 ZACHARIAS JANSSEN (16th century) – two lenses enlarge image

 FRANCESCO STELLUTI/GIOVANNI FABER (1625) – term microscopio or microscope

 ROBERT HOOKE (1665) – “cella – CELL”, and formulated cell theory
 ANTON VAN LEEWENHOEK (1673) – animalcules; father of Microbiology and Parasitology
 I n 1668, Francesco Redi, an Italian physician, did an experiment with flies and wide-mouth jars containing meat. This was a true scientific

experiment — many people say this was the first real experiment — containing the following elements:

1.Observation: There are flies around meat carcasses at the butcher shop.
2.Question: Where do the flies come from? Does rotting meat turn into or produce the flies?
3.Hypothesis: Rotten meat does not turn into flies. Only flies can make more flies.
4.Prediction: If meat cannot turn into flies, rotting meat in a sealed (fly-proof) container should not produce flies or maggots.
5.Testing: Wide-mouth jars each containing a piece of meat were subjected to several variations of "openness" while all other variables
were kept the same.
control group — These jars of meat were set out without lids so the meat would be exposed to whatever it might be in the butcher shop.
experimental group(s) — One group of jars were sealed with lids, and another group of jars had gauze placed over them.
replication — Several jars were included in each group.
6.Data: Presence or absence of flies and maggots observed in each jar was recorded. In the control group of jars, flies were seen entering
the jars. Later, maggots, then more flies were seen on the meat. In the gauze-covered jars, no flies were seen in the jars, but were observed
around and on the gauze, and later a few maggots were seen on the meat. In the sealed jars, no maggots or flies were ever seen on the
meat.
7.Conclusion(s): Only flies can make more flies. In the uncovered jars, flies entered and laid eggs on the meat. Maggots hatched from these
eggs and grew into more adult flies. Adult flies laid eggs on the gauze on the gauze-covered jars. These eggs or the maggots from them
dropped through the gauze onto the meat. In the sealed jars, no flies, maggots, nor eggs could enter, thus none were seen in those jars.
Maggots arose only where flies were able to lay eggs. This experiment disproved the idea of spontaneous generation for larger organisms.
 FRANCESCO REDI (1668) – opponent to the theory
 JOHN NEEDHAM (1745) – supporter of the theory
 LAZARRO SPALLANZANI (1765)
 RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1858) – introduced the concept of Biogenesis
 LOUIS PASTEUR (1861) – offered proof of biogenesis by using an S-shaped curve
flask
 Aseptic technique – heat , nutrient environment
 Father of Modern Bacteriology
 GIROLAMO FRACASTORO (1546) – disease transmission could occur by direct
human contact
 IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS (1840) – directed his staff to wash hand in chlorine water
before entering the maternity ward –FATHER OF INFECTION CONTROL
 JOHN SNOW (1854) – cholera was not spread by miasma but rather water-borne
 EDWARD JENNER – experimented on the smallpox vaccine; father of immunology

VARIOLATION AND VACCINATION –

PREVENTION OFF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 LOUIS PASTEUR – Pasteurization
 JOSEPH LISTER – introduced the use of disinfectant carbolic acid (phenol) during
surgery; father of Aseptic technique
 1. ROBERT KOCH (1876) – microorganisms transmit disease

KOCH`S POSTULATES
1. A pathogen must be present in every case of
disease.
KOCH PURE CULTURE TECHNIQUES
2. The pathogen must be isolated from the
diseased host & growth in pure culture. 1887: developed methods for staining
bacterial cells and prepared
3. The pathogen from the pure culture must cause permanent visual
the same disease when inoculated into a 1880: coined “colony”; use of gelatin as
healthy susceptible laboratory animal. solidifying agent of culture media
4. The same species of microorganisms must be 1883: cultivated comma-shaped
recovered from the infected laboratory animal. diphtheria bacilli
1891: studies malaria, plague, and
sleeping sickness
1905: nobel prize in physiology and
medicine – tuberculosis bacilli works
FORMALIZED STANDARDS TO IDENTIFY
GERMS WITH INFECTIOUS DISEASE
2. LOUIS PASTEUR
* 1880: heat and weak acid attenuated bacterial cells of chicken cholera
* 1881: anthrax vaccine
3. EMILE ROUX AND ALEXANDRE YERSIN – diphtheria toxin
4. EMIL VON BEHRING – diphtheria antitoxin PIONEER IN BACTERIOLOGY AND
IMMUNOLOGY
5. SHIBASABURO KITASATO – cultivated tetanus bacillus
6. ELIE METCHNIKOFF (1884) – phagocytosis
  1. Molecular biology relies on microorganisms
A. SALVADOR LURIA AND MAX DULBRUCK
(1943)
- Bacterial cell could develop spontaneous
mutations that generate resistance to viral
infection
- Microorganisms could be used to study general
principles of biology --- microbial genetics
- ESCHERIA COLI – microbial model system
B. BIRTH MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
i. GEORGE BEADLE AND EDWARD TATUM
(1940): one gene code for one enzyme
ii. OSWALD AVERY, COLIN MacLeod, &
MACLYN McCarty (1944): Streptococcus
pneumonia – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is
the genetic material of cells
iii. ALFRED HERSHEY & MARTHA CHASE (1953):
irrefutable evidence that DNA is the
substance of the genetic material
2. TWO TYPES OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
ARE REALIZED (1940 -1950`s)

