Frozen Environments and

Soft Tissue Preservation

MARC S. MICOZZI
11
Introduction
The field of taphonomy has been actively considered in the forensic context for only about
one decade. Many taphonomic studies have been carried out and observations made in an
effort to further archaeologic interpretations of past human behavior and to make such
interpretations more scientific. These observations and studies are now helping to make the
estimation of postmortem interval in the forensic context more scientific (Micozzi 1991).
When we first used the term “forensic taphonomy” in a window display at the National
Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, during 1986–1987,
the term was not familiar to many forensic scientists. This volume and others are serving to
make the concepts and terminology of taphonomy more commonplace and useful in the
forensic sciences.
The baseline temperature for most studies of taphonomic processes has been room
temperature or within middle ranges. Changes in temperature tend to alter the rate but not
the fundamental character of taphonomic change (Micozzi 1986, 1991). In frozen environ-
ments, however, the types of changes may be altered substantially, while the rates of change
may slow to virtually zero. Freezing will, of course, preserve soft tissue while in the frozen
state. After thawing, however, the effects of prior freezing may accelerate certain postthaw
decompositional changes, while slowing others.

Postmortem Preservation by Freezing

Immediate postmortem change is essentially a competition between decay and desiccation,
and external factors such as temperature and humidity largely determine the outcome
(Aufderheide 1981; Micozzi 1986). Natural preservation of soft tissues after death may occur
through desiccation (drying), freezing and sublimation (freeze–drying) and fixation by min-
eral salts (niter, natron, salt peter), mineralized water, tannic acids, or other chemicals.
Preservation of soft tissue occurs with freezing through a process of sublimation, or
freeze–drying, in regions within the Arctic and Antarctic circles, and at high altitude. Soft
tissue preservation due to freezing over long periods of time has been observed in Scythian
bodies from Middle East permafrost zones (Artamanov 1965). Scythian tombs in the Altai
Mountains of Siberia were found to contain well preserved human remains (Rudenko 1970).
Herodotus (IV:66–71) provides an early description of Scythian burial practices at the death
of a king, who was eviscerated, mummified, entombed, and covered by stone cairns. Several
frozen Siberian woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primogenus) have been well preserved, well
studied, and are well known (e.g., Goodman et al. 1980).
Soft tissues have been preserved through freezing in circumpolar areas of North America
and alpine areas during ancient and more recent times. A frozen, mummified body, complete

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 with tattoos, was found on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, dating from 400 B.C. (Smith and
Zimmermann 1975). The body of a Neolithic voyager was found frozen in a glacier on the
border between Austria and Italy with remarkable preservation of soft tissues, skin, and
tattoos, dating from approximately 4000 to 6000 B.C. (Sjovold 1992). The body of arctic
explorer Charles Francis Hall, who died of arsenic poisoning and was buried in 1871 at Thank-
God-Harbour, Greenland, was exhumed and autopsied on site in 1968, with good preservation
of soft tissue (Horne 1980). The preservative potential of arsenic itself is also noted, as in the
case of Elmer McCurdy, a turn-of-the-century Western outlaw, embalmed with arsenic and
preserved for a carnival show (Snow and Reyman 1984).
Soft tissue preservation under conditions of freezing is potentially ideal, but the practical
limitations of discovery conditions often preclude examination prior to the onset of postre-
covery deterioration (Aufderheide 1981). Further, exposure of soft tissues to alternating
freeze–thaw cycles over time introduces confounding variables (Micozzi 1986). Depending
upon latitude, season of death, and stratigraphy of placement in the ground, animal and
human remains may be subjected to freezing with or without subsequent thaw. Wood and
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Johnson (1978) have illustrated zones of continuous and discontinuous permafrost world-
wide, and maximum depths of frost penetration in seasonally frozen ground in the U.S.
(Figures 1 and 2).

Freezing and Postmortem Decomposition

Soft tissue which has not been naturally or artificially preserved is subject to the postmortem
processes of putrefaction (anaerobic degradation) and decay (aerobic degradation). Whereas
desiccation occurs under conditions of dryness, putrefaction takes place in the presence of
moisture and moderate temperatures. No putrefaction occurs at temperature less than 4°C
(the temperature of the average refrigerator). The inhibitory effect of refrigeration on bacterial
growth is well known, and putrefaction does not occur in refrigerated mortuaries, as post-
mortem bacteriological studies have often demonstrated (Decker 1978).

