energies
Article
A Study on Wear and Friction of Passenger Vehicles Control
Arm Ball Joints
Marek Wozniak 1, * , Krzysztof Siczek 1 , Gustavo Ozuna 2 and Przemyslaw Kubiak 3






Citation: Wozniak, M.; Siczek, K.;
Ozuna, G.; Kubiak, P. A Study on
Wear and Friction of Passenger
Vehicles Control Arm Ball Joints.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14113238
Academic Editor: Aldo Sorniotti
Received: 1 February 2021
Accepted: 20 May 2021
Published: 1 June 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 3238. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113238
1 Department of Vehicles and Fundamentals of Machine Design, Lodz University of Technology,
90-537 Łódź, Poland; ks670907@p.lodz.pl
2 Department of Industrial Engineering and Systems, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Mexico;
gozuna@industrial.uson.mx
3 Institute of Vehicles and Construction Machinery Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology,
02-524 Warszawa, Poland; przemyslaw.kubiak@pw.edu.pl
* Correspondence: marek.wozniak.1@p.lodz.pl; Tel.: +48-691-554-535
Abstract: The following paper describes research on vehicle suspension elements: the ball joints. The
worn surface roughness of selected ball pins and their bearings was compared in terms of vehicle
mileage, utilization period, and car model. Ball pin roughness was measured using a scanning
tunneling microscope (STM), whereas for the bearing surface, a profilometer was used. The aim of
this study was to determine the resistive torque in an unloaded ball joint. Using the finite element
method, models of the unloaded ball joint were analyzed in two scenarios: with and without
interference between the worn ball and its bearing. Calculated values of resistive torques in the ball
joint were compared, and recommendations were given relative to the mileage and the time after
which it was necessary to perform verification or replacement of the ball joints.
Keywords: ball joint; suspension; vehicle; STM microscope; roughness; finite element method
1. Introduction
A vehicle suspension is defined as a group of elastic elements and rods. It connects
axles or individual wheels with the frame or vehicle body. The function of a suspension
is to absorb bumps coming from an unleveled surface by separating the wheels from the
body of a car. Furthermore, its target is to assure the maximum comfort and protection
of transported objects against shocks and harmful vibrations. Securing from too strong
shocks has a huge influence on the durability of various mechanisms as well. One of the
main components of the vehicle suspension is a control arm. The task of the control arms is
to connect the stub axles with the body of a vehicle. There are three types of control arms
distinguished—transverse, longitudinal, and diagonal, depending on the clamping and
driving of the wheel. The control arm consists of a ball joint and one or two sleeves [1,2].
An interesting case is the McPherson strut suspension. Its characteristic feature is that
there is only a lower ball joint. In this design, the lower ball joint is a follower, with the bottom
of the strut connected directly to the steering knuckle and wheel. The bearing plate of the
upper strut mount carries the vehicle’s weight, leaving the lower to act only as a pivot point.
During preliminary observations, it was noted that there is some resistance when moving the
ball joint pin relative to the ball joint body with the bearing (ball joint seat).
The technology, diagnosis, and repair methods of the suspension system as well as
its components were presented and discussed in [3]. According to [4], the driveline and
chassis components account for only 2% (approximately) of the total mechanical losses in
passenger vehicles.
Yao et al. [5] proposed the direct tilt control (DTC) strategy allowing actively control-
ling the vehicle to tilt during a curve, which improved the vehicle performance during
cornering. Such a control limited the occupant’s felt lateral acceleration and the lateral load
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 29

Yao et al. [5] proposed the direct tilt control (DTC) strategy allowing actively control-
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 ling the vehicle to tilt during a curve, which improved the vehicle performance during 2 of 29
cornering. Such a control limited the occupant’s felt lateral acceleration and the lateral
load transfer ratio during turning of the car and allowed proper path-tracking perfor-
mance. However, it simultaneously changed the loading of the suspension ball joints.
transfer ratio during turning of the car and allowed proper path-tracking performance.
Heißing and Ersoy [6] stated that the structure of the chassis itself is an origin of
However, it simultaneously changed the loading of the suspension ball joints.
vibrations and sound. The suspension components are subjected to contact pressures and
Heißing and Ersoy [6] stated that the structure of the chassis itself is an origin of
friction loads related to them in their contact zones. As a result, various coupled oscillation
vibrations and sound. The suspension components are subjected to contact pressures and
modes and self-noise are generated. The intensity of the transmitted oscillations/vibra-
friction loads related to them in their contact zones. As a result, various coupled oscillation
tions can vary in an unpredictable way during vehicle operation.
modes and self-noise are generated. The intensity of the transmitted oscillations/vibrations
Nowadays,
can vary all of the car way
in an unpredictable manufacturers put emphasis
during vehicle operation.on enhancing the interior noise
comfort of their cars. Paulraj et al. [7] claims that
Nowadays, all of the car manufacturers put emphasis the Vehicle
onNoise Comfort
enhancing the Index (VNCI)
interior noise
is commonly utilized to estimate the sound features of vehicles. The interior vehicle
comfort of their cars. Paulraj et al. [7] claims that the Vehicle Noise Comfort Index (VNCI) sound
comfort
is commonlyis indicated
utilized via a scale from
to estimate 1 to 10.
the sound Major of
features contributors to interior
vehicles. The the sound quality
vehicle are
sound
usually the sound volume and its sharpness in the frequency range of human
comfort is indicated via a scale from 1 to 10. Major contributors to the sound quality are hearing (20
Hz ÷ 20 kHz). A vehicle comfort level indication, based on artificial
usually the sound volume and its sharpness in the frequency range of human hearing neural network, can
be applied
(20 Hz ÷ 20tokHz).
determine the comfort
A vehicle comfortlevel
levelinindication,
vehicles. Itbased
can prevent situations
on artificial where
neural driv-
network,
ers and passengers are continuously exposed to high levels of noise and vibration,
can be applied to determine the comfort level in vehicles. It can prevent situations where which
as a result
drivers and can cause theirare
passengers health deterioration.
continuously exposed to high levels of noise and vibration,
which as a result can cause their health deterioration.
1.1. Ball Joint
1.1. Ball
TheJoint
ball joint of a control arm enables a rotational and oscillating movement of the
joinedThecomponents
ball joint ofwith respect
a control to enables
arm one another. The pivot
a rotational andpoint of the movement
oscillating wheel lies on the
of the
joined
axis of components with respect
the pin. Additionally, thetoball
onejoint
another.
enablesThethepivot pointdeflection
angular of the wheel
andlies on the
transmits
axisshearing
the of the pin.andAdditionally,
longitudinalthe ball(along
loads joint enables
the pinthe angular
axis). Sincedeflection
it performs and transmits
rotationally
the shearing and longitudinal loads (along the pin axis). Since it performs
oscillating movement, it is greased by a grease fitting or with graphite grease when the rotationally
oscillating movement,
construction it is greased
does not include by a grease
a dedicated fitting.fitting
A ballorjoint
withcan
graphite grease
be loaded whenforce
by axial the
construction
of both tension does notcompression
and include a dedicated
nature. Itfitting.
can alsoA ball joint can be
be subjected to loaded by axial
radial force, force
limiting
of both
the tension
degrees of and compression
freedom nature.
to three-axis It can also
rotation be subjected
direction without to torque
radial force, limiting the
transmission [8].
degrees
The main ofcomponents
freedom to three-axis
of the ballrotation
joint anddirection without torque
their descriptions transmission
are presented [8]. The1
in Figure
main components of the ball joint and their descriptions are presented in Figure 1 [1,9,10].
[1,9,10].

Figure 1.
1. Components of a ball joint [8].

Interestingly, Farfan-Cabrera
Interestingly, Farfan-Cabrera [11]
[11] reported
reported that
that ball joints belonged to the main tribo-
logical elements causing resistance
resistance to
to motion
motion inin electric
electric cars.
cars. Such a joint can be enhanced
by altering the
the ball
ball stud
studand
andbearing
bearingdepending
dependingon onitsitselasticity, surface
elasticity, surfaceroughness,
roughness, resis-
re-
tance to temperature,
sistance to temperature, and by by
and improving
improvingthethe
durability
durability of the boot.
of the boot.
The construction aims at minimizing
minimizing friction
friction by
by polishing
polishing thethe pin
pin of
of aa ball
ball joints.
joints. The
grease applied to a joint and additional polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) [12], also called
grease applied to a joint and additional polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) [12], also called
Teflon,
Teflon, layer
layerononthe
thepin
pinalso contribute
also to to
contribute thethe
smooth
smoothworking
workingandandquick reaction
quick time.time.
reaction The
DLC cover on the ball joint pin [13] also allowed for extending the service life and lowering
the friction. According to [8], the bearing of the ball joint can be also made of a synthetic
resin. The anti-dust coating is mainly made of neoprene (CR), which is characterized by its
protective features against temperature change, oil, and fuel as well as weather conditions.
A nylon pad inside the nut prevents the elements from corroding and unscrewing.
 synthetic resin. The anti-dust coating is mainly made of neoprene (CR), which is charac-
terized by its protective features against temperature change, oil, and fuel as well as
weather conditions. A nylon pad inside the nut prevents the elements from corroding and
unscrewing.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 3 of 29
The most common ball joints defects include ripping the rubber cover (Figure 2),
which results in water, sand, and other contaminants accumulating within the joint, caus-
ing faster excessive wear to the components. Additionally, water causes ball mandrel cor-
rosion. The most severe The most consequence
common ball of ajoints
ripped rubber
defects coverripping
include is greasetheleakage,
rubber coverwhich (Figure 2), which
causes insufficient or even lack of lubrication. This usually results in a seized pin.
results in water, sand, and other contaminants accumulating within the joint, causing faster Another
defect of the ball joints iswear
excessive a benttomandrel caused by Additionally,
the components. an impact of awater wheelcauses
on an ballobstacle,
mandrel corrosion.
for instance a curb
The ormosta bump.
severeAconsequence
rare case is the of awear
rippedof both joined
rubber coverelements,
is grease which is a which causes
leakage,
result of incorrect fitting oforthe
insufficient even pinlack
(nut of tightened
lubrication. withThisimproper torque).
usually results in Furthermore,
a seized pin. Another defect
such fault can cause
of thepushing
ball joints theisseat of a stub
a bent mandrelaxle out,
caused andby during driving
an impact of on an uneven
a wheel on an obstacle, for
road, the pin may slip out from the seat. According to [14], symptoms
instance a curb or a bump. A rare case is the wear of both joined elements, of the control arm which is a result
ball joints failures include the following:
of incorrect fitting of the pin (nut tightened with improper torque). Furthermore, such fault
- Clunking can cause
noises from pushing
the car’s thefront
seat of a stub axleThe
suspension. out,clearances
and during drivingthe
between on worn
an uneven road, the
ball joints and their socket increase. The joints start to rattle and knock during the up arm ball joints
pin may slip out from the seat. According to [14], symptoms of the control
and downfailures include of
displacements thethe
following:
suspension. Such joint knocks or clunks when trav-
eling on rough
- roads, speed
Clunking noises bumps,
from the or when turning.
car’s front The loudness
suspension. of clunking
The clearances in- the worn ball
between
creases with the wearand
joints of their
the ball joints
socket or untilThe
increase. they eventually
joints completely
start to rattle and knock fail and
during the up and
break. down displacements of the suspension. Such joint knocks or clunks when traveling on
- Undue oscillations rough roads,
from thespeed bumps,
vehicle’s or when turning.
suspension. The loose Theworn
loudness
ball of clunking
joints vibrateincreases with the
excessively during weardriving.
of the ballThejoints or untilstem
vibrations theyfrom
eventually completely
the affected fail and
ball joint frombreak.
var-
ious sides -of theUndue oscillationsthe
car. Sometimes, from the vehicle’s
vibrations are felt suspension. The loose
via the steering wheel. worn ball joints vibrate
- Wandering steering.excessively
The effectduring driving.
is that The vibrations
the vehicle steering drifts stemfrom
fromone theside
affected
to theball joint from
other one on itsvarious
own. When sides ofthetheballcar. Sometimes,
joints operate the vibrations
efficiently, andarethefelt via the
wheels aresteering
in wheel.
- Wandering steering. The effect is that the vehicle
good alignment, the steering wheel is simple and quick in response. Worn ball joints steering drifts from one side to the
other one on its own. When the ball joints
induce wandering of the car steering, requiring the driver to compensate. However, operate efficiently, and the wheels are in
similar symptoms good canalignment,
also accompanythe steering wheelof
the failures is control
simple andarm quick
bushingsin response.
[15], mak-Worn ball joints
induceofwandering
ing the identification the sound of the car
source steering,
difficult. Therequiring
friction inthethedriver
control to arm
compensate.
ball However,
joint can generate similar
noisesymptoms
with high can also accompany
frequency in the orderthe of failures of control
several kHz, whicharm can bushings [15],
making
be difficult to hear by thethedriver
identification of the sound source difficult. The friction in the control arm
or passengers.
ball joint can generate noise with high frequency in the order of several kHz, which
Apart from the above-mentioned symptoms, driving with unstable ball joints puts
can be difficult to hear by the driver or passengers.
excessive strain on other suspension components [16].

