CONTENTS Page No. CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION ether Orr 1.1 Sources of energy 1 1.1.1 Electrical energy 3 1.1.2 Power 4 1.1.2.1 Power available 4 1.2 Historical background of hydropower development 5 1.2.1 Importance of hydropower 1 1.2.2. Hydropower potential 8 1.2.2.1 Gross, technical and economical power potential 8 1.2.2.2 Hydropower potential of the world 8 1.2.2.3 Hydropower potential of Nepal 9 1.2.3 Energy /power consumption or situation in Nepal 10 1.2.4. Challenges and opportunities of hydropower development in Nepal u 1.3. Types and classification of hydropower plant 13 CHAPTER-2 ne le POWER REGULATION ~ Prewrat mum 2.1. Firm power and secondary power 18 2.2 Terms related to power regulation 19 2.2.1. Significance of load factor and diversity factor 22 2.3 Power variation: daily, weekly and seasonal 2 24 Load curve 2B 2.4.1. Daily load curve 23 2.4.2 Weekly load curve 24 2.4.3. Seasonal load curve 24 2.5 Power grid 25 2.5.1. Advantages of integrated grid over the isolated grid 25 2.5.2. Components of power system 25 2.5.3 Power (electricity) system in Nepal 27 2.5.3.1 Production/generation 27 2.5.3.2 Transmission/evacuation system 28 2.5.3.3 Distribution system 28 SOLVED PROBLEMS 29-32 UNSOLVED PROBLEMS 33-353.1 ey oe 3.4 EE) . qe cHaprers Weed” PLANNING OF HYDROPOWER PROJECT Site Selection for hydropower projects 3.1.1 Hydropower project planning studies 3.1.1.1 Reconnaissance study 3.1.1.2 Prefeasibility study 3.1.1.3 Feasibility study Requirements for hydropower planning 3.2.1 Flow duration curve (PDC) 3.2.1.1 Uses of flow duration curve 3.2.2 Mass curve 3.2.2.1 Use of mass curve 3.2.2.2 Characteristics of the mass curve and its use for reservoir sizing 3.2.3 Energy flow diagram 3.2.4 Gross head and net head 3.2.5 Estimation of power potential 3.2.6 Demand or load prediction 3.2.6.1 Method of load or demand prediction Reservoir regulation . 33.1. Reservoir 3.3.1.1 Storage characteristics curves of reservoir 3.3.1.2 Storage zones of reservoir 3.3.2, Peak and normal flow 3.3.3 Reservoir sedimentation 3.3.3.1 Measures to control reservoir sedimentation 3.3.3.2 Density current 3.3.3.3 Trap efficiency 3.3.4 Reservoir losses 3.3.4.1 Evaporation losses 3.3.4.2 Absorption losses 3.3.4.3 Percolation losses 3.3.5 Life of reservoir Layout of hydropower projects 3.4.1 Component parts of hydropower project 3.4.2 Layout of hydropower plant based on construction features 3.4.2.1 Run off River plants 3.4.2.2 Valley dam plant 3.4.2.3 Diversion canal type 1 3.4.2.4 High lead diversion plant Classification based on storage u — 36 37 37 38 39 41 41 44 44 44 45 46 SI 52 54 54 56 56 37 58 59 59 59 60 60 60 61 61 61 61 ALESa 66 67 67SOLVED PROBLEMS ‘ 70-81 UNSOLVED PROBLEMS 82-85 . CHAPTER-4 : WATER RETAINING STRUCTURE. 16 > > > It is economical to use for domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural purpose. in can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently from generating station to load centers through conductor It can be conveniently controlled over a wider range with simple arrangements. It does not produce pollution Tt can be easily converted into other forms of energy like heat, light, mechanical, sound ete, Table1.1: Common Energy Conversion Factors Ton of oll | Standard | Raw Oil| Fuel Unit MJ | kWh [Equivalent] m gas | Barel | wood (TOE) (1 bhary) TM - T | 0278 [0.000236 |" 0.025 | 0.000176] 7.8B-05 T kWh - 3.6 7 | 0.000085 | 0.09 [0.000635 0.00028 | 1 Ton of oil Equivalent (TOE) | 42300 | 11750 T 1190 7.49 3.31 TT Standard m gas 40 | ii.t1 | 0.00084 [1 0.00629 | 0.00279 i Raw Oil Barel 5650 | 1569 | 0.134 159 1 0.44 7 Fuel wood (I bhary=2.4 m)[ 12800 | 3556 | 0.302 359 225 | 1 Table1.2: Common units of ene! srgy and power measurements used in hydropower engineering ‘Energy Power Value ‘ame Symbol Value ‘Name 10°] Deca joule Daj 10° w Deca watt. 10} Hecta joule _| Ay 107 w “Hecia watt 10) Killojoule [Kj 10° w Killo watt 10%} Mega joule | MI 10 w Mega watt 10%} Giga joule | GI 10° w Giga watt 10" Tera joule TL 10" w Tera, watt 10) Pentajoule | PY low Petita watt 105} Exa joule ED iow Exa watt 1 Zettajoule [ZI 107 Ww Zetta watt, | INTRODUCTION1.1.2 Power It is the rate of energy supply/consumption/demand. It is represenited by ‘P” and standard unit of measurement is Watt in SI unit. Energy (J) _Work done _ Force (N)x Displacement (m) Time (s) Time Time (s) ie watt =1 [Jor 1y/s Power (Watt) = 1.1.2.1 Power available a) _ By converting potential energy into kinetic energy Consider unit mass of water ‘m’ is flowing in the river from higher elevation to lower Let ‘h’ be the difference in elevation between two points. Then, potential energy possessed by the water by virtual of its position is ‘mgh’ If the flow is transported by some pipe conduits, the potential energy could be converted into kinetic energy. Kinetic energy = 5 mv $e Vv Where, v = velocity at the exit of the conduit (v =/2gh ) mass density of water volume of water Love? Hydropower available = “™#tcenergy _ ZPV¥" _1YY 9h = yon [Wattlor [ Ps time t 2gt g s Where, y = specific weight of liquid in N/m? Q= rate of flow in m’/s f= available head in m b) __ By converting potential energy into pressure energy : Similarly in some cases, potential energy is converted in to the useful positive pressure energy and remaining kinetic energy could also be utilized by converting into the negative pressure energy below the turbine.(please refer Bernoulli's Equation at draft tube mouth and its outlet.) Hydropower available = Pressure energyitime =""¥ = yQh (Watelor (£7 It shows that hydropower generation depends upon the rate of flow (Q) of the river and the head (h) available. In nature, variations of ‘Q’ and ‘h’ are different at different locations, In some cases, such as in lowland areas, ‘Q’ is abundant but the ‘h” available is minimum where as in mountainous area, ‘h’ is sufficient but the ‘Q" is minimum. There may be cases when both ‘Q” and ‘h’ are sufficient or insufficient. So the hydropower potential varies from place to place. ie INTRODUCTION |1.2 Historical background of hydropower development The first hydropower development or installation in the world was in 1882 and it is in Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin of USA. The capacity of the first hydropower plant was only 12.5 kW. Similarly the first hydropower development or installation in India was in 1987 in Darjeling. The capacity of the Indian hydropower project was of 130 kW. Pharping Hydel Powerhouse of 500 kW capacities is the first powerhouse installed in Nepal in 1911. The Pharping hydropower station was developed with the technical and financial aid of British Government in 1911 (BS 1968 Jestha 9 completed date).The power house with the installed capacity of 500 kW was running successfillly till 1981 but after then, the water used for the plant was diverted for drinking purpose and the plant was shut down. Even now, the plant can be restarted if the supply of water is made possible (NEA, 2003). Nepal’s first hydropower plant was installed not so long time after the first hydropower plants was installed in USA or in India. Demand of electricity is increasing day by day in Nepal. In order to fulfill the growing demand of electricity, The Government of Nepal decided to open its doors to the private sector involving both local and foreign investors to promote Public Private Partnership in 1992. Table1.3: Project under construction | Installed SN. Name of Project | Capacity | Investor | Status [ (Mw) [Lower Indrawati Khola SHP 4.50 TPP-Nepal 2 Mardi Khola SHP 3.10 | IPP-Nepal |Completed| 8 [Ridhi Khola - 2.40 IPP-Nepal |Compieted] a |Upper Hadikhola — 0.991 IPP-Nepal |Completed! 