T Name:t Muhammad TARIQ Roll No: CA631349

T CoursetCode:t8614 Program: Bed 1.5

T Semester:tSpringt2021t Assignmenttno:t1

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 ASSIGNMENTtNo.t1
Q.1tWhattdotyoutunderstandtbytstatistics?tWhattaretthetcharacteristicstoftstatistics?tExplaintintdetail.
ANS.

Statisticsteducationtistthetpracticetoftteachingtandtlearningtoftstatistics,talongtwithtthetassociatedtscholarlytres
earch.tStatisticstistbothtatformaltsciencetandtatpracticalttheorytoftscientifictinquiry,tandtbothtaspectstaretconsi
deredtintstatisticsteducation.tEducationtintstatisticsthastsimilartconcernstastdoesteducationtintothertmathematic
altsciences,tliketlogic,tmathematics,tandtcomputertscience.tAttthetsamettime,tstatisticstistconcernedtwithtevide
nce-
basedtreasoning,tparticularlytwithtthetanalysistoftdata.tTherefore,teducationtintstatisticsthaststrongtsimilaritiest
toteducationtintempiricaltdisciplinestliketpsychologytandtchemistry,tintwhichteducationtistcloselyttiedttot"hand
s-
on"texperimentation.tMathematicianstandtstatisticianstoftentworktintatdepartmenttoftmathematicaltsciencest(pa
rticularlytattcollegestandtsmalltuniversities).tStatisticstcoursesthavetbeentsometimesttaughttbytnon-
statisticians,tagainsttthetrecommendationstoftsometprofessionaltorganizationstoftstatisticianstandtoftmathemati
cians.tStatisticsteducationtresearchtistantemergingtfieldtthattgrewtouttoftdifferenttdisciplinestandtistcurrentlytes
tablishingtitselftastatuniquetfieldtthattistdevotedttotthetimprovementtoftteachingtandtlearningtstatisticstattallted
ucationaltlevels.
Dispositionthasttotdotwithtthetwayststudentstquestiontthetdatatandtapproachtatstatisticaltproblem.tDispositionst
aretonetoftthetfourtdimensionstintWildtandtPfannkuch'tframeworktfortstatisticaltthinking,tandtcontainstthetfoll
owingtelements:
 CuriositytandtAwareness:tThesettraitstaretatparttoftthetprocesstoftgeneratingtquestionstandtgeneratin
gtideasttotexploretandtanalyzetdata.
 Engagement:tStudentstwilltbetmosttobservanttandtawaretintthetareasttheytfindtmosttinteresting.
 Imagination:tThisttraittistimportanttfortviewingtatproblemtfromtdifferenttperspectivestandtcomingtupt
withtpossibletexplanations.
 Skepticism:tCriticaltthinkingtistimportanttfortreceivingtnewtideastandtinformationtandtevaluatingttheta
ppropriatenesstoftstudytdesigntandtanalysis.
 Beingtlogical:tThetabilityttotdetecttwhentonetideatfollowstfromtanothertistimportanttfortarrivingtattvali
dtconclusions.
 Atpropensityttotseektdeepertmeaning:tThistmeanstnotttakingteverythingtattfacetvaluetandtbeingtope
nttotconsidertnewtideastandtdigtdeepertfortinformation.
 Thetfollowingtpointstexplaintthetfunctionstoftstatisticstintsummary:
 1.tItthelpstintcollectingtandtpresentingtthetdatatintatsystematictmanner.

