THE SELF

Learning Objectives

At the end of the presentation, students will be

able to:
1. Discuss the methods of obtaining self
knowledge.
2. Explain how one’s view of self affects responses
in social situations.
3. Discuss the concepts and related theories.
4. Apply the theories to real life situations.
WHO AM I ?
 THE SELF
The self exists:
 On a physical level
 On a cognitive level
 On a behavioural level
 On an executive level

All aspects of the self are interrelated.

PHYSICAL LEVEL
 Genetics - A gene is the basic physical and functional
unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Genes
are found on tiny spaghetti-like structures
called chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are found inside cells. They carry
information that determine your physical
characteristics. These are passed from one generation
to the next in a family.
 The field of behavioral genetics focuses on the
relationship between genes and behavior. Research
from twin studies suggests that some aspects of our
personalities are largely controlled by genetics.
 The biological approach to personality has also
identified areas and pathways within the brain, as
well as various hormones and neurotransmitters, that
are associated with the development of personality.
 For instance, there is a possible link between the
serotonin transporter gene and the trait called
neuroticism, or the tendency to experience negative
emotional states like anger, anxiety and loneliness.
COGNITIVE LEVEL
 Self awareness
 Knowledge of self
 Perception and Attitudes
 Self concept
 Self esteem
 Self awareness – Awareness that one is an individual
entity.
 Develops in infancy, at about 18 months of age. One
recognizes that one is a separate individual.
 Childhood: one labels personal qualities and
abilities.
 Adolescence: the self becomes critically important as
a basis for making life decisions.
 Middle & Late Adulthood: the self continues to
change, though not as extensively.
 Knowledge of self– As we grow and process
information, our knowledge of self increases and is
organized into mental structures called schemas.
These schemas are generalizations that allow us to
make predictions.
 Self-schemas describe the dimensions along which
you think about yourself. They guide behavior in
relevant situations, aid memory for relevant
information and influence inferences, decisions, and
judgments.
 Knowledge of self

Introspection is one way of gaining knowledge about

yourself. It is the private contemplation of “who we are”
in an effort to gain self knowledge.
 Knowledge of self
Introspection
Why is this not the best way to gain self-knowledge?
 We do not always know the reasons for our actions
 We can be misled when we attempt to predict how
we will feel about a particular event in the future,
and therefore make faulty decisions.
Best used when making decisions not based on
unconscious emotional factors or where some
relevant factors have not been taken into account.
 Knowledge of self

 Taking the “observer” perspective

› Situational v. Dispositional
When we analyze our own actions, we tend to attribute our
behaviour to more situational (external) causes; whereas
when we observe others we tend to attribute the same
behaviour to more dispositional (internal) causes.

 Therefore, one way that self-reflection can be helpful is

to take an observer’s standpoint on our behavior. Doing
so leads us to see ourselves in more trait-like consistent
terms.
 Perception
 Perception - Mental processes that we use to
form impressions of other people. This includes not
just how we form these impressions, but the different
conclusions we make about other people based on our
impressions.

 This allows us to make snap judgments and decisions,

but it can also lead to biased or stereotyped
perceptions of other people. What Information Do We
Use to Form Impressions of Others?
 Perception
 This is a subjective process as it is impacted by a number
of variables, including the observable characteristics of
the person, the context of the situation, your own personal
traits and your past experiences.
 People often form impressions of others very quickly with
only minimal information.
 Individual personality characteristics are considered after
the initial impression.
 Perception

 What stands out, i.e. the salience of the information we

perceive is also important. Generally, we tend to focus on
the most obvious points rather than noting background
information.
 The more novel or obvious a factor is, the more likely we
are to focus on it. If you see a woman dressed in a tailored
suit and her hair styled in a bright pink mohawk, you are
likely to pay more attention to her unusual hairstyle than
her sensible business attire.
 Perception
Self-Presentation: Managing the Self in Different
Social Contexts
 Presenting ourselves to a constantly observing
and potentially ever-changing audience
 As Shakespeare described: “All the world’s a
stage and all the men and women merely
players” .
 Self Presentation

Self-presentation serves three important functions:

1. It helps facilitate social interaction.

2. It enables individuals to attain material and social

rewards.

3. It helps people privately construct desired identities.

 Perception - Self Presentation
 We even engage in self-presentation when we are alone; for
example, we rehearse what we are going to say or do in public,
molding our behavior to an imaginary or anticipated audience.

 Sometimes this rehearsal is deliberate and noticeable, for

example, when we prepare for a job interview or a public
speaking engagement

 At other times it is automatic and almost imperceptible, such as

when we mindlessly check our hair in the mirror before
stepping out the front door.
 Perception - Self Presentation

 The number of impressions people try to create

of themselves in the minds of others is almost
limitless.

