect
Effect of
of ram
ram speed
speed on
on the
the maximum
maximum extrudate temperature of
extrudate temperature of the
the dies.
dies. 15 of 21

Figure 15 illustrates the effect of ram speed on the SDT and the difference between the
maximum and minimum temperature (∆T) in the extruded products of different dies. SDT and ∆T
exhibit a general decrease tendency with increasing ram speed, except that the spread extrusion die
shows a short increase in SDT and ∆T at low ram speed range. SDT and ∆T of the flat die are the
smallest among the others. Moreover, SDT and ∆T of the spread die are minimal at the ram speed of
1 mm/s, while SDT and ∆T of the other two dies reach the minimum at the maximum ram speed of
9 mm/s. Therefore, increasing the ram speed has a positive effect on the temperature distribution in
the products of the pocket and flat extrusion dies. This is because the temperature distribution
becomes more uniform with increasing ram speed. However, increase ram speed also increases the
maximum extrusion temperature and required extrusion force as shown in Figures 12 and 14.
Hence, the ram speed should be well controlled in practice.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Effect
Effect of
of ram
ram speed
speed on
on temperature
temperature deviation
deviation in the product of solid extrusion dies.

4.4. Extrusion
4.4. Extrusion Die
Die Deformation
Deformation
The information
The information of of die
die deformation
deformation is is valuable
valuable for for die
die design
design because
because diedie deformation
deformation directly
directly
affects the
affects the geometry
geometry accuracy,
accuracy, tolerance
tolerance of of extruded
extruded product,
product, and
and die
die life. Although the
life. Although the elastic
elastic
deformation is inevitable, it is always expected that the deflections of the die are
deformation is inevitable, it is always expected that the deflections of the die are minimal. Based on minimal. Based on
the die
the die deformation,
deformation, thethe designer
designer can can adjust
adjust the
the design,
design, such
such as
as modifying
modifying the the cross-section
cross-section of of the
the
product profile to minimize the deviations caused by
product profile to minimize the deviations caused by the deformation.the deformation.
Figure 16
Figure 16 denotes
denotes the
thedeformation
deformationofofthe thedies
diesatata ram
a ramspeed
speedof of
1 mm/s.
1 mm/s. It clearly shows
It clearly thatthat
shows the
die die
the deformation
deformationis more intensive
is more in the
intensive areaarea
in the closer to the
closer center.
to the TheThe
center. traditional flat flat
traditional die die
shows the
shows
largest deformation compared to the pocket die, and the spread die. The maximum
the largest deformation compared to the pocket die, and the spread die. The maximum deflections deflections in the
X, Y, and Z directions of the flat die are 0.08, 0.17, and 0.06 mm, respectively. Moreover,
in the X, Y, and Z directions of the flat die are 0.08, 0.17, and 0.06 mm, respectively. Moreover, the the maximum
deformations
maximum in the directions
deformations of X, Y, Z of
in the directions of X,
theY,pocket
Z of theextrusion die are 0.06,
pocket extrusion die0.11, and 0.11,
are 0.06, 0.05 mm,
and
0.05 mm, respectively. The maximum deformations in the X, Y, and Z directions of the lowerspread
respectively. The maximum deformations in the X, Y, and Z directions of the lower die of the die of
die are
the 0.05,die
spread 0.1,are
and0.05,
0.090.1,
mm,and respectively. Thus, using additional
0.09 mm, respectively. pocket
Thus, using increases
additional the extrusion
pocket increasesforce
the
but reduces the pressure at the orifice region, which results in a reduction in the die
extrusion force but reduces the pressure at the orifice region, which results in a reduction in the die deformation.
deformation.
 in the X, Y, and Z directions of the flat die are 0.08, 0.17, and 0.06 mm, respectively. Moreover, the
maximum deformations in the directions of X, Y, Z of the pocket extrusion die are 0.06, 0.11, and
0.05 mm, respectively. The maximum deformations in the X, Y, and Z directions of the lower die of
the spread die are 0.05, 0.1, and 0.09 mm, respectively. Thus, using additional pocket increases the
extrusion force but reduces the pressure at the orifice region, which results in a reduction in the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263
die
14 of 19
deformation.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure16.
Figure 16. Die
Die deformation:
deformation:(a)
(a)Traditional
Traditionalflatflat
die;die;
(b) (b)
TheThe
pocket die; (c)
pocket die;The
(c)lower die of the
The lower die spread
of the
die. die.
spread