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  2.tItthelpsttotunderstandtunwiselytandtcomplextdatatbytsimplifyingtit.
 3.tItthelpsttotclassifytthetdata.
 4.tIttprovidestbasistandttechniquestfortmakingtcomparison.
 5.tItthelpsttotstudytthetrelationshiptbetweentdifferenttphenomena.
 6.tItthelpsttotindicatetthettrendtoftbehavior.
 7.tItthelpsttotformulatetthethypothesistandttesttit.
 8.tItthelpsttotdrawtrationaltconclusions.
StatisticstintEducation:
Measurementtandtevaluationtaretessentialtparttoftteachingtlearningtprocess.tIntthistprocesstwetobtainedtscorest
andtthentinterprettthesetscoretintorderttottaketdecisions.tStatisticstenablestusttotstudytthesetscorestobjectively.t
Ittmakestthetteachingtlearningtprocesstmoretefficient.
Thetknowledgetoftstatisticsthelpstthetteachertintthetfollowingtway:
1.tItthelpstthetteacherttotprovidetthetmosttexactttypetoftdescription:
Whentwetwantttotknowtabouttthetpupiltwetadministertattesttortobservetthetchild.tThentfromtthetresulttwetdesc
ribetabouttthetpupil’stperformancetorttrait.tStatisticsthelpstthetteacherttotgivetantaccuratetdescriptiontoftthetdat
a.
2.tIttmakestthetteachertdefinitetandtexacttintprocedurestandtthinking:
Sometimestduettotlacktofttechnicaltknowledgetthetteacherstbecometvaguetintdescribingtpupil’stperformance.t
Buttstatisticstenablesthimttotdescribetthetperformancetbytusingtpropertlanguage,tandtsymbols.tWhichtmaketth
etinterpretationtdefinitetandtexact.
3.tIttenablestthetteacherttotsummarizetthetresultstintatmeaningfultandtconvenienttform:
Statisticstgivestorderttotthetdata.tItthelpstthetteacherttotmaketthetdatatprecisetandtmean-
ingfultandttotexpresstittintantunderstandabletandtinterpretabletmanner.
4.tIttenablestthetteacherttotdrawtgeneraltconclusions:
Statisticsthelpsttotdrawtconclusionstastwelltastextractingtcon-
clusions.tStatisticaltstepstalsothelpttotsaytaboutthowtmuchtfaithtshouldtbetplacedtintanytconclusiontandtaboutt
howtfartwetmaytextendtourtgeneralization.
5.tItthelpstthetteacherttotpredicttthetfuturetperformancetoftthetpupils:
Statisticstenablestthetteacherttotpredictthowtmuchtoftatthingtwillthappentundertconditionstwetknowtandthavet
measured.tFortexampletthetteachertcantpredicttthetprobabletscoretoftatstudenttintthetfinaltexaminationtfromthi
stentrancettesttscore.tButtthetpredictiontmaytbeterroneoustduettotdifferenttfactors.tStatisticaltmethodsttelltabou
tthowtmuchtmargintofterrorttotallowtintmakingtpredictions.
6.tStatisticstenablestthetteacherttotanalysetsometoftthetcausaltfactorstunderlyingtcomplextandtotherwisetbe-
wilderingtevents:tIttistatcommontfactortthattthetbehavioraltoutcometistatresultanttoftnumeroustcausaltfactors.t

