"MY SOUL IS LIKE THE WEANED CHILD

THAT IS WITH ME":

THE PSALMS AND THE FEMININE VOICE1

LISA W. DAVISON
Lexington Theological Seminary, Lexington, KY 40508

The tradition of claiming Davidic authorship for many, if not all, of

the psalms in the Psalter has led to the rather common conclusion that
this collection of prayers is decidedly "masculine." Even though modern
scholarship has "corrected" this misinterpretation of the superscription
"le david, found in seventy-three psalms, the consensus has been that
these psalms concern primarily male interests and therefore were
composed by men. This conclusion, unfortunately, has led to a difficulty
on the part of many women to relate to, much less pray, the psalms of
the Psalter. Is this logic of interpretation sound, or is it another
consequence of the historically male-dominated field of biblical studies?
Is there a feminine presence in the Psalter? Perhaps another look at
prayer in the Hebrew Bible and at the Psalms will produce a different
understanding.
In the whole of the Hebrew Bible, prayers are found in books other
than the Psalms. Many of the characters portrayed in the stories of ancient
Israel, besides King David, have the need, be it from sorrow or joy, to
pray. Given the patriarchal context out of which the stories of ancient
Israel developed, it is quite surprising to find eleven women (in the
Protestant canon; three more in the Apocrypha) whose prayers have
been recorded in the biblical texts. Even though some of their prayers
consist of only a line or two, they are portrayed as women of faith who
are free to address their concerns and joys directly to God without the
assistance of a man.
The first prayer by a woman comes not from the lips of a great matri-
arch, but rather it is offered by an Egyptian slave, Hagar. Having been
sent away by Sarah and Abraham, Hagar has nowhere to go. In great

'Ps 131:2b, NRSV, which is the translationof all biblicalcitationsin this article.

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despair, she lays her son under a bush and prays not to see the death of
her child (Gen 21:15-16). Her prayer is answered by God with an assur-
ance of a future for Ishmael (Gen 21 :17-21) in a form quite similar to the
promises made to Abraham. The next woman the Bible names as rais-
ing her voice to YHWH2 is Rebekah (Gen 25:22-23). The text describes
Rebekah as barren, so Isaac offers a prayer for a child on her behalf. No
sooner is Isaac's prayer ended than Rebekah conceives. Hers, though, is
a difficult pregnancy because she is carrying twins, who seem to be "fight-
ing" within her womb. Greatly distressed, Rebekah circumvents her
husband and addresses her lament to YHWH. Amazingly, YHWH
replies directly to her inquiry by informing her about the future relation-
ship between the two brothers she will birth, information that her
husband does not hear.
The prayer of the third female is found in the story of the crossing of
the Sea of Reeds by the Hebrews during the exodus. When the people
are safely across the sea and the army of Pharaoh are drowned, Moses is
first described as leading the group in a hymn of thanksgiving and cele-
bration (Exod 15:1-18). Immediately following this long hymn is the state-
ment that Miriam leads the women in singing and dancing. Her hymn of
praise is limited to only one sentence (Exod 15:21); however, many
scholars have made the assertion that hers is the more original of the
two hymns. In fact, these words attributed to Miriam are believed to be
one of the oldest texts in the Hebrew Bible.
Another female leader of the Israelites, Deborah, also has a hymn of
praise attributed to her and Barak. Under her leadership, the people are
suffering from the oppressive control of King Jabin of Canaan (Judg
4:1-3). In a bold military move, she accompanies Barak and the army
into battle against Sisera, commander of Jabin's army. The Israelites are
successful in the battle, and upon their victorious homecoming, Deborah
and Barak sing a hymn to YHWH in thanksgiving for their victory (Judg
5:1-31). Even though she shares this recorded prayer with a male figure,
the context would indicate Deborah's primary leadership in the hymn.