 At the same time, these impressions tend to fall

into a smaller number of classes. These are
distinguished in five common self-presentational
strategies (see Table).
 Five Common Self-Presentation
Strategies
Self Impression Prototypic Behaviours Self Presentational
Presentational Sought Risks
Strategy
Ingratiation Likeable Attempting to make others like Insincere, deceitful
us by conveying that we like
them – compliments/flattery,
favours
Self-Promotion Competent Encouraging others to form Conceited, fraudulent
positive impressions of us -
boasting, showing off
Self Virtuous and moral We negotiate with others in order Hypocritical,
Verification to have them buy in to our views sanctimonious
of ourselves, whether positive or
negative – may involve self-
denial, martyrdom
Self Helpless Putting ourselves down or Manipulative
Charles Cooley – development of self
concept
Charles Horton Cooley (August 17, 1864 – May 8, 1929) was an
American sociologist. He believed that human beings are
essentially social in nature, and that a significant source of
information about the world comes through human interaction
with others, including the concept of one’s self.

The self concept is a comprehensive evaluation of the self which

includes its numerous facets.
Charles Cooley – development of self
concept
Cooley is most famous for the concept of the "looking
glass self," the ideas we have about how we appear to
others, which he regarded as an essential component of
the development of self-image.

Cooley's term "looking glass self" means

that people see themselves as others see
them, as if reflected in a mirror.
Charles Cooley – development of self
concept
Cooley believed that people gain their identity and form their habits
by looking at themselves through the perception of society and other
people they interact with.

He theorized that this concept of self, created by others, is unique to

human beings. It begins at an early age and continues throughout the
entirety of a person's lifespan. Thus, a person will never stop
modifying their "self" unless they become removed from society
and cease social interactions.
Self Concept
 Self Concept
Self concept - set of beliefs about who we are; mental
representation of oneself that provides coherence and
meaning to our experiences. Comprises numerous self
schemas. These schemas are brought to mind at different
times.
 Self Concept
According to Carl Rogers, self-concept has 3 components: 
1. Self-image: the idea or mental image we have of
ourselves. This includes our body-image. Self-image
has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves.
2. Self-esteem or self worth: the sense of one’s own value
or worth as a person, your general attitude towards
yourself.
3. The ideal self: the person we would like to be.
Self Concept
 Self Concept

 Research suggests that people who are more

concerned with becoming their ideal selves recall
having been raised by their parents in a warm and
supportive way and that those who are more
concerned with how they ought to be recall a more
rejecting parenting style.
 Self Concept

 Research also suggests that the media plays a role in

self-concept development as well—both mass media
and social media. When these media promote certain
ideals, we're more likely to make those ideals our
own. And the more often these ideals are presented,
the more they affect our self-identity and self-
perception.
 Self Concept
 Our main goal is to perceive the self positively.

 Therefore we adopt certain strategies which can be

categorised as self concept maintenance:
› Comparison with self (self-regulation)
› Comparison with other individuals
› Comparison with other groups
 Self Concept
Social Comparison Theory – Leon Festinger

We always evaluate ourselves based on a comparison standard.

The theory suggests that we compare ourselves to others because
there is no objective yardstick to evaluate ourselves against. We
choose persons who are similar to us in some way, e.g. gender,
race, experience at a particular task.
 How we think and feel about ourselves depends on the standard
we use.
Downward social comparison – comparison to another who is
inferior or does not do as well as us
Upward social comparison – comparison to another who is
superior or does better than us
 Self Concept
 We decide who to compare ourselves with based on:
› Our motive:
 To do an accurate assessment of the self
 To feel good about ourself

› The person’s social category

We tend to judge ourselves more positively when

making comparisons against persons with whom we
share a social group.
 Self Concept
 The Self-evaluation maintenance model builds on
Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory. It states that
in order to maintain a positive view of the self, we
distance ourselves from others who perform better
and move closer to those who perform worse. This
view suggests that by doing so we protect our self-
esteem.
 However, according to Social Identity Theory, for
persons who value social identity, they will value
belonging to a group in which someone’s
performance has had a positive impact.
 Self Esteem
Is:
› The degree to which a person perceives the self
positively or negatively
› One’s overall attitude toward the self
 Implicit Self-Esteem: feelings about the self of
which we are not consciously aware
 Self Esteem

Self-efficacy:
 Our confidence in our ability to master important goals
 Builds self-esteem
 Also a function of the ability to self regulate
 Involves highly specific perceptions of control and competence.
 Self Esteem
Develops in response to life’s events:
› Reduces in response to disappointments/failures and
negative experiences
› Increases in response to nurturing from significant others
 Self Esteem