Table
Table6 6summarizes
summarizesthe theeffect
effectofofram
ramspeeds
speedson onthe
thedeformation
deformation ofof the
the dies. seen that
dies. It is seen that
increasing
increasingramramspeed
speedincreases
increasesthethe
deflection in the
deflection dies.
in the TheThe
dies. maximum
maximum deformation
deformation values of the
values flat
of the
die aredie
flat highest compared
are highest to the other
compared diesother
to the for alldies
the speeds.
for all On
the the other On
speeds. hand,thetheother
deformation
hand, the of
deformation
the dies tends toof increase
the dies with
tendsincreasing
to increaseram
with increasing
speed, exceptram speed,
for the except
pocket die.for theobserved
It is pocket die.
thatItthe
is
observedofthat
structure the the structure
pocket die can ofmaintain
the pocket die can maintain
deformation deformation
stability, stability,
and therefore, andaffected
it is not therefore,byitthe
is
not affected
increasing rambyspeed.
the increasing ram speed.

Table6.6.Effect
Table Effectofofram
ramspeed
speedon
ondie
diedeformation
deformationof
ofsolid
solidextrusion
extrusion dies.
dies.

Ram Speed (mm/s)

Ram Speed (mm/s)
Max.
Max.Deflection
DeflectionofofDies
Dies(mm)(Mag)
(mm)(Mag) 1 5 9
1 5 9
Flat-face die 0.17 0.18 0.19
Flat-face
Pocket diedie 0.17 0.18
0.12 0.190.12 0.12
Pocket die
Spread die 0.12 0.12
0.11 0.12 0.13 0.13
Spread die 0.11 0.13 0.13
4.5. The Transverse Weld of the Pocket Die and the Spread Die
4.5. The Transverse Weld of the Pocket Die and the Spread Die
Pocket die and spread die are commonly used in billet-to-billet extrusion [9]. The pocket (or
Pocket placed
spreader) die and in spread
front of die
the are commonly
die orifice used inthe
will control billet-to-billet
flow and reduce extrusion
the die[9]. The pocket
deformation. It
(oralso
spreader) placed in front of the die orifice will control the flow and reduce
acts as an element that controls the pressure needed for forming the transverse weld. the die deformation.
It Depending
also acts as an
on element that controls
the requirements of the pressure
customer,needed forcontaining
the part forming the transverse
the weld.may
charge weld Depending
have to
onbethe requirements
removed of the customer,
with a high-quality the request.
product part containing the charge weld may have to be removed
with a Inhigh-quality product
practice, the lengthrequest.
of the transverse weld can be determined according to the position of
theInso-called
practice,“stop
the length
mark”of[37,38]
the transverse
occurredweldaftercan be determined
completion of theaccording
extrusiontoprocess
the position of the
of a billet.
so-called
Figure 17“stop mark”
shows the [37,38] occurred
stop mark, whichafter
is completion
caused by theof the extrusion
formation of process
friction of a billet.extruding
between Figure 17
shows the and
material stopbearing
mark, which
surfacesis when
caused by the formation
stopping the ram. of friction between extruding material and
bearing surfaces when stopping the ram.
Depending on the requirements of the customer, the part containing the charge weld may have to
be removed with a high-quality product request.
In practice, the length of the transverse weld can be determined according to the position of
the so-called “stop mark” [37,38] occurred after completion of the extrusion process of a billet.
Figure
Appl. 17 shows
Sci. 2020, 10, 263 the stop mark, which is caused by the formation of friction between extruding
15 of 19
material and bearing surfaces when stopping the ram.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. The
The appearance
appearance of of stop
stop mark
mark andand charge
charge weld
weld in in the
the continuous
continuous extrusion
extrusion ofof solid
solid dies.
dies.
The
The
Appl. Sci.
formation
formation
2019, ofof
9 FOR PEER
aREVIEW
transverse
a transverse weldweld
and and its length
its length (Ltw) distance
(Ltw ) with with distance from
from stop stoptomark
mark to position
starting starting
17 of 21
position
of charge of charge
weld (Ls ),weld (Ls), andfrom
and distance distance
stopfrom
markstop
to themark to the
cut-off cut-offatlocation
location the end at
of the endweld
charge of charge
(Lc ).
weld (L18
Figure c).
shows the invasion (replacement) of the new material stream in the pocket and
spreadFigure 18 different
dies in shows thetimeinvasion
steps.(replacement) of the new
The initial interface material
of the stream
transverse in the
weld pocket
is flat andstep
(time spread
=0
dies in different time steps. The initial interface of the transverse weld is flat (time step
s)) and then gradually bent (see Figure 18a (time step = 8 s) and Figure 18b (time step = 30 s)). This = 0 s)) and then
gradually
figure also bent (see that
indicates Figure 18a (time
materials in the = 8 s) and zone
stepdead-metal Figure
are18b (time step
strongly = 30 s)).
influenced byThis figure
sticky also
friction.
indicates that materials in the dead-metal zone are strongly influenced by sticky
The pocket extrusion process takes only 60 seconds, while the spread extrusion process takes 250 friction. The pocket
extrusion
seconds toprocess takesnew
fulfil 100% only 60 seconds, while the spread extrusion process takes 250 seconds to fulfil
material.
100% new material.