2Thisrendering of the "divinename" from the Hebrew is used in the place of the more
traditional "LORD" due to the ideologicalconcerns raised by many women scholars about
the power issues impliedby the Englishword. The use of only the consonants, YHWH, is
also done out of respect for the Jewish tradition of honoring the divine name.
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She is not only a judge of Israel but also a prophet and military leader.
Given other examples of males of her position (e.g., Samuel, Saul, etc.),
it seems safe to assume that Deborah acts also as a religious leader of the
people.
The next, and most intimate, woman's prayer found in the Hebrew
Bible is that of Hannah, the mother of Samuel. Like many of her female
ancestors, Hannah is introduced with the label of being "barren" and
thus somehow less of a woman. Her husband, Elkanah, has another
wife, Peninah, who has borne him children. Despite Elkanah's attempts
to treat Hannah with greater favor, she suffers much pain and humilia-
tion from the taunts of Peninah (1 Sam 1 : 1-8). Not wanting to continue
this situation, Hannah offers a pleading prayer to God for a son. If granted
her request, she promises to dedicate him to YHWH (1 Sam 1:9-11). As
if she had not suffered enough already, the priest, Eli, accuses her of
being drunk (1 Sam 1:12-18). He has drawn this wrong conclusion due
to his inability to recognize the passion and fervor of Hannah's prayer.
Shortly after her encounter with God and Eli, Hannah conceives, bears
a son, and names him Samuel. She keeps her promise and takes the
weaned child to the temple and leaves him under the tutelage of Eli (1
Sam 1:19-28). Her joy overwhelms her, and she offers a beautiful prayer
of thanksgiving to YHWH (1 Sam 2:1-10).
Prayers by three other women are found within the Apocrypha of the
Protestant canon. One of the Greek additions to the book of Esther
recounts how she prays for courage and strength before facing the king
in hopes of saving her people (Esth 14:2-9, Greek). Among the addi-
tions to Daniel is the story of Susanna, the righteous woman wrongly
accused. Convicted and facing execution, Susanna offers a simple prayer
to God for justice (Dan 13:42-43, Greek), which causes God to prompt
Daniel to step in on her behalf. The book of Judith resembles the stories
of Jael (Judg 4:17-23) and of Esther, women who risk their lives to save
the Israelites. In this case, the virtuous widow, Judith, sneaks into the
enemy camp, seduces their commander, and beheads him. After return-
ing home and hanging the dismembered head on the city wall, the
enemy flees and Judith is celebrated as a hero. Prior to her encounter
with Holofernes, though, Judith had prayed for strength, and her words
are recorded in the text (Jdt 9:2-14).
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In the book of Ruth, one of only two books in the Hebrew Bible
named for a woman, are two blessings spoken by female voices.3 The
first comes from the devastated widow, Naomi. Having lost her husband
and two sons, she decides to return to Bethlehem. Before she departs,
Naomi releases her two daughters-in-law from all responsibility to her
and tries to send them home with a blessing (Ruth 1:8-9). With Ruth's
insistence of staying with Naomi, the story unfolds like a fairy tale. Ruth
finds a new husband, Boaz, and bears a son. At the closing scene of the
story, the women of Bethlehem pronounce a blessing upon Naomi, the
child, and Ruth (Ruth 4:14). Another blessing pronounced by a woman
is found in 1 Kgs 10:9. Here the Queen of Sheba asks a blessing upon
King Solomon in response to his wisdom.
Given such a long and rich history of women's prayer in the Hebrew
Bible, it would seem only natural to consider that at least a few of the
prayers found in the book of Psalms would have come from a woman's
lips or at least dealt with the concerns of women. If these matriarchs had
their prayers recorded, then surely some of their sisters also composed
hymns and laments, which were included in the community's prayer
collection. Unlike Miriam and the others, though, their names were not
included. In fact, there is no way to know the sex of many of the "I's"
and "we's" found throughout these 150 psalms. Even those prayers that
grammatically indicate a male subject are not limited to the experiences
and concerns of men. The emotions, joys, and concerns found through-
out the Psalter are those shared by both men and women.
Given the male-centered world of the ancient Near East, it is of no
surprise that none of the psalms are identified as being the prayers of
women. Instead, the editors of the Psalter connected the various prayers
with important men in Israel's history, the most famous of which is
King David. The superscriptions of many of the psalms suggest possible