Conditions of Bacterial Growth

Temperature has a direct effect on bacterial growth in both extremes of heat and cold, and
in middle ranges. Freezing stops bacterial growth and preserves tissue by influencing cell
division time, while boiling kills bacteria but destroys soft tissue. At temperatures below 55°F
(12°C) bacterial reproduction is greatly retarded. At temperature between 32 to 41°F (0 to
5°C), bacterial multiplication stops entirely and the time required for a single bacterial cell
division to occur approaches infinity (Binford 1978). Thus, 4°C provides an effective low
temperature threshold below which bacterial growth is severely retarded.
At the other end of the scale is a high temperature threshold approaching the body
temperature of most homeothermic animals. The susceptibility of bacteria to increased tem-
perature, as well as decreased temperature, has been demonstrated under controlled condi-
tions with respect to reduced decomposition rates of soft tissue (Aufderheide 1981). At high
temperature, the time required for bacterial cell division approaches infinity. Thus it may be
adaptive to develop a fever during infection in terms of retarding bacterial growth. However,
in the temperature range immediately below this threshold, the highest rates of bacterial cell
division occur. Therefore, decomposition due to bacterial action is rapid in environments
characterized by temperatures between 60 and 95°F (15 and 37°C). At such temperatures,
desiccation must be rapid and nearly complete in order to allow even limited preservation of
soft tissue. With reduction in temperature to the 5 to 15°C range, the degree of desiccation
required for preservation is reduced. Where temperatures are less than 5°C, the degree of

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Figure 1 Zones of continuous and discontinuous permafrost worldwide.

desiccation required is minimal. Below 0°C, no desiccation is required (given sustained tem-
peratures) since freezing is the most effective preservative technique. Prior freezing also retards
bacterial growth after thawing at ambient temperature (Micozzi 1986).
It must be considered that the temperature of decomposing soft tissue may differ widely
from the ambient air or soil temperature, due to the creation of an internal microenvironment
by the action of bacteria (Payne 1965; Rodriguez and Bass 1983, 1985). At higher temperatures,

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Figure 2 Maximum depths of frost penetration in seasonally frozen ground in the U.S.

desiccation occurs more rapidly but bacterial growth is also greater. Thus the outcome of this
balance at a given temperature depends upon humidity.

Freezing and Phases of Decay

Four phases of decay have been observed by both Reed (1958) and Johnson (1975). However,
both studies used animals which had previously been frozen, and the extent to which decay
processes in previously frozen tissue duplicates the behavior of fresh tissue is questionable
(Micozzi 1986). Johnson (1975) described fresh, bloat, decay, and dry stages. The fresh stage
persisted no longer than 2 days. The bloat stage was characterized by the build-up of gases
due to predominance of anaerobic protein decomposition by bacteria (putrefaction), and
persisted from 2 to 5 days under warm conditions. In a cold environment, or when the animal
was exposed to alternating freeze–thaw cycles, this phase persisted for several weeks.
Variations in the duration of the various phases or stages of putrefaction and decay have
been reported (Johnson 1975) by season of the year. Extensive freezing and lack of decay
organism activity during winter preclude observation of definitive decay patterns during this
season. Animals that have been subjected to freezing and subsequently thaw appear to decom-
pose from the “outside in” with decay due predominantly to invasion by external soil organ-
isms, while unfrozen animals decompose from the “inside out” with predominantly
putrefaction due to enteric microorganism dissemination (Micozzi 1986).

Effects of Freezing on Soil and Environmental Conditions

When human remains enter the soil matrix they are subject to a number of soil disturbance
processes, or pedoturbation. Dynamic soil processes influence the deposition and placement
of remains. These agents of attrition are quantitative vectors in that they have both magnitude
and direction. The archaeologic matrix in which postmortem remains are embedded forms

