CHAPTER 3 PERCEIVING OURSLEVES AND OTHERS IN ORGANIZATION

3.1- Self-Concept: How We Perceive Ourselves

SELF CONCEPT: Self-concept refers to an individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations.3 It is the “Who
am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” that people ask themselves and that guide their decisions
and actions.

SELF-CONCEPT COMPLEXITY, CONSISTENCY, AND CLARITY:

SELF CONCEPT COMPLEXITY: Complexity refers to the number of distinct and important roles or
identities that people perceive about themselves.5 Everyone has multiple selves; that is, each person
views himself or herself in different roles at various times (student, friend, daughter, sports fan, etc.)
A person’s self-concept becomes more complex, for example, as he or she moves from being an
accountant to a manager because the person has acquired additional roles. Self-concept complexity
isn’t just how many identities a person considers; it is also the separation of those identities. An
individual may have many identities, but his or her self-concept has low complexity when those
identities are highly interconnected, such as when they are all work related (manager, engineer,
family income earner). veryone has multiple selves, only some of those identities dominate their
attention at one time. A person’s various selves are usually domain specific, meaning that a
particular self-view (parent, manager, etc.) is more likely to be activated in some settings than in
others. For instance, as people travel from home to work, they can usually shift their self-view from
being a parent to being an executive because each role is important and fits into the home and work
contexts, respectively.

CONSISTENCY: High consistency exists when the individual’s identities require similar personality
traits, values, and other attributes. Low consistency occurs when some self-views require personal
characteristics that conflict with attributes required for other self-views. Self-concept consistency
also depends on how closely the person’s identities require personal attributes that are similar to his
or her actual attributes. Low consistency exists when an individual’s personality and values clash
with the type of person he or she tries to become.

CLARITY: refers to the degree to which a person’s self-concept is clear, confidently defined, and
stable.7 Clarity occurs when we are confident about “who we are,” can describe our important
identities to others, and provide the same description of ourselves across time. Self-concept clarity
increases with age because personality and values become relatively stable by adulthood and people
develop better self-awareness through life experiences.

SELF ENHANCMENT: Individuals tend to rate themselves above average, believe that they have a
better than average probability of success, and attribute their successes to personal motivation or
ability while blaming the situation for their mistakes. Self-enhancement has both positive and
negative consequences in organizational settings.19 On the positive side, individuals tend to
experience better mental and physical health when they amplify their self-concept. Overconfidence
also generates a “can-do” attitude (which we discuss later) that motivates persistence in difficult or
risky tasks. On the negative side, selfenhancement causes people to overestimate future returns in
investment decisions and engage in unsafe behavior (such as dangerous driving)

SELF VERIFICATION: Individuals try to confirm and maintain their existing self-concept. This process,
called self-verification, stabilizes an individual’s self-view, which in turn provides an important
anchor that guides his or her thoughts and actions.
SELF EVALUATION: self-evaluation is mostly defined by three elements: self-esteem, self-efficacy,
and locus of control.

SELF ESTEEM: Self-esteem—the extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with
themselves—represents a global self-evaluation. People with high self-esteem are less influenced by
others, tend to persist in spite of failure, and have a higher propensity to think logically.

SELF EFFICACY: Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief about successfully completing a task. Those
with high self-efficacy have a “can-do” attitude. They believe they possess the energy (motivation),
ability, clear expectations (role perceptions), and resources (situational factors) to perform the task.

LOCUS OF CONTROL: Locus of control is defined as a person’s general beliefs about the amount of
control he or she has over personal life events. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe
that life events are caused mainly by their personal characteristics (i.e., motivation and abilities).
Those with an external locus of control believe events are due mainly to fate, luck, or conditions in
the external environment.

THE SOCIAL SELF

One factor that determines importance is how easily you are identified as a member of the
reference group, such as by your gender, age, and ethnicity. A second factor is your minority status
in a group. It is difficult to ignore your gender in a class where most other students are the opposite
gender. All of us try to balance our personal and social identities, but the priority for uniqueness
(personal identities) versus belongingness (social identities) differs from one person to the next.