As we engage in the different types of comparison,

we also engage in techniques aimed at protecting
our self-esteem -
 Use of self-serving attributions
 Manipulate information to maintain positive
self-evaluation, particularly when doing upward
comparisons
 Highlighting positive aspects of the group to
which we belong
 Self Esteem

Self-Serving Biases
 The above average effect is the tendency to rate
self as above the average on most positive social
attributes.
 Therefore we tend to:
 Forget negative social feedback
 Emphasize information that supports our positive
view of self
 Resist accepting responsibility for negative outcomes
 Self Esteem

Self-Serving Biases
 Positive illusions are beliefs we hold about
ourselves that are not entirely accurate – being
unrealistically optimistic about one’s capabilities.

People’s willingness to take credit for positive

outcomes varies with the culture.
Is self esteem always beneficial?
 Many social scientists have suggested that the lack of
high self esteem is the root of many social ills including
drug use, poor school performance, depression etc.
 Many researchers have also stated that low self esteem
might be an important cause of aggression and
negativity towards others.
 In contrast strong evidence has been accumulated in
favour of the opposite conclusion that high self esteem
is associated with bullying, self aggrandizing, and
interpersonal aggression.
Is self esteem always beneficial?
 The idea is that to the extent that high self esteem
implies superiority to others that view of the self may
need to be defended whenever the individuals’ pride
is threatened.
 It might even be that high self esteem when it is
coupled with instability results in the most hostility
and defensiveness
 When unstable high self esteem people experience
failure their underlying self doubt is reflected in
physiological responses indicative of threat.
 Self Esteem
Do Women and Men Differ in Their Level of Self-Esteem?
› Findings vary depending on the culture:
 In select Eastern countries men’s self-esteem tended to be
higher than women’s self-esteem
 In first world European countries it was found to be equal.
 In Canada and U.S. men were higher than women.
Research indicates that many socially disadvantaged groups
do have, on average, somewhat lower self-esteem than
groups that are socially advantaged. To the extent that self-
esteem reflects how we believe others appraise us, high
self-esteem can be difficult to achieve for those who are
excluded from valued social roles.
 Personal vs Social Identity

 Who I am depends on the social context.

 People see themselves differently depending on
which relationships and which contexts are
‘salient’.
The dominant schema will guide our thoughts,
emotions and behaviour.
 Salience is when something stands out from its
background or is the focus of attention; in this
case the part of our personal identity that is the
focus at the time.
 Personal vs Social Identity
 Social Identity Theory – we can perceive
ourselves differently at any time depending on
where we are on the personal-versus-social
identity continuum – determines how we respond
in a situation.
We think of
ourselves as
Personal We think of Social members of
ourselves
End primarily as End specific social
individuals groups
 Personal vs Social Identity
 Personal-versus-social identity continuum: This
signifies the two distinct ways that we can categorize
ourselves.
› At the personal level, we can be thought of as a unique
individual, whereas at the social identity level, we think of
the self as a member of a group.

› What are the emotional consequences when

choices are made by different selves? (i.e., “What
on Earth was I thinking when I did that?”)
 Personal vs Social Identity
› Intragroup comparison – describing yourself
through comparison with other members of a group
of which you are a member:-
 Description will differ depending on the reference
group
 Focus tends to be on similarities between self and
the group
 ‘Cognitive prototype’ – the schema we hold in
relation to the group – guides our feelings and
behaviour as a member of the group – self viewed
as an embodiment of the prototype.
 At any given time we belong to several different
groups
 Personal vs Social Identity
› Intergroup comparison - We define ourselves
by emphasizing what:
 We share with other group members
 What differentiates this group from the comparison group –
may involve stereotyping

Stereotype - Belief about a social group

characterized by the traits and characteristics that the
members are believed to share.
 Personal vs Social Identity
 How we are treated by others now, and our
expectation of how we will be treated in the
future determines:
› How we see ourselves
› How we will act:-
 Hiding an aspect of self,
or
 Being openly defiant
BEHAVIOURAL LEVEL
 Predicting our Behavior

 Evidence suggests that having access to our

intentions, which observers do not have, is one
reason why we are sometimes inaccurate about
ourselves.

 Therefore, people tend to be less accurate in

predicting their own behaviors than in predicting the
behavior of others.
 Stereotype Threat

 Stereotype threat occurs when people believe that

they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype
about their group.