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 a system in which dynamics of soil formation and disturbance processes exercise a major
influence.
Cryoturbation is soil disturbance by freeze–thaw action which also affects postmortem
disposition of remains independently (Micozzi, 1986). This phenomenon is dependent upon
the water content of soil and occurs in arctic, montane, and midlatitude regions where there
is frozen ground. Continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones cover 25% of the surface
of the earth, while seasonally frozen ground covers 50% (Figures 1 and 2).
Soil, like water, freezes from the surface downward. Freezing causes expansion of water,
and hence soil, by conformational changes in crystalline water molecules at 4°C. Soil freezing
has the same effect on capillarity as does surface evaporation of soil water, and the actual
expansion of soil is even greater with freezing due to this effect. Ice heaving occurs due to
frost pull or push depending upon the heat conductivity of bone in relation to soil. These
freezing processes may result in several features: heaved soil and up-freezing of bone, mass
displacement and involution, cracking and wedging, sorting and ground patterning into
circles, polygons, nets, steps, and stripes.
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Different geographic regions are subject to these processes to varying extents, and a site-
specific index of pedoturbation may be developed with respect to climate, rainfall, seasonality,
latitude, and other factors. The predominance of these processes may be estimated for a given
site at a given time, but the temporal dimension must be added to determine changes in
climate over time. Various combinations of processes may lead to specific feature formation
in various regions. Gelifluction lobes occur at high latitudes and altitudes due to the action
of graviturbation, cryoturbation, and secondary aquaturbation.
In addition to specific cryoturbative processes, whether or not a region is subject to frost
quantitatively alters the character of many other pedoturbative processes. In frost zones,
graviturbation will be manifest as gelifluction (rather than solifluction), as well as soil creep.
Aquaturbation will be differentially manifest as cryostatic rather than artesian processes. The
occurrence of these various specific topographic features at a given site may help identify the
soil pedoturbative processes in operation over time.
There may also be subregional, site-specific variations in pedoturbative processes based
upon topography and drainage. Cryoturbation causes resurfacing, while faunalturbation
causes burial. In well-drained soil, faunal alterations predominate over cryoturbation, while
in poorly drained soils, the opposite will pertain. As a result of all these processes, remains
may alternatively sink into soil, concentrate into layers at various depths, become reoriented,
thrust to the surface, or move horizontally on a plane or downslope, within soil. Processes
occurring in short time-frame windows are superimposed upon the substrate of more gradual
activities, and instantaneous events (seismiturbation or earthquakes) and rapid processes
(graviturbation or landslides) are superimposed upon both.

Experimental Study of Effects of Freezing and Thawing

A study was conducted in an experimental animal model under controlled field conditions
to (1) observe the gross, histologic, and microbiological features associated with immediate
postmortem change in soft tissue and skeletal remains; (2) determine the effects of freezing
and thawing on patterns of postmortem change; (3) observe the effects of mechanical injury
on postmortem change; and (4) compare the effects of freezing and thawing to those of
mechanical injury (Micozzi 1986).

Baseline
Baseline necropsies at 0 h revealed differences between the “fresh” and “frozen” animals. The
freshly killed animals had normal gross and microscopic examinations, and the internal organs

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 were distinct in color and consistency. The frozen–thawed animals had a normal external
examination, but internal examination revealed gross loss of bloody fluid from oral and nasal
apertures, indistinct internal organs and corticomedullary junctions of the kidneys, and
hemolysis of blood. Microscopic examination revealed loss of nuclear detail in tissue cells.

Day Two
Remaining pairs of animals were observed undisturbed in the field after 2 days (48 h). Insects
(Hymenoptera, Coleoptera) and insect larvae were concentrated around carcasses and the
surrounding areas. All frozen–thawed animals manifested greater external aerobic decompo-
sition (decay) than the fresh-killed controls assessed by greater percent external hair loss,
greater percent skin mummification, and greater percent loss of facial features. For the pair
examined, the upper surface of the fresh-killed animal was intact (left eye present) and fully
articulated. The undersurface (right) showed massive abdominal distention. The upper surface
of the frozen–thawed animal showed focally denuded fur (left eye absent), partially mummi-
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fied skin, and numerous ectoparasites. The undersurface was completely denuded, with skin
focally decayed and flat abdominal wall. Internally, the freshly killed animal showed greater
anaerobic decomposition (putrefaction) of abdominal fat and viscera, massive gastrointestinal
distention, and “moth-eaten” lungs (right more than left). Insect larvae were present only in
the anus and vagina. By contrast, in the frozen–thawed animal internally, the abdominal
organs were preserved, lungs were intact, and gastrointestinal tract was not distended. How-
ever, there were insect larvae in the oral cavity, tracheobronchial tree, and abdominal wall, as
well as anal and vaginal external orifices. Microscopically, the fresh animal showed histologic
preservation of the skin, superficial insect larvae, marked autolysis of liver and other viscera,
and bacterial overgrowth in the gastrointestinal tract.
The frozen animal showed decay of skin muscle, larvae in deep tissues, partial preservation
of viscera, intact pulmonary and biliary trees, and bacterial overgrowth in the upper airway.
Weight change in the fresh animal was 2% loss, and in the frozen 8% loss (including biomass).