Figure
Figure 2. The most2.often
The defects
most often defects
of the of the(a)
ball joints: ball joints:rubber
Ripped (a) Ripped rubber
cover; cover;ball
(b) Frozen (b) joint;
Frozen(c)ball joint; (c)
Corrosion of a mandrel.
Corrosion of a mandrel.
Apart from the above-mentioned symptoms, driving with unstable ball joints puts
1.2. Studies on Ball Joints strain on other suspension components [16].
excessive
There are several studies conducted on the tribological properties of the vehicle ball
1.2. Studies on Ball Joints
joints. Komori and Nagataki [13] studied the effect of application of the DLC coatings in
There are several studies conducted on the tribological properties of the vehicle ball
joints. Komori and Nagataki [13] studied the effect of application of the DLC coatings in
tie rod end ball joints on handling, steering feel, and comfort of a car. It was found that
the “polymer-like” DLC with higher hydrogen content exhibited stronger kinetic friction
and stick-slip behavior at the static–kinetic transient phase, whereas for the “graphite-like”
DLC with less hydrogen content, the kinetic friction had lower values, and the transient
action was smoother. The “graphite-like” DLC allowed for an appropriate friction behavior
for the ball joint, which resulted in better steering feel, vehicle stability, and ride comfort.
The ‘polymer-like’ DLC with the excessive friction resulted in a sticky steering feel and an
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 4 of 29

enhanced harshness with high frequency oscillations. Similar results are expected in the
control arm ball joints coated with similar DLC layers.
For suspension ball joints, Omar [17] proposed tests measuring the rotation breakaway
torque and rotation steady torque prior to a wear test and measuring the radial elasticity
before and after a wear test. Such a wear test needs to be performed at a certain load
and cycle along with the movement caused by rotational and articulation torques for the
loading ball joint done simultaneously. In addition, ball joint spring travel and its elasticity
should be tested.
Muscă et al. [18] elaborated the tester and experimental methodology for the motion
resistive effort in car ball joints. Researchers reported that the ball joints manufacturers
cannot properly control the clamping force of the ball joints during manufacturing. The
tester was used for evaluation of the magnitude and evolution of internal friction between
the joint’s surfaces. The tester allowed for controlling and maintaining a steady clamping
force, which ensures a steady motion of the ball stud.
Watrin et al. [19] numerically and experimentally studied the failure of suspension
ball joints. The wear process took place at the plastic socket/ball pin contact zone due to
the complex loading of the ball joint during its lifetime. Both the contact pressure profile
and the motions for the plastic socket elements were determined. The plastic socket wear
was estimated using the modified Archard‘s law. It was found that the motion solicitations
history strongly affected the overall wear.
Sahu et al. [20] analyzed the ball joint with a flexible socket model. The ball and socket
were treated as composing ball joints and modeled as two single colliding components. A
continuous model was used for the normal contact–impact loading. The energy dissipation
during the mating of surfaces was estimated using the dynamic Hertz contact model. The
Coulomb model was applied for the determination of the resistance to motion in the contact
zone between the ball and socket joint.
Sin and Lee [21] utilized the flexible multibody dynamic model for simulations of the
ball joint operation, taking into account caulking and pull-out strength.
Sun and Hao [22] elaborated on 2D finite element models for determination of the
contact pressure for the non-conformal and semi-conformal contact of a ball and its socket.
Researchers reported that contact character of a ball and its socket varied from the point
one to the area one with the enhancement of the dimensionless curvature radius coefficient
f, and f =0.536 was the critical parameter indicating the change.
Koumura and Shionoya [23] elaborated a dynamics model with series rigidity for an
analysis of suspension friction. ’The stiffness features of the bushings, ball joints, and shock
absorbers were mapped and arranged in a series to allow measuring the arm stiffness and
the spring constant of the oil seals. One of the findings was that the friction coefficient
affected both the damping coefficient and the spring constant of the suspension, particularly
under the high series stiffness. The latter worsened the sprung motion for the frequencies
above 15 Hz. An introduced modification of suspension improved the sprung motion
above 2 Hz.
Rutci and Eren [24] determined experimentally and numerically the suspension ball
joint pull-out force.
Yang [25] numerically studied a short–long arm type front suspension. Suspension
bushings were treated as linear and nonlinear elements, respectively, and they were inte-
grated with a flexible cradle and other suspension components. The ball joints included
the lower and upper ball joints, and the outer and inner tie rod ball joints. It was found
that the bushing stiffness and nonlinearity strongly affected the prediction accuracy of ball
joint travels.
Burcham et al. [26] analyzed the failure of a car lower ball joint that fractured under a
normal driving regime. It was found that fatigue was the most often failure mechanism.
The finite element model was elaborated and utilized during performance analysis of the
part under a normal loading condition.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 5 of 29

During the modeling of behavior of worn ball joints, the results reported by Dowson
and Wang [27] can be useful. The time-dependent elasto-hydrodynamic problem of a
sphere moving normally, in approach and separation, to a plane surface was studied there.
Interestingly, it was found that the impact time and the width of the conjunction are well
predicted by the classical Hertzian analysis for dry contact.
Chung et al. [8] studied the role of plating thicknesses on ball studs in the wear process
of the latter. It turns out that despite the positive role of such plating in corrosion resistance,
the uneven thickness led to coarsening of the ball surface with time, thereby increasing
the abrasion of the bearing contact zone. Apart from that, the wear of ball stud surfaces
weakened the oscillating torque and enhanced the axial free gap. Such tendency became
more clear for the higher thickness of the ball stud sphere platting. The uncoated ball joint
was the best choice.
Studies on ball stud plating effects on gap variations in ball joints conducted by
Raj [28] provided the same results as those described in [8].
When vehicles operate under environmental conditions of temperatures below 30
degrees and increased humidity, water percolates into the dust cap, leading to corrosion
of the steel ball stud. The mentioned, very often occurring, axial and radial loads cause
an abrading process of ball joint mating surfaces, which is manifested in an increase of
clearance between them [29].
Such play often results in increased sound of the front lower control arm ball joints,
which is especially felt under conditions of the vehicle passing through a speed bumps.
According to [30], minimizing the buzz, squeak, and rattle (BSR) is of great importance
for the arrangement of car components and whole vehicle assemblies. BSR phenomena and
their examples in vehicles, and also methods for their testing, analysis, and elimination
were discussed there.
The suspension ball joints were modeled in various manners during numerical and
experimental studies. The behavior and resistance of such ball joints were more often
studied under loading by significant outer forces than under the lack of such a loading.
The main aim of this article was to estimate resistive torques in the unloaded worn
ball joint with and without interface between its mating components.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Measurement of the Chosen Geometrical Parameters of the Ball Joints
The diameters of the new and the worn samples of ball joints were measured with
a micrometer. The roughness of worn bearing surfaces was measured by means of a
profilometer. The polyether ether ketone (PEEK) and polyoxymethylene (POM) samples
of bearing materials were prepared by cutting them from the actual bearing component,
and its roughness was measured using a profilometer. The roughness of worn surfaces
for steel balls were obtained by scanning tunneling microscope (direct current operation,
needles made of Pt-Ir wire with diameter equal to 0.25 mm). Scanning was conducted at
atmospheric pressure and in room temperature.
To estimate the roughness parameter, used ball joints of different manufacturers
(Figure 3b) were collected. The ball joints were utilized in vehicles of different mileage and
different driving conditions—urban, extra-urban, and combined. What is more, the short-
used equivalents of such ball joints were bought as well (Figure 3a). Obtained STM images
enabled the determination of peak roughness of examined elements. For each sample,
the roughness was measured at 8 points on a spherical surface. Their angular positions
are shown in Figure 4, although they were chosen arbitrarily so that the measurement
points were within wear areas in of worn pins. Based on the results, the mileage and the
exploitation time after which such a component requires verification and a presumptive
replacement were estimated.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 29

shownin
shown inFigure
Figure4,4,although
althoughthey
theywere
werechosen
chosenarbitrarily
arbitrarilyso
sothat
thatthe
themeasurement
measurementpoints
points
shown
were in Figure
within wear 4, areas
although
in ofthey were
worn chosen
pins. Basedarbitrarily
on the so that
results, thethe measurement
mileage and the points
exploi-
were within wear areas in of worn pins. Based on the results, the mileage and the exploi-
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 were
tationwithin wearwhich
timeafter
after areassuch
in ofaworn pins. Based
component on the
requires results, the
verification andmileage and the replace-
exploi-
6 of 29
tation time which such a component requires verification and aapresumptive
presumptive replace-
tation time
mentwere after which
wereestimated.
estimated. such a component requires verification and a presumptive replace-
ment
ment were estimated.

Figure3.3.(a)
Figure (a)New
Newball
balljoint;
joint;(b)
(b)Disassembled
Disassembledused
usedball
balljoint.
joint.
Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. (a) New
New ball
ball joint;
joint; (b)
(b) Disassembled
Disassembled used
used ball
ball joint.
joint.

Figure4.4.Points
Figure Points1–8
1–8showing
showingroughness
roughnessmeasurement
measurementpoints
pointson
onthe
thespherical
sphericalsurface
surfaceofofaaball
ball
Figure
joint. 4. Points 1–8 showing roughness
roughness measurement
measurement points
points on
onthe
thespherical
sphericalsurface
surfaceof
ofaaball
balljoint.
joint.
joint.
Figure
Figure555shows
shows some
showssome exemplary
exemplarysamples
someexemplary samplescomprised
comprisedof ofcut
cutfragments
fragments(1) (1)ofofPOM
POMand and
PEEK Figure
bearings of the analyzed ball samples
joints. Suchcomprised
fragments of cut
were fragments
glued to (1)
the of
steelPOM and
holders
PEEK Figure 5
bearings shows
of thesome exemplary
analyzed ball samples
joints. comprised
Such fragments of cut
were fragments
glued to (1)
the of POM
steel and
holders
PEEK
(3) withbearings of the analyzed
aa two-composite
two-composite ball
glue(2). joints.
(2).The
The Such fragments
holders facilitatedwere
the glued to the of
positioning steel
theholders
tested
PEEK
(3) bearings
with of the analyzed
glue ball joints. Suchfacilitated
holders fragments were
the glued to of
positioning thethesteel holders
tested sam-
(3) with
samples aintwo-composite
relation to the glue (2). The
profilometer holders
head. facilitated
Roughness the positioning
measurements of
were the tested
conducted sam-
(3) with
plesin
ples
a two-composite
inrelation
relationto tothe glue (2).
theprofilometer The
profilometerhead. holders facilitated
head.Roughness the
Roughnessmeasurementspositioning
measurementswere of theconductedat
tested
wereconducted sam-
atat
various
ples in
various locations
relation
locationstoof
ofthe
thethefragments
profilometer
fragments (1), especially
head.
(1), in
Roughness
especially intheir middle
measurements
their middle zones. were
zones. conducted at
various locations of the fragments (1), especially in their middle zones.
various locations of the fragments (1), especially in their middle zones.

Figure5.5.Prepared
Figure Preparedsamples
samplesofofPOM
POMand
andPEEK
PEEKbearing
bearingofofanalyzed
analyzedball
balljoints.
joints.
Figure 5. Prepared samples of POM and PEEK bearing of analyzed ball joints.
Energies 2021,14,
Energies2021, 14,3238
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77ofof29
29

2.2.Experimental
2.2. ExperimentalDetermination
DeterminationofofMaterial
MaterialModels
ModelsParameters
Parametersfor
forBall
BallJoint
JointPin
Pinand
andBall
Ball Joint
Joint Bearing
Bearing
Firstly,
Firstly, an assumption was
an assumption wasmade
madethatthatball
ball joint
joint pinpin
waswas
made made of hardened
of hardened steel steel
with-
without
out any any coating.
coating. The The estimation
estimation of Young
of Young modulus
modulus and Poisson
and Poisson numbernumber forball
for the the bear-
ball
bearing material
ing material waswas
donedone using
using the the tester
tester presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 6. 6.