3The inclusion of a "blessing" along with the prayers mentioned from the narrative
materialsof the Hebrew Biblemay seem unwarranted by some. However,the concept of
a blessingbeing a form of "prayer" is found also in the Psalms (e.g., Pss 128:5; 134:3;
115:14-15; 118:26). In the blessingof the women of Bethlehem, the phrase Ï1'Ï1'
is used. This phrase also appears in severalpsalms (e.g., Pss 28:6; 31:22; 41:14; 124:6;
etc.; cf. 66:20).
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episodes from David's life for which the sentiments of the prayers seem
appropriate. One of the more familiar examples is Psalm 51, which is
connected to David's being confronted by Nathan about his adulterous
and murderous affair with Bathsheba. This same exercise could also be
used with the lives of the women in the Hebrew Bible.4 Reading through
the 150 prayers of the Psalter, it is easy to find expressions of emotion
that elicit events and situations of Israelite women.
The first step is to identify some parameters for deciding the possible
connections between women and particular psalms. Certain psalms are
easily excluded from the feminine voice. The "royal psalms"5 clearly are
either written by a king or for a king. The same could be said for those
prayers that grammatically reflect a male speaker (e.g., Psalms 18, 34,
71, etc.). The historical and sociological context of psalms must also be
considered; however, since many of the prayers provide no clues for
when they may have been composed, exact dating is impossible. There
are some psalms, though, that do provide enough information for deter-
mining an earliest and latest possible dating for their composition (e.g.,
Psalm 137 could not have been written prior to 587 B.C.E., for it speaks
of the Babylonian exile). This information, combined with the Sitz im
Leben of the a particular psalm, aids in determining if the prayer could
have been written by a woman or used by women in naming their expe-
riences in conversation with God. A first step would be to consider the
possible roles of women in Israel's cult and worship life. When, where,
and how were women given the opportunity publicly to sing praises, to
cry laments, to pray?

4Asimilarexercisewillbe used below(cf.Women'sPrivatePrayers)in identifyingsituations

in the lives of the women in the Hebrew Biblethat a particular psalm seems to elicit.
5 Thisis one of the fivepsalm-types,or genres, identifiedby Hermann Gunkelin his Die
Psalmen (Gottingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926). Gunkel described the genre of
"royal psalm" as a prayer reflectingthe concerns of a king, written either by the ruler or,
more likely,for a king by someone else.
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Women's Prayers in Public Worship

In various books of the Hebrew Bible, women are portrayed as offer-

ing dirges during a time of mourning and sorrow. This seems to have
been one of the major roles women of ancient Israel fulfilled in the reli-
gious cult. In his lamentation over the dead Saul and Jonathon, King
David calls upon the "daughters of Israel" to weep for the two slain men.
Upon the death of King Josiah, the women and men of Judah sing
laments for the loss of this great king (2 Chr 35:25). One of the oracles
found in the book of Jeremiah specifically calls for the "mourning women
... skilled women" to come and lift up their voices in lament for the
severity of the judgment visited upon the people of Judah (Jer 9:17-22).
This reference makes clear the existence of an institutionalized form of
mourning, one made up of only women. Each one is instructed by God
to teach her daughter and her neighbor this dirge. Ezekiel also makes
reference to this female practice, though with much less specificity (Ezek
27:32 and 32:16).6 What laments did these "skilled women" sing? Were
they responsible for composing such dirges? Or did they rely upon some
collection of songs handed down from generation to generation?7
A natural source for such material is found among the sixteen com-
munal laments in the Psalter. Why should one not consider these songs
to have been used by the "mourning women"? The communal laments
are written in the first person plural, "we," and thus have no specific
gender attributed to the psalmist(s). In the days when the eighth century
prophets (i.e., Micah, Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah) were prophesying against
the lack of justice and righteousness among the leaders of the people,
political and religious, the voices of the "mourning women" were also
needed. The words of Psalm 12 seem appropriate to such a situation:

