advanced since the 

Napoleonic Wars and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete. [citation needed]
Speed of mobilization[edit]

Prussian Prince Friedrich Karl is cheered on by his troops

The Prussian army was locally based, organized in Kreise (military districts, lit.: circles), each
containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their
regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were
stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on
leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take
weeks before they could report to their units, making the Austrian mobilization much slower than
that of the Prussian Army.
Speed of concentration[edit]
The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways
made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid
movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the
Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than the Austrians. Moltke, reviewing his plans to
Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of
285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ...
Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000
men."[18] Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now
the war that we must have."
The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic)
might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being
able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker
Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled,
they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having the other two
instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication.
Armaments and tactics[edit]

The Prussian Dreyse needle gun

Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a bolt-action rifle which could be
fired faster than the muzzle-loading Lorenz rifles of the Austrian army. In the Franco-Austrian
War of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who didn't readjust their
gunsights as they got closer – thus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing the range,
French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the Austrian infantry. After the war,
the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the Stoßtaktik ("shock tactics").
Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and
retained Stoßtaktik.
The Austrian artillery had breech-loading rifled guns which were superior to the Prussian muzzle-
loading smooth bore cannon. New Krupp breech-loading cannons were being slowly introduced
by the Prussians, but not in numbers large enough to influence outcomes. Despite the Austrian
advantage in the quality of their artillery equipment, other limitations prevented these from being
effectively used.

Economic factors[edit]

The Battle of Königgrätz

In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the Zollverein, which
gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with breech-loading
rifles and later with new Krupp breech-loading artillery but the Austrian economy was suffering
from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of
Independence. Austria had only one bank,[citation needed] the Creditanstalt and the state was heavily in
debt. Historian Christopher Clark wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an
overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of
the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that
Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The
Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions,
which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military
culture.[19][page  needed]

Alliances[edit]

Prussian artillery at the Battle of Langensalza. Oil painting by Georg von Boddien

Before the war started both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in
Germany. On 15 June Bismarck offered territorial compensation in the Grand Duchy of Hesse to
the Electorate of Hesse, if Elector Frederick William were to ally with Prussia. The proposition
grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and the monarch joined the
Austrians, despite the Hessian Landtag voting for neutrality.[20] King George V of Hanover during
the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about establishing a
coalition against the Prussians, however his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch
concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies. [20]
Most of the southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those that sided with
Austria included the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg. Smaller middle states such
as Baden, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau also joined with
Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep
their thrones.[20]
Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Brunswick. The Kingdom of Italy participated in the war with
Prussia, because Austria held Venetia and other smaller territories wanted by Italy to further the
process of Italian unification. In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to
make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia.
Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor Napoleon III, who
expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of the war to strengthen his negotiating position
for territory along the Rhine, while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from
the Crimean War.

Course of the war[edit]

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Cavalry clash at the Battle of Nachod

The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, it used many of the same
technologies as the Second Italian War of Independence, including railways to concentrate
troops during mobilization and telegraphs to enhance long-distance communication. The
Prussian Army used von Dreyse's breech-loading needle gun, which could be rapidly loaded
while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles
could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position.
The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth
von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and
advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was
concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by King
William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3
July. The Prussian Elbe Army advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the
center, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore
depended on the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through
the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal. Superior Prussian
organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory
was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice
between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July.[21] A preliminary peace was
signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg.[22]

Austrian victory at the naval Battle of Lissa

Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main
campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June
1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian
armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main,
reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian
artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.
The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians on land at
the Battle of Custoza (24 June), and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (20 July). However, Italy's
"Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21
July, conquered the lower part of Trentino, and moved towards Trento. The Prussian peace with
Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According
to the Treaty of Vienna, signed on 12 October, Austria ceded Veneto to France, which, in turn,
ceded it to Italy.

Major battles[edit]

Austrian uhlans under Colonel Rodakowski attack Italian Bersaglieri during the Battle of Custoza

 24 June, Battle of Custoza: Austrian army defeats Italian army.