Figure6.6.Scheme
Figure Schemeofofaameasuring
measuringunit unitfor
fordetermination
determinationof ofthe
theYoung
Youngmodulus
modulusof ofball
balljoint
jointbearing;
bearing;
(a) During determining the initial position of the screw with fine thread isolated relatively totothe
(a) During determining the initial position of the screw with fine thread isolated relatively the
support relatively to the latter; (b) During measurement of deformation of the polymer-bearing ma-
support relatively to the latter; (b) During measurement of deformation of the polymer-bearing
terial sample tested. 1—support, 2—tilt arm, 3—pin (needle bearing shaft), 4—bearing needle, 5—
material sample tested. 1—support, 2—tilt arm, 3—pin (needle bearing shaft), 4—bearing needle,
needle, 6—pin of hoop of a loading unit assembly with weights, 7—bearing needle, 8—cord of hoop
5—needle,
of a loading 6—pin
unit of hoop ofwith
assembly a loading unit9—pin
weights, assembly with weights,
of hoop connected7—bearing needle,
to the string of the8—cord of
weights’
hoop of a10—nut
holder, loadingisolated
unit assembly withtoweights,
relatively 9—pin
the support, of hoop connected
11—screw to the string
with fine thread of the
isolated weights’
relatively to
holder, 10—nut
the support, isolated relatively
12—aligning bearingtoroller,
the support, 11—screw
13—tested bearingwith fine thread
material isolated
sample, relatively
14—battery, to the
15—con-
support,
trol light,12—aligning bearing
16—depth gauge roller, 13—tested
micrometer, 17—seatbearing
in thematerial
supportsample, 14—battery,
for positioning 15—control
of tested bearing
material
light, sample,
16—depth 18—seat
gauge in the support
micrometer, 17—seatfor positioning
in the support forof positioning
depth gaugeofmicrometer,
tested bearing F—loading
material
force from
sample, weights,
18—seat A—detailed
in the support for view.
positioning of depth gauge micrometer, F—loading force from
weights, A—detailed view.
The tester comprises of steel tilt arm (2) supported by needle bearing (4) on the hard-
enedTheandtester
ground steel bolt of
comprises (3)steel
fixedtiltto the
arm support (1) madeby
(2) supported of steel
needle plates connected
bearing (4) oneither
the
hardened
by welding andorground
by means steel
of bolt
bolts(3) fixed
and pinsto(removable
the supportplates).(1) made Onofthe steel
tilt plates
arm, two connected
bearing
either
needlesbywere
welding or by
placed: themeans
(5) one of mating
bolts and withpinsthe(removable
adjustmentplates).
screw (11) On thebeingtilt fixed
arm, twowith
bearing
a locking needles
nut (10),wereand placed:
the (6) theone(5) mating
one matingwithwiththe the adjustment
measuring tip ofscrew (11) being depth
a micrometer fixed
with
gauge a locking
(16). Thenut tilt(10),
arm and(2) was the loaded
(6) one by mating withFthe
the force frommeasuring
weights placedtip of aon micrometer
the holder
depth gauge
connected (16). The
through thetilt armwith
string (2) was loaded
a hoop pin by(9).the
Suchforce F from
a hoop weightsofplaced
comprises the steelon pins
the
holder
(6) andconnected
(9) and two through
steel cordsthe string
(8). The with a hoop pin
adjustment screw(9). (11)
Such anda hoop
a lockingcomprises
nut (10) ofwere
the
steel pins (6) and (9) and two steel cords (8). The adjustment screw
isolated against the support (1). The screw (11) and tilt arm (2) were electrically connected (11) and a locking nut
(10) were
to the isolated
circuit againstbattery
containing the support (1).control
(14) and The screw light(11) and
(15). In tilt
casearm (2) werebetween
of contact electrically
pol-
connected to the circuit containing battery (14) and control
ished front plane of the screw (10), the roller needle (5), and the tilt arm (2), the light (15). In case of contact
electric
between
circuit ispolished
closed, and frontthen,
plane theofcontrol
the screw (10),
light theon.
turns roller
Theneedle
position(5), of
and thethe tilt arm (2),
adjustment the
screw
electric circuit is closed, and then, the control light turns on. The
(11) was determined using an aligning bearing roller (12) positioned between the tilt arm position of the adjustment
screw
(2) and(11)support
was determined
(1) in theusing an aligning place
predetermined bearing roller (12)
marked usingpositioned
paint. The betweentilt armthe was
tilt
arm (2) and support (1) in the predetermined place marked
loaded only by weight of loading unit assembly (without weights) to remove the radial using paint. The tilt arm was
loaded
gap in only by weight
the needle bearingof loading
(4). In unitsuchassembly
a position, (without weights)tip
the measuring to of
remove the radialdepth
a micrometer gap
in the needle bearing (4). In such a position, the measuring
gauge (16) was initially adjusted to the roller needle (7), and its indication tip of a micrometer 𝑢depth gauge
was
(16) was initially adjusted to the roller needle (7), and its indication u 0 was recorded.
recorded. Then, the micrometer depth gauge (16) was removed, and the tilt arm was ro- unloaded
Then,
tated the micrometer
slightly up around depth thegauge
pin (3)(16) was removed,
to allow and the of
for replacement tiltthe
arm was rotated
aligning bearing slightly
roller
up around the pin (3) to allow for replacement of the aligning
(12) by a test sample (13) of the ball joint bearing material placed in the cylindrical bearing roller (12) by a test
seat
sample (13) of the ball joint bearing material placed in the cylindrical seat (17) made in the
(17) made in the support (1). Then, the depth gauge micrometer (16) was put back into the
support (1). Then, the depth gauge micrometer (16) was put back into the slot (18) milled in
slot (18) milled in the support (1) in a predetermined place marked with paint. The posi-
the support (1) in a predetermined place marked with paint. The position of the measuring
tion of the measuring tip of a micrometer depth gauge (16) was adjusted to the position
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 8 of 29

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 29

tip of a micrometer depth gauge (16) was adjusted to the position of the bearing needle
(7), andbearing
of the needle u(7),
its indication and its
unloaded was recorded.𝑢Then, the
indication loading
was unit Then,
recorded. assembly
the was loaded
loading unit
through addition of the consecutive weights placed on the holder. After
assembly was loaded through addition of the consecutive weights placed on the holder.each addition, a
micrometer depth gauge (16) was once again adjusted to the position of the
After each addition, a micrometer depth gauge (16) was once again adjusted to the posi- bearing needle
(7),
tionand its indication
of the uloaded
bearing needle (7),was
andrecorded. Then,𝑢 the obtained
its indication indications
was recorded. Then,were used to
the obtained
determine
indicationsthe vertical
were used todisplacement
determine the of vertical
the material at the contact
displacement of thepoint between
material at the the tilt
contact
arm and tested sample, according to the following equation:
point between the tilt arm and tested sample, according to the following equation:
u X𝑢 ≈≈ (u ∙ 𝑘−arm
𝑢loaded −−u𝑢unloaded )·k tilt (1)
(1)
where
where
k𝑘tilt− arm ==11 cm/21
cm/21cm —single-sided lever
cm—single-sided lever(tilt
(tiltarm)
arm)ratio.
ratio.
IfIfu𝑢unloaded −−u𝑢
0
unloaded 6 = 0, 0, that
that waswas included
included in in
thethe model
model forfor determining
determining thethe de-
defor-
formations of the modeled sample of the ball joint bearing
mations of the modeled sample of the ball joint bearing material. material.

2.3.Numerical
2.3. NumericalDetermination
Determinationofofthe
theModeled
ModeledMaterial
MaterialSample
SampleDeformations
Deformationsofofthe
theBall
Ball Joint
Joint Bearing
Bearing
The
Thenumerical
numerical model
model of of the sample deformations
the sample deformations of ofthe
theball
balljoint
jointbearing
bearingmaterial
materialis
ispresented
presented inin Figure
Figure 7. 7. It comprised
It is is comprised of aofsteel
a steel support
support (1) being
(1) being in frictional
in frictional contact
contact with
with the tested semispherical bearing material sample (3). The outer
the tested semispherical bearing material sample (3). The outer spherical surface of the spherical surface
of the tested
tested material material
sample sample
was inwas in frictional
frictional contact contact withsteel
with the the steel tilt (2).
tilt arm armIt(2).
wasIt fixed
was
fixed
around the axis of its nondeformable hole (6) for the needle bearing placement. TheThe
around the axis of its nondeformable hole (6) for the needle bearing placement. tilt
tilt
arm arm
(2) (2)
waswas in frictional
in frictional contact
contact withwith
the the
steelsteel bearing
bearing needle
needle (5), (5),
whichwhichwaswas mating
mating fric-
frictionally
tionally with with
thethe bottom
bottom plane
plane of the
of the finefine threaded
threaded screw
screw tiptip
(4).(4).
TheTheupperupper plane
plane of
of the
the tip was fixed. The tilt arm (2) was also in frictional contact with the steel
tip was fixed. The tilt arm (2) was also in frictional contact with the steel pin (7) of a loading pin (7) of a
loading unit assembly hoop with weights. The pin was loaded
unit assembly hoop with weights. The pin was loaded by the force F from such weights.by the force F from such
weights.
The tilt armThe (2)
tiltwas
armalso
(2) was also in frictional
in frictional contact withcontact
the with
steel the steel needle
bearing bearing(8). needle (8).
The dis-
The displacements along the X-axis of a cylindrical surface of such
placements along the X-axis of a cylindrical surface of such a bearing needle were com- a bearing needle were
compared with values obtained during measurement.
pared with values obtained during measurement.

Figure7.7. Scheme
Figure Scheme of of numerical
numericalmodel
modelofofselected
selectedmating
matingcomponents
components ofof
thethe
measuring
measuringunit forfor
unit de-
termination of the Young modulus of polymer bearing. 1—support fragment, 2—tilt arm, 3—tested
determination of the Young modulus of polymer bearing. 1—support fragment, 2—tilt arm, 3—
bearing material sample, 4—cylindrical tip of the screw with fine thread, 5—bearing needle, 6—
tested bearing material sample, 4—cylindrical tip of the screw with fine thread, 5—bearing needle,
surface of tilt arm hole for the needle bearing placement, 7—pin of hoop of a loading unit assembly
6—surface of tilt
with weights, arm holeneedle,
8—bearing for thea—fixed
needle force
bearing placement,tip
of cylindrical 7—pin of hoop
of a screw, of a loading
b—cylindrical unit
surface
assembly with weights,
of pin loaded 8—bearing
by the force needle, a—fixed
F from weights, force ofsurface
c—cylindrical cylindrical tipbearing
of the of a screw, b—cylindrical
needle whose dis-
surface of pinalong
placements loadedtheby the force
X-axis F from weights,
are compared c—cylindrical
with measured surface of the bearing needle whose
values.
displacements along the X-axis are compared with measured values.
The model took as an input measured geometric parameters of the material samples
The model (e.g.,
and the model took isotropic
as an input
andmeasured
linear) ofgeometric parameters
the material with the of the values
given material
ofsamples
Young’s
and
modulus as well as Poisson’s number. Those sample material parameters wereYoung’s
the model (e.g., isotropic and linear) of the material with the given values of initially
modulus
assigned as well as Poisson’s
a theoretical number.
value. Then, theyThose
were sample
adjustedmaterial parameters
to obtain werealong
displacements initially
the
assigned
X-axis ofaa theoretical
cylindricalvalue.
surfaceThen, they were
of a bearing adjusted
needle to obtain
(8) close to the displacements alongthese
average value from the
X-axis of afrom
obtained cylindrical surface of a bearing needle (8) close to the average value from these
the measurement.
obtained from the measurement.
In order to control the deformations of the material sample, the vertical displacement
of the sample (3) and the contact pressure in the contact zone with the tilt arm (2) were
also determined from the model.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 9 of 29

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 29

In order to control the deformations of the material sample, the vertical displacement
of the sample (3) and the contact pressure in the contact zone with the tilt arm (2) were also
determined
The meshfrom ofthe model.
finite elements analysis is shown in Figure 8. To ensure the convergence
The mesh of finite
of numerical calculations elements
for allanalysis
contactiszones,
shownthein Figure 8. To
frictional ensureelements
contact the convergence
were as-
of numerical calculations for all contact zones, the frictional contact elements
signed a value of the friction coefficient equal to 0.01. The value of this friction werecoefficient
assigned
awas
value of theby
dictated friction coefficientused
the commonly equal to 0.01.
practice The value
during of this
numerical friction coefficient
calculations, aimed atwassta-
dictated
bilizing bythethe commonly
iterative used of
process practice during
obtaining numericalconsisting
a solution, calculations, aimed at stabilizing
of introducing a small
the iterative
value of theprocess
so-calledof numerical
obtaining afriction,
solution, consisting
which, of introducing
as a rule, has no pure a small value
physical of the
interpre-
so-called
tation. numerical friction, which, as a rule, has no pure physical interpretation.

