for Cambridge

International AS & A Level

Craig Roberts

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY l?RBSS
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mttSt iluposc lllis saiuc conditio11 011 any acqttirer
Bowling Green State University. Psyd1ology Depart111e11t for
extract from the Job Descriptive Index from Tiw MeasurernroL oj·
Su LisjilcLio11 in Work und ReLirt'11re11t: u Strategy jor the Study of ALti·
Ludes by P C Smith. L M Kendall, and C 1 J-1ulliI1 (Rand McNally,
1969)
Elsevier for the SRRS questiotmaire from "lbe Social Read-
justment Rating Scale' by T lI Holn1es & R 1-1 Ral1e. 1ournal of·
Pyschoso11iatic Re ·earch, Vol 11: 2 (1967), pp 213-2 18. copyright ©
1967; ai1d extract from '111e Vancouver Obsessional Compttlsive
Inventory (VOCI)' by Dana S lborclarso11 e l al: Behaviour Research
and Tlterapy, Vol 42 (11), 200'1, JJP 1289-1314. copyiigllt © 2004
Edna B Foa for cxtJCtcl froru U1e Obscssiv~·Cotu pl1 lsiv<.'
lnvc11tory (OCI) questio1u1airt' ti·o1u 'TI1c validalio11ofa 11cw
obscssivc--coru puhivc disorclcr scale, Tite obscssiv<:eompulsivc
b1vc11tory' by E B f-oa ct al, Psyc1101ogictil A ·se~ur eni. Vol 10 (3).
1998. pp 206·211
Irving Gottesman for table from Schizop1irenia Genesis: the Ori·
gin oJMad11ess by Irving f Gottcsmai1 PN H Freemau. 1991)
International Journal of Preventive Medicine (IJPM) for
tab1& froru 'Toke11 reinforcen1ci1L therape utic a1>proac11 is more
eITec-tive tl1ru1 exercise for controlling 11egative syn1ploi1lS of
scltlzopltrCJuc J'atients: A ra11do1uizt>d co11lrol trial' by Agbil
Gl1olipotu· el al. Tnternatto11t.11]ournal oj"Prt>Ventive Meu1d11e, Vol 3
(7). 2012. µp 466-70

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David J Weiss for extract from the Min11esota Satisfaction
Que~tioru1aire in Vocational Psychology Rcseardi by DJ Weiss.
G W England, & L 1-1 Lofquist l ln.iversily of Miru1esota. copy-
rig11l © 1977
John Wiley & Sons for extracts from 'Using route and smvcy
information to generate cognitive maps· differences between
normally sight ed and visually irut>aircd individuals' by Frank J
J M Stcyvcrs & Aart C Koojiruan, Applied Cognitive P..sydto!ogy. Vol
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The author anci pul>lishcr arc grateful to the following for
pcru1ission Lo rcpriul copyrighl m aterial
h"Win Altman for Lable from l11e Environ1uc'nt and SocitiJ
Bt'hu,viour: privucy, pt'rsonul space, temttny, c1-o,vt1ing by Irwin
Altman (Brooks/Cole. 1975).
American Psychological Association (APA) for extract. f ro1u
tl1c ElasslesJUplifts Scale Questionnaire itl t11e Ap1:>endix to
'TI1c ln1pact of Daily Stre son J·Jeallh and f'lfood: PsycJ1ological
;u1d Socjal Rcsotu·ccs as Mediator: ' by Anita Delongis. Susan
Folkman a11rl Riclia.t'cl S Lazarus. ]aum.u.l oj'Pttrsonaliiy and 'ocia1
P:.ychology. Vol 54 (3). 1988. pp 486-495. copyrig11t © 1988 by
t11e An1ericru1 Psycl1ological A..;;socialion
Introduction
This book has been written to support you throughout your Cambridge
International AS and A Level Psychology course. The Revision Gu ide
works alongside the Student Book to reinforce knowledge and
understanding.
The book is divided into two parts: one for the AS Level and one for the
A Level. The AS part will guide you through all 20 Core Studies and the
A Leve l part will guide you through the two options you have chosen to
study (from the five available).
The Revision Guide will also cover marked student examples, which
have been written by the author, so you can practice answering
exam-style questions to the best of your abilities.

Author
Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology textbooks. He has
been teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner with a
number of National and International examination boards.