3.2 Perceiving world around us

Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us.
The perceptual process generally follows the steps shown in Exhibit 3.3. Perception begins when
environmental stimuli are received through our senses. Most stimuli that bombard our senses are
screened out; the rest are organized and interpreted. The process of attending to some information
received by our senses and ignoring other information is called selective attention. Confirming bias
is the processing of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions, and to
accept confirming information more readily.
PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION AND INTERPRETATION

The most common and far-reaching perceptual grouping process is categorical thinking—the mostly
nonconscious process of organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored
in our long-term memory. People are usually grouped together based on their observable similarity,
such as gender, age, race, clothing style, and so forth. people are also grouped together based on
their proximity to each other. If you notice a group of employees working in the same area and know
that some of them are marketing staff, you will likely assume that the others in that group are also
marketing staff. Another form of perceptual grouping involves filling in missing information. This
occurs when you are unable to attend a meeting. When listening to others discuss what happened at
that meeting, your mind fills in unstated details, such as who else attended and where it was held.

Mental models: mental models knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and
predict the world around us. They consist of visual or relational images in our mind, such as what the
classroom looks like or what happens when we submit an assignment late. Mental models are
important for sense making, yet they also make it difficult to see the world in different ways. For
example, accounting professionals tend to see corporate problems from an accounting perspective,
whereas marketing professionals see the same problems from a marketing perspective. How do we
change mental model? The most important way to minimize the perceptual problems with mental
models is to be aware of and frequently question them. We need to ask ourselves about the
assumptions we make. Working with people from diverse backgrounds is another way to break out
of existing mental models.

3.3 Specific Perceptual Processes and Problems

STEREOTYPING IN ORGANIZATIONS:

Stereotyping is the perceptual process in which we assign characteristics to an identifiable group

and then automatically transfer those features to anyone we believe is a member of that group.
Stereotypes are formed to some extent from personal experience, but they are mainly provided to
us through media images (e.g., movie characters) and other cultural prototypes. Consequently,
stereotypes are shared beliefs across an entire society and sometimes across several cultures, rather
than beliefs that differ from one person to the next. Historically, stereotypes were defined as
exaggerations or falsehoods. This is frequently true, but some features of the stereotype are more
likely to exist among its group members than in the general population.

Why people stereotype? It is easier to remember features of a stereotype than the constellation of
characteristics unique to everyone we meet. A second reason for stereotyping is that we have an
innate need to understand and anticipate how others will behave. We don’t have much information
when first meeting someone, so we rely on stereotypes to fill in the missing pieces. A third
explanation for stereotyping is that it is motivated by the observer’s need for social identity and self-
enhancement.

combination of social stereotyping the process of assigning traits to people based on their
membership in a social identity and self-enhancement leads to the process of categorization,
homogenization, and differentiation:

CTEGORIZATION: Social identity is a comparative process, and the comparison begins by categorizing
people into distinct groups. By viewing someone (including yourself) as a Texan.
Homogenization: To simplify the comparison process, we tend to think that people within each
group are very similar to each other. For instance, we think Texans collectively have similar attitudes
and characteristics, whereas Californians collectively have their own set of characteristics.

Differentiation: Along with categorizing and homogenizing people, we tend to assign more favorable
characteristics to people in our groups than to people in other groups. This differentiation is
motivated by self-enhancement because being in a “better” group produces higher self-esteem.