5 \Lower Pilluwa 0.990 IPP-Nepal | Testing 6 (Kulekhanilll 14 Japan| 7 |Chamelia 30 Nepal/Korea; 8 [Mai khola (Himal Dolakha Hydro) | 4.455 IPP-Nepal |Completed| [Lower Modi (United Hydro) 9.9 TPP-Nepal 0 _Siprin khola (Synergy HPP) 9.658 IPP Nepal 11 [Ankhu-I HPP (Ankhukhola Jalbidhut Company)| 6.930 IPP Nepal |. 2 [Phawa khola HPP (Shivani HPP Pvt. Ltd.) ~~ 4.950 IPP Nepal (Source: NEA annual report 2010/11) | INTRODUCTION |Table1.4: Commissioning dates of power projects in Nepal Installed | Average [Commission S. | Name of power |Capacity } annual and Investor | Cost per KW N. project (Mw) | Energy | operation (GWh) Year = |A |Hydro Electricity e |__Pharpinj 05 ts mem one1912 Nepal/British | RS 1426.75 2 [Sundarijal_ Oromia [aarti 1936 Nepal B__[Panauti 2.4 7.0 1965 _ Russia _ 4 [Pokhara Phewa 1.0 8.5 1967 India [5__[Trishuli 21.0 4.5 1968 India US$1296.30- l6_Sunkosi 10.0 70.0 {| __1973 China US$1093.70 {7_[Tinaw 1.0 10.2 _ 1974 BPC 8__|Gandak 15.0 48.0 1979 India US$1300.00 9 [Kulekhani-1 60.0 201.0 1982 | WB and others | US$1950.00 Devighat 14.1 114.0 1983 India US$2781.69 [Seti 2 15 18 1985 China _ IKulekhani-IT 32.0 95.0 1986 Japan USS1937.50 Marshyangdi 69.0 462.0 | __1989 German/WB_| US$3333.33 |Andhikhola 3.1, 38.0 “1991 BPC himruk 12.3 81.0 1994 BPC __ (Chatara a2 38 1996 ‘Nepal/WB _ [Puwa khola 62 48.0 1999 Nepal U8$2887.10 iKhimti 60.0 353.0 2000 HPC/IPP- | US$2250.00 Ee Norway | 19. [Modi (140 87.0 2000 | Nepal/Korea_| US$1864.86 20_[Bhotekoshi 36.0 | 250.0 2000 IPP (USA) _| US$2666.67 bi [Kaligandaki 144.0 | 625.0 2001 Nepal/ADB_ | US$2638.89 22 lindrawati 75 49.7 2002 IPP-Nepal _ | US$2666.67 b3 |Chilime 22.1 137.0 2003 IPP-Nepal 24 [Tatopani (Myagdi) | 2.0 10.2 2004 Nepal 25 _|Sunkosi 2.6 14.4 2005 Nepal 26 |Piluwa khola 3.0) 19.4 [2006 IPP-Nepal 27_[Khudi 40 | 24.3 2006 IPP-Nepal _ 28 [Middle Mrshyangdi| 70.0 398.0 2009 |Nepal/Germany| NRs 312000 29 [Small hydropwer-| 8.1 37.0 |different time! Nepal B2nos 80 |Small hydropwer-| 7.64 40.0 different time] Nepal-IPP |__|12 nos (UPP-Nepal) _ Total Hydro 635.84 | 3355.9 a [Electricity HERE wronucnon[B [Thermal 1 |Hetauda- Diesel 14.4 2B0 | 1963 Nepal 2 Duhabi multifuel_ | 39.0 165.0 1991 jepal-Finland (Total Thermal 53.4 208.0 Electricity |Grand Total 689.24 | 3563.9 t (Source: NEA annual report 2009, 10 yr 10000 MW task force report 2009) 1.2.1 Importance of hydropower Electrical energy can be produced using energy produced from coal, petroleum products, solar, nuclear, flowing water, wind etc. The fuels used in power generation can be divided into fossil fuels and non fossil fuels The sources of fossils like coal, petroleum products, fire woods ete are plants and living things. Use of these sources generally produced considerable amount of carbon and ultimately dispose to the atmosphere ultimately causing green house effects resulting global warming and climate change. The power produced from fossil fucls are also termed as thermal power as the fossil fuels produced heat or thermal energy and converted into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy. Thermal power is generally expensive ‘and produicing pollutions liké carbon dioxide, ashes and others. The fossils fuels are non renewable and thus goes on depleting the sources as it goes on continuous use. The price of fuels are increasing each year due to high demand and depleting the sources. The non fossil fuels like solar, nuclear, wind and water do not produce emissions like carbon dioxide and ashes as from fossil fuels. The non fossil fuels are relatively clean and need intensive capital investment for its development. The nuclear power development requires complex technology for its operation and maintenance to control leakage of nuclear radiations into environment which causes diseases like cancer and damage to the heredity characteristic of the living things. The wind power, solar power and hydropower all are clean energy as well as renewable energy. Although, Nepal has lot of potential wind power, it has not been materialized yet due to unreliability and intermittent power production through wind mills. Solar power has been widely used in rural areas for lighting purpose. The solar power has also been used as backup system in telecommunication, traffic lighiting, and residential lighting purpose in urban areas. Solar power is also taken as ornamental power because of high cost, intermittent production, less efficiency and need battery backup for storage and re-utilization of the power. Hydropower is renewable and the technology has been well developed and kept in practice in all over the world. Although the development of hydropower projects are capital intensive, the hydropower are cheap in operation and maintenance is available at free of cost and renewed | iwrroouction [gaianaturally-in each year. There is not any pollution on production of hydropower although some sort of environmental impacts are unavoidable. The environmental impacts are generally negligible for micro hydro, small for run of river (ROR) to medium for run of river with poundage (PROR) to high impacts for storage plant. 1.2.2. Hydropower potential Economy of the nation depends on natural resources and its exploitation. Water resources are one of the natural resources which may be the tool for the development of the nation. It can be utilized in different sectors, such as in power generation, water supply, irrigation ete. 1.2.2.1 Gross, technical and economical power potential The power which can theoretically possible to generate is known as gross power potential. A + river basin is divided into number of stretch to measure available head and discharge of the particular stretch, And based on available data gross power potential is calculated using relation, P=ZyvQH All the theoretically possible power in nature cannot be produced due to unfavorable geology, topography, climatic condition ete. So, the power which is technically feasible to produce is known as technical power potential. Alll technically feasible projects cannot be implemented. The project is considered to be economically sound if the internal rate of return is higher than prevailing interest rate and benefie cost ratio is more than unity. So, the power which is technically as well as economically feasible is known as economical power potential 1.2.2.2 Hydropower potential of the world The world’s total technical feasible hydro potential is estimated at 14370 TWhiyear, of which about 8082 TWh/year is currently considered economically feasible for development. About 700 GW (or about 2600 TWh/year) is already in operation, with a further 108 GW under construction [Hydropower & Dams, World Atlas and Industry Guide, 2000]. Most of the remaining potential is in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Table1.5: Hydropower potential in the world Region Technically feasible Economically feasible potential, TWh/year potential, TWh/year Africa 1750 1000 Asia . 