(a)

(b)
Figure 18. Progression of the charge weld in the dies: (a) The pocket die; (b) The spread die.
Figure 18. Progression of the charge weld in the dies: (a) The pocket die; (b) The spread die.

Figure
Figure 1919 demonstrates
demonstrates thethe relationship
relationship between
betweenthe the length
length of
of the
the charge
charge weld
weld line
line and
and the
the
percentage of new material simulated at the ram speed of 1 mm/s. It is worth noting
percentage of new material simulated at the ram speed of 1 mm/s. It is worth noting that the average that the
average
length oflength of theweld
the charge charge weld
for the for the
spread diespread die
is twice is twice
that of the that of the
pocket die. pocket
This is die. Thisthe
because is because
material
the material volume in the pocket chamber is less than the spreading chamber, and the material in
the dead zone is harder to wash off.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 16 of 19

volume in the pocket chamber is less than the spreading chamber, and the material in the dead zone is
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21
harder to wash off.

(a)

(b)
Figure 19.
19. Percentage
Percentageofofthethe
newnew material
material withwith the distance
the distance of theofcharge
the charge
weld inweld in the extruded
the extruded product
product
of of the
the dies: (a) dies: (a) Thedie;
The pocket pocket die;spread
(b) The (b) Thedie.
spread die.

Table
Table 77shows
showsparameters
parametersrelated
relatedto to
thethe
charge weld
charge at different
weld ram ram
at different speeds of 1, 5,
speeds of and
1, 5,9 and
mm/s.9
Table
mm/s.6 Table
clearly6 shows
clearlythat increasing
shows extrusionextrusion
that increasing speed leads to an
speed increase
leads to aninincrease
the length of the
in the transverse
length of the
weld in both
transverse dies.inThe
weld bothcharge
dies. weld lengthsweld
The charge of the two dies
lengths of are
the small at low
two dies areextrusion speed
small at low (at ram
extrusion
speed of 1 mm/s). In particular, the increase rate in the weld length of the pocket
speed (at ram speed of 1 mm/s). In particular, the increase rate in the weld length of the pocketdie is much slower
die
compared
is much slowerto that of the spread
compared die.
to that Thespread
of the weld length increases
die. The by about
weld length 221 mm
increases by for
aboutthe221
pocket
mm die,
for
while it is 3243 mm for the spread die.
the pocket die, while it is 3243 mm for the spread die.