6Asimilarphenomenon is mentionedin Lamentations,where youngwomenare portrayed

as grieving over the devastation of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple by the
Babylonians(1:4; 2:10). Interestingly,in both references, the femalesare paired with male
religiousleaders. In the first, they are paralleledwith the priests of Jerusalem and, in the
second, with the city's elders.
7In2 Chr 35:25, the statement is made that the lament sung by the men and women at
the death of KingJosiah is found in "the book of Laments." Some have suggestedthat the
entirety of Lamentations may have been written/sung by women.
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"Help, 0 YHWH, for there is no longer anyone who is godly; the faithful
have disappeared from humankind ... 'Because the poor are despoiled,
because the needy groan, I will now rise up,' says YHWH; 'I will place
them in the safety for which they long"' (w. 1, 5). One can imagine the
words of Psalm 123 being spoken by the women Jeremiah calls to raise
a dirge over the people who are faced with their judgment by YHWH:
"To you I lift up my eyes, 0 you who are enthroned in the heavens! As
the eyes of servants look to the hand of their master, as the eyes of a
maid to the hand of her mistress, so our eyes look to YHWH our God,
until he has mercy upon us" (w. 1-2). When the innocent were being
attacked in wars against the Assyrians or Babylonians, the women might
have cried out the words of Psalm 44: "Yet you have rejected us and
abased us, and have not gone out with our armies. You made us turn
back from the foe, and our enemies have gotten spoil. You have made us
like sheep for slaughter, and have scattered us among the nations. You
have sold your people for a trifle, demanding no high price for them"
(w. 9-12). Perhaps, in Babylon, the women were the ones who were
called upon by their captors to "sing one of your songs of Zion"
(Ps 137:3).8 ,
Times of sorrow were not the only times that women gave voice to
the emotions of the community or to their personal experiences. They
also dance and sing of God's victories (e.g., Exod 15:20; 1 Sam 18:6).
In public celebrations of Israel, women are found among the worshiping
congregation who sing, dance, and play musical instruments.9 In one
particular text, the daughters of Shiloh are described as part of the yearly
festival of Shiloh (Judg 21:19-21). Scholars have concluded that this
ceremony was a harvest celebration.l° Whereas most often women's

8Some scholars have understood this request to be directed at the Levites in Babylon,
especiallydue to the reference to hanging up "our lyres." While it is true that the Levites
were the ones commissionedby Davidto play these musicalinstruments(cf. 1 Chr 15:16),
there are also referencesto women playingmusicalinstruments(cf.1 Sam 18:6). In addition,
there are references to "all of Israel" singing, dancing, and playing lyres (cf. 2 Sam 6:5;
1 Chr 13:8). Thus, the possibilityof women praying Psalm 137 cannot be excluded.
9See the previousfootnote for specificbiblicalreferences.
'°Elaine Adler Goodfriend, "YoungWomen of Shiloh," in Women in Scripture (ed.
Carol Meyers,ToniCraven,and RossKraemer;Boston: HoughtonMifflin,2000), 251-252.
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religious activities in ancient Israel were considered to be mostly within

the domestic cult, this is a specific testimony to women's roles in the
public cultic rituals as well.

Women's Private Prayers

Obviously, though, these were not the only opportunities for women
to pray. Since the Hebrew Bible is focused upon the public realm of life,
the details of domestic religious ceremonies are difficult to discover. From
studies of other cultures similar to that of ancient Israel, scholars are
convinced that Israelite women played important roles in these
rituals." What were the contexts of more private prayers and practices?
When a woman was praying alone or on behalf of her family or even
with other women, what words were used? She may have composed her
own or relied on prayers that had survived the test of time. A certain
amount of imagination is necessary for considering the relationship
between the Psalms and such intimate, hidden occasions
Take, for example, Hannah. Although the words of her hymn of thanks-
giving are recorded, the text does not provide the same for the first
prayer she utters, the lament. What is she saying when Eli spots her lips
moving without sound? Given the distress she is experiencing, how does
she lift up her voice to God? Is it possible that she uses a well-known
prayer in which she finds her feelings and situation portrayed? Perhaps
Hannah uses the words of Psalm 43 to express her overwhelming
oppression, with the "enemy" (v. 2b) being Peninah or the other women