6800 | - 3600 _ ‘North+Central America 1660 _ 1000_ | South America 2665 _ 1600 Total: __12835 7200 gl INTRODUCTION |At present hydropower supplies about 20% of the world’s electricity. Hydro supplies more than 50% of national electricity in about 65 countries, more than 80% in 32 countries and almost all of the electricity in 13 countries. (Source: IAEA Report on Hydropower and the World's Energy Future) 1.2.2.3 Hydropower potential of Nepal Nepal’s theoretical hydropower potential of 83 GW is about 1.5% of world’s total hydropower potential of 5610 GW in comparison with the Nepal’s land (147181 km?) of only 0.11% of the world total (Shrestha H.M., 1985).It shows that hydropower potential per unit larid area in Nepal is about 13 times higher than that of the world average. As the above mentioned value of hydro potential does not include that from the small river basins (i.e. catchment areas < 300 sq. km, river length < 10 km.) and there are significant numbers of such rivers in Nepal, the real hydropower potential of Nepal might be much higher than this. To date, there are no comprehensive and detailed studies defining the total micro hydro potential of Nepal from such small rivers. Tablel.6: Theoretical hydropower potential of rivers of Nepal [5.N. [Main River Basins [Hydropower potential, GW Small Major [Total IRivers* __|Rivers** t oshi B.6 i8 b _(Gandaki ee ee ce B [Karnali & Mahakali 3.5 2.68 [36.18 4 Southern Rivers 1.04 3.07 4.11 [Total 7 10.84 “72.45 ‘(83.29 * Rivers with catchment areas 300-1000 of sq km ** Rivers with catchment areas >1000 sq km (Source: Shrestha H.M. 1985) Theoretical potential = 83000 MW Technically viable = 44000 MW Econoniiiéally viable = 42000 MW Table!.7: Identified potential hydropower projects SN. Project Capacity | Type J Remarks (Mw) | i West Seti_ 750) Storage _| 2__| An it 402, PROR 3 Budhi Gandaki 600 Storage 4___|KaliGandaki 660 Storage 3 Lower Arun 308 PROR__| | INTRODUCTION ag6 Upper Arun 335 PROR, 7 | Karnali Chisapani 10800 Storage: 8 Upper Karnali 300 PROR 9 Chamelia 30 ROR 10 | Pancheswor 6480 Storage z 11__[ Thulodhunga 25 ROR 12 | Tamor/ Mewa _ 100) PROR. 13 | Dudh Koshi 300 Storage 14 Budhi Ganga an20! ROR i 15 | Rahughat Khola__ [27 ROR | caeeied 16 —_| Likhu 451 PROR 17 | Kabeli A 30 ROR 18 | Upper Marshyangdi A D1 PROR, | 19 | Kulekhani it 45 Storage | Cascade of Kulekhani-l and I 20___| Andhikhola (Storage) 180 Storage 21 Khimti I. - 27 ROR 22 | Upper Modi A 42 ROR 23 | Langtang Khola (Storage) 218 Storage 24 | Madi Ishaneswor (Storage) 86 Storage 25 | Upper Seti (Storage) 122 Storage 26 | Kankai (Storage) 60. Storage [27 [Upper Tamakoshi 250 PROR j 1.2.3. Energy /power consumption or situation in Nepal Sectorial Energy Consumption in 2008/09 Transport S233 Angus Enerpy Supply/eonsumption by Source in 2008/09 334% Commercial 428% petralo aeicumurat “Stas ‘oon owner rset ost 5798 ar edu, 36% Fig.1.2: Sectorial energy consumption in 2008/09 In Nepal, most of the energy is used for residential purpose. The industrial use is comparatively low and will be very high in development of economic activities under the process of making new industrialized Nepal. The amount of per capita electricity consumption reflects the living standard of people and their economic conditions. The per capita electricity consumption in Nepal is only 69 kWh and aimed to reach up to 100 kWh by 2012 (II™ Interim Plan 2010-2012). The per capita electricity consumption of Nepalese people is about 37 times less than the world Ea INTRODUCTION |average and 27 times less than the average Asian people, 48% of the total population in Nepal has access to the Electricity. Only 8% of people of rural areas enjoy it (Source: MOF 2007, Energy Synopsis of Nepal WECS-2010) Table1.8: Hydropower situation in Nepal and World Country Energy Generated, GWh per annum Installed Power, MW Canada ~341312 : 66954 7 [USA ___319484 ost ieeeeeneees Brazil 285603 57517 China 204300 65000 Russia 160500 __ 44000_ Norway 121824 27528 [Japan 84500 e 27229 India 82237 : 22083 | France 71500 25335, Nepal 1700 610 1.2.4 Challenges and opportunities of hydropower development in Nepal ‘Although Nepal has developed its first hydropower project about a century ago, the development pace of its hydropower development is not as it was expected and needed. Because of that, severe load shedding is unavoidable and becomes a part of Nepalese people. Only about 1.5% of the economically feasible potential or 1% of theoretical potential has been installed. Only about 48% of the total population has access to the electricity. a) Challenges Lack of political stability Political situation in Nepal is not favorable and stable since from 1990. Any one of elected government has completed its full phase tenure since from the great people's movement in 1990 (Jana Andolan 2046) and there is no clear vision for development of hydropower. During Panchyat period also, the development pace in hydropower is not encouraging as the development activities were based on grant and aid of developed countries and developing partners. There was no vision of technology transfer and independency. During Rana’s regimes, the hydropower development was’carried out only for limited use of their own benefits. Present situation is also not favorable due to results retardation of investment and development activities in hydropower. Lack of technology and skilled man power ‘Although Nepal has large potential of hydropower development, it does not have its own technology and sufficient skilled man power. The technology and technical equipments for quality monitoring and standard specifications and norms has not been developed in Nepal. The | INTRODUCTION fa]machines and hydro-mechanical equipments production and maintenance facilities has not yet developed fally. Lack of investment . ‘The development of hydropower project needs considerable investment it’s about Rs 120~140 millions to produce 1 MW hydropower development. The gestation period (i.e. the time period between the start of investment to the start of return fromthe project) of the hydropower projects are higher than 4~5 years, and the payback period (complete recovery of investment) of the hydropower