Figure8.8.The
Figure Themesh
meshof
offinite
finiteelements.
elements.

2.4.
2.4.Friction
FrictionCoefficient
CoefficientDetermination
Determinationbetween
betweenSteel
Steeland
andBall
BallJoint
JointBearing
BearingMaterial
Material
Marques
Marquesetetal. al.[31]
[31]found
foundthat thatininmechanical
mechanicaljoints,
joints,aastatic
staticfriction
frictionmodel
modelwith withelimi-
elim-
nation
inationofof thethe
discontinuity
discontinuity at zero velocity
at zero velocitywaswas
usually a good
usually choice.
a good However,
choice. a dynamic
However, a dy-
friction model was
namic friction modelneeded for systems
was needed exposedexposed
for systems to highlytovariable normal loads,
highly variable normal such as
loads,
impact
such asconditions occurringoccurring
impact conditions in suspension ball joints,
in suspension forjoints,
ball example.
for example.
For
For various
various vehicles
vehicles configurations,
configurations, the the method
method described
described in in [32]
[32] isis usually
usually used.
used.
Such
Suchaamethod
methodcomprises
comprisesan analgorithm
algorithmfor forfriction
frictionandandwearwearbehavior
behaviordetermination
determinationofof
greased
greasedplastic
plasticsocket
socketsuspension
suspensionjoints.
joints.ItItalso
alsoallows
allowsvalidating
validatingthese
thesegreases
greasesand andquality
quality
inspection
inspection for such lubricants under high-frequency oscillations utilizing the SRVtester.
for such lubricants under high-frequency oscillations utilizing the SRV tester.
Due
Dueto tolack
lackofofaccess
accesstotoaaSRV
SRVtest
testmachine,
machine,the theother
othermethod
methodwas wasused
usedtotodetermine
determine
the
theresistance
resistanceto tomotion
motionin incontact
contactbetween
betweenthe thesteel
steelball
balljoint
jointpin
pinand
andball
balljoint
jointbearing
bearing
material.
material. To estimate the values of the friction coefficient, a simple tester wasprepared
To estimate the values of the friction coefficient, a simple tester was prepared
(Figure
(Figure 9). It utilizes
9). It utilizes anan adjustable
adjustabletilting
tiltingplane
plane(2),(2),which
whichwas was mounted
mounted onon a pin
a pin (5)(5)
at-
attached to the support (1) and symmetrically positioned relative
tached to the support (1) and symmetrically positioned relative to the mean symmetry to the mean symmetry
plane
plane of of the
the support.
support. TheTheupper
uppersteel
steelsurface
surfaceofofthethe tilting
tilting plane
plane (2) (2)
waswasgroundgroundandandpol-
polished.
ished. Before the measurement, it was degreased and decontaminated with 96% alcohol.
Before the measurement, it was degreased and decontaminated with 96% alcohol.
The
Thetilt
tiltangle
angleαα(Figure
(Figure9b)9b)was
waschanged
changedwith withaaturnbuckle
turnbuckle(4) (4)with
withaaself-locking
self-lockingthread.
thread.
The nuts on both sides of the turnbuckle were integrated with the yokes (6) and (7) attached
The nuts on both sides of the turnbuckle were integrated with the yokes (6) and (7) at-
to the bolts (8) and (9) attached to the tilting plane (2) and to the support (1), respectively.
tached to the bolts (8) and (9) attached to the tilting plane (2) and to the support (1), re-
The tilt angle α was measured with a protractor (3) attached to the support (1). The edge of
spectively. The tilt angle α was measured with a protractor (3) attached to the support (1).
the semisphered sample (10) made of the bearing material was ground with sandpaper in
The edge of the semisphered sample (10) made of the bearing material was ground with
the cut plane (11). Before measurement, the entire test sample was again degreased and
sandpaper in the cut plane (11). Before measurement, the entire test sample was again
decontaminated with 96% alcohol. Measurements were made in a laboratory room in a
degreased and decontaminated with 96% alcohol. Measurements were made in a labora-
stable room temperature and 40% air humidity. After placing the sample evenly, in the
tory room in a stable room temperature and 40% air humidity. After placing the sample
conditions of contact between the upper surface of the tilting inclined plane (2) and the
evenly, in the conditions of contact between the upper surface of the tilting inclined plane
plane (11) of the sample, the inclined plane (2) was raised with a turnbuckle (4) until the
(2) and the plane (11) of the sample, the inclined plane (2) was raised with a turnbuckle
sample (10) starts to slide down the plane. A corresponding tilt angle α was registered.
(4) until the sample (10) starts to slide down the plane. A corresponding tilt angle α was
Then, the sample was turned upside down, and a similar measurement was made. The
registered. Then,
measurements for the
eachsample
case werewasrepeated
turned upside5 timesdown, and a the
by rotating similar
samplemeasurement
along the axiswas
made. The measurements for
perpendicular to the inclined plane (2). each case were repeated 5 times by rotating the sample along
the axis perpendicular to the inclined plane (2).
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 10 of 29
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 29

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Tester
Tester for
forfriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientdetermination
determinationbetween
betweensteel plane
steel and
plane ballball
and joint bearing
joint bearing
sample, (a) for the contact between a spherical surface of sample 10 with tilting plane 2; (b) for the
sample, (a) for the contact between a spherical surface of sample 10 with tilting plane 2; (b) for the
contact between a frontal plane of sample 10 with tilting plane 2.
contact between a frontal plane of sample 10 with tilting plane 2.

2.5. Tribological
2.5. TribologicalModel Model
Contact between
Contact between the the ball
ball joint
joint pinpin and
and itsits bearing
bearing waswas modeled
modeled as as aa contact
contact ofof the
the
smooth
smooth elastic steel ball and smooth deformable POM bearing. The
and smooth deformable POM bearing. The bearing was placed bearing was placed in
a steel
in a steelball joint
ball body
joint body(assumed
(assumed as aasrigid one)one)
a rigid andandsecured against
secured falling
against out by
falling outthe
bylocal
the
crease
local of the
crease ofbody
the bodymaterial. Thanks
material. Thanksto this, a small
to this, interference
a small interferencewaswas
created
createdbetween
between the
bearing
the bearing andandthe the
body, andand
body, between
between thethebearing
bearingandand
the the
ballball
jointjoint
pin.pin.
TheThe existence of this
existence of
interference
this interference can becanevidenced
be evidenced by a small resistance
by a small occurring
resistance sometimes
occurring duringduring
sometimes the move-
the
ment of theofball
movement thejoint
ball pin
jointagainst its bearing
pin against [33]. [33].
its bearing
The resistive
The resistive torque
torque M 𝑀resist generated
generated during during thethe existence
existence of of small
small interference
interference be- be-
tween
tween the the steel
steel ball
ball and
andPOMPOMbearing
bearingcan canbe beestimated
estimatedfromfromEquation
Equation(2): (2):

𝑀M ==𝜇µ∙ ·𝑝p ∙𝐴 ∙𝑅 = 𝜇∙𝑝 ∙ 0.7 ∙ 42∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑅 π R ∙ ,𝑅 , (2)

  
(2)
resist inter · A partial · R aver = µ · pinter · 0.7·4· π · Rball · ball
4
where
where𝑝 —contact pressure resulted from the interference of the steel ball and POM
pinter —contact pressure resulted from the interference of the steel ball and POM bearing,
bearing,
µ𝜇 == 0.12—average
0.12—average friction friction coefficient
coefficientbetween
betweenthe thesteel
steelball
balland
andbearing
bearingmademadeof ofPOM
POM
with PTFE [34],
with PTFE [34],
A partial —area of contact zone where friction exists between the steel ball and POM
𝐴 —area of contact zone where friction exists between the steel ball and POM
bearing,
bearing,
R aver —averaged radius between contact zone points and the axis of ball joint rotation,
𝑅 —averaged radius between contact zone points and the axis of ball joint rota-
Rball = 27/2 mm = 13.5 mm—the radius of the ball in the analyzed ball joint.
tion,
Due to the wear process, the interference can become smaller and smaller. However,
𝑅 = 27/2 mm = 13.5 mm—the radius of the ball in the analyzed ball joint.
the resistance between the ball surface and bearing can still occur. In this case, to estimate
Due to the wear process, the interference can become smaller and smaller. However,
the resistance torque in the contact zone, another model was assumed. Particularly, it was
the resistance between the ball surface and bearing can still occur. In this case, to estimate
assumed that the interaction between the steel ball and PTFE played the most significant
the resistance
role, and the effect torque of in
POMthe became
contact zone,
muchanother
smaller.model was assumed. Particularly, it was
assumed that the interaction between
The resistive force Fresist generated during the steelsliding
ball andthePTFE played
ball joint pinthe most its
against significant
bearing
role, and the effect of POM
was calculated from Equation (3) [35]: became much smaller.
The resistive force 𝐹 generated during sliding the ball joint pin against its bear-
ing was calculated from Equation Fresist =(3) Fde[35]:
f orm + Fadhesion + Ff luid , (3)
𝐹 =𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹 , (3)
where
where Fde f orm —force generated due to bodies deformation,
F𝐹adhesion —force generated due to adhesion in the contact zone,
bodies deformation,
F𝐹f luid —force
—forcegenerated
generatedduedue
to fluid shear stress.
to adhesion in the contact zone,
It𝐹 was—force
assumed that thedue
generated work doneshear
to fluid by the internal forces during deformations of
stress.
mating bodies is turned into heat.
It was assumed that the work done by the internal forces during deformations of
matingDuebodiesto theisexisting
turnedcontact pressure, soft PTFE asperities deform plastically, and they
into heat.
fill partially
Due to the existing contact between
the existing space pressure,the
softbearing and the deform
PTFE asperities ball. The remaining
plastically, space
and they
is filled with lithium grease. An average contact surface was established,
fill partially the existing space between the bearing and the ball. The remaining space which wasis
approximated
filled with lithium as a rigid spherical
grease. surface.
An average Thesurface
contact existingwas
asperities madewhich
established, both of
wasPTFE and
approx-
imated as a rigid spherical surface. The existing asperities made both of PTFE and steel
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 29
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 11 of 29

can be modeled by hemispheres or spherical caps. The obtained values of the average
steel can be modeled by hemispheres or spherical caps. The obtained values of the average
contact pressure between the ball and its bearing can allow for determination of the initial
contact pressure between the ball and its bearing can allow for determination of the initial
position of each analyzed PTFE hemisphere against a rigid plane tangent to the mentioned
position of each analyzed PTFE hemisphere against a rigid plane tangent to the mentioned
rigid spherical surface.
rigid spherical surface.
Such a rigid spherical surface can be useful also during further calculations of work
Such a rigid spherical surface can be useful also during further calculations of work
made by internal forces generated during bodies deformations. It was assumed that al-
made by internal forces generated during bodies deformations. It was assumed that almost
most rigid steel hemispheres modeling asperities existing on the ball surface can protrude
rigid steel hemispheres modeling asperities existing on the ball surface can protrude above
above the rigid spherical surface. The initial positions of such steel hemispheres against
the rigid spherical surface. The initial positions of such steel hemispheres against the rigid
the rigid spherical
spherical surface
surface were were to
assumed assumed to beasthe
be the same in same as of
the case in PTFE
the case of It
ones. PTFE ones.
allows for It
a
allows for a simplification and limits the amount of calculations
simplification and limits the amount of calculations [36]. [36].

2.6.
2.6. Contact
Contact Pressure
Pressure Determination
Determination in
in the
the Zone
Zone between
between Ball
Ball Joint
Joint Pin
Pin and Its Bearing
and Its Bearing
To determine the
To determine the contact pressure 𝑝pinter in
contact pressure in contact
contact between
between thethe ball
ball joint
joint pin
pin and
and its
its
bearing, the
bearing, the finite element model was utilized. It was assumed that the
It was assumed that the ball ball 1 is a solid
sphere and is concentric with inner 2a and outer 2b surfaces of the bearing 2, also being a
solid sphere (Figure 10a).

