PAPER

ANALYSIS
QUIANE, Hannahniah S.
BSED SCI 1A
Article: Ecology of Leptocoris Hahn (Hemiptera: Rhopalidae) soapberry bugs in
Australia
Author/s: Scott P Carroll, Jenella E Loye, Hugh Dingle, Michael Mathieson, Myron P
Zalucki

This article is about the Soapberry bugs and how it evolved due to several
environmental factors. In this study, the authors aim to relate the different species of
soapberry bugs to the host they feed in. They observed that differences in body size
and beak length are related to host use.

Leptocoris tagalicus Burmeister is a long-beaked soapberry bug and found out

that they feed on hosts with immature fruit and eats the seed before it pops out.
However, on a tree called Atalaya hemiglauca F. Muell., which has comparatively
unprotected seeds, soapberry bugs with shorter beaks feed on these. They are also
classified on a different taxon of soapberry bugs. The other widespread soapberry bug
is the endemic Leptocoris mitellatus Bergroth. It too is short-beaked, and colonises
hosts phenologically later than L. tagalicus, as seeds become more accessible in open
capsules.

This phenomenon is an evidence of evolution from living species. This

exemplifies the theory of Descent with Modification where it is believed that species
change over time and derive from common ancestor. The phenomenon that happened
in the mentioned study involves the evolution of the soapberry bugs as they adapt on
feeding to new plant hosts. Balloon vine was introduced in Australia and has been
spreading as an invasive weed for some 80 years. The bugs then evolved significantly
longer beaks than their ancestors after being introduced to this weed that has its seed
enclosed by a capsule. For this reason, the bugs must reach for the seed inside and
suck from it thus, developing longer beaks.

This don’t just happen to soapberry bugs alone. There are many species that
evolve through a change on their niche. Organisms adapt accordingly to whatever
changes they experience on their current habitat. These adaptations may cause a
change on the morphology and physiology that will in time will produce a completely
new species that is incapable of interbreeding with its ancestral species.

Studies like this is relevant to the field of evolutionary biology and taxonomy. It
gives us an idea of evolution and keep track on how they do so. With this, we are also
able to identify new species that are descendants of other species. Understanding this
will also allow us to understand their ecology and their role in maintaining balance in the
ecosystem.

Article: Homology and osteological correlates of pedal muscles among extant

sauropsids

Author/s: Soki Hattori and Takanobu Tsuihiji

This article presented new hypothesis on the homology of some members of the
reptiles especially the sauropsids. Sauropsids are a diverse group of mostly egg-laying
vertebrate animals. The Sauropsida includes all modern and most extinct " reptiles” but
excludes synapsids. Living sauropsids include lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and
birds.

The study reiterates on how Archosaurs in the past displayed an evolutionary

trend toward increasing bipedalism in their evolutionary history, that is, forelimbs tend to
be reduced in contrast to the development of hindlimbs becoming major weight-bearing
and locomotor appendages. The archosaurian locomotion has been extensively
discussed based on their limb morphology because the latter reflects their locomotor
modes very well. Despite several attempts to rebuild Archosauria's hindlimb
musculature, the most distal component, the pes, has frequently been overlooked.
Dissections and literature reviews of adult situations were used to establish precise
homologies of pedal muscles among sauropsids in attempt to correct this trend. As a
result, non-avian sauropsids and non-avian sauropsids exhibit some pedal muscle
homologies. The avian m. tibialis cranialis and non-avian m. extensor digitorum longus,
as well as the avian m. extensor digitorum longus and non-avian m. tibialis anterior, are
homologous with each other, according to the proposed new hypothesis.
 Homologous structures are organs or skeletal elements of animals and
organisms that, by virtue of their similarity, suggest their connection to a common
ancestor. These structures do not have to look exactly the same or have the same
function. The most important part, as hinted by their name, is that they are structurally
similar. A lot of species were proven related through common ancestor because of their
homologous structures. Even human have many homologous structures with other
animals. A dolphin's flipper, a bird's wing, a cat's leg, and a human arm are considered
homologous structures. Whereas human beings have bones such as the humerus
(upper arm), ulna and radius (forearm), carpals (wrist bones), metacarpals (hand
bones), and phalanges (fingers), these features appear as similar bones in form in the
other animals. Bats, whales, and many other animals have remarkably similar
homologous structures, demonstrating that these creatures all had a common ancestor.
The tailbone in human beings is so named because it is a homologous structure to the
beginning of many animals' tails, such as monkeys. It is known as a "vestigial structure"
because it is the last vestige of what was once a tail. This structure serves as evidence
of having a common ancestor, one that would have had a tail. The vertebrae are the
homologous structure common to all chordates. These just prove that we have a
common ancestor with other vertebrates.