PROBLEMS IN STEREOPTYPING: One distortion is that stereotypes do not accurately describe every
person in a social category. The traditional accountant stereotype (boring, cautious, calculating)
perhaps describes a few accountants, but it is certainly not characteristic of all, or even most, people
in this profession. A second problem with stereotyping is stereotype threat, a phenomenon whereby
members of a stereotyped group are concerned that they might exhibit a negative feature of the
stereotype. This concern and preoccupation adversely affects their behavior and performance,
which often results in displaying the stereotype trait they are trying to avoid. A third problem with
stereotyping is that it lays the foundation for discriminatory attitudes and behavior. Most of this
perceptual bias occurs as unintentional (systemic) discrimination, whereby decision makers rely on
stereotypes to establish notions of the “ideal” person in specific roles. A person who doesn’t fit the
ideal has to work harder to get the same evaluation as someone who is compatible with the
occupational stereotype. Worse than systemic discrimination is intentional discrimination or
prejudice, in which people hold unfounded negative attitudes toward people belonging to a
particular stereotyped group.Systemic discrimination is implicit, automatic, and unintentional,
whereas intentional discrimination deliberately puts the target person at an unfair disadvantage.
Specialized training programs can minimize stereotype activation to some extent, but for the most
part the process is hardwired in our brain cells. Also remember that stereotyping helps us in several
valuable (although fallible) ways described earlier: minimizing mental effort, filling in missing
information, and supporting our social identity.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY: attribution process is the perceptual process of deciding whether an

observed behavior or event is caused largely by internal or external factors. If someone doesn’t
show up for an important meeting, for instance, we infer either internal attributions (the coworker is
forgetful, lacks motivation, etc.) or external attributions (traffic, a family emergency, etc.) to make
sense of the person’s absence. People rely on the three attribution rules—consistency,
distinctiveness, and consensus—to decide whether someone’s behavior and performance are
caused by their personal characteristics or environmental influences. A person working on
machine example. (machine broken)
The attribution process is important because understanding cause–effect relationships enables us to
work more effectively with others and to assign praise or blame to them. Because we can distinguish
ke bhae kia scene internal or external.

Attribution Errors: We are strongly motivated to assign internal or external attributions to someone’s
behavior, but this perceptual process is also susceptible to errors. 1st thing is self-serving bias- the
tendency to attribute our failures to external causes more than internal causes, while successes are
due more to internal than external factors. Simply put, we take credit for our successes and blame
others or the situation for our mistakes. By pointing to external causes of their own failures (e.g.,
bad luck) and internal causes of their successes, people generate a more positive (and self-consoling)
self-concept. Another attribution error is fundamental attribution error (also called correspondence
bias), which is the tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person’s behavior and to
discount or ignore external causes of their behavior.69 According to this perceptual error, we are
more likely to attribute a coworker’s late arrival for work to lack of motivation rather than to
situational constraints (such as traffic congestion).
Self-fulfilling prophecy: Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations about another person
cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. 1st step is forming an
expectation from employee. High expectancy would automatically give the employee more
emotional support or kind gestures. The third step in self-fulfilling prophecy includes two effects of
the supervisor’s behavior on the employee. First, through better training and more practice
opportunities, a high-expectancy employee learns more skills and knowledge than a low-expectancy
employee. Second, the employee becomes more self-confident, which results in higher motivation
and willingness to set more challenging goals. In the final step, high-expectancy employees have
higher motivation and better skills, resulting in better performance, while the opposite is true of low-
expectancy employees. An analysis of dozens of leader intervention studies over the years found
that self-fulfilling prophecy is one of the most powerful leadership effects on follower behavior and
performance.

Contingencies of self-fulfilling prophecy: The self-fulfilling prophecy effect is stronger in some

situations than in others. (during the started of rel when employee is newly hired). The main lesson
from the self-fulfilling prophecy literature is that leaders need to develop and maintain a positive,
yet realistic, expectation toward all employees. This recommendation is consistent with the
emerging philosophy of positive organizational behavior, which suggests that focusing on the
positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-
being.

OTHER PERCEPTUAL EFFECTS:

Halo Effect: The halo effect occurs when our general impression of a person, usually based on one
prominent characteristic, distorts our perception of other characteristics of that person.77 If a
supervisor who values punctuality notices that an employee is sometimes late for work, the
supervisor might form a negative image of the employee and evaluate that person’s other traits
unfavorably as well. We generalize the missing information.