Acknowledgements
I simply have to thank everyone who has made an impact on my life
and who support me through every venture I take on. This includes
my family, closest friends and cat! I could and would not be doing this
without any of you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I
trained in Florida in February 2014 for making my first training event
brilliant.
Another special thank you goes to the teachers I trained in Mumbai and
Bangalore in September 2014 who made me so welcome - it was an
honour to be in your schools and to meet you. Finally, a big thank you to
the incredible Mr.D.

Dedication
To Mum & Dad. Always love you .

...
111
 Contents
Approaches and perspectives in psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
v

How psychologists research ................................................ 1

IEJ Issues and debates in psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4

II Cognitive Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7

II Socia I Psychology •••• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• ••• •• •• ••••• •• •• •• • 15

II Developmental Psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24

II Physiological Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34

The psychology of individual differences ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 45

AS Level Exam Centre •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 56

II Psychology and education .•............................................... 61

m Psychology and health •.......•..•.•......................................... 82

Im Psychology and environment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101

m Models of a bnorma Iity ••. ••. ••• •.• ••••••••••• ••• •.• ••• •.• .•• •. ••• ••• ••• •••• 120

m Psychology and organisations •••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 140

A Level Exam Centre ...•..•.•....•.•.••.•.........................•.........•.•....•.. 161

•
IV
Approaches and perspectives
in psychology
There are five approaches and two perspectives in Strengths Weaknesses
psychology that you need to know for the Cambridge
The approach tends to A lot of evidence from
International Examinations syllabus.
look at the individual this approach is from
"as a whole" to try to studies that have used
Cognitive psychology explain behaviour across questionnaires and
situations. Therefore, it ls Interviews. Therefore, the
• Cognitive psychologists are interested in how we a more holistic approach validity may be reduced as
process information. than using laboratory what people say they will
• They look into how we input information, then how experiments. do and what they actually
we process that information and finally how we This approach is useful do can be different.
retrieve and/or use that information. in terms of being able to It can be very difficult
help improve everyday life sometimes to distinguish
• They believe that the brain works like a computer
in humans by, for example, between what is influenced
following the procedure of input-process/storage-
reducing prej udice or by the individual and
output. explaining atrocities. what is influenced by
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge the situation people find
syllabus under this section are: Mann, Vrij & Bull themselves in.
(2002), Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Baron-Cohen
et al (2001), Held & Hein (1963). Developmental psychology
The main research method used in this approach is
• Developmental psychologists are interested in
laboratory experiments.
how we "develop" as a person from birth to death.
Strengths Weaknesses
• Many developmental psychologists focus on "child
Many findings are based As researchers are development" and what sorts of things affect
on research conducted in a Investigating processed how a chi ld develops psychologically and socially.
laboratory. As variables are information that cannot be They also look at how physical development might
controlled it means that seen directly, there is still
affect psychological development.
findings are more likely to an elen1ent of guesswork
be reliable. and inference. • There are other psychologists who will examine
The approach is useful in Comparing the human development over a lifespan. Therefore, they may
terms of being able to help Information-processing exan1ine development from adolescence through
Improve everyday life in system to that of a early adulthood into late adulthood.
humans by, for example, computer is reductionist. The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
improving memory or It ignores the role of syllabus under this section are: Bandura, Ross &
Improving eyewitness emotional and socia l Ross (1961), Freud (1909), Langlois et al (1991),
testimony. factors.
Nelson (1980).
The main research methods used in this approach
Social psychology are observations and longitudinal studies.
• Social psychologists are interested in how we Strengths Weaknesses
"work" in the social world.
Longitudinal studies are Longitudinal studies can be
• They look at how individuals interact with each used In this approach very time consuming and
other and how we interact in "groups" . and they are an costly and participants will
excellent way to assess drop out (participant attrition
• They also examine how the role of culture and
development over time can be high). As a result,
society affects our behavlou r.
with participant variables findings may be difficult to
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge being controlled for. generalise to outside of the
syllabus under this section are: Milgram (1963), Also, as we are following participants who are left as
Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973), Piliavin, Rodin & the same people over a there may only be a few and
Piliavin (1969), Tajfel (1970). period of time, we can they could be unique.
The main research methods used in this approach examine what is down There may be ethical issues
are questionnaires and interviews. to nature and what is with studying children
down to nurture in terms overtime. This is because
of how these influence before they are 16 years old
part.i cipants. their parents have to give
informed consent.