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Thetreasontwhytatparticulartstudenttperformstpoortintatparticulartsubjecttaretvariedtandtmany.tSotwithtthetapp
ropriatetstatisticaltmethodstwetcantkeeptthesetextraneoustvariablestconstanttandtcantobservetthetcausetoftfailur
etoftthetpupiltintatparticulartsubject.
ImportanttConceptstintStatistics:
Data:
Datatmaytbetdefinedtastinformationtobtainedtfromtatsurvey,tantexperimenttortantinvestigation.
Score:
Scoretistthetnumericaltevaluationtoftthetperformancetoftantindividualtontattest.
ContinuoustSeries:
Continuoustseriestistatseriestoftobservationstintwhichtthetvarioustpossibletvaluestoftthetvariabletmaytdiffertbyt
infinitesimaltamounts.tIntthetseriestittistpossiblettotoccurtattanytintermediatetvaluetwithintthetrangetoftthetseri
es.
DiscretetSeries:
Discretetseriestistatseriestintwhichtthetvaluestoftatvariabletaretarrangedtaccordingttotmagnitudetorttotsometord
eredtprinciples.tIntthistseriestittistnottpossiblettotoccurtattanytintermediatetvaluetwithintthetrange.tThetexampl
etoftsuchtistmerit,tnumbertoftpersonstortcensustdata.
Variable:
Anyttraittortqualitytwhichthastthetabilityttotvarytorthastattleastttwotpointstoftmeasurement.tIttistthettraittthattc
hangestfromtonetcasetortconditionttotanother.
Variability:
Thetspreadtoftscores,tusuallytindicatedtbytquartiletdeviations,tstandardtdeviations,trangetetc.
Frequency:
Frequencytmaytbetdefinedtastthetnumbertoftoccurrencestoftanytgiventvaluetortsettoftvalues.tFortexamplet8tstu
dentsthavetscoredt65.tSotthattthetscoret65thastatfrequencytoft8.
FrequencytDistribution:
Ittistattabulationtshowingtthetfrequenciestoftthetvaluestoftatvariabletwhentthesetvaluestaretarrangedtintordertof
tmagnitude.
Correlation:
Correlationtmeanstthetinterdependedtbetweenttwotortmoretrandomtvariables.tIttmaytbetstatedtastthettendencytf
ortcorrespondingtobservationtinttwotortmoretseriesttotvaryttogethertfromtthetaveragestofttheirtrespectivetseries
,tthattis,ttothavetsimilartrelativetposition.tIftcorrespondingtobservationsttendttothavetsimilartrelativetpositionsti
nttheirtrespectivetseries,tthetcorrelationtistpositive;tiftthetcorrespondingtvaluesttendttotbetdivergenttintpositiont
inttheirtrespectivetseries,tthetcorrelationtistnegative;tabsencetoftanytsystematicttendencytfortthetcorrespondingt
observationsttotbeteithertsimilartortdissimilartinttheirtrelativetpositionstindicatedtzerotcorrelation.
Coefficient:

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Ittistatstatisticaltconstanttthattistindependenttoftthetunittoftmeasurement.
Coefficienttoftcorrelation:
Ittistatpuretnumber,tlimitedtbytthetvaluest+t1.00tandt—
1.00tthattexpressestthetdegreetoftrelationshiptbetweenttwotcontinuoustvariables.t

Q.2tWhattdotyoutunderstandtbytthettermt“data”?tWritetintdetailtthettypestoftdata.t
ANS
Now,tiftwettalktabouttdatatmainlytintthetfieldtoftscience,tthentthetanswerttot“whattistdata”twilltbetthattdatatist
differentttypestoftinformationtthattusuallytistformattedtintatparticulartmanner.tAlltthetsoftwaretistdividedtintott
wotmajortcategories,tandtthosetaretprogramstandtdata.tProgramstaretthetcollectiontmadetoftinstructionstthattar
etusedttotmanipulatetdata.tSo,tnowtaftertthoroughlytunderstandingtwhattistdatatandtdatatscience,tlettustlearntso
metfantastictfacts.
TypestandtUsestoftData
Growthtintthetfieldtofttechnology,tspecificallytintsmartphonesthastledttottext,tvideo,tandtaudiotistincludedtund
ertdatatplustthetwebtandtlogtactivitytrecordstastwell.tMosttoftthistdatatistunstructured.
ThettermtBigtDatatistusedtintthetdatatdefinitionttotdescribetthetdatatthattistintthetpetabytetrangetorthigher.tBig
tDatatistalsotdescribedtast5Vs:tvariety,tvolume,tvalue,tveracity,tandtvelocity.tNowadays,tweb-
basedteCommercethastspreadtvastly,tbusinesstmodelstbasedtontBigtDatathavetevolved,tandttheyttreattdatatasta
ntassettitself.tAndttheretaretmanytbenefitstoftBigtDatatastwell,tsuchtastreducedtcosts,tenhancedtefficiency,tenh
ancedtsales,tetc.
Thetmeaningtoftdatatexpandstbeyondtthetprocessingtoftdatatintcomputingtapplications.tWhentittcomesttotwhat
tdatatsciencetis,tatbodytmadetoftfactstistcalledtdatatscience.tAccordingly,tfinance,tdemographics,thealth,tandt
marketingtalsothavetdifferenttmeaningstoftdata,twhichtultimatelytmaketuptdifferenttanswerstfortwhattistdata.
Ideally,ttheretarettwotwaysttotanalyzetthetdata:
1. DatatAnalysistintQualitativetResearch
2. DatatAnalysistintQuantitativetResearch
Datatanalysistandtresearchtintsubjectivetinformationtworktsomewhattbettertthantnumericaltinformationtastthet
qualitytinformationtconsiststoftwords,tportrayals,tpictures,tobjects,tandtsometimestimages.tGettingtknowledget
fromtsuchtentangledtdatatistatconfoundedtprocedure;tthus,tittistusuallytutilizedtfortexploratorytresearchtastwell
tastdatatanalysis.
Althoughttheretaretatfewtdifferenttwaysttotdiscovertpatternstintthetprintedtdata,tatword-
basedtstrategytistthetmosttdependedtandtbroadlytutilizedtglobaltmethodtfortresearchtandtanalysistoftdata.tProm
inently,tthetprocesstoftdatatanalysistintqualitativetresearchtistmanual.tHeretthetspecialists,tastatrule,treadtthetac
cessibletinformationtandtfindtmonotonoustortfrequentlytutilizedtwords.