projects are 8~10 years, Although the investment in hydropower is relatively high but not more beneficial compared to the investments in other sectors like trade and commerce, industries etc, the investment in hydropower is not growing up in the scale as it is required. Without foreign investment, the hydropower development could not be accelerated to its desired level. For that, stable political system, safety and security, clear policies and priority of hydropower developments, assured markets and return of their investment mechanism are essentials for creating conducive environment of investment in hydropower. Lack of infrastructures The feasible and attractive hydropower projects are located in remote areas where physical infrastructures like access road, transmission lines, basic health facilities, other essential skilled manpower and construction materials with equipments availability is very poor or not available at the site, Development of these infrastructures needs heavy investments. The lack of integrated infrastructure developments policies made haphazard developments resulting the minimum benefits of the infrastructures that could be achieved. The poor maintenance and rehabilitation of the infrastructures reduces the service quality and reliability of the services, Risk imposed by global warming and climate change The water is the basic raw material for the power production through hydropower plant, The global warming (0.06 °C ~ 0.08 °C in Nepal Himalayas) has resulted increase of atmospheric temperature resulting the fast rate of snowmelt. The snow in the Himalayas acts as the overhead tank and gives flow in the rivers continuously throughout the years. Fast melting of snow due to global warming results the depletion of snow storage and can cause depletion of low flow in long term posing threats to the hydropower production. The disturbances in monsoon rainfall pattern and amount are also attributed to the climate change. The extreme drought and flood events with high sediment and debris flow seems to be more frequent in recent years posing Serious uncertainties and threads to the hydropower projects. The glacial lake outburst (GLOF) events has been increased and caused serious floods with debris flow which may damage the Structures of hydropower projects, The natural risks and threads have been taken as the one of the most difficult challenges in hydropower development ae INTRODUCTION |b) —_ Opportunities Nepal is in between the two giant countries China and India, Both of the countries are developing very rapidly in recent years. They need lot of power/energy for their development activities. Nepal has more than six thousands of rivers and rivulets and has favorable topographical and geological conditions for hydropower developments. The following points can be taken as opportunities for hydropower development in Nepal. Clean energy Hydropower is taken as clean energy as it does not produce any pollution during its use and production. It is renewable and hence more attractive sources of energy. The technology of its production and uses has been already developed and affordable. The hydropower is easy to handle and transport from the generating stations to the load center. The water of Nepalese rivers can be taken as white coal and policies has been introduced to exploit the white coal in worldwide for supply of necessary energy Market available The market for Hydropower is easily available for Nepal since its neighbors are being in developing phase and the economic activities are being taken at rapidly. The electricity produced in Nepal can be exported to India and China thus helps to reduce trade gap of the nations with these country. Electricity produced can also be used for domestic use in promotion of industrial activities and replacement of the petroleum fuels that has to be imported paying hard currency. ‘Thus market for hydropower development is abundant and can be taken as opportunities. Favorable geological and topographical conditions ‘The steep topography (high river gradient) with good geological conditions (hard rock in river bed) are the favorable and essentials for development of hydropower projects at low cost of investment. The perennial rivers with considerable low flow are good for hydropower productions. Although sediment flow rate in the middle mountains and Chure range are high, the sediment flow and production rate in high Himalayas are less and can be taken as the opportunity. Availability of cheap labor force Nepal has developed lot of engineering institutes and technical centers after the restoration of Democracy in 1989°(BS 2046). The institutions have produced lot of skilled and semi skilled man powers. Although the human resources do not have experience of the mega projects, they have equipped with theoretical and practical knowledge at the institutions. These human resources are available at cheap rate compared to that of the man power from developed countries. The availability of the man powers both skilled and unskilled labors can be taken as g00d opportunities to develop hydropower schemes for harnessing nation’s water resources. | ivrooucion [Ream13 Types and classification of hydropower plant Hydropower plant can be classified based on installed capacity, storage capacity, head, constructional features etc. I. _ Classification based on installed capacity Based on capacity by E. Mosonyi Midget hydropower plant < 100 kW Low capacity hydropower plant 101 — 1000 kW Medium capacity hydropower plant 1001 - 10000 kW High capacity hydropower plant 10001 ~ $0000 kW vvvv Based on capacity by Dandekar and Sharma > — Micro hydropower plant < 5 MW > Medium capacity hydropower plant 5 — 100 MW > High capacity hydropower plant 101 ~ 1000 MW > Super capacity hydropower plant > 1000 MW Based on Capacity in Nepal » Micro hydropower plant < 100 kW > Mini hydropower plant 101 - 1000 kW > Small hydropower plant 1001 — 10000 kW > — Medium capacity hydropower plant 10001 - 50000 kW > Large capacity hydropower plant >50000 kW Table!.9: Largest hydropower stations of world and Nepal Power Station Country Completion Year | Installed Capacity, MW Three Gorges Dam __| China 2012 22500 Ttaipu Brazil/Praguay 1984/1991/2003 14600 Guri Venezuela 1986 10200 Grand Coulee USA 1942/1980 6809 Sayano-Shyshenskaya | Russia __1985 6400 Krasnoyarskaya Russia 1972 BEmET6000 Robert-Bourassa [Canada : 1981 : 5616 | Churchill Falls Canada 1971 5428 La Grande- 2 Canada 1979 5328 Bratsk Russia 1967 4500 Tucurui Brazil 1984 8370 | [Kali gandaki ‘Nepal 2002, 144 Karnali Chisapani ‘Nepal Proposed 10800 waTmODUCTONIl. Classification based on head Based on head by E. Mosonyi > Low head plant H <15 m > Medium head plant H = 15—50 m > High head plant H > 50m Based on head by Dandekar and Sharma Low head plant H <15 m Medium head plant H = 15-70 m High head plant H = 71 — 250 m Very high head plant H > 250 m vvvv Classification