mSee Carol L. Meyers, "EverydayLife:Women in the Period of the Hebrew Bible,"in

Women's Bible Commentary, Expanded Edition (ed. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H.
Ringe; Louisville,WestminsterJohn Knox, 1998), 256-257.
what follows,certain situationsin the storiesof the women characters of the Hebrew
12 In
Biblewillbe connected to particular psalms. The intent is not to claim that these women
were actual historicalfigures nor is it to claim that these psalms were composed by such
women. Rather, this exercise is similarto what many scholars believe was done by the
editors who added the superscriptions to the Psalter. Just as these compilers indicated
episodes in the lives of important male biblicalcharacters (e.g., David, Solomon, etc.) as
possibleoccasions for such prayers, one could do the same for female biblicalcharacters.
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who ridicule her barrenness. She could recount the wondrous deeds of
YHWH, as found in Psalm 77, to assure that her prayer for a child is not
too much to ask. Other psalms also sound as if they could have come
from the heart of a barren woman, one without a future and shamed by
her community. In the throes of despair, Hannah may have be only able
to utter the words, "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"
(Ps 22 : 1).
The words of Psalm 88 reflect a person who feels abandoned by God
and by friends. This psalmist seems to be suffering from some illness that
causes one to be shut off from the community. In reading the verses of
Psalm 88, one can imagine this as a lament spoken by Miriam, after she
is struck with leprosy for challenging Moses' authority. Miriam had given
her life to her people and had been one of God's chosen liberators,
along with her brothers. Yet she is the one "punished" for being inso-
lent. Surely Miriam must feel the grief portrayed in w. 6-8: "You have
put me in the depths of the Pit, in the regions dark and deep. Your wrath
lies heavy upon me, and you overwhelm me with all your waves. You
have caused my companions to shun me; you have made me a thing of
"
horror to them. I am shut in so that I cannot escape."
Although the story of Ruth does not record Naomi praying, it is hard
to imagine that she does not have words with God after the deaths of her
husband and sons. The bitterness implied in her name and spoken in her
words to the women of Bethlehem is directed toward God, for Naomi
holds God accountable for all that had happened in her life. Her despair
and hopelessness sound remarkably similar to the words of Psalm 39,
especially w. 9-10: "1 am silent; I do not open my mouth, for it is you
who have done it. Remove your stroke from me; I am worn down by the
blows of your hand." The cries for healing and comfort found in Psalm 6
could easily be uttered by Tamar after she is raped by her half-brother,
Amnon (2 Sam 13), or by the Levite's concubine as she lies at the door-
step beaten, raped, and left to die (Judg 19). Unfortunately, the women
in Israel's history were all too familiar with injustice, pain, and suffering,
all of which make for poignant laments.
The same women who uttered laments may also have sung a hymn of
thanksgiving when their situation improved. Hymns of thanksgiving would
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oppressed and forgotten. Just as Hannah gives thanks to God for hear-
ing her prayer for a child, other formerly barren women would have also
raised their voices in song. The words of Psalm 113 could have flowed
from the lips of a new mother, or perhaps were part of a birth ritual
carried out by midwives when a child was safely delivered to a woman
who had longed to be a mother.
Praise YHWH!
'
Praise, 0 servants of YHWH;
praise the name of YHWH.
Blessed be the name of YHWH
from this time on and forevermore.
From the rising of the sun to its setting
the name of YHWH is to be praised.
YHWH is high above all nations,
and his glory above the heavens.
Who is like YHWH our God, .
who is seated on high, .
who looks far down
on the heavens and the earth?
He raises the poor from the dust,
and lifts the needy from the ash heap,
to make them sit with princes,
with the princes of his people.
He gives the barren woman a home,
making her the joyous mother of children.
Praise YHWH! (Ps 113:1-9 )
After the birth of her grandson, Naomi may lift her voice in praise to
God for this new life. In the lines of Psalm 30, she may find the words to
express her gratitude: "You have turned my mourning into dancing; you
have taken off my sackcloth and clothed me with joy, so that my soul
may praise you and not be silent. 0 YHWH my God, I will give thanks to
you forever" (w. 11-12). When she is declared cleansed from leprosy,
Miriam may share through song her joy of being restored to wholeness
with the community that had refused to leave without her. Such joy and
thanksgiving can be heard among these words from Psalm 66: .
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'
Come and see what God has done: .
he is awesome in his deeds among mortals.
He turned the sea into dry land;
they passed through the river on foot.
There we rejoiced in him ...
Come and hear, all you who fear God,
and I will tell what he has done for me.
I cried aloud to him,
and he was extolled with my tongue.
If I had cherished iniquity in my heart,
YHWH would not have listened.
But truly God has listened;
he has given heed to the words of my prayer.
Blessed be God,
because he has not rejected my prayer
or removed his steadfast love from me. (Ps 66:5-6, 16-20)
Women who had lost husbands and/or sons in battle would not only
have sorrow but also worries for their survival. Under the control of
ruthless rulers or living among faithless people, widows must have been
concerned for their own survival as well as that of their young children:
"Sing to God, sing praises to his name; lift up a song to him who rides
upon the clouds-his name is YHWH-be exultant before him. Father
of orphans and protector of widows is God in his holy habitation"
(Ps 68:4-5). The God of these women is one who shows concern for the
most vulnerable members of a community: "YHWH watches over the
strangers; he upholds the orphan and the widow, but the way of the
wicked he brings to ruin" (Ps 146:9). The fearful widows and orphans
could take comfort in knowing that they were under the protection of
YHWH.
The one psalm that has provided comfort for countless generations,
Psalm 23, has always been inseparably connected to the life of King
David, when he was a shepherd. At best, readers of the psalm have
sensed that even if David did not write the words, the sentiments
expressed in the lines are those of a man. This limitation has been placed
on Psalm 23 due to a common misunderstanding that only males, sons,
were shepherds in ancient Israel. Yet, the biblical text speaks explicitly of
a daughter who tends the flocks of her father: Rachel (Gen 29:6). Surelv
 166