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Thetprimarytstagetintresearchtandtanalysistoftdatatisttotdotittfortthetexaminationtwithtthetgoaltthattthetnominal
tinformationtcantbetchangedtovertintotsomethingtimportant.tThetpreparationtoftdatatcomprisestthetfollowing.t
1. DatatValidation
2. DatatEditing
3. DatatCoding
Fortquantitativetstatisticaltresearch,tthetutilizationtoftdescriptivetanalysistregularlytgivestsupremetnumbers.tHo
wever,tthetanalysististnevertadequatettotshowtthetjustificationtbehindtthosetnumbers.tStill,tittistimportantttotthi
nktabouttthetbestttechniquettotbetutilizedtfortresearchtandtanalysistoftdatatfittingtyourtreviewtsurveytandtwhatt
storytspecialiststneedttottell.
Consequently,tenterprisestreadyttotmaketduetintthethypercompetitivetworldtmustthavetatremarkabletcapacitytt
otinvestigatetcomplextresearchtinformation,tinfertnoteworthytbitstoftknowledge,tandtadjustttotnewtmarkettnee
ds.
Q.3tWhatttypestoftcharacteristicstatpictogramtshouldthavettotsuccessfullytconveytthetmeaning?
tWritetdowntthetadvantagestandtdrawbackstoftusingtpictograms.
ANS
Intprehistorictart,tthettermt"pictograph"tort"pictogram"t(derivedtfromtthetLatint"pictus"tmeaningtpainting,tandt
"graph/gram"tmeaningtdrawntortwritten)tdescribestantimage,tsigntortsymboltwhichtistcreatedtintorderttotexpre
sstsometideatortinformation.tIntaddition,tnotetthattpictographictsymbolstthattaretcuttortcarvedtintotthetrocktsur
facetaretknowntast"petroglyphs",twhiletthosetdrawntortpaintedtontrockstaretcalledt"petrograms".tAtpictographt
thattrepresentstonetparticulartideatistusuallytreferredttotastant"ideogram".tThetmosttobviousttypetoftStonetAge
tpictographtweretthetprehistorictabstracttsignst(aviforms,tcircles,tclaviforms,tcordiforms,tquadrangles,ttectifor
ms,ttrianglestandtthetlike)twhich,texpertstbelieve,tfunctionedtastpictographstortpictograms,tintthatttheytweretin
tendedttotexpresstsometsimpletmessage.t(Atgoodtexample-
sitetistLetPlacardtCave,tneartLatRochefoucauld.)tHowever,tpaintingstoftanimalstorthuntingtscenestmaytalsotha
vetbeentcarefullytarrangedttotcommunicatetsometkindtoftmessage.tPictographstaretcharacterizedtbyttheirtstere
otypedtexecutiontwhichtiststandardizedtattleasttwithinttheirtgrouptortlocality.tThisttypetoftpictographictrocktar
ttservedtastantearlytforerunnertoftNeolithictwrittentlanguages,tsuchtastSumeriantcuneiformst(wedge-
shapedtsymbols)tandtEgyptianthieroglyphs.tFewtarcheologiststortanthropologiststwouldtagreetontatspecifictsta
rtingtdate,torteventperiod,tfortthetfirsttpictograph.tIttdependstwhethertcertaintverytearlytnon-
functionalthemisphericaltindentationstintthetsurfacetoftrocks,tknowntast"cupules",tcantbetsaidttotconstitutetinci
sedtpictographst(petroglyphs).tIftso,tthentittistpossibletthattNeanderthalthumanst(Homotneanderthalensis)twere
tcreatingtpetroglyphstintthetLowertPaleolithic,tastfartbacktast700,000tBCE.tSee,tfortinstance,tthetBhimbetkatP
etroglyphs,tdiscoveredtintCentraltIndia.tOtherwise,tthetearliesttknowntrocktpictographstaretlikelyttotbetthetgeo
metrictBlombostCavetengravings,twhichtdatettotthetMiddletPaleolithic,taroundt70,000tBCE.tFortmoretabouttt
hetoldesttworks,tsee:tEarliesttArt.