v
 Approaches and perspectives in psychology

Physiological psychology The behaviourist

• Physiological psychologists are interested ih how perspective
our biology affects our psychology.
• Behaviourist psychologists are interested in ways
• They look at the role things such as genetics,
in which both humans and animals learn .
brain function, hormones and neurotransmitters
have on our behaviour. • They look into general laws that can apply to all
species and how the experiences we have mould
• Many physiological psychologists believe that
our behaviour over time.
our behaviour can be explained via biological
mechanisms more so than psychological • There are three main areas within this
mechanisms. However, others believe that perspective:
there may be an interaction between the two. o learning by the consequences of our behaviour
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge (operant conditioning)
syllabus under this section are: Schachter & Singer o learning through association (classical
(1962), Dement & Kleitman (1957), Maguire,
.. conditioning)
Frackowiak & Frith (1997}, Dematte, Osterbauer & o learning through observation , imitation and
Spence (2007). modelling (social learning).
The main research method used in this approach is
• Strict behaviourism follows the idea that we
laboratory experiments. should "observe the observable" and not
Strengths Weaknesses examine mental processes as they cannot be
The approach is very The approach can be seen directly seen.
scientific as it uses as being reductionist as it There are no named studies for this perspective
methods such as laboratory ignores the roles of social but Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) can be used as
experiments, blood tests, and emotlonal factors in an example of social learning. The main research
brain scanning, etc. These our development. methods used in this perspective are laboratory
are highly controlled As many studies take place experin1ents and observations.
methods that ca n easily be under controlled laboratory
tested for reliability. conditions, many studies Strengths Weaknesses
As we are dealing with lack ecological validity The perspective is very Parts of thi.s perspective
biological mechanisms, it is and mundane realism . objective as it "observes ignore the ro le of social,
an excellent way to assess Therefore, some biological the observable " - cognitive and emotional
which of our behaviours are reactions may be triggered this means that aspects of behaviour.
due to nature and which because of beJng in a data is scientific a.nd Therefore it can be seen
are due to nurture. controlled environment. quantitative and likely as being reductionist in
not to be biased. just focusing on observable
The psychology of The approach is useful aspects.
in terms of being able to Some psychologists disagree
individual differences help improve everyday that there are general laws
• This approach looks at how, as individuals, we life in humans by, for that govern anin1al and human
differ from one another. example, reducing behaviour - humans are more
phobias or modifying complex than animals.
• Instead of looking for explanations that could
a child's behaviour for
explain how lots of people may behave,
the better.
psychologists who research into this area look
at what makes the individual unique.
• Rather than looking for general laws, psychologists The psychodynamic
who research into this area may focus more on
what makes the individual different from the
perspective
others around him or her. • Psychodynamic psychologists are interested in
how our early lives and our unconscious mind
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
syllabus under this section are: Rosenhan (1973), affect our behaviour.
Thigpen & Cleckley (1954), Billington, Baron-Cohen & • They look at the role of early childhood
Wheelwright (2007), Veale & Riley (2001}. development and how traumas that occur at
various stages may affect adult personallty.
Strengths Weaknesses
• They also look at how our unconscious mind (the
This approach can be useful Findings from studies may
part of the mi nd that we are unaware of) affects
In explaining differences have limited generalisability
between individuals in the as they are focusing on our everyday behaviour.
cause of behaviours. These the individual rather than a There are no named studies for this perspective
can be useful during, for group of people. but Freud and Thigpen and Cleckley (1909) are
example, therapy so the Th is approach can be seen psychodynamic case studies. The main research
treatment can be tailored as being reductionist as methods used in this perspective are case studies
to the individual. it ignores the way we do and interviews.
•
VI This approach is holistic behave in groups .
in nature as it takes into
account a variety of aspects
that can affect the individual.
Strengths Weaknesses 4 . Physiological
The approach is useful An idea such as the
in terms of being able to unconscious mind cannot
help improve everyday be directly tested and is
life in humans such as therefore unscientific . How
helping to understand why can you assess something
we have a mental health that cannot be directly
disorder and then helping seen or manipulated?
to overcome it. Many findings from this
Evidence comes from case perspective are based on
studies that gather rich case studies. These niay
in-depth information. be difficult to generalise to
a larger group.

Here is a reminder of the five approaches and two

perspectives.
1. Cognitive

5. Individual differences

2. Social

6. Behaviourist

7 . Psychodynamic
3. Developmental

••
Vll
 How psychologists
research
The main methods of research that psychologists Strengths Weaknesses
can choose from include:
Laboratory experiments As laboratory experiments
• experiments (laboratory and field) have high levels of control take place in an artificial
• self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) and so can be replicated to setting, it is said that they
test for reliability. can lack ecological validity.
• case studies