False-Consensus Effect: The false-consensus effect (also called similar-to-me effect) occurs when
people overestimate the extent to which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to our own.78
Employees who are thinking of quitting their jobs overestimate the percentage of coworkers who
are also thinking about quitting. One is that we are comforted believing that others are similar to us,
particularly regarding less acceptable or divisive behavior. A second explanation for false-consensus
effect is that we interact more with people who have similar views and behaviors. Third, as noted
earlier in this chapter, we are more likely to remember information that is consistent with our own
views and selectively screen out information that is contrary to our beliefs. Fourth, our social identity
process homogenizes people within groups, so we tend to think that everyone in that group has
similar opinions and behavior.

Primacy Effect: The primacy effect is our tendency to rely on the first information we receive about
people to quick form an opinion of people of them.79 It is the notion that first impressions are
lasting impressions.

Recency Effect: The recency effect occurs when the most recent information dominates our
perceptions. This perceptual bias is most common when people (especially those with limited
experience) make a decision involving complex information.

3.4 Improving perceptions

AWARENESS OF PERCEPTUAL BIASES: One of the most obvious and widely practiced ways to reduce
perceptual biases is by knowing that they exist. s. Awareness of perceptual biases can reduce these
biases to some extent by making people more mindful of their thoughts and actions. However,
awareness training has only a limited effect. Unintentionally stereotypes are reinforced rather than
reduced. And the other prob is that people with strong beliefs are difficult to change.

IMPROVING SELF AWARENESS: We need to become more aware of our beliefs, values, and attitudes
and, from that insight, gain a better understanding of biases in our own decisions and behavior. This
self-awareness tends to reduce perceptual biases by making people more openminded and
nonjudgmental toward others. But how do we become more self-aware? One approach is to
complete formal tests that indicate any implicit biases we might have toward others. The Implicit
Association Test (IAT) is one such instrument. it attempts to detect subtle racial, age, gender,
disability, and other forms of bias by associating positive and negative words with specific groups of
people.

JOHARI WINDOW: Another way to reduce perceptual biases through increased self-awareness is by
applying the Johari Window. This model of self-awareness and mutual understanding divides
information about you into four “windows”—open, blind, hidden, and unknown—based on whether
your own values, beliefs, and experiences are known to you and to others. The open area includes
information about you that is known both to you and to others. The blind area refers to information
that is known to others but not to you. Information known to you but unknown to others is found in
the hidden area. Finally, the unknown area includes your values, beliefs, and experiences that are
buried so deeply that neither you nor others are aware of them. The main objective of the Johari
Window is to increase the size of the open area so that both you and your colleagues are aware of
your perceptual limitations. Finally, the combination of disclosure and feedback occasionally
produces revelations about you in the unknown area. (hidden area kam kerte and feedback lete for
blind area)
Johari Window a model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to
increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown area

MEANINGFUL INTERACTION: Meaningful interaction is any activity in which people engage in valued
(meaningful, not trivial) activities. The activities might be work related, such as when senior
executives work alongside frontline staff. Or the activities might occur outside the workplace, such
as when sales staff from several countries participate in outdoor challenges. Meaningful interaction
is founded on the contact hypothesis, which states that, under certain conditions, people who
interact with each other will be less perceptually biased because they have a more personal
understanding of the other person and their group. Simply spending time with members of other
groups can improve this understanding to some extent. Meaningful interaction reduces dependence
on stereotypes because we gain better knowledge about individuals and experience their unique
attributes in action. Meaningful interaction also potentially improves empathy toward others.
Empathy refers to understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of
others.92 People empathize when they visualize themselves in the other person’s place as if they are
the other person.

3.5 Developing perceptions across borders

A global mindset refers to an individual’s ability to perceive, know about, and process information
across cultures. It includes (a) an awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and
practices in the world; (b) the capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures; (c) the ability
to process complex information about novel environments; and (d) the ability to comprehend and
reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking.

an individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to
process complex cross-cultural information