based on storage Run of river plant Peaking run of river plant Storage plant Pump storage plant vvvws Run of river plant (ROR) A mun-of-river project is built to use some or most of the flow in a stream depending upon the flow throughout the year. No attempt is made to store water for the dry periods. A run-of-river project would not normally have a dam, other than an intake weir, which is a very low head structure at the intake. The intake weir keeps the water in the stream high enough to fill the pipe at all times. Fig. 1.3: Sketch of run of river plant Suitable where the fluctuation of flow in dry season and wet season flow are small like in rivers coming from Tibet at border such schemes do not alter the flow regime at the downstream. Khimti, Khudi, Trishuli, Bhotekoshi ete | INTRODUCTIONPeaking run off river plant (PROR) Run off river plants are provided with poundage to regulate flow to the plant which enables them to take care of our to hour fluctuation in load on the plant throughout the day or week. The water in river are stored at the head pond during non peak load or off peak load hours of a day to with draw or use the stoted water for power production during the peak hours of load. The PROR power plants may operates at full capacity for all hours during high flow or rainy season but it produces power at full capacity at peak load hours. The power plant may shut down or operate at lower capacity during the off peak hours in dry season. At the same location, the installed capacity of the PROR plants are higher than the ROR type plants and operate at full capacity only at peak load hours. Marshyangdi 69 MW, Middle Marshyangdi 70 MW and Kaligandaki A 144 MW are PROR project in-Nepal. Reservoir storage plant Hydropower plants which draw water from large storage reservoirs developed by constructing dam across the river are called reservoir or storage project. Depending upon the storage volume, these plants can hold surplus water from periods when the stream flow exceeds demands for utilization during the period when demand exceeds the stream flow. Better utilization of hydropower potential is thus achieved with such plants, The water flow stores in wet season to supply in dry season, Kulekhani reservoir project is only one storage project in Nepal Kulekhani-I 60 MW and Kulekhani-II 32 MW. Pump storage plant Plants in which all or portion of the water used by these plants is pumped back to the head water pond to be made available again for the power generation during peak hours of demand. This type of the power plant essentially consists of a tail-water pond and head water pond, During peak load water is drawn. from the head water ponds through the penstock to operate hydro clectric generating units. The water is collected in to tail water pond and during the off peak hours, pumps are operated to pump the water back from the tail water pond to the head water pond. Power for operating the pumps is provided by some of peak thermal or hydropower plant. Fig. 1.4: Sketch of pump storage INTRODUCTION |For head up to 120 m’special Francis turbine has been developed for the pump storage plants. ‘The runners of the turbines are so shaped that they can be used both as turbine as well as pumps. Such turbines are known as reversible turbines. For high head, multistage centrifugal pumps are used for pumping water and high head Francis Turbines are installed in power production. IV. _ Classification based on function > Base load plant > Peak load plant Base load plant ‘As the name indicates base load plants are those which are capable of substantially continuous operation in the base of the load curve throughout the year. Both ROR and reservoir plants can be used as base load hydro plants. When ROR plants without poundage are used as base load plants, their full plant discharge is seldom more than the minimum flow of the river and cannot support the power system during dry season. Hence the reservoir hydro power plants are used as base load plants during the low. flow season. Peak load plant Peak load plants are those designed and constructed primarily for taking care of peak load of a power system. Pumped storage plants are peak load plants. PROR plants can operate both as peak load and base load plants depending upon the river flow and load on the power system. | INTRODUCTION EaCHAPTER - 2 POWER REGULATION Power regulation is the study of the power or energy consumption/demand variations and their relationships in a particular power supply system for a community, society, cities, and region or in country or countries. The demand of power is termed as load and supply of energy is termed as power in power regulation study. As the individual consumer level, the electrical demand is quite unpredictable, however as the demands of the various users-are accumulated and added at a feeder or substation, they begin to exhibit definite pattern. 2.1. Firm power and secondary power Firm power The minimum power which can be generated throughout the year from the hydroelectric plant under the most adverse hydraulic conditions and consumer can always be sure’ of getting this power. The firm power would correspond to the minimum stream flow and is available for all times. The firm power could be increased by the use of poundage. The firm power does not necessarily correspond to the continuous 24 hrs flow available (100% of time) thus the firm capacity depends on the minimum stream discharge at the time of peak load, poundage available, shape and size of connected load curve and the interconnection of other existing plants, It is also known as primary power and the energy generated from the firm power is known as base energy. « For a Run-off-River plant without any storage, the firm power would correspond to the minimum flow of the river which would be available throughout the year. By providing the storage (poundage), the firm power can be considerably increased. The primary energy is reliable and available throughout the year and hence has high value for reliable supply of energy. Secondary power The power in addition to the firm power would be generated for only a part of the year is known as secondary or non firm power. The power is also known as surplus power and the energy is known as surplus energy. The secondary power is available intermittently at unpredictable time and hence has less value compared to that of primary power. There is no guarantee for secondary power and it is supplied to the consumers on ‘as and when available’ basis. The secondary power is usefull in an interconnected system of power plants. At off peak hours, the secondary power station (captive plant or thermal plants acting as stand by station) may call upon to relieve inter connected station thus affecting e¢onomy. The secondary power may also POWER REGULATION |be used to take care of reducing load shedding hours by sharing the load as per power supply from peaking power plant. Pw