 When those who are vulnerable to stereotype threat

are reminded in some overt or subtle way that the
stereotype might apply to them, their behaviour may
be negatively impacted.
EXECUTIVE LEVEL
 Self Regulation

Self regulation is the active process through which

individuals:
 Direct their behaviour and control their impulses
 Monitor behaviour to ensure that it is in line with
other goals.
 Deal with stressors and lay the foundation for all
other activity.
 Self-Regulation
 Self-regulation describes conscious personal
management that involves the process of guiding
one's own thoughts, behaviours, and feelings to
reach goals.

 Baumeister described the ability to self-regulate as

limited in capacity, and through this he coined the
term ego depletion. Therefore such persons are
unable to exert the same level of self-control on
subsequent, often unrelated tasks.
 Self Regulation
Involves:
 self-awareness
 emotional intelligence
 efficient filtering of sensory stimulation
 coping effectively with stress, relating well to
others
 sustaining focus.  
 Theory - Self-Regulation

Roy Baumeister (2007) Four components of Self-

Regulation:
 Standards - levels of standard behaviour.
 Motivation - eagerness to meet these standards.
 Monitoring - situations and thoughts that lead to
breaking standards.
 Willpower - allowing one’s internal strength to
control urges.
 Benefits of Self Regulation

 Allows you to act in accordance with your deeply

held values or social conscience.
 Allows you to express yourself appropriately.
 Allows us to bounce back from failure and stay
calm under pressure.
 Allow individuals to make productive
improvements in their lives.
 Self Control

Self-Control - forgoing short-term rewards and

waiting for long-term rewards; achieved by
refraining from actions we like and instead
performing actions we prefer not to do as a means
of achieving a long-term goal.

 Examples:
› quitting smoking
› going on a diet
 Self Control

Self-control has been conceptualized as a limited

resource. Ego depletion following efforts to self
regulate can make it more difficult to exert self-
control subsequently.

Self-control is most likely to be achieved when we

focus on our abstract goals rather than the details of
what we are doing right now.
 Self Control

 Self control can be increased by thinking and

reminding ourselves of our goals and plans.

 Also by staying focused and doing more of what

we want to do with practice.
Additional Information
 The Self Across Time:
Past and Future Selves
 Autobiographical memory is concerned with memory of
ourselves in the past and sometimes over the course of
life as a whole.
 Where there has been perceived improvement in some
valued aspect, persons view the current self more
positively.
 Possible selves are images of how we might be in the
future—either a “dreaded” potential to be avoided or
“desired” potential that can be strived for.
 Believing that we have the ability to influence outcomes
can be positive but may also lead to false hope and
disappointment.
 The Self Across Time:
Past and Future Selves

 Our successful performance in physical, academic

and work-related tasks is enhanced by feelings of
self-efficacy.
 Self-efficacy is the belief that we can achieve a goal
as a result of our own actions.
Impact of Culture on Theory of Self
 Focus on the individual is a feature of Western
culture. Therefore, focus on the self is grounded in
Western values.
 Societies such as the Japanese focus on collective
input.
 Ubuntu - Ubuntu can best be described as an African
philosophy that places emphasis on 'being self
through others’. It is best understood in the Zulu
phrase “ubuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” I or “I am,
because you are”. It refers to the fact that we are all
connected and that one can only grow and progress
through the growth and progression of others.
 Self as Target of Prejudice

 Perceived prejudice not only affect psychological

well-being; it can also interfere with our ability to
acquire new skills.
 Several studies have found that when people fear
that others will discover their devalued group
membership, as might be the case for concealable
stigmas (think of gays and lesbians in the
military), such fear can negatively affect people’s
ability to learn and can affect performance.
 Self as Target of Prejudice
 How might these performance deficits in those with a
stigmatized self be prevented?
 Research suggests that a critical issue is the extent to which
people can affirm themselves in other ways.
 Thus, it is the extent to which a negative stereotype may
define a person’s entire worth that leads to underperformance,
and reaffirming the individual’s worth can provide protection
 Another important way that underperformance effects may be
overcome is by making salient the stereotype-defying
accomplishments of an important role model who shares one’s
stigmatized group membership.
 Self as Target of Prejudice
 Stereotype threat, which is a particular kind of social
identity threat, occurs when people believe they
might be judged in light of a negative stereotype
about their social identity or that they may
inadvertently act in some way to confirm a negative
stereotype of their group.
 When people value their ability in a certain domain
(e.g., math), but it is one in which their group is
stereotyped as performing poorly (e.g., women),
stereotype threat can occur.
 Self as Target of Prejudice
 When people experience stereotype threat, they can
distance themselves from the negative part of the
stereotype about one’s group.
 Anxiety appears to be one mechanism by which
stereotype threat effects occur.
 However, self-report measures of anxiety often fail
to reveal its importance, although nonverbal
indicators of anxiety do predict performance
disruption.