Note: Excerpts from the book on HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION by Mcshane

Specific Perceptual Process and Problems:

1. Stereotyping in the Organization
⮚ Is a perceptual process by which we find characteristics to an identifiable group and automatically
transfer those features to anyone we believe is a member of our group. These characteristics
(personality traits/abilities/physical characteristics) tends to be difficult to observe. Researchers
though find stereotyping as exaggerations or falsehood
⮚ Why people stereotype:
- As a categorical thinking, it is natural, non-conscious energy-saving process that simplifies
understanding of the world
- We don’t have much information on first meeting, hence to rely on stereotypes
- it enhances our self-concept
⮚ Motivated on self-concept, leads to the following processes:
a. Categorization - comparative process, where comparison begins by categorizing people into
distinct groups
b. Homogenization – to simplify the comparison process, we tend to think that people within each
group are similar to one another
c. Differentiation – having a positive self-concept, we differentiate them by assigning more
favorable characteristics to people in the group than to people in other groups
⮚ Problems with Stereotyping:
a. The process distorts perceptions in various ways as they could not accurately describe every
person in a social category
b. It lays the foundation of discriminatory attitudes and behaviors where most of perceptual bias
occurs as unintentional discrimination.
c. There could be intentional discrimination or prejudice in which people hold unfounded
negative attitude toward people belonging to a stereotyped group
2. Attribution Theory
⮚ Deciding whether an approved behavior or event is caused mainly by the person (internal factors)
or by the environment (external factors)
⮚ People rely on three attribution rules to determine whether someone’s behavior has internal or
external attribution factors:
a. Consistency – how often did the person act this way
b. Distinctiveness – how often does the person act this way in other settings
c. Consensus – how often do other people act this way I similar situations

⮚ What are 2 most common Attribution Errors:

 a. Fundamental Attribution Error – our tendency to perceive another person’s actions as caused
mainly by internal attributions
b. Self-Serving Bias – our tendency to attribute our failures to external causes. Simply, we take
credit for successes and blames other or the situation for our mistakes
3. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
⮚ Occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in way that is
consistent with that expectations
⮚ Likely to occur at the beginning of a relationship, such as when employees are first hired
⮚ Is stronger among people with a history of low achievement
⮚ The Cycle:
a. Supervisor forms expectations about the employee
b. Supervisor’s expectations affect his/her behavior toward the employee
c. Supervisor’s behavior affects the employee’s ability and motivation (self-confidence)
d. Employee’s behavior becomes more consistent with the supervisor’s initial expectations
⮚ Contingencies of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
a. Leaders need to develop and maintain a positive yet realistic expectation toward employees –
referred to as POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
b. Communicating hope and optimism should be identified as one of the critical success factor
c. Generating positive expectations and hopes depends on a corporate culture of support and
learning
4. Other Perceptual Effects
⮚ Halo Effect
– occurs when general impression on one person, distorts our perception on other characteristics
⮚ False Consensus Effect (Similar to Me Effect)
- Occurs when people over estimate the extent to which others have similar beliefs or
behaviors of their own. Why?
a. We are comforted by the belief that others are similar to us
b. We interact more with people who have similar views and behaviors, which causes us to
overestimate
c. We are likely to remember information that is consistent with our views and screen out
those that are contrary to our beliefs
⮚ Primary Effect
- Is our tendency to quickly form an opinion on people on the basis of first information
⮚ Recency Effect
- Occurs when the most recent information dominates our opinion.
Improving Perceptions:
We cannot bypass the perceptual process, but we should minimize biases and distortions thru:
1. Awareness of Perception Biases
- Knowing that perceptual biases exist
Improving Self-Awareness
- More successful way to minimize biases is by increasing self-awareness
2. Meaningful Interaction
- Founded on CONTACT HYPOTHESIS, which states that under certain conditions, people who
interact will be less prejudiced or less perceptually biased toward one another.
- Is strongest when people work closely and frequently on a shared goal that requires
cooperation and reliance on one another
- Reduces dependence on stereotypes and improves Empathy (understanding and being
sensitive to the feelings, thoughts and situations of others.