Day Four
After 4 days (96 h), both remaining pairs of animals displayed advanced decomposition with
partial mummification and skeletonization, and insect larvae in abdominal cavities. Internally,
abdominal and thoracic viscera were grossly absent in the fresh animal necropsied at this
interval. The skeleton was fully articulated, except for the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
Insect larvae were present only in the right (ground contact) posterior thoracic region. In the
frozen animal, internal organs were still partially preserved, but insect larvae were present
throughout. The skeleton had undergone partial disarticulation (at TMJ, cervical vertebrae,
symphysis pubis, and right knee), with forelimbs and thoracic cage completely articulated.
Microscopic examination revealed extensive decay, large gram-positive bacterial rods, and
multiple insect larvae. Weight loss was 83% of baseline in each animal at this stage.

Day Six
After 6 days (144 hours), the remaining pair of animals showed no insects or insect larvae on
the carcasses or in the surrounding areas. There was mummification and partial skeletoniza-
tion. Partial disarticulation processes in the fresh animal (TMJ, atlantooccipital, cervical, and
lumbar vertebrae, sternocostal junctions, symphysis pubis) continued to be less advanced
than in the frozen animal (TMJ, cervical and lumbar vertebrae, costovertebral, sternocostal,
lumbosacral, sacroiliac, pelvis-hip). The fresh animal had forelimbs fully articulated, but
remnants of viscera were still present. Weight loss in the fresh animal was 72%, and in the
frozen 87%.

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 A microbiologic succession sequence was observable from enteric to soil organisms over
6 days. The sequences in fresh and frozen organisms were similar in order, but it is evident
from the gross, histologic, and microbiologic evidence that enteric microorganism growth
proceeds more rapidly in the fresh animals, despite some initial contamination in the frozen
animals.

Decomposition and Disarticulation Patterns

In comparing the upper surfaces (exposed to air) to the lower surfaces (in ground contact),
decomposition proceeded more rapidly on the side in contact with the ground in all animals,
as compared to the other side in each. Animals that were killed by cervical dislocation at the
start of the experiment showed rapid decay in the cervical tissue subjected to mechanical
stress and injury.
A sequence of arthropod and microbiological succession, as well as patterns of decom-
position and disarticulation, were discernable over the time interval. Using observations on
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all animals, a reproducible sequence of disarticulation can be reconstructed. Although the

rates of disarticulation were slower in the fresh-killed animals than in frozen–thawed animals,
the sequence in the two was the same, as determined by morphologic and biomechanical
factors. The temporomandibular joint was the first to disarticulate in all animals. The atlan-
tooccipital joint and cervical vertebrae followed in close succession. The cervical vertebrae
disarticulated at this early interval, even in animals that had not been sacrificed by cervical
dislocation.
Thus, the mandible and skull would have the first opportunity to become mechanically
separated from the less-identifiable postcranial portions of the skeleton. The limbs have a
tendency to remain intact during the immediate postmortem period. This pattern is consistent
with the observed behavior of mammalian skeletal remains in archaeologic context (Hill 1977,
1979) Mammalian mandibles and skulls are often found in disassociation from postcranial
skeletal remains. It has been suggested that some biologic agents and physical agents may
accelerate the process of disarticulation, but do not alter its sequence (Gifford 1981). Freez-
ing–thawing appears to be one such physical agent which accelerates rates of disarticulation,
but does not alter the sequence, compared to fresh-killed animals.
In general, the frozen–thawed animals were more susceptible to invasion by insects and
microorganisms from the outside, and aerobic decay of the skin and external surfaces. The
fresh-killed animals were less susceptible to external decay, but putrefaction (anaerobic
decomposition) proceeded more rapidly from within. It appears that the freeze–thaw cycle
diminishes the capability of enteric organisms to grow and participate in postmortem putre-
faction. The mechanical disruption of the tissues caused by freezing also weakens the skin,
connective tissue, and joints, thus facilitating aerobic decay and skeletal disarticulation, and
making internal organs more susceptible to invasion by foreign organisms and insects.
In summary, it appears that in frozen–thawed animals, postmortem decomposition pro-
ceeds from the “outside in” (predominantly decay); while in the fresh-killed animals, it
proceeds from “inside out” (predominantly putrefaction). It is evident that studies of the
various processes of postmortem change using frozen–thawed animals may not have given
an accurate picture of the decomposition sequences and timing that would occur in fresh-
killed animals for purposes of determining the interval since death. Such studies should be
repeated using freshly killed animals. These findings have implications for the interpretation
of human remains from individuals who die with, or without, injuries during the frost season
in temperate climates. These remains may “winter over” and subsequently be discovered in
the spring or summer, following one or more freeze–thaw cycles, and after the onset of
postthaw decompositional changes.