(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a)
Figure 10. (a)Model
Modelofofcontact
contact between
between ballball
jointjoint
pin 1pin
and1its
and its bearing
bearing 2; mesh
2; (b) the (b) the
of mesh of finite and
finite elements elements and conditions.
boundary boundary
conditions.
The outer bearing surface 2b was rigidly connected to the nondeformable ball joint
The outer
body—the outer bearing
bearingsurface
surface 2b2b waswasrigidly
fixedconnected
(boundarytocondition
the nondeformable
‘c’ in Figure ball
10b)joint
in
body—the outer bearing surface 2b was fixed (boundary condition
the model. It was assumed that the interference between ball 1 and bearing 2 reaches its ‘c’ in Figure 10b) in
the model. value
maximum It wasforassumed
the H7/j6 thatfit.
theTointerference between ball
simplify calculations, the1axial
and bearing
symmetry 2 reaches
along the its
maximum value for
Y-axis (boundary the H7/j6
condition fit.Figure
‘a’ in To simplify
10b) andcalculations,
planar symmetry the axial symmetry
(boundary along the
condition ‘b’
Y-axis
in Figure(boundary
10b) againstcondition
the XZ‘a’ in Figure
plane 10b) andinplanar
was included symmetry
the model. The mesh (boundary
of finitecondition
elements
‘b’ in Figure
(Figure 10b) 10b) against automatically
was created the XZ plane was included
by the Ansysin the model.
software. Thepresented
In the mesh of finite ele-
analysis,
ments (Figure 10b) was created automatically by the Ansys software.
the axisymmetric case [37] of nonlinear contact frictional type was utilized. To stabilize the In the presented
analysis,
conversion theofaxisymmetric case [37] ofanonlinear
numerical calculations, low valuecontact
equal to frictional
0.01 of thetype was utilized.
friction To
coefficient
stabilize the conversion of numerical calculations, a low value equal to 0.01 of the friction
was introduced.
coefficient was introduced.
The material model for steel, assumed for each calculation process in the paper, was
The material
isotropic and linearmodel for Young
with the steel, assumed
modulusfor E1 each calculation
of 210,000 MPa andprocess in the paper,
the Poisson number was
ν1
of 0.3 [35].and
isotropic In addition,
linear withthethe
linear
Young material
modulusmodel POM was
E1 of 210,000 MPaassumed
and thefor the calculation
Poisson number
νprocess. Its Young
1 of 0.3 [35]. modulus
In addition, theElinear
2 was material
3000 MPamodel
and the of Poisson
POM was ratio ν2 wasfor
assumed 0.4.the
[35].
calcula-
During estimation
tion process. of contact
Its Young modulus was 3000pMPa
E2pressure inter , the
andPTFE layer was
the Poisson ratioomitted due[35].
ν2 was 0.4. to its
minor impactestimation
During of contact pressure 𝑝
on the pressure. , the PTFE layer was omitted due to its
minorDue to the
impact onwear process, the interference can become smaller and smaller. However,
the pressure.
the resistance
Due to thetowear motion between
process, the ball surface
the interference can and
becomebearing can and
smaller still smaller.
occur. Accounting
However,
for the actual wear process in the frictional model would require the
the resistance to motion between the ball surface and bearing can still occur. Accounting use of a 3D model of a
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 29

Energies 2021, 14, 3238 12 of 29

for the actual wear process in the frictional model would require the use of a 3D model of
a ball joint. Although the 2D model cannot represent exactly the actual shape of the worn
ball joint.nevertheless,
surfaces, Although theit2D canmodel cannot
be used as anrepresent exactly
equivalent thein
model actual
which shape of the worn
the progressive
wear is modeled in successive time moment 𝑡 using the reduction of the initial interfer-
surfaces, nevertheless, it can be used as an equivalent model in which the progressive wear
is modeled in successive time moment
ence ∆𝑅 between pin ball end and its bearing t i using the reduction of the initial interference
by a value ∆ ∆𝑅 calculated from Equation ∆R
between
(4): pin ball end and its bearing by a value ∆ ( ∆R ) calculated from Equation (4):
∆
∆R ,
∆(∆∆R
∆𝑅) ==i ·𝑖∆t
∙ ∆𝑡
· ∙ , (4)
L
v aver
where
where𝐿—vehicle mileage,
𝑣L—vehicle
—average vehicle speed during its lifecycle,
mileage,
∆𝑡—assumed
v aver —average time step,speed during its lifecycle,
vehicle
∆t—assumed
𝑖—number time steps
of time step, during calculations taking into account the wear process in
i—number
the analyzed ballofjoint
timecontact
steps during
zone. calculations taking into account the wear process in
the analyzed ball joint
As the value contact
of initial zone.
interference fulfills the condition ∆𝑅 ≪ 𝑅 , Equation (4) can
As the value
be rearranged of initial interference fulfills the condition ∆R  Rball , Equation (4) can
as follows:
be rearranged as follows: ∙∆ ∆
∆ ∆𝑅 ≈i ·∆t ∙ ∆V , (5)
∆(∆R) ≈ · ∙ ∙ , (5)
4·π · R2ball
 
L
v aver
where
where∆𝑉—volumetric wear of ball joint pin and bearing.
∆V—volumetric
It was assumed that wear of ballof
number joint pin
time andibearing.
steps fulfills condition (6):
It was assumed that number of time steps i fulfills condition (6):
∆𝑅 − 𝑖 ∙ ∆ ∆𝑅 ≤ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 , (6)
where ∆R − i · ∆ ( ∆R ) ≤ Ra ball + Ra bearing , (6)
𝑅𝑎 —Ra parameter of ball roughness,
where
𝑅𝑎 —Ra parameter of bearing roughness.
Raball —Ra parameter of ball roughness,
After reaching the maximum value of number 𝑖 to estimate the resistance torque in
Rabearing —Ra parameter of bearing roughness.
this contact zone, the
After reaching other
the model value
maximum was utilized, which
of number i to was described
estimate in the following
the resistance torque insub-
this
sections.
contact zone, the other model was utilized, which was described in the following subsections.

2.7.
2.7. Resistive
Resistive Force
Force Determination
Determination Generated
Generated due
DuetotoBodies
BodiesDeformation
Deformation
In
In order
order to determine
determine the work done during deformation
deformation of of mating
mating bodies,
bodies, the FE
model
model was was composed
composed of of aa fixed
fixed hemisphere
hemisphere mademade ofof steel
steel (on
(on the
the bottom
bottom of
of Figure
Figure 11a)
11a)
and
and ofof aa hemisphere
hemisphere made
made of of PTFE
PTFE (on
(on the
thetop
topof
ofFigure
Figure11a)
11a)moving
movingagainst
againstthe
thesteel
steelone.
one.
Modeling of the mechanical behavior of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Modeling of the mechanical behavior of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) was discussed was discussed in
[38].
in [38].

Figure 11. (a)

(a) Model
Model composed
composed of
of fixed
fixed hemisphere
hemisphere made
made of
of steel
steel and
and of
of moving
moving hemisphere
hemisphere made
made of
of polyoxymethylene;
polyoxymethylene;
(b) Mesh of finite elements and boundary conditions.
(b) Mesh of finite elements and boundary conditions.

To
To simplify the calculations, the symmetry plane (boundary condition (1)) was used
in the model (Figure
in (Figure 11b—left).
11b—left).The
Themesh
meshofoffinite
finiteelements
elements(Figure 11b)
(Figure was
11b) generated
was by
generated
Ansys
by software.
Ansys TheThe
software. top top
plane of the
plane of hemisphere
the hemisphere made of polyoxymethylene
made moves
of polyoxymethylene with
moves
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 13 of 29

the distance of 0.4 µm (boundary condition (3) against the fixed (boundary condition (2)
steel hemisphere along the symmetry plane (Figure 11b—right).
The material models for steel and for polyoxymethylene were the same as in the
previous case of analysis. According to [37], the material model of PTFE comprised linear
elasticity constants, such as the Young modulus E3 of 482 MPa [39] and the Poisson number
ν3 of 0.45 [39]. That model comprised also the Extended Drucker–Prager material model
constants, such as C1 = 3 [39]—the pressure sensitivity and C2 = 0 [39,40]—uniaxial yield
stress. The internal forces Fxi , Fyi , and Fzi and displacement forces xi , yi , and zi acting in the
X, Y, and Z directions, respectively, were averaged over the volume of each i-th element.
Their values were used to determine the work done during deformation of mating bodies
and then to estimate the resistive force due to deformations of mating bodies.
The resistive force Fde f orm generated due to deformation was estimated from Equation (7):

∑ii= N i= N i= N
=1 Fxi xi + ∑i =1 Fyi yi + ∑i =1 Fzi zi
Fde f orm ≈ , (7)
∆x
where
Fxi , Fyi , Fzi —internal forces acting in the X, Y, Z directions, respectively,
xi , yi , zi —displacements in the X, Y, Z directions, respectively,
∆x—average displacement of polyoxymethylene hemisphere against the steel hemi-
sphere in the X direction.
The number n of modeled hemispheres was estimated from Equation (8):

A partial 0.7·4·π · R2ball

n= = , (8)
Adist (80· Ra)2

where
Ra—equivalent vertical roughness parameter (it was of 0.2 µm—as obtained from the
measurement),
A partial —area of contact zone where friction exists between the steel ball and PTFE layer,
Adist —area of square in the vertices of which there are centers of hemispheres model-
ing asperities; it was assumed that the side of this square was of the length equal to the
horizontal roughness parameters Sm ≈ 80· Ra,
Rball = 27/2 mm = 13.5 mm—the radius of ball in the analyzed ball joint.
The resistive torque Mde f orm from the forces Fde f orm generated due to deformations
was estimated from Equation (9):
π 
Mde f orm = n· Fde f orm · R aver = n· Fde f orm · Rball , (9)
4
where
R aver —averaged radius between the force Fde f orm and the axis of ball joint rotation.

2.8. Determination of Resistive Force Generated Due to Adhesion

The resistive force Fadhesion generated due to adhesion was estimated from Equa-
tion (10) [35]:
2
Fadhesion = τS · Areal = τS ·πrreal , (10)
where
τS = 50 MPa—shear stress for adhesion [35],
rreal —radius of contact zone between the polyoxymethylene hemisphere (or spherical
cap) and the mentioned earlier rigid sphere surface when plastic stresses are reached in all
contact zones.
The resistive torque Madhesion from the forces generated due to adhesion was estimated
from Equation (11):
Energies 2021,14,
Energies2021, 14,3238
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14
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29
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 29

𝑀 = 𝑛=∙ n𝐹· Fadhesion · R∙ aver

𝑅 = n= 𝑛∙𝐹· Rball∙ .
𝑅
π 
Madhesion · Fadhesion . (11)
(11)
𝑀 =𝑛∙𝐹 ∙𝑅 =𝑛∙𝐹 4 ∙ 𝑅 . (11)
To
To determine
determine the the radius
radius of
of the
the contact
contact zone
zone between
between the
the polyoxymethylene
polyoxymethylene hemi-
To determine the radius of the contact zone between the polyoxymethylene hemi-
sphere
sphere and the mentioned earlier rigid sphere surface, when plastic stresses
and the mentioned earlier rigid sphere surface, when plastic stresses are
arereached
reached
sphere and the mentioned earlier rigid sphere surface, when plastic stresses are reached
in zones,the
in all zones, thefinite
finiteelement
element model
model was was elaborated.
elaborated. Inmodel
In the the model instead
instead of asphere
of a rigid rigid
in all zones, the finite element model was elaborated. In the model instead of a rigid sphere
sphere
surface,surface, theplane
the rigid rigid tangent
plane tangent to itconsidered.
to it was was considered.
MoreMore precisely,
precisely, the rigid
the rigid planeplane
was
surface,
was the rigid
modeled plane
byface
the facetangent
of rigidtocylinder
it was considered.
2 coaxial More precisely, the rigid plane was
modeled by the of rigid cylinder 2 coaxial with with polyoxymethylene
polyoxymethylene hemisphere
hemisphere 1
1 (Fig-
modeled
(Figure by the face of rigid cylinder 2 13a).
coaxial with polyoxymethylene hemisphere 1 (Fig-
ure 12a)12a) or spherical
or spherical capcap 1 (Figure
1 (Figure 13a).
ure 12a) or spherical cap 1 (Figure 13a).

Figure 12.
12. (a)Model
Model composedofofpolyoxymethylene
polyoxymethylene hemisphere 1 mated with moving rigid cyl-
Figure
Figure 12. (a)
(a) Model composed
composed of polyoxymethylenehemisphere 1 mated
hemisphere with
1 mated moving
with rigid
moving cylinder
rigid cyl-
inder 2; (b)
2; (b) Mesh Mesh of
of finite finite elements and boundary conditions.
inder 2; (b) Mesh of elements and boundary
finite elements conditions.
and boundary conditions.