she was not the only female to fulfill this important role in an agrarian
culture. Even if she were, still it is possible that she would have found
comfort in the words of Psalm 23: "YHWH is my shepherd, I shall not
want" (v. 1).
'When women needed assurance of God's presence and care for them,
where would they find words for their experience? Certainly the few
lines of Psalm 131 speak of a kind of comfort that perhaps only an
Israelite woman would understand. 13 Having quieted her own children
on her breast, a mother could sense the security she provided for such a
helpless infant. This same safety she had found in her relationship with
God: "0 YHWH, my heart is not lifted up, my eyes are not raised too
high; I do not occupy myself with things too great and too marvelous for
me. But I have calmed and quieted my soul, like a weaned child with its
mother; my soul is like the weaned child that is with me. 0 Israel, hope
in YHWH from this time on and forevermore" (Ps 131:1-3).14 The last
line may have been spoken in the private prayers of a mother or it could
have been added later, when psalms were utilized in communal worship.
Such confidence in YHWH was a gift to the Israelite community, which
could have come only from the heart of a woman.
The possible connections between psalm texts and women's lives in
ancient Israel are countless. "Prayer comes out of lived experience."15
Given the full range of emotions expressed within the lines of the 150
prayers of the Psalter, the lives of both men and women could have
produced any number of the psalms. Despite the traditional views of the
book of Psalms being inextricably linked to a male's life, be he King

?3Sincewomen are believedto have been the primary caregiversfor infants in ancient
. Israelitesociety, such a conclusionseems secure. Certainlysuch has not alwaysbeen the
case in familiesof other cultures and times.
14 Many scholars have proclaimedPsalm 131 as the only psalm with strong support for
having been authored by a woman. One author, Gottfried Quell, makes the case that the
first three verses of this psalm may have been includedwith a thank-offeringmade at the
temple. The last verse was added when the psalm was placed among the pilgrimsongs,
Psalms 120-134. See Gottfried Quell, "Strukturund Sinn des Psalms 131," in Das Ferne
und Nahe Wort:Festschrift Leonard Rost (ed.FritzMaass;BZAW105; Berlin:Töpelmann,
1967), 173-185.
15 Toni Craven, The Book of Psalms (Collegeville,Minn.: LiturgicalPress, 1992), 64.
 167

David or another man, women of faith have been able to draw upon
these prayers for their own contact with the holy. If needed, they have
altered some pronouns to allow the psalm to speak more directly to
them. Even without alterations, the Psalms have been, and continue to
be, a means through which women can "speak to God about matters of
[their] heart."16 As persons created in the Divine's image, who have God's
very breath flowing through them, women and men are called to "Praise
YHWH!" (Ps 150:6).

l6Craven, 140.