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ThetoldesttknowntpictographstoftthetUppertPaleolithictaretthetred-
ochretblobstamongtthetEltCastillotCavetpaintings,twhichthavetbeentUranium/Thoriumtdatedttotattleastt39,000t
BCE,tabouttthettimetthattanatomicallytmoderntmantfirsttsettfoottintEurope.tDuringtthetStonetAge,tmosttartwor
kstincludingtpictographs/pictogramstweretcreatedtinsidetrocktshelterstortdeeptcaves.tThistparietaltarttconsisted
toftfourtmainttypes,tlistedtheretintordertoftage:tabstracttsymbolst(pleasetseetabove),thandtstencilst(handprintsto
rtpalm-
prints),trocktengravingst(paintedtortunpainted),tandtcavetpaintingt(monochrometortpolychrome).tThistcavetartt
wastnott"arttfortart'stsake",tbuttatmeanstoftexpressiontwithtatshamanistic,tortceremonial,torthuntingtfunction.tI
ftthististtruetthentalltthesetdifferentttypestoftimagerytqualifytastpictographs.tAstitthappens,tmosttoftthetabstract
tsymbolstarettotbetfoundtaroundtortactuallytinsidetthetpaintingstoftanimaltfigures,talmosttastifttheytaretprovidi
ngtatprimitivetcommentarytontthetillustrations.tThustwetmaythavettotconsidertthetartt"astatwhole"trathertthant
separatingtittintottypes.tPaleolithictscholarstcontinuettotdebatetthetmeaningtoftthesetearlytprehistorictpictograp
hs.tProbablytthesetimagesthadtatvarietytoftmeanings,twhichtvariedtfromtregionttotregion.tIntanytevent,tittistwo
rthtemphasizingtthat,tastatrule,tdecoratedtcavestweretnottoccupiedtbytdomestictinhabitants.tIndeed,tjudgingtbyt
thetlacktoftfootprintstandtothertsignstofthumantpresence,tonlytatsmalltgrouptoftartiststandtothertdecision-
makerstevertventuredtinside.tThistleadstcredencettotthetideatoftthetprehistorictcavetastatsanctuarytortsacredtpla
ce,tandtthetpaintingstastanticonographictbackdroptfortwhatevertceremonytortritualtwastperformedttherein.tUnf
ortunately,tnotonetknowstexactlytwhattkindtoftceremonialtactivitytmightthavetoccurred.tButttwotbasictpossibil
itiestsuggesttthemselves.
First,tgiventthetoverwhelmingtvisualteffecttoftthetanimaltfigures,tengraved,tdrawntortpaintedtintalmostteverytc
ave,tittistcleartthattPaleolithictarttistessentiallytthetarttoftthethunter.tThustthetcavetpaintingstmighttbetinterpret
edtastatprimitivettypetofthuntingt"wish-
list".tDangeroustpredatorst(suchtastlionstandtbears)tmightthavetbeentpictorializedtintorderttotdemonizetortcastt
spellstupontthem,tintthetwaytthattvoodootdollstaretfirsttmadetthentpiercedtwithtpinstandtthetlike.t(See:tChauve
ttCavetpaintings,tfortinstance.)tGametanimalsthuntedtfortfoodtmightthavetbeentpictorializedtintorderttotimprov
ethuntingtprospects.t(See:tLascauxtCavetpaintings,tfortexample.)
Second,tgiventthetfacttthattthesetsmalltgroupstofthumanstkepttgoingtintottheset(deeptandtdark)tcavestfortthirty
tthousandtyears,tnotttotlivetortsheltertthere,tbutttotdrawtontthetwalls,tsomethingtsignificanttmustthavetbeentgoi
ngton.tAndtsincettimetimmemorial,tthetdarkt-tandtespeciallytthetundergroundtdarkt-
thastbeentseentastatsorttoftsupernaturaltrealm,tharbouringtanytnumbertoftspiritstintcontacttwiththighertpowers.t
Furthermore,tthetinfluencetoft"shamans"t-twitchdoctor-typetindividualstintcontacttwithtthetspirittworldt-
twastatwidespreadtculturaltphenomenontamongtUppertPaleolithicthunter-
gatherertsocieties.t(See,tfortinstance,tthetextraordinarytpaintedtandtengravedtimagetoftthet"Sorcerer"tintthetTro
istFrerestCavetc.13,000tBCE.)tThereforetittseemstreasonablettotagreetwithtarcheologiststJeantClottestandtDavi
dtLewis-Williamst(Clottest&tLewis-