Electron microscope – magnify cells

thousands of times better than the typical
microscope
Eukaryote (Protista, fungi) and prokaryote
(bacteria, archae)
3. ANTIBIOTICS ARE USED TO CURE DISEASES

a. PAUL EHRLICH (1910) – a German physician who found a chemotherapeutic agent

against syphilis called salvarsan –arsphenamine
b. ALEXANDER FLEMMING (1929) – accidentally discovered the mould Penicillium notatum
(mould active inhibitor is Penicillin) lated renamed Penicillium chrysogenum
c. GERHARD DOMAGK – discovered a synthetic chemical dye (Prontosil) effective in
treating Streptococcus infections - sulfonamidochrysoidine
d. SELMAN WAKSMAN – discovered actinomycin and streptomycin (for tuberculosis);
coined the term antibiotics
CHARACTERISTICS PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. MAJOR GROUP Bacteria, Archaea (blue-green Algae, fungi, protozoa, plants,
algae) animals
2. SIZE OF CELL Typically 0.2-2.0 micrometer in Typically 10-100 micrometer in
diameter diameter
3. MOTILITY Flagella (simple) Flagella (complex); pseudopodia
4. CELL WALL Peptidoglycan (Bacteria) Absent; present: chitin of cellulose
5. CELL MEMBRANE Lacks sterols (except for Sterols (cholesterol, ergosterol)
Mycoplasma species)
6. CYTOPLASM
Cytoskeleton Absent Present
Ribosomes Present (smaller-70S (50S+30S) Present; (larger -80S (60S + 40S;
smaller size (70S in organelles)
Mitochondria Absent Present
Golgi complex Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Triglyceride fats Absent Present
7. NUCLEUS Nucleoid True nucleus
Nuclear membrane Absent Present
Chromosomes Single, closed, circular, double- Multiple, linear chromosome
stranded DNA
1. SIZE – generally 0.2 – 2 micrometer in diameter and 2 -8 micrometer in length
2. MORPHOLOGIES:
a. COCCI: spherical cells; 0.5 micrometer in diameter
b. BACILLI: rod-shaped cells; 0.5 -20 micrometer long
 SLENDER: Salmonella typhi
 RECTANGULAR WITH SQUARE ENDS: Bacillus anthracis
 COCCOBACILLI (somewhat short)
 CORYNEFORM (appear club or dumbbell shaped): Corynebacterium diphtheriae

c. SPIRAL
 VIBRIOS: curved, comma-shaped cells (Vibrio cholerae)
 SPIRILLA: rigid-helical rod cells (14 to 20 coils per organisms)
 SPIROCHETE: flexiblw-helical rods (about 4 coils per organisms)
3. ARRANGEMENT
 SINGLES – one plane division daughter cells are apart
 PAIRS – one plane division, daughter cells are side by side
 CHAINS – one plane division, daughter cells are very close
 TETRADS – group of four`s – 2 plane division
 SARCINAE – box or cube-like, 3 plane-division (Micrococcus luteus)
 CLUSTERS – 4 or more plane division
 PALISADE – multiple planes of division
o COCCI: pairs (diplococcic), chains (streptococci), clusters (staphylococci)
o BACILLI: regular, shorter (“coccobacillary”), club or dumbbell shaped (“coryneform”)
o SPIRILLA: loose (about 4 coils per organism); tight (14 to 20 coils per organism)
 DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
GLYCOCALYX External viscous, gelatinous Anti-phagocytic
-capsule outer layer of the cell wall Attachment
-slime layer Bacterial id
FLAGELLA (mono, lopho, Long, thin, threadlike or Motility
amphi,amphilopho, whiplike,flamentous Bacterial id
peri…trichous) appendages
AXIAL FILAMENT/ Bundles of fibrils that arise at Motility by undulation
ENDOFLAGELLUM the ends of the cell beneath
an outer sheath and spiral
around the cell
FIMBRIAE/PILI Short, thin, straight fiber Grappling hook model of
appendages found on the twitching motility; conjugation
surface of many grm-negative
bacteria
 Complex semi-rigid structure
 Composition: peptidoglycan/murein
o Rigid component found in all bacteria except in mycoplasmas and ureaplasmas (cell wall
less)
 FUNCTIONS:
o Provides structural rigidity
o Acts as an exoskeleton to protect the fragile cell membrane
o Maintain the association of the wall with the cell membrane
o Serves as a point of anchorage for flagella
o Virulence factor
o Site of antibiotic action
o Differentiate major types of bacteria
 80 nm thick
 Peptidoglycans (40-80% by wt)
 Teichoic acid
o C polysaccharide (S. pneumoniae)
o M protein (S. pyogenes)

 FUNCTIONS:
o Bind and regulate the movement of cations
o Assume role in cell growth, preventing extensive cell wall
breakdown, possible cell lysis
o Provide cell wall`s antigenic specificity
 Streptococcus cell wall: Lancefield
o Essential for cell viability
 Thinner but more complex than gram positive bacterial cell wall
 No teichoic acid
 COMPOSITION:
o Periplasmic space; enzyme-containing compartment between the cytoplasmic
membrane and the outer portions of the cell wall
o Peptidoglycan layer: two-dimensional single layer (more susceptible to mechanical
breakage)
o Outer membrane
COMPOSITION:
a. phospholipids: similar to cytoplasmic membrane
b. lipoproteins
c. lipopolysaccharide
 Lipid A: endotoxin (fever, dilation of blood vessels, shock, and blood
clotting); core polysaccharide
 Core polysaccharide:provide stability of the cell
 O polysaccharide: antigen and is useful for distinguishing species of gram
negative bacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia coli)