Table 7.
Table Transverse weld
7. Transverse weld parameters
parameters with
with increasing
increasing ram
ram speeds.
speeds.
Length of Transverse
Length WeldWeld
of Transverse
Ram
Ram Speed Speed (mm/s)
(mm/s)
The
The Pocket
Pocket Die
Die (mm)
(mm) TheDie
The Spread Spread
(mm)Die (mm)
1 1 3497
3497 5742 5742
5 5 3624
3624 7385 7385
9 9 3718
3718 8985 8985

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this
In this study, three different
study, three different types
types of
of solid
solid dies
dies used
used complex
complex profile
profile extrusion
extrusion were
were designed.
designed.
Steady-state and transient simulations were conducted using HyperXtrude 2017 software
Steady-state and transient simulations were conducted using HyperXtrude 2017 software based based on
on the
the ALE algorithm. A series of parameters obtained from simulation such as metal flow pattern,
extrusion force, extrudate temperature, die deformation, and transverse weld length were analyzed.
The effect of ram speeds on extrusion parameters was also evaluated. The conclusions of this study
can be drawn as follows:
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 17 of 19

ALE algorithm. A series of parameters obtained from simulation such as metal flow pattern, extrusion
force, extrudate temperature, die deformation, and transverse weld length were analyzed. The effect of
ram speeds on extrusion parameters was also evaluated. The conclusions of this study can be drawn
as follows:

1. Using the traditional flat die has the advantage of achieving a more uniform temperature
distribution in the extruded product when compared to other solid dies. The extrusion force of
this die is about 5% smaller than that of the pocket die. This type of die has a simple structure
and is easy to fabricate. However, the needed bearing length is longer than other solid die types,
which is undesirable in extrusion practice. Moreover, the deformation of the flat-face die is the
largest, the maximum die deflection at a speed ram of 1 mm/s up to 0.17 mm; This may exceed
the permissible tolerance of the product. Deformation reduction solutions for this die need to
be considered further. When using the flat-face die, a low ram speed can be used to reduce die
deformation. Finally, using the traditional flat die is not suitable for extruding complex profiles.
2. Using the pocket extrusion die has many advantages compared to other types of solid dies,
the velocity is more balanced; the deformation is minimal; transverse welding length is half
shorter when compared to the spread die. Moreover, when the ram speed increases, the value of
VRD changes little and the die deformation is maintained stably, and the welding line length
does not increase significantly (about 221 mm when increasing the ram speed from 1 to 9 mm/s).
This die type is the best choice to ensure quality and productivity in extruding aluminum
products. However, the pocket and flat-face dies have the disadvantage of being unable to extrude
products with sizes larger than the container diameter of the extruder.
3. Using the spread die has the advantage that the required extrusion force is the smallest when
compared to other solid dies, which is about 40% of the extrusion force required for pocket
extruders with the same product profile. It is an extremely effective solution when it is necessary
to reduce a large amount of extrusion force or extruding products on small machines with product
sizes larger than the extruder diameter. This die type has been growing rapidly in recent years
because it can increase the flexibility of production. However, this die type is difficult to design to
be able to uniformly distribute the flow in extruded products. Hence, using a pocket and variable
bearing lengths is necessary to balance the metal flow for extruding complex product profiles.
The more complicated die structure makes the fabrication cost bigger than other types of solid
dies. The difference in temperature distribution in the extrusion product of this die is much larger
than in other cases, which can be overcome by the increase in temperature for the die plates.
The spread extrusion forming the transverse horizontal welding length is twice as long as the
pocket die, and the charge weld length is increased rapidly with increasing ram speed (about
3243 mm when increasing the ram speed from 1 to 9 mm/s).

Author Contributions: T.-T.T. came up with ideas, synthesized data, designed and simulated extrusion dies,
and wrote the original manuscript; Q.-C.H. has instructed, supervised and edited the content; V.-C.T. analyzed
the results, reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was partially funded by Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under grant number
MOST 108-2221-E-992-066-.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge J-J Sheu, Department of Mold and Die, National
Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology for providing the use of HyperXtrude 2017 software and
valuable discussion.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 263 18 of 19

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