Figure 13. (a) Model composed of polyoxymethylene spherical cap 1 mated with moving rigid
Figure 13.
13.2;(a)
(a)Model
Modelcomposed ofof
polyoxymethylene spherical capcap
1 mated withwith
moving rigidrigid
Figure
cylinder (b) Mesh ofcomposed
finite elementspolyoxymethylene spherical
and boundary conditions. 1 mated moving
cylinder 2; (b) Mesh of finite elements and boundary conditions.
cylinder 2; (b) Mesh of finite elements and boundary conditions.
To simplify calculations, the axial symmetry along the Y-axis (boundary condition
To simplify
simplifycalculations,
calculations,thetheaxial
axialsymmetry
symmetryalong along the Y-axis (boundary condition
(1) in Figures 12b and 13b) was included in the model.the TheY-axis (boundary
bottom plane ofcondition (1)
the polyox-
(1)
in in Figures 12b and
Figures 12bhemisphere 13b)
and 13b) was was included
included in thein the
model. model. The bottom plane of the polyox-
ymethylene or spherical cap was fixedThe bottom
in the plane of
Y direction the polyoxymethy-
(boundary condition
ymethylene
lene hemisphere
hemisphere or or spherical
spherical cap was cap wasinfixed
fixed the Yindirection
the Y direction (boundary
(boundary conditioncondition
(2) in
(2) in Figures 12b and 13b). The upper face of the almost rigid steel cylinder moves toward
(2) in Figures
Figures 12b13b).
12b and and 13b). The upper
The upper face
face of theofalmost
the almost
rigidrigid
steelsteel cylinder
cylinder movesmoves toward
toward the
the polyoxymethylene hemisphere or spherical cap in the Y direction (boundary condition
the polyoxymethylene
polyoxymethylene hemisphere
hemisphere or spherical
or spherical cap cap in the
in the Y direction
Y direction (boundary
(boundary condition
condition (3)
(3) in Figures 12b and 13b), until the maximum yield strength is reached in all contact
(3) in Figures
in Figures 12b 12b
and and
13b),13b),
untiluntil the maximum
the maximum yield yield strength
strength is reached
is reached in all contact
in all contact zones.
zones. The material models for steel and for polyoxymethylene were the same as in the
zones.
The The material
material models models
for steelfor
andsteel and for polyoxymethylene
for polyoxymethylene were thewere
samethe same
as in as in the
the previous
previous analysis. The mesh of finite elements (Figures 12b and 13b) was generated auto-
previous
analysis. analysis.
The meshThe meshelements
of finite of finite elements
(Figures 12b(Figures 12b and
and 13b) was13b) was generated
generated auto-
automatically
matically by Ansys software.
by Ansys by
matically software.
Ansys software.
2.9. Determination
2.9. Determination of of Resistive
Resistive Force
Force Generated
Generated due to Fluid Shear Stresses
2.9. Determination of Resistive Force Generated Due toFluid
due to FluidShear
Shear Stresses
Stresses
To calculate
To calculate the resistive force generated due to fluid share stresses, anassumption
assumption
To calculate the
the resistive
resistive force
force generated
generated due
due to
to fluid
fluid share
share stresses,
stresses, an
an assumption
was
was made that the plane (1) is sliding with the speed V against the fixed hemisphere (2)
was mademade that
that the
the plane
plane (1)
(1) is
is sliding
sliding with
with the
the speed
speed V V against
against the
the fixed
fixed hemisphere
hemisphere (2)
(2)
(Figure
(Figure 14). The volume between hemisphere (2) and its projection (4) on the mating plane
(Figure 14). The volume
14). The volume between
between hemisphere
hemisphere (2)
(2) and
and its
its projection
projection (4)
(4) on
on the
the mating
mating plane
plane
is filled
is filled with
with lithium
lithium grease
grease(3).
(3).
is filled with lithium grease (3).
 Energies 2021, 14, 3238 15 of 29
ies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 29

Figure 14. (a)Figure

Model 14. (a) Model
of plane of plane
(1) moving (1) moving
against against fixedwith
fixed hemisphere hemisphere with
the speed the speed
V. Volume (3) V. Volume
between (3)
hemisphere and
between hemisphere and its projection (4) is filled with lithium grease; (b) The polar coordinate
its projection (4) is filled with lithium grease; (b) The polar coordinate system for calculation of hydrodynamic pressure in
system for calculation of hydrodynamic pressure in the volume (3).
the volume (3).

The hydrodynamic pressure distribution

The hydrodynamic pressurep(r, θ) in the grease
distribution calculated
p(r, θ) in incalculated
the grease the polar in the polar
coordinate system is obtained from Equation (12) [41]:
coordinate system is obtained from Equation (12) [41]:
𝑝 𝑟, 𝜃 =  +ηVR
𝑐𝑜𝑠24 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ
2 3 . (12)
p(r, θ ) = [ cosθ + c cosh ( 3, θ )] . (12)
The first term in Equation (12) is the Sommerfeld 5 r3 solution arranged in polar coordi-
nates [40] (Figure The14b).first term in Equation (12) is the Sommerfeld solution arranged in polar coordi-
Obtained values
nates [40]of hydrodynamic
(Figure 14b). pressure can be positive, zero, or negative. The
latter indicate the Obtained
occurrencevaluesof cavitation in the volume
of hydrodynamic between
pressure canthebe hemisphere
positive, zero, andorits
negative. The
projection onlatter
the mating
indicate plane. As the lithium
the occurrence grease cannot
of cavitation carry negative
in the volume between pressures, it
the hemisphere and its
was assumedprojection
that the calculated hydrodynamic pressure is then equal to zero. The
on the mating plane. As the lithium grease cannot carry negative pressures, it was occur-
rence of cavitation
assumed results
thatinthenumerical
calculatedproblems
hydrodynamic due to pressure
the complexity
is thenof this to
equal phenome-
zero. The occurrence
non. In the real case, the results
of cavitation evidence of the cavitation
in numerical problems lines
due was found
to the experimentally
complexity for
of this phenomenon. In
large values oftheηVR
real2 [40].
case, the evidence of the cavitation lines was found experimentally for large values
For smaller 2 [40].
values
of ηVR of ηVR2, film rupture occurs later, and Formula (12) is unable to
describe it [41]. ToForsimplify
smaller thevalues of ηVRit2 ,was
calculations, filmassumed
rupture thatoccursthelater,
hydrodynamic
and Formula pres-(12) is unable
to describe it [41]. To simplify the calculations,
sure distribution in the grease was roughly estimated from Equation (13) [41]: it was assumed that the hydrodynamic
pressure distribution in the grease was roughly estimated from Equation (13) [41]:
𝑝 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠. (13)
24 ηVR2
The resistive force 𝐹 generated due to p(r, θ ) =shear stresses
fluid cosθ.was estimated from (13)
5 r3
Equation (14) [35]:
The resistive force Ff luid generated due to fluid shear stresses was estimated from
Equation (14) 𝐹 [35]:= 𝜏 𝐴 = 𝜂 + ∙ ∙ 𝑅𝑎 , (14)

where 
u xaver Ra pinter

𝜂 = 0.75 Pa∙s—dynamic viscosity of =
Ff luid theτxr A = grease
lithium η + · ·( Ra)2 , (14)
Ra [35],2 Ra
𝜏 —fluid shear stress in xr plane,
𝑝 where contact pressure between the ball and its bearing in the ball joint.
—average
𝑢 —average 0.75 Pa·s—dynamic
η = velocity of points onviscosity of the lithium
the ball surface, estimated greasefrom[35],
Equation (15):
τxr —fluid shear stress in xr plane,
pinter —average 𝑢 contact = pressure
𝑅 = 𝑅 the
between , ball and its bearing in the (15)ball joint.
u xaver —average velocity of points on the ball surface, estimated from Equation (15):
where
—angular speed of the rotating ball.  π 
u xaver = ωR aver = ω Rball , (15)
The resistive torque 𝑀 from the forces generated due to4fluid shear stresses was
estimated from Equation (16):
where
𝑀
ω—angular =speed
𝑛 ∙ 𝐹of the ∙ 𝑅rotating
= 𝑛ball.
∙𝐹 ∙ 𝑅 . (16)
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 16 of 29

The resistive torque M f luid from the forces generated due to fluid shear stresses was
estimated from Equation (16):
π 
M f luid = n· Ff luid · R aver = n· Ff luid · Rball . (16)
4

Energies 2021, 14,3. Results

x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 29
3.1. Ra Profile Measurements
For each analyzed ball joint (Figures 15–17), the authors present only the cases with the
3. Results
highest value of Ra parameter measured in points 1–8, as presented in Figure 4. Figure 15
3.1. Ra Profile Measurements
describes the results of the Ra profile measurements for a Peugeot 206 vehicle. Ball joints
For each analyzed ball joint (Figures 15–17), the authors present only the cases with
mounted by thethe manufacturer
highest value of Ra inparameter
Peugeot measured
206 exhibited a higher
in points accuracyinof
1–8, as presented mating
Figure surfaces
4. Figure
and application of better
15 describes thematerials than
results of the the replacement
Ra profile measurementsones. It was 206
for a Peugeot observed that for
vehicle. Ball
the original pins,
joints the surface
mounted roughness
by the manufacturer (Ra
in parameter) was below
Peugeot 206 exhibited 400
a higher Nm (Figure
accuracy of mating15a—
surfaces
mileage: 30,000 km,and application
vehicle age: of better materials
2 years, Figurethan the replacement
15c—mileage: ones. It km,
115,000 was observed
vehicle age:
that for the original pins, the surface roughness (Ra parameter) was below 400 nm (Figure
8 years, and Figure 15d—mileage: 90,000 km, vehicle age: 7 years). The ball
15a—mileage: 30,000 km, vehicle age: 2 years, Figure 15c—mileage: 115,000 km, vehicle
joint bought as
a replacementage:
part (Figure
8 years, and15b) was15d—mileage:
Figure characterized by km,
90,000 a roughness
vehicle age:of7approximately 800 Nm
years). The ball joint
(mileage for this pinaswas
bought 40,000 kmpart
a replacement and(Figure
the vehicle
15b) was age was 3.5 years).
characterized All analyzed
by a roughness vehicles
of approxi-
mately 800 nm
operated in combined (mileage
cycles. for this pin was
Interestingly, it 40,000 km and the
was noticed vehicle
that the age was 3.5 years). All joint
factory-mounted
analyzed vehicles operated in combined cycles. Interestingly, it was noticed that the fac-
was of significantly lower wear than its substitute, considering that its time of utilization
tory-mounted joint was of significantly lower wear than its substitute, considering that its
was twice as long.
time of utilization was twice as long.

(a)

(b)

Figure 15. Cont.

Energies 2021, 14, 3238 17 of 29
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 29

(c)

(d)
Figure 15. Ra profile on the spherical surfaces of ball joints for Peugeot 206: (a) Manufacturer ball joint, mileage: below
30,000 km,Figure Ra profile
15. 1 year;
vehicle age: on the part
(b) Replacement spherical
ball joint,surfaces of ball
mileage: 40,000 km,joints
vehiclefor
age: Peugeot 206:
3.5 years; (c) (a) Manufacturer
Manufacturer
ball joint,
ball joint, mileage: mileage:
115,000 below
km, vehicle age: 30,000 km,
8 years; (d) vehicle age:
Manufacturer ball 1 year;
joint, (b) Replacement
mileage: 90,000 km, vehiclepart
age:ball joint, mileage:
7 years.
40,000 km, vehicle age: 3.5 years; (c) Manufacturer ball joint, mileage: 115,000 km, vehicle age:
Figure 16 presents ball joints removed from the Mercedes Sprinter. Figure 16a shows
8 years; (d) Manufacturer ball joint,
a ball joint mounted mileage:
on the 90,000
right side, km,Figure
whereas vehicle
16bage: 7 years.
includes the one on the left side
of the
Figure 16 car. Using
presents roughness
ball profiles, it was
joints removed from observed that on theSprinter.
the Mercedes right ball joint,
Figurethe rough-
16a shows
ness was twice as high. It might be caused by the higher number of impacts, since it is a
a ball joint mounted on the right side, whereas Figure 16b includes the one on the left
delivery vehicle, and it frequently approaches the curbs with the right side. In addition,
side of the car. Using roughness
the pavement condition inprofiles,
Poland was it often
was ofobserved that on the right ball joint, the
poor quality.
roughness was twice as high. It might be caused by the higher number of impacts, since it
is a delivery vehicle, and it frequently approaches the curbs with the right side. In addition,
the pavement condition in Poland was often of poor quality.
Figure 17 presents the surface microgeometry of the ball joints utilized in a Nissan Maxima
(mileage: 150,000 km, vehicle age: 9 years). This car did not pass the technical inspection at
the diagnostic station due to the poor condition of the control arms ball joints. In both cases,
material losses were visible. It might be caused by the ripped rubber covers, which resulted in
leakage of water and other impurities into the joint interior and, finally, damage.
The surface microgeometry of the ball joint bearings for a Peugeot 206, Mercedes
Sprinter, and Nissan Maxima varied from 0.16 to 0.40 µm, which was distributed on the
entire surface. The microgeometry measurements and the observation showed that the
low and high values of the Ra parameter occurred in close vicinities with respect to each
other, without a clear tendency to form in a specific location or to create a pattern. In
addition, no such tendencies were observed in the form of surface abrasions. The absence
of contamination, low loads, and proper temperature values allow for abrasion with low
values of the Ra parameter to occur in specific locations. Such a case can happen when
the bearing is subjected to forces acting in one direction with a constant or repeatable
manner. A surface wear pattern can be in a form of parallel microgrooves, along with
characteristic roughness parameter variation. It may form under varying load conditions,
but the relative movement of the mating surfaces must be of a repetitive nature. The lack
of such tendencies may indicate many factors influencing the bearing surface wear process,
such as abrasive wear, deformation, the effect of impurities, etc.
Energies
Energies2021, 14,14,
2021, 3238
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1818
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2929

(a)

(b)
Figure16.
Figure 16. Ra
Ra profile
profile on
onthe
thespherical
sphericalsurfaces of of
surfaces ballball
joints for afor
joints Mercedes Sprinter
a Mercedes (mileage:
Sprinter 80,000
(mileage:
km, vehicle age: 6 years): (a) Manufacturer ball joint, right side; (b) Manufacturer ball joint, left side.
80,000 km, vehicle age: 6 years): (a) Manufacturer ball joint, right side; (b) Manufacturer ball joint,
left side.
 Figure 17 presents the surface microgeometry of the ball joints utilized in a Nissan
Maxima (mileage: 150,000 km, vehicle age: 9 years). This car did not pass the technical
inspection at the diagnostic station due to the poor condition of the control arms ball
joints. In both cases, material losses were visible. It might be caused by the ripped rubber
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 19 of 29
covers, which resulted in leakage of water and other impurities into the joint interior and,
finally, damage.