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Williams,t1998)twhotsuggesttthattShamanismtistattthetroottoftthistStonetAgetarttandtthattearlythumanstmaytha
vetregardedtthetcavetastatbridgetbetweentthistworldtandtthetnext.tThist"supernatural"tinterpretationtistthetonlyt
onetwhichtexplainstthetlacktoftvisitorsttotthetcave:tpeopletweretprobablyttootterrifiedtbytvoodoo-
typetfearstandtsuperstitionsttotenter.
Amongtthetlesstportentoustexplanationstoftancienttarttinsidetcaves,tpleasetnotetthetrecenttextensivetstudytintot
thetmeaningtofthandtstencils,tconductedtbytPaultPettitttoftthetUniversitytoftSheffield.tPettitttdemonstratestthatt
thethandprintstweretquitetoftentcreatedtintplacestthattweretdifficultttotreach.tHetsuggeststthattatpossibletinterpr
etationtoftthististthatttheytrepresentedtnavigationaltpictographstintdimlytlittcaves,tgivingtadvicetsuchtast"dotno
ttusetthistpassageway".tSeetalso:tGargastCavetHandtStencilst(25,000tBCE).
Atpictographtistthetrepresentationtoftdatatusingtimages.tPictographstrepresenttthetfrequencytoftdatatwhiletusingts
ymbolstortimagestthattaretrelevantttotthetdata.tThististonetoftthetsimplesttwaysttotrepresenttstatisticaltdata.tAndtr
eadingtatpictographtistmadetextremelyteasytastwell.tThetbesttwayttotexplaintatpictographtistthroughtantexample.
tSotlettustgettstarted.tLettusttaketantexample.tWetmusttrepresentthowtmanytTVtsetsthavetbeentsoldtintthetlasttfe
wtyearstviatatpictograph.tSotwetgettstarted
 CollecttData:tFirsttsteptistobviouslytcollectingtthetdatatoftthetcategorytyoutwantttotrepresent.tCollectty
ourtdatatbytappropriatetmeans.tAndtthentmaketatlisttorttabletoftthetdata.tAndtonettimetfinallytreviewtthetd
ata.
 Picktyourtsymbol:tPicktatsymboltortpicturetthattaccuratelytrepresentstyourtdata.tIftyoutaretdrawingtatp
ictographttotrepresenttTVtsetstsoldtthentatsymboltoftatbasketballtwouldtbethighlytconfusing!
tSotpicktyourtsymboltcarefully.
 AssigntatKey:tSometimestthetfrequencytoftthetdatatisttoothigh.tThentonetsymboltcannottrepresenttonet
frequency.tYoutmusttsettatnumericaltvaluetthattonetsymboltwilltrepresent.tThistnumericaltvaluetmusttbetw
rittentalongtwithtthetpictograph.tExampletonetsymboltoftatTVtrepresentst500tTVtsets.tThististthetkeytoftth
etpictograph.
 Drawtthetpictograph:tFinaltsteptistdrawingtyourtpictograph.tDrawtthettwotcolumnstthattrepresenttthet
categorytandtthetdata.tThentdrawtthetactualtsymbolstthattrepresenttthetfrequencies.tRemembertthattthetsy
mbolstcantbetdrawntastfractionstastwelltiftthetfrequencytistnottatwholetnumber.
 ReviewtyourtData:tAndtfinally,treviewtyourtpictographtandtmaketsuretittcorrectlytrepresentstthetinfor
mationtthattyoutwantedttotrelay.tDon’ttforgetttotchecktthetlabellingtoftyourtgraph.
Aftertyoutaretdonetdrawingtthetabovetpictographtittshouldtlooktsomethingtsimilarttotthetfollowingtpicture.