IP ——: = Primary Edeay 3 : i ~ & | Fol entree ngfopeak ond Peak load Load factor of a power plant that hasbeen used to supply the power in a system would vary greatly with the character of the load. High load factor in Industrial area is nearly 1 while it is low in residential area as low as 0.25 to 0.30. The installed capacity of a power plant/s has to be equal to the peak load but the total number of units KWh generated or used will be governed by the average load. If load factor of a power plant is low, large proportion of the generating capacity remain ideal for most of the time and the cost of generation per unit energy (kWh) or power is high, | POWER REGULATION |Load factor value of 0.80 is generally taken during the feasibility study of hydropower project in Nepal. Utilization factor or plant use factor It is the ratio of peak load developed during a certain period to the installed capacity of the plant Peak load developed during certain period Utilization factor (UF) = ‘Imstalled capacity It represents the maximum proportion of the installed capacity utilized during that period of consideration, With constant head commonly in hydropower plant, utilization factor would represent the ratio of the water actually utilized for peak load power supply corresponding to the ‘maximum water that can be withdraw from the river to produce installed capacity. The values of utilization factor commonly vary from 0.4 to 0.9 depending upon the plant capacity, load factor and available poundage or storage. Capacity factor or plant factor It is defined as the ratio of the energy that the plant actually produced during any period to the energy that it might have produced if operated at full capacity throughout the period. Actually produced energy Average load x7 Potential capacity of energey produced — Installed capacity xT Capacity factor (CF) = The capacity factor will be equal to the load factor if the maximum peak load of the duration is equal to the installed capacity of the power plant. For hydropower plants, the capacity, factors varies from about 0.25 to 0.75 depending upon the plant capacity, available poundage or storage and the load characteristics curve. Diversity factor It is the ratio of sum of all individual maximum demands by the customer to the actual peak load of a system. Diversity factor (DF) = Sum of individual max demand by the customer ‘Actual peak load of the system It gives the time diversification of the load and used to decide the sufficient generating plants and transmission utilities. If all demands came at the same time, the diversity factor will be unity or one. The installed capacity that needed to be installed in the power system would be much more. But the diversity factor is generally much higher than unity Reserve factor It is the reciprocal of utilization factor. It is the ratio of installed capacity to the peak load. | POWER REGULATION Ewinstalled capacity Reserve factor = %atletcapa Relationship between capacity factor, load factor and utilization factor Capacity factor = Load factor x Utilization factor and Reserve factor = Load factor / Capacity Factor Proof: CF =LF x UF FromRHS, LF x UF = average load/peak load x peak load / installed capacity werage load/installed capacity = CF So, CF =LF x UF and 1/UF = LF/CF = RF 2.2.1 Significance of load factor and diversity factor Load factor and diversity factor play an important part in the cost of the supply of electrical energy. Higher the value of load and diversity factor, lower will be the overall cost per unit generated. Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting in greater number of unit generated for a given maximum demand, Thus, the standing charges, which are proportional to maximum demand and independent of number of units generated, can be distributed over a larger number of units supplied and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated will be reduced. ‘The capital cost of the power station depends upon the capacity of tlie power station. Lower the maximum demand of the power station, the lower is the capacity required and therefore lower is the capital cost of the plant. With given number of consumers the diversity factor of their loads, the smaller will be the capacity of the plant required and consequently the fixed charges due to capital investment will be much reduced. 2.3 Power variation: daily, weekly and seasonal Power consumption in a community or society is not constant forever. It fluctuates hour to hours in a day and day to day in week and month to months in different seasons. The power consumption in a society or community depends on the following factors Population The population number/size that has to be served by the power system directly governs the power consumption/demand in the system. Higher the number of people larger the power/energy demand. During tourist season the power demand in Pokhara is higher than that in off season due to increase of the people in the city that has to be served. The power demand in small city is smaller than that of the demand in big cities. Balaju substation needs high power/energy than that in Bhaktapur substation. BE cower REGULATION |Climate ‘The climate is another important factor that influences rate of energy consumption per unit time. In Nepal, the power demand is higher in winter season for heating purpose compared to that in summer season while in India; the power demand in winter is less than that compared in summer season mainly due to high temperature and high power demand for cooling. Living standard ‘The living standard and life style of the people also directly affects the energy/power demand. The use of electrical appliances for cooking (rice cooker, hot plate, oven etc), heating and cooling consumes considerable amount of electric energy. The industrial area needs a lot of energy and power compared to that in residential areas. The energy consumptions in city areas are higher than that of remote areas mainly due to life style and living standard of the people 2.4 Load curve It is a graphical representation of load consumption with respect to time. It may be daily, weekly, monthly, yearly etc. it shows the variation of load during any time. It also gave information whether the installation is working efficiently or not. The area under the curve represents the total number of units generated at that duration 2.4.1 Daily load curve Daily Variation of power supply or demand in a power system is known as daily load curve. The power demand is not constant in different hours of a day and it varies from hours to hours depending on the types of areas that have to be served. For domestic area, the peak demand generally occurs at 18:00 to 20:00 for cooking and lighting purpose at evening. The peak demand times slightly shifted earlier during winter season and the peak demand is also higher than that in summer season. The daily load curve for industrial area is quite