(a)

(b)
Figure 17. Ra profile on the
Figure spherical
17. Ra surfaces
profile on of ballsurfaces
the spherical joints for
of Nissan Maxima:
ball joints (a) Maxima:
for Nissan Right side;
(a) (b) Left
Right side.
side; (b) Left side.

Steel pins STM microscope examination and measurements of bearings made of

POM or PEEK with a PTFE layer using a profilometer were conducted after a certain
number of cycles, which corresponds to a specific mileage (from 30,000 to 115,000 km).
Interestingly, the greatest decrease in roughness parameter Ra was observed for the cases
of mileage between 80,000 and 90,000 km. Assuming that it was strongly affected by the
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 20 of 29

wear process of the mating surfaces, the authors suppose that the most intense utilization
of the factory-mounted ball joints appeared between 80,000 and 90,000 km of mileage.

3.2. Experimental Determination of Material Model Parameters

The obtained value of displacement u0unloaded was equal to 6.00 ± 0.01 mm and the
value of the displacement uunloaded was equal to 6.01 ± 0.01 mm. Due to an insignificant
difference between those displacements, it was omitted in further analysis. The obtained
values of uloaded with respect to loading force F are presented in Table 1. Values of displace-
ment u X were calculated using Equation (1).

Table 1. Measured displacement uloaded and force F, and calculated displacement u X .

Displacement Displacement
Force F [N]
uloaded [mm] uX [mm]
10 6.22 ± 0.01 0.011 ± 0.001
20 6.48 ± 0.01 0.022 ± 0.001
30 6.81 ± 0.01 0.038 ± 0.001

3.3. Numerical Determination of Ball Joint Bearing Deformations

Figure 18 presents the displacements along the X axis, which were produced by the
tilt arm being loaded by force F of 30 N, being in contact with the material sample. The
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 29
related displacement of the cylindrical surface c of bearing needle (8) (Figure 7) was below
0.9 mm.

Figure18.
Figure 18.Tilt
Tiltarm
armdisplacements
displacementsalong
alongthe
theXXaxis
axiswhen
whenloaded
loadedwith
with30
30N
Nand
andin
incontact
contactwith
withthe
the
material sample.
material sample.

Suchdisplacements
Such displacementsalong
alongthe
theXXaxis
axisfor
for the
the upper
upper surface
surface of of
thethe tested
tested material
material sam-
sample
ple were
were presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 19. Their
19. Their values
values werewere below
below 0.0460.046
mm.mm.
 Figure 18. Tilt arm displacements along the X axis when loaded with 30 N and in contact with the
material sample.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 21 of 29
Such displacements along the X axis for the upper surface of the tested material sam-
ple were presented in Figure 19. Their values were below 0.046 mm.

Figure 19.
Figure 19. The
The displacements
displacements along
along the
the XX axis
axis for
forthe
theupper
uppersurface
surfaceof
ofthe
thetested
testedmaterial
materialsample.
sample.

The contact
The contact pressure
pressurebetween
betweenthethetilt
tiltarm
armand
andthe the tested
tested material
materialsample
sampleisis presented
presented
in Figure
in Figure 20.
20. Its
Its values
values were
were below
below6.56.5MPa.
MPa. Assuming
Assuming the the linear
linearmaterial
material model
model ofofball
ball
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
joint bearing,
joint bearing, for
for the
the loading
loading force
forceFF value
value equal
equal to
to 10
10 N,
N, the
the contact
contact pressure values22were
pressurevalues of 29
were
below 22 MPa.
below MPa.

Figure 20.
Figure 20. The
The contact
contact pressure
pressure between
between the
thetilt
tiltarm
armand
andthe
thetested
testedmaterial
materialsample.
sample.

The resulting
The displacementu𝑢
resultingdisplacement X isislisted
listedininTable
Table2.2.ItItisisclear
clearthat
that the
the Poisson
Poisson ratio
ratio had
had a
a much
much smaller
smaller effect
effect then
then thethe Young
Young modulus
modulus of the
of the bearing
bearing material
material on the
on the displacement
displacement uX .
𝑢 .

Table 2. Values of Young modulus E, the Poisson ratio ν, and displacement 𝑢 obtained from sim-
ulations for various values of the loading force F.

Young Modulus E Displacement 𝒖𝑿

Force F [N] Poisson Number ν [-]
[MPa] [mm]
0.3 0.009
2700
0.4 0.011
0.3 0.011
10 3000
0.4 0.013
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 22 of 29

Table 2. Values of Young modulus E, the Poisson ratio ν, and displacement u X obtained from
simulations for various values of the loading force F.

Young Modulus E Poisson Number ν Displacement uX

Force F [N]
[MPa] [-] [mm]
0.3 0.009
2700
0.4 0.011
0.3 0.011
10 3000
0.4 0.013
0.3 0.013
3300
0.4 0.015
0.3 0.021
2700
0.4 0.023
0.3 0.024
20 3000
0.4 0.026
0.3 0.026
3300
0.4 0.028
0.3 0.044
2700
0.4 0.046
0.3 0.050
30 3000
0.4 0.052
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.3 0.055 23 of 29
3300
0.4 0.057

Figure21
Figure 21presents
presentsthe
the value
value of displacement𝑢u Xasasaafunction
of displacement functionofofforce F, obtained
forceF, obtained
both from measurements and simulations. For the Young modulus values
both from measurements and simulations. For the Young modulus values in the range in the range
2700–3000MPa,
2700–3000 MPa,and andespecially
especiallyfor
forsmaller
smallervalues forceFFbelow
valuesofofforce below10
10N, N,the
the values
values of
of
displacement 𝑢u X obtained
displacement obtained from simulations
simulationswerewereinin
a good agreement
a good withwith
agreement thosethose
obtained
ob-
from measurement.
tained from measurement. Therefore, it was itassumed
Therefore, that the
was assumed material
that model model
the material of the control arm
of the con-
ballarm
trol jointball
bearing was characterized
joint bearing by the Young
was characterized by themodulus of 3000 MPa
Young modulus and
of 3000 the and
MPa Poisson
the
number equal to 0.4.
Poisson number equal to 0.4.

Figure
Figure21. Displacement𝑢u Xasasa afunction
21.Displacement functionofofforce
forceFFobtained
obtainedfrom
fromsimulations
simulationsand
andmeasurements.
measurements.

3.4.Determination
3.4. DeterminationofofFriction
FrictionCoefficient
Coefficientbetween
betweenSteel
Steeland
andBall
BallJoint
JointBearing
BearingMaterial
Material
Table33presents
Table presentsthe thefriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientvalues
valuesofofball
balljoint
jointbearings
bearingsand andsteel
steelballs,
balls,
withand
with andwithout
withoutlubrication.
lubrication.The Thefriction
frictioncoefficients
coefficientsfor
forunlubricated
unlubricatedconditions
conditionswere
were
twiceasashigh
twice highasasfor
forthose
those with
with a thin
a thin layer
layer of lithium
of lithium grease.
grease. Moreover,
Moreover, the values
the values of
of the
the friction
friction coefficient
coefficient with lubrication
with lubrication were almost
were almost twice higher
twice higher than thosethansuggested
those suggested
in [42].
in [42].
The The operational
operational conditionsconditions in this
in this case casegreatly
could could greatly differ
differ due due to different
to different humidity,
humidity, tem-
temperature, contact profile, and loads. Additionally, results of the frictional test
perature, contact profile, and loads. Additionally, results of the frictional test described in described
in this
this paper
paper werewere obtained
obtained using
using a different
a different approach
approach thanthat
than thatinin[42].
[42].InInparticular,
particular,the
the
test done by the authors was conducted with uniformly accelerated translational motion,
with the possibility of a stick–slip phenomenon. The other team was not only using vibra-
tional motion, but the tests were conducted at room temperature instead of 50 °C. In ad-
dition, the load differed from the usual 2000 N. Both the presence of vibrations, high load,
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 23 of 29

test done by the authors was conducted with uniformly accelerated translational motion,
with the possibility of a stick–slip phenomenon. The other team was not only using
vibrational motion, but the tests were conducted at room temperature instead of 50 ◦ C. In
addition, the load differed from the usual 2000 N. Both the presence of vibrations, high
load, and elevated temperature may have favored a reduction in the coefficient of friction
under grease lubrication conditions but without fully developed fluid friction. Therefore,
the obtained values of friction force should be recognized as coarse estimation.

Table 3. Measured values of tilt angle α and the related friction coefficient µ in contact between steel
and material of ball joint bearing, both unlubricated and lubricated by lithium grease.

Lubrication Conditions Tilt Angle α [deg] Friction Coefficient µ [-]

Lack of lubricant 10–14 0.176–0.249
Lubrication by lithium grease 5–7 0.087–0.122

3.5. Calculation Results of the Resistive Force and Torque in Ball Joint
An obtained distribution of contact pressure pinter between the ball joint pin and its
bearing is shown in Figure 22a. Its value was approximately 1.2 MPa. The corresponding
von Mises stress distribution is shown in Figure 22b and corresponding displacements are
shown in Figure 22c. The obtained values of the von Mises stress were below 0.62
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of MPa
29 and
those of displacements were below 1.2 µm.

Figure 22. (a)

Figure 22.Distribution of of
(a) Distribution contact pressure 𝑝
contactpressure pinter between
betweenthe
theball
ball joint
joint pinpin
andand its bearing;
its bearing; (b) Corresponding
(b) Corresponding Mises Mises
stresses; (c) Corresponding displacements.
stresses; (c) Corresponding displacements.

Thevalue
The value of
of the
the total
totalresistive
resistivetorque
torque𝑀 Mresist
generated during
generated interference
during between
interference between
thesteel
the steelball
balland
and POM
POM bearing
bearingestimated
estimatedfrom Equation
from (2) was
Equation equalequal
(2) was to 7.13toNm.
7.13InNm.
[43], In [43],
it was reported that resistive torque can reach values below 3.5 Nm. However, for the
friction coefficient value of 0.8, the torque 𝑀 is equal to 4.75 Nm. Considering the
presence of grease in the contact zone, this torque may be even closer to the value specified
in [43]. However, with the development of the lubricant wear process, the values of such
a torque increase.
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 24 of 29

it was reported that resistive torque can reach values below 3.5 Nm. However, for the
friction coefficient value of 0.8, the torque Mresist is equal to 4.75 Nm. Considering the
presence of grease in the contact zone, this torque may be even closer to the value specified
in [43]. However, with the development of the lubricant wear process, the values of such a
torque increase.
An exemplary distribution of von Mises stress obtained for contact between the PTFE
hemisphere and steel hemisphere is shown in Figure 23a. The PTFE hemisphere was
displaced by 0.4 µm in the X direction against a fixed steel hemisphere. This was illustrated
by Figure 23b presenting the displacement in the X direction relative to time for the peak
node of PTFE hemisphere. Obtained values of von Mises stress corresponding to the PTFE
hemisphere displacement of 0.2 µm in the X direction were below 105 MPa. Displacement
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 29
in the Y direction relative to time for the peak node of the PTFE hemisphere is presented in
Figure 23c. The maximum value of such displacement in the Y direction was 0.056 µm.