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 AdvantagestoftatPictograph
 Express atlargetamounttoftinformationtortdatatintatsimpletform
 Sincettheytmaketthetusetoftsymbols,tpictographstattracttattentionti,e,tittistantattractivetwayttotrepresentt
data
 Pictographstareteasyttotreadtsincetalltthetinformationtistavailabletattonetglance
 Andtsincetpictographstaretuniversallytusedttheytdotnottrequiretatlottoftexplanationt
Q.4tDefinetnormaltcurve.tWritetdowntthetpropertiestoftnormaltcurve.
ANS
Knowntcharacteristicstoftthetnormaltcurvetmaketittpossiblettotestimatetthetprobabilitytoftoccurrencetoftanytval
uetoftatnormallytdistributedtvariable.tSupposetthattthettotaltareatundertthetcurvetistdefinedttotbet1.tYoutcantm
ultiplytthattnumbertbyt100tandtsayttheretistat100tpercenttchancetthattanytvaluetyoutcantnametwilltbetsomewh
eretintthetdistribution.t(tRemembert:tThetdistributiontextendsttotinfinitytintbothtdirections.)tSimilarly,tbecaus
ethalftthetareatoftthetcurvetistbelowtthetmeantandthalftistabovetit,tyoutcantsaytthatttheretistat50tpercenttchanc
etthattatrandomlytchosentvaluetwilltbetabovetthetmeantandtthetsametchancetthattittwilltbetbelowtit.
Ittmakestsensetthattthetareatundertthetnormaltcurvetistequivalentttotthetprobabilitytoftrandomlytdrawingtatvalu
etintthattrange.tThetareatistgreatesttintthetmiddle,twheretthet“hump”tis,tandtthinstoutttowardtthettails.tThattistc
onsistenttwithtthetfacttthatttheretaretmoretvaluestclosettotthetmeantintatnormaltdistributiontthantfartfromtit.
Whentthetareatoftthetstandardtnormaltcurvetistdividedtintotsectionstbytstandardtdeviationstabovetandtbelowtth
etmean,tthetareatinteachtsectiontistatknowntquantityt(seetFiguret1).tAstexplainedtearlier,tthetareatinteachtsecti
ontistthetsametastthetprobabilitytoftrandomlytdrawingtatvaluetintthattrange.
Figuret1.Thetnormaltcurvetandtthetareatundertthetcurvetbetweentσtunits.