different than that of the residential as the peak load generally occurs in day time as the industries runs at full phase during the office working hours. The peak load may not alter too much even in night time if there are large numbers of industries that runs continuously 24 hours. Poser (MW) oon @ ow nN Time of Dap Fig.: 2.2: Typical daily load curve for residential area | POWER REGULATION— Power (118) 6 e @ «8 ees Time ofa Day. Fig.2.3: Typical daily load curve for industrial / commercial area 2.4.2. Weekly load curve The power demand or consumption in a community or society is not same in all days of a week, The variations of the load in different days of a week are known as weekly load curve. Iugusiriat Power (3110) Days ofa weit Fig. 2.4: Typical weekly load curve for industrial/commercial and doméstic area 2.4.3 Seasonal load curve The curve showing the variation of power consumption or demand in a power system feeding to 2 community/society or cities in different seasons is known as seasonal load curve. The seasonal load of a particular place is mainly governed by the climate and culture besides the living standard & style of the society. For example, the power demand in the winter in Himalayan and high mountain areas are higher than that in the Terai/ plain terrain region of Nepal mainly due to cold and arid climate in the winter season. The power demand in the September and October is high in Nepalese society mainly due to main festival (Dashain and Tihar). ‘The industries and commercial sectors are also run at full phase targeting the supply and service for the main festival. The study of the power/load variation is important for planning of power production/generation and transmission and distribution utilities, It also helps to impose systematic tariff of electricity based on the consumption amount and the sector of services. It also helps to prepare guide lines for operation and maintenance of power projects to achieve the targeted service at optimum cost BE] POWER REGULATION |for generation, transmission and distribution system. Hence it ultimately helps to formulate policies in energy sectors to support sustainable economic development of country. 2.5 Power grid Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main components of power system. Since most of the hydropower stations are situated far away from the load centers, it becomes necessary to transmit bulk power from such remote areas economically. The efficiency of transmission is quite high when the power is transmitted at a high voltage. Power grid is an essential component of the power system and it is dedicated to evacuate power from the generation point to the nearby load centre and then distribute to the end customer. Grid line generally transmit high voltage of 33 to 400 kV or higher. The power grid can be separated in to two parts i) transmission lines and ii) distribution system. Based on the number of production units connected to the grid, it can be classified in to isolated and integrated grid. In isolated grid, the power to the grid is supplied from only one power station while in integrated grid the power is supplied from two or more than two power stations. In grid system, the general planning is such that some station may be run as’ base load station while some other may be run as peak load stations. Power production is designed for optimizing the cost and comprising mixture of thermal, hydro and nuclear sources. 2.5.1 Advantages of integrated grid over the isolated grid Increase Reliability: in the event of a forced or planned outage of a power station, the affected system can be fed from other stations. River flow, storage facilities, floods and draughts are the factors that may affect the hydropower generation. Reduction in the total capacity: in an isolated system, reserve units must be maintained separately in power station but the reduction in total installed capacity depends on the characteristics of inter connected system and desired degree of service reliability. Economie operation: power station might be far from the load centre depending upon the natural resources available e.g. thermal station can be built close to the source firels (coal, mines, and petroleum refineries) 7 2.5.2 Components of power system Generators: Generators are machines which generate electrical power when rotated about by external sources of power such as water; steam etc, generators of hydro power stations have a speed range of 70 — 1000rpm. The generators can have either a vertical shaft alignment or a horizontal shaft alignment. The main components of the generators are | POWER REGULATION> Stator ~ stationary part of generator it consists of frame, core, winding > Rotor ~ rotating element of generators it consists of hub, rim, poles, excitation > Bearings — it minimized frictional losses while operating the generator and improves the efficiency Transformers These are devices which increase or decrease the voltages. It consists of a core made from laminated silicon alloy steel having 0.35mm to 0.50mm thick each layer being insulated by thin paper or varnish. Two coils of insulated copper wire known as the primary and secondary coils are wound around the core. A yoltage in the primary coil produces a magnetic field in the core and induces voltage in the secondary coils. The generation voltage of a hydro-generators may vary from 6KV to about 20kV, whereas the transmission voltage in case of long transmission line losses can be minimized and a transformer has to be provided for stepping up the generator voltage to transmission voltage. Switchgear The power houses are designed to give continuous service without interruption of power. But sometimes faults may develop in the system due to manmade or natural causes. In such cases suitable protective devices have to be provided to locate the faults, isolate the faulty circuits from the system and fo clear the faults as quickly as possible. The switching and protective equipment used for this purpose is known as switchgear. It consists of circuit breakers, relays and equipments for controlling and measuring such as current and potential transformers, isolators, lightening arresters, control panels, switches and fuses etc. Substations It is generally located just outside the power station building on the ground or sometimes on the RCC roof of the power house. It consists of incoming line, outgoing line, busbars, transformer, high and low voltage switchgear like circuit breakers, isolators and lightening arresters, metering panels, dropout fuses, station earthing system etc. Control room equipment It consists of > Switches to control the operation of units > Recording and signaling equipments > Instruments measuring or controlling voltages, currents and frequencies of generation, outgoing feeders, auxiliary power consumption and battery charging equipments > Telemetering and telephone equipment be Reservoir and tail race water level indicators CeSunkoshi g, Khimil HP Bhotekoshi @. 