Figure 23.
Figure 23. (a)
(a) Distribution
Distribution of
of von
von Mises
Mises stress
stress for
for contact
contact between
between PTFE
PTFE hemisphere
hemisphere and
and steel
steel hemisphere;
hemisphere; (b)
(b) Course
Course of
of
displacementininthe
displacement theXXdirection
directionagainst
against time
time forfor
thethe peak
peak node
node of polyoxymethylene
of polyoxymethylene hemisphere;
hemisphere; (c) Course
(c) Course of displace-
of displacement
ment
in the in the X direction
X direction againstagainst time
time for thefor the mentioned
mentioned peak node.
peak node.

An exemplary
An exemplary distribution
distribution of of contact
contact pressures
pressures between
between the
the PTFE
PTFE hemisphere
hemisphere or or
spherical cap
spherical cap and
and the
the face
face of
of the
the rigid
rigid cylinder
cylinder isis presented
presented below.
below. Figure
Figure 24a
24a shows
shows the
the
of hemisphere
case of hemisphere and and Figure
Figure 24b24b shows
shows the
the sphere
sphere section.
section. Having
Having the
the rigid
rigid cylinder
cylinder
displacement of 0.05 μm in the Y direction, the contact pressure in case of hemisphere
displacement of 0.05 µm in the direction, the contact pressure in case of hemisphere was was
below 193 MPa, and in case of a spherical
below 193 MPa, and in case of spherical cap, cap, it was below 117 MPa—so the yield strength
MPa—so the yield strength
was reached
was reached in
in the
the entire
entire contact
contactzone.
zone.

Energies 2021, 14, 3238
An exemplary distribution of contact pressures between the PTFE hemisphere or
spherical cap and the face of the rigid cylinder is presented below. Figure 24a shows the
case of hemisphere and Figure 24b shows the sphere section. Having the rigid cylinder
displacement of 0.05 μm in the Y direction, the contact pressure in case of hemisphere
25 was
of 29
below 193 MPa, and in case of a spherical cap, it was below 117 MPa—so the yield strength
was reached in the entire contact zone.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 29

Figure 24. Exemplary distribution of contact pressures between the face of the rigid cylinder and the polyoxymethylene:
Figure 24. Exemplary distribution of contact pressures between the face of the rigid cylinder and the polyoxymethylene: (a)
(a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
The corresponding distribution of von Mises stress is shown in Figure 25a for the
The corresponding distribution of von Mises stress is shown in Figure 25a for the case
case of hemisphere and in Figure 25b for the case of spherical cap. Obtained von Mises
of hemisphere and in Figure 25b for the case of spherical cap. Obtained von Mises stress
stress values were below 132 MPa for the hemisphere and below 95 MPa for the spherical
values were below 132 MPa for the hemisphere and below 95 MPa for the spherical cap.
cap.

Figure 25.
Figure 25. Exemplary
Exemplary distribution
distributionof
ofvon
vonMises
Misesstress
stressfor
forthe
thecontact
contactbetween
between the
the face
face of of
thethe rigid
rigid cylinder
cylinder andand
thethe PTFE:
PTFE: (a)
(a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.

The
The corresponding displacements in
corresponding displacements in the
the horizontal
horizontal direction
direction are
are shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 26a
26a
for
for the
the case
case of
of hemisphere and in
hemisphere and in Figure
Figure 26b
26b for
for the
the case
case of
of spherical
spherical cap.
cap. Obtained values
Obtained values
of the displacement
of the displacement in the horizontal
in the horizontal direction
direction were below 0.013
were below 0.013 µm
μm for
for the
the hemisphere
hemisphere
and below 0.086 µm μm for the spherical cap.
The hydrodynamic pressure p(r, θ) functions are presented below. Figure 27a shows
the function in relation to radius r of the hemisphere projection on mating plane (θ = 0 deg),
and Figure 27b presents this function in relation to angle θ (r = 0 mm). Obtained values of
hydrodynamic pressure were below 1.5 MPa. The value of such pressure averaged over
the area of projection of the hemisphere on the mating plane was about 0.85 MPa. Such
value can be assumed as close to one of pressure pinter in Equation (13).
The value of the work done during the deformation of mating bodies obtained from the
finite element model was equal to 76 × 10−13 mJ. For an average displacement ∆x = 0.2 µm
of PTFE hemisphere against the steel hemisphere in the X direction, the resistive force
Fde f orm estimated from Equation (7) was equal to 38 µN. The number n of modeled hemi-
spheres estimated from Equation (8) was equal to 6,259,148. Therefore, the value of the
resistive torque Mdeform estimated from Equation (9) was equal to 2.72 Nm.

Figure 26. Exemplary distribution displacements in the horizontal direction for the contact between the face of the rigid
cylinder and the PTFE: (a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
 Figure 25. Exemplary distribution of von Mises stress for the contact between the face of the rigid cylinder and the PTFE:
(a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.

Energies 2021, 14, 3238
The corresponding displacements in the horizontal direction are shown in Figure 26a
for the case of hemisphere and in Figure 26b for the case of spherical cap. Obtained 26
values
of 29
of the displacement in the horizontal direction were below 0.013 μm for the hemisphere
and below 0.086 μm for the spherical cap.

Figure
Energies 26.xExemplary
2021, 26.
14, distribution displacements in the horizontal direction for the contact between the face of the rigid
FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure Exemplary distribution displacements in the horizontal direction for the contact between the face of the rigid27 of 29
cylinder and the PTFE: (a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
cylinder and the PTFE: (a) Hemisphere; (b) Spherical cap.
The hydrodynamic pressure p(r, θ) functions are presented below. Figure 27a shows
the function in relation to radius r of the hemisphere projection on mating plane (θ = 0
deg), and Figure 27b presents this function in relation to angle θ (r = 0 mm). Obtained
values of hydrodynamic pressure were below 1.5 MPa. The value of such pressure aver-
aged over the area of projection of the hemisphere on the mating plane was about 0.85
MPa. Such value can be assumed as close to one of pressure 𝑝 in Equation (13).

Figure 27.
Figure 27. (a)
(a) Course
Courseof
ofhydrodynamic
hydrodynamicpressure
pressurep(r,
p(r,θ)θ) versus
versus radius
radius r ofr of projection
projection of the
of the hemisphere
hemisphere on mating
on mating plane,
plane, for
for θ = 0 deg; (b) Course of hydrodynamic pressure p(r, θ) versus angle θ for
θ = 0 deg; (b) Course of hydrodynamic pressure p(r, θ) versus angle θ for r = 0 mm.r = 0 mm.

The finite
valueelement model
of the work allowed
done duringobtaining the radiusof
the deformation rreal of contact
mating bodiesbetween
obtained the rigid
from
the finite element model was equal to 76 × 10 mJ. For an average displacement ∆𝑥 = 0.2
sphere surface and PTFE hemisphere. It was equal
−13 to approximately 0.13 µm. For the contact
between
μm of PTFE the rigid sphere surface
hemisphere againstandthePTFE spherical cap,inradius
steel hemisphere the X rdirection,
real was equal to about 1force
the resistive µm.
𝐹 resistive
The force F
estimated from estimated
Equation
adhesion (7)from Equation
was equal to 38(10)
μN. was
Theequal
numberto 2.56
n ofµN for the PTFE
modeled hem-
hemisphere model and
ispheres estimated 157Equation
from µN for the(8)
PTFEwasspherical
equal tocap model. This
6,259,148. is 61 times
Therefore, thehigher
valuethan in
of the
the case of polyoxymethylene hemisphere. The value of the resistive
resistive torque Mdeform estimated from Equation (9) was equal to 2.72 Nm.adhesion torque M estimated
from The
Equationfinite (11) was equal
element modeltoallowed
168 Nm obtaining
for the PTFE thehemisphere
radius rreal model and between
of contact 10.6 Nm the for
the PTFE spherical cap model. The values of resistive
rigid sphere surface and PTFE hemisphere. It was equal toadhesion force F and the resistive
approximately 0.13 μm. For torque
M
the contact
adhesion vary depending
between on thesphere
the rigid choicesurface
of contact andmodel.
PTFE spherical cap, radius rreal was equal
For the
to about 1 μm.angular speed ωforce
The resistive of rotating
𝐹 ball equal to from
estimated 1 rad/s, the resistive
Equation (10) was force Ff luid
equal to esti-
2.56
mated from Equations (14) and (15) was equal to 0.0256 µN for
μN for the PTFE hemisphere model and 157 μN for the PTFE spherical cap model. This is the pressure p inter = 1.2 MPa
that was estimated
61 times higher than using FEA.
in the For
case ofvalue of pinter = 0.85 hemisphere.
polyoxymethylene MPa, the resistive force of
The value Ff luid
the value
resis-
was of 0.0206 µN, which was very close to that from the case
tive torque Madhesion estimated from Equation (11) was equal to 168 Nm for the of the pressure p =
interPTFE 1.2 hem-
MPa.
The resistive torque
isphere model and 10.6 Nmfluid M estimated from Equation (16) was equal
for the PTFE spherical cap model. The values of resistive force to 1.2 Nm.
𝐹 The and totalthe
resistive torque
resistive M values
torque Madhesiongenerated
vary dependingat low value
on the orchoice
even lack of interference
of contact model.
between
For the angular speed ω of rotating ball equal to 1 rad/s, the resistive force 𝐹 case
the steel ball and the PTFE layer of the bearing were below 2.88 Nm for the es-
of hemisphere and below 13.32 Nm for the case of a spherical cup used for modeling of the
timated from Equations (14) and (15) was equal to 0.0256 μN for the pressure 𝑝 = 1.2
asperity shape.
MPa that was estimated using FEA. For value of 𝑝 = 0.85 MPa, the resistive force 𝐹
value was of 0.0206 μN, which was very close to that from the case of the pressure 𝑝
= 1.2 MPa.
The resistive torque Mfluid estimated from Equation (16) was equal to 1.2 Nm.
The total resistive torque M values generated at low value or even lack of interference
between the steel ball and the PTFE layer of the bearing were below 2.88 Nm for the case
Energies 2021, 14, 3238 27 of 29

In the case of the hemisphere model of asperity, the total resistive torque M reached
values three times lower than the torque Mresist . In case of a spherical cup model of
asperity, the total resistive torque M reached values 1.87 times higher than the torque
Mresist . Such high values of the total resistive torque M are also higher by 30% from these
of the breakaway torque reported in [43].

4. Conclusions
Two simple testers are described in this paper: one for determining the material
parameters of the control arm ball joint bearing and the other for determination of the
friction coefficient between the steel plate and bearing sample. The simple linear material
model for the mentioned bearing was based on finite element analysis. The material model
was characterized by the equivalent Young modulus and the equivalent Poisson ratio. Such
a model allowed determination of the displacement values u X in a control location, which
were in agreement with those obtained from measurements conducted using such a tester.
It was clearly seen for the Young modulus values in the range of 2700–3000 MPa and for
small values of loading force F below 10 N. Therefore, the choice of the material model
parameters such as the Young modulus of 3000 MPa and Poisson number equal to 0.4
was acceptable.
The values of the resistance to motion for contact between steel and the material of the
ball joint bearing estimated in the elaborated tester were at least twice higher than those
reported in the standard [42] recommended for grease lubricated plastic socket suspension
joints, which was due to the different conditions of tests conducted.
It may be concluded that within the range between 80,000 and 90,000 km of mileage,
wear appears on the mating surfaces of the ball joints, and it is highly recommended to
verify the components and possibly replace them with new ones. The ball joints bought on
the secondary market may endure only a 3-year utilization.
The calculated values of the total resistive torque Mresist generated during the inter-
ference between a steel ball and POM bearing are higher than those reported in [42] for
a similar ball joint. However, for the lower values of the resistance to motion for contact
between a steel ball and bearing made of POM with PTFE [33], as well as enough grease,
calculated values of the torque Mresist can be much closer to those given in [43].
When interference between a steel ball and POM bearing decreases due to the wear
process between mating surfaces and grease, the total resistive torque M generated during
the rotation of a ball joint pin against its bearing depends mainly on the resistive moment
Mdeform generated due to the deformations of mating bodies. It depends much less on
the resistive torque Madhesion generated due to adhesion and on the resistive torque Mfluid
generated due fluid shear stresses. The latter influences the torque M only in a very small
extent and can be omitted. However, both the Madhesion and the Mfluid depend on the choice
of the contact model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S. and M.W.; methodology, M.W.; software, P.K.; val-
idation, G.O., K.S.; formal analysis, M.W.; investigation, M.W. and K.S.; resources, P.K., M.W.;
data curation, M.W.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.; writing—review and editing, G.O.;
visualization, P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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