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 t

Fortexample,t0.3413toftthetcurvetfallstbetweentthetmeantandtonetstandardtdeviationtabovetthetmean,twhichtm
eanstthattaboutt34tpercenttoftalltthetvaluestoftatnormallytdistributedtvariabletaretbetweentthetmeantandtonetsta
ndardtdeviationtabovetit.tIttalsotmeanstthatttheretistat0.3413tchancetthattatvaluetdrawntattrandomtfromtthetdist
ributiontwilltlietbetweentthesettwotpoints.
Sectionstoftthetcurvetabovetandtbelowtthetmeantmaytbetaddedttogetherttotfindtthetprobabilitytoftobtainingtatv
aluetwithint(plustortminus)tatgiventnumbertoftstandardtdeviationstoftthetmeant(seetFiguret2).tFortexample,tthe
tamounttoftcurvetareatbetweentonetstandardtdeviationtabovetthetmeantandtonetstandardtdeviationtbelowtist0.3
413t+t0.3413t=t0.6826,twhichtmeanstthattapproximatelyt68.26tpercenttoftthetvaluestlietintthattrange.tSimilarly
,taboutt95tpercenttoftthetvaluestlietwithinttwotstandardtdeviationstoftthetmean,tandt99.7tpercenttoftthetvaluestl
ietwithintthreetstandardtdeviations.

Figuret2.Thetnormaltcurvetandtthetareatundertthetcurvetbetweentσtunits.

Intorderttotusetthetareatoftthetnormaltcurvettotdeterminetthetprobabilitytoftoccurrencetoftatgiventvalue,tthetval
uetmusttfirsttbetstandardized,tortconvertedttotatz‐scoret.tTotconverttatvaluettotatz‐
scoretisttotexpresstittinttermstofthowtmanytstandardtdeviationstittistabovetortbelowtthetmean.tAftertthetz‐
scoretistobtained,tyoutcantlooktuptitstcorrespondingtprobabilitytintattable.tThetformulattotcomputetatz‐
scoretist

wheretxtistthetvaluettotbetconverted,tμtistthetpopulationtmean,tandtσtistthetpopulationtstandardtdeviation.t
Q.5tExplaintproceduretfortdeterminingtmedian,twithtonetexampleteachtattleast,tif:t
ti.tThetnumbertoftscorestisteven

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tii.tThetnumbertoftscorestistodd.
ANS
Thetmediantistthetmiddletscoretoftatdistribution.tTotcalculatetthetmedian
 Arrangtyour tnumberstintnumericaltorder.
 Countthowtmanytnumberstyouthave.
 Iftyouthavetantoddtnumber,tdividetbyt2tandtroundtupttotgettthetpositiontoftthetmediantnumber.
 Iftyouthavetanteventnumber,tdividetbyt2.tGottotthetnumbertintthattpositiontandtaveragetittwithtthetnum
bertintthetnextthighertpositionttotgettthetmedian.
Considertthistsettoftnumbers:t5,t7,t9,t9,t11.tSincetyouthavetantoddtnumbertoftscores,tthetmediantwouldtbet9.t
Youthavetfivetnumbers,tsotyoutdividet5tbyt2ttotgett2.5,tandtroundtupttot3.tThetnumbertintthetthirdtpositiontist
thetmedian.
Whatthappenstwhentyouthavetanteventnumbertoftscorestsottheretistnotsingletmiddletscore?
tConsidertthistsettoftnumbers:t1,t2,t2,t4,t5,t7.tSincettheretistanteventnumbertoftscores,tyoutneedttottaketthetav
eragetoftthetmiddlettwotscores,tcalculatingttheirtmean.
Intthistcase,tthetmeantwouldtbet2t+t4t(addtthettwotmiddletnumbers),twhichtequalst6.tThen,tyouttaket6tandtdiv
idetittbyt2t(thettotaltnumbertoftscorestyoutaddedttogether),twhichtequalst3.tSo,tfortthistexample,tthetmediantis
t3.

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