12 KY (Si ‘Santina. ingle circuit Distribution a Lamosangha y | Disuibution ‘Gubstadon) | to consumers: 132 & a Donble cireiitg, Diswibution. <——————} ' to consumers t peso Sawstith Balaju (Substation) (toconsuinels | Bhaktapur (GSabstation)- 3: Panauti Fig. 2.5: Power grid system of Nepal 2.5.3. Power (electricity) system in Nepal Power System comprised of three components; a) Production/Generation b) Transmission’ ; Evacuation and c) Distribution. 2.5.3.1 Production/generation Power production in the form of electricity needs rotation of the electric coil inside strong magnetic fields. Generator is the electromechanical parts which converts the mechanical energy in to the electrical energy based on Faraday’s principle. The coil is rotated in strong magnetic field at high velocity to induce electricity in the coil. Electric power is generated at low voltage 6.6 KV to 11 KV. The shaft of the generator can be rotated providing energy from various sources like from coal, Diesel and water. Based on the use of energy to drive the shaft of generator, power system can be grouped into two systems. Thermal power system Electricity is produced from running of generator directly obtained from diesel engines. Steam engines can also be used to drive the shaft of generator. Coals/Gasoline is used as main fuel for steam engines. The efficiency of the thermal power system is relatively lower than the | hydropower generation and it is expensive than hydropower regarding the operation and maintenance cost. Hydropower system In this system, Electricity power is generated by the use of potential or kinetic energy of water. | As, water is being renewable in nature, high importance has been provided for this system. Besides that, hydropower is environmental friendly system for power production. Although the initial cost is high, the operation and maintenance cost is low and it is attractive being the clean energy having no pollution during production and consumption. | POWER REGULATION Ea2.5.3.2 Transmission/evacuation system. Generally the load centre is far from the generation or production system and the power produced from the plants are evacuated or transmitted to the distribution centre through transmission line. As generation voltage of a hydro-generators are very low, it is stepped up to the transmission voltage 33/66/132/230 kV, to minimize transmission losses, transmission line may be single circuit or double circuit depending upon the numbers of wires in the transmission line. In developed country high transmission voltage 765 kV and 1200 kV as power capacity is directly proportional to the square of transmission voltage. For transmission line greater than 600 km, DC transmission is economical at 400 kV and the line is connected to AC system at the two ends through a transformer connecting through converter and inverter (silicon control rectifier). 2.5.3.3 Distribution system Based on supply system, power system can be divided into isolated and grid system. In isolated system the power is supplied from a definite power plant while in grid system the supply of power is made available from multi power plants. Failure of a particular power plant will not disturb the power supply in grid system. The grid system might be regional, national or international also. Advantage % Use of remote energy source > Improve reliability > Utilization of the time difference between various time zones where peak demand are not coincident, require low installed capacity > —— Maintenance of power plant possible without disturbing the supply Disadvantage > — High power loss in transmission lines in the grid connected system due to long transmission lines HEE Power sccutanonIt SOLVED PROBLEMS Example #1 The load on a hydel plant varies from a minimum of 10 MW to a maximum of 35 MW. Two turbo generators of capacities 22MW each have been installed. Calculate a) Total installed capacity of the plant b) Plant factor c) Maximum demand d) Load factor and e) utilization factor Solution: a) Installed capacity of the plant =2* 22 MW = 44MW. "_ Average output of the plant b) Plant factor = ee ei = 20+35)/2 #199 = 51.13% ” c) Maximum demand = 35 MW verage output 4) Load factor = —Average output Maximum demand 100 = 64.29% Maximum demand on the power station Rated capacity of the power station eae = = 4 *100 = 79. 55% e) Utilization factor Example #2 When a run of river plant operates as a peak load station with a weekly load factor of 20% all its capacity is firm capacity. What will be the minimum flow in the river so that the station may serve as the base load station? It is given that, Rated installed capacity of generator = 10,000 kW Operating hea Plant efficiency = 80% Estimate the daily load factor of the plant, if the stream flow is 15 cumecs. Sm Solution: Rated installed capacity of generator = 10,000 kW Operating head = 15m Plant efficiency = 80% When the plant operates as a peak load plant with 20% load factor, the total energy generated for one week = 10000*0.20*(7*24) = 33.6*10* kWh. i) If Q is the minimum flow necessary for the plant to run as a base load plant, the power developed, P = ny QH = 9.8 *0.8* 15*O =117.6Q kW Hence, total units generated for a week =117.60*(7*24) =1.98*104 OkWh ii) | POWER REGULATION [ESEEquating i) and ii).we obtain 33.6*10* kWh = 1.98*10° QkWh 6.96 cumecs Q Hence the minimum flow in the river = 16 96 cumee. If the stream flow is 15 cumecs, then power developed per day P=117.6 Q=117.6*15 = 1764 kW Total units generator in 24 hours = 1764*24 = 42336 kWh , 52336 Hence, daily load factor = Tooo0-24 Daily load factor = 17.64% = 0.1764 Example #3 Determine the power of a pump lifting liquid with density of 1200 kg/m’, discharge of 1100 Ips, head of 60 m and efficiency of 70 %. Solution: Density of liquid (0) =1200 kg/m? Discharge (Q) = 1100 Ips = 1.1 m’/sec Head (H) = 60 m Efficiency (7) = 70% = 0.7 We know, Power of the pump lifting = 1) y QH = 0.7 *1200*9.81*1.1*60 Example # 4 Long term average monthly flow ofa large tropical river is given below: Month Jan_[Feb | Mar | Apr [May [Jun | Jul [Aug | Sept | Oct [Nov | Dec Discharge,m’/s | 280 | 250 | 210 | 84 [84 | 210 | 868 | 1064 | 2380 | 2492 | 2156 | 659 A hydropower plant is proposed on the river to meet the peak demand of 18 MW in the month of May of an isolated town, where average annual load is 7 MW. Topography permits a natural net head of 28 mand plant efficiency is 0.78. i, If installed capacity is to be fixed to meet the peak demand, determine the percentage utilization of runoff. ii, If peak load increase to 37 MW and average load to 23 MW in the month of May , the installed capacity is increased accordingly; and the power plant is to be operated for only five days calculate the poundage requirement to regulate the flow over that period. Solution: Discharge on May Q = 84m*/s Net head H= 28 m ey POWER REGULATION |