As for this research article they are trying to formulate new hypothesis on the
homologous structure of the sauropsids ancestor through the existing reptiles today.
The findings are found to have better grounds on the position of proving the homology
between these species. This study is essential in understanding how species evolved.
These are the connecting links that will lead to learning the relationship between
organisms. In here we are also able to formulate phylogenetic trees. A phylogenetic tree
is a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various
biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their
physical or genetic characteristics.
Article: Convergent evolution of gene expression in two high-toothed stickleback
populations

Author/s: James C. Hart, Nicholas A. Ellis, Michael B. Eisen, Craig T. Miller

Stickleback has been a great model on learning the evolution of fish when they
migrate to a different aquatic environment. In this study they are able to present the
convergent evolution of gene expression in two high-toothed stickleback population. As
we all know convergent evolution happens when independent evolution of similar
features in species of different periods in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous
structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common
ancestor of those groups.

The proponents of this study addressed several questions about the evolution of
gene expression accompanying a convergently evolved constructive morphological trait,
increases in tooth number in two independently derived freshwater populations of
threespine stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus). They answered the following
questions after the study: are convergently evolved cis and/or trans changes in gene
expression associated with convergently evolved morphological evolution? Do cis or
trans regulatory changes contribute more to gene expression changes accompanying
an evolved morphological gain trait? These cis and trans regulatory elements involves
the different factors that regulate the transcription of particular genes. Cis regulates the
nearby genes while trans regulates the distant genes.

Transcriptome data from dental tissue of ancestral low-toothed and two

independently derived high-toothed stickleback populations revealed significantly
shared gene expression changes that have convergently evolved in the two high-
toothed populations. Comparing cis and trans regulatory changes, they found out that
trans regulatory changes were predominant and more likely to be shared among both
high-toothed populations. In contrast, while cis regulatory changes have evolved in both
high-toothed populations, overall, these changes were distinct and not shared among
high-toothed populations. Together these data suggest that a convergently evolved trait
can occur through genetically distinct regulatory changes that converge on similar trans
regulatory environments.

From this study it was evident that convergent evolution happens. Studies like
this reveals the relationship of we thought of far-off relationships between species. They
are able to confirm that these two species of high-toothed stickleback are genetically
related to low-toothed sticklebacks. This is where the importance on the advancements
in our study on genetics. Genes being the blueprint of life will tell us a lot of information
on how we got such traits and where they are from. Continuous studies on genetics will
bring us to greater heights in unveiling the secrets of life.

References:

Carroll, S.P., Loye, J.E., Dingle, H., Mathieson, M. and Zalucki, M.P. (2005), Ecology of
Leptocoris Hahn (Hemiptera: Rhopalidae) soapberry bugs in Australia. Australian
Journal of Entomology, 44: 344-353. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-
6055.2005.00499.x

Hattori, S., & Tsuihiji, T. (2021). Homology and osteological correlates of pedal muscles
among extant sauropsids. Journal of anatomy, 238(2), 365–399.
https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13307

Hart, J. C., Ellis, N. A., Eisen, M. B., & Miller, C. T. (2018). Convergent evolution of
gene expression in two high-toothed stickleback populations. PLoS genetics, 14(6),
e1007443. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007443
ARTICLES: (Abstract)

Ecology of Leptocoris Hahn (Hemiptera:

Rhopalidae) soapberry bugs in Australia
Scott P Carroll, Jenella E Loye, Hugh Dingle, Michael Mathieson, Myron P Zalucki