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 Effects of Freezing and Thawing on Soft Tissue: Case Illustration
A body with a gunshot wound to the head was discovered in a wooded area in mid-September
1983 wrapped with consecutive layers of plastic garbage bags and rope. Examination of the
body revealed a bullet hole in the occipital–parietal region and a peculiar decomposition
pattern of the body. Following a forensic reconstruction of autopsy findings, microscopic
studies and other ancillary factors, it was concluded that the body had been frozen for over
2 years prior to its being dumped along a mountain road in Rockland County, N.Y. (Zugibe
and Costello 1993).
The peculiar decomposition pattern (external aspects of the body markedly more decom-
posed than the visceral aspects and no intestinal or tissue distension) suggested that the victim
may have been frozen for a period of time. Zugibe and Costello (1993) reasoned that freezing
would either kill or alter the growth pattern of enteric flora. The external aspects of the body
would be the first to thaw and, therefore, be directly exposed to microorganisms from outside
the body. The head region showed more decomposition than the rest of the body because the
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perforation in the head would allow entrance of organisms from the outside. Moreover, if the
body had indeed been frozen, the head may have decomposed more rapidly because of rapid
thawing due to its small size. Tissue sections were evaluated for the presence of ice crystal artifacts
in an attempt to confirm that the body may have been intentionally frozen prior to discarding
it. Careful examination of heart muscle sections revealed features suggestive of ice crystal artifacts.
The body was subsequently identified as that of a man last seen alive about 2¼ years
prior to the supposed time of death. This was fully corroborated almost 3 years later, when
the New Jersey Attorney General’s Office held a suspect named Richard Kuklinski in connec-
tion with a series of homicides, including this case. They indicated that the victim’s body had
been frozen, because one of their informants provided them with a sworn statement that he
had observed a body hanging in a freezer compartment within Kuklinski’s North Bergen, NJ,
warehouse. This case was responsible for Kuklinski being dubbed the “Iceman,” although this
was purportedly the only victim that he froze.
The experimental study of laboratory animals frozen for a period of time after death,
and then thawed, showed decomposition more marked externally than internally (Micozzi
1986). This study supported the preliminary observation and hypothesis proposed by Zugibe
and Costello (1993) at the time of autopsy. The finding of ice crystal artifacts in the tissue
provided them additional evidence that the body appeared to have been frozen prior to
dumping it in Rockland County, NY.
The effects of freezing on tissue have been extensively investigated. Zugibe and Costello
(1993) note the ice crystal artifacts are small disruptions of cellular structures within cells
caused by ice crystal formation during freezing and thawing. During the freezing process,
water is transformed into ice crystals with a rigid crystal lattice within the intracellular,
extracellular, and intranuclear spaces, producing artifactual distortion of the tissue if the
crystals are sufficiently large. The morphological features in the tissues can be recognized as
empty spaces. Careful studies also reveal nuclear distortions due to the pressure exerted by
the ice crystals (vacuolation around the nuclei). Repeated freezing and thawing disrupts cell
organelles, releases enzymes, and produces diffusion of solubilizable constituents (Lillie 1965).
The amount of distortion depends on the rate of freezing, the rate of thawing, the number
of crystallation nuclei, the thermal conductivity properties of the tissue, and the tissue size
and shape (Zugibe and Costello 1993).
The “Iceman” case provides a good example that caution must be exercised in interpreting
the time of death in frozen environments. Although the perpetrator attempted to conceal the
time of death in order to confuse the authorities, he was thwarted by careful observation and
reconstruction of the autopsy findings and other ancillary studies (Zugibe and Costello 1993).
In any case involving a decomposing body that has been dumped during the months of the
year when the climate is cool or warm (not freezing), the medical examiner should consider

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 the possibility of the body having been frozen prior to dumping. Zugibe and Costello (1993)
proposed that the following observations be made: (1) whether decomposition is greater
externally than internally; (2) whether there is significant intestinal distension or bloating;
(3) whether the skin is pasty in consistency; and (4) whether tissue sections show evidence
of ice crystal artifacts. The clothing of the victim may also be cleaned after checking for
evidentiary material, and a list made of each item with a complete description. Following
identification, one can then try to determine whether the victim was wearing the same clothing
when last seen alive.

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 Rodriguez, W.C., and W.M. Bass
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