First published: 24 November 2005

Abstract

Soapberry bugs are worldwide seed predators of plants in the family Sapindaceae.
Australian sapinds are diverse and widespread, consisting of about 200 native trees and
shrubs. This flora also includes two introduced environmental weeds, plus cultivated lychee
(Litchi chinensis Sonn.), longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) and rambutan (Nephelium
lappaceum L.). Accordingly, Australian soapberry bugs may be significant in ecology,
conservation and agriculture. Here we provide the first account of their ecology. We find
five species of Leptocoris Hahn in Australia, and list sapinds that do and do not serve as
reproductive hosts. From museum and field records we map the continental distributions
of the insects and primary hosts. Frequency of occupation varies among host species, and
the number of hosts varies among the insects. In addition, differences in body size and
beak length are related to host use. For example, the long-beaked Leptocoris
tagalicus Burmeister is highly polyphagous in eastern rainforests, where it occurs on at
least 10 native and non-native hosts. It aggregates on hosts with immature fruit and
commences feeding before fruits dehisce. Most of its continental range, however, matches
that of a single dryland tree, Atalaya hemiglauca F. Muell., which has comparatively
unprotected seeds. The taxon includes a smaller and shorter-beaked form that is closely
associated with Atalaya, and appears to be taxonomically distinct. The other widespread
soapberry bug is the endemic Leptocoris mitellatus Bergroth. It too is short-beaked, and
colonises hosts phenologically later than L. tagalicus, as seeds become more accessible in
open capsules. Continentally its distribution is more southerly and corresponds mainly to
that of Alectryon oleifolius Desf. Among all host species, the non-native environmental
weeds Cardiospermum L. and Koelreuteria Laxm. are most consistently attacked, principally
by L. tagalicus. These recent host shifts have biocontrol implications. In contrast, the
sapinds planted as fruit crops appear to be less frequently used at present and mainly by
the longer-beaked species.
Homology and osteological correlates of pedal
muscles among extant sauropsids
Soki Hattori, Takanobu Tsuihiji

First published: 24 September 2020

 Abstract

Archosaurs displayed an evolutionary trend toward increasing bipedalism in their

evolutionary history, that is, forelimbs tend to be reduced in contrast to the development
of hindlimbs becoming major weight-bearing and locomotor appendages. The
archosaurian locomotion has been extensively discussed based on their limb morphology
because the latter reflects their locomotor modes very well. However, despite some
attempts of reconstructing the hindlimb musculature in Archosauria, that of the most distal
portion, the pes, has often been neglected. In order to rectify this trend, detailed
homologies of pedal muscles among sauropsids were established based on dissections
and literature reviews of adult conditions. As a result, homologies of some pedal muscles
between non-avian sauropsids and avians were revised, challenging classical hypotheses.
The present new hypothesis postulates that the avian m. tibialis cranialis and non-avian m.
extensor digitorum longus, as well as the avian m. extensor digitorum longus and non-
avian m. tibialis anterior, are homologous with each other, respectively. This is more
plausible because it requires no drastical change in the attachment sites between the avian
and non-avian homologues unlike the classical hypothesis. Many interosseous muscles in
non-archosaurian sauropsids that have long been regarded as a part of short digital
extensors or flexors are also divided into multiple distinct muscles so that they can be
homologized with short pedal muscles among all sauropsids. In addition, osteological
correlates of attachments are identified for most of the pedal muscles, contributing to
future attempts of reconstruction of this muscle system in fossil archosaurs.
Convergent evolution of gene expression in two
high-toothed stickleback populations
 James C. Hart,
 Nicholas A. Ellis,
 Michael B. Eisen,
 Craig T. Miller 

Abstract

Changes in developmental gene regulatory networks enable evolved changes in morphology.

These changes can be in cis regulatory elements that act in an allele-specific manner, or
changes to the overall trans regulatory environment that interacts with cis regulatory
sequences. Here we address several questions about the evolution of gene expression
accompanying a convergently evolved constructive morphological trait, increases in tooth
number in two independently derived freshwater populations of threespine stickleback fish
(Gasterosteus aculeatus). Are convergently evolved cis and/or trans changes in gene expression
associated with convergently evolved morphological evolution? Do cis or trans regulatory
changes contribute more to gene expression changes accompanying an evolved morphological
gain trait? Transcriptome data from dental tissue of ancestral low-toothed and two
independently derived high-toothed stickleback populations revealed significantly shared gene
expression changes that have convergently evolved in the two high-toothed populations.
Comparing cis and trans regulatory changes using phased gene expression data from F1
hybrids, we found that trans regulatory changes were predominant and more likely to be
shared among both high-toothed populations. In contrast, while cis regulatory changes have
evolved in both high-toothed populations, overall these changes were distinct and not shared
among high-toothed populations. Together these data suggest that a convergently evolved trait
can occur through genetically distinct regulatory changes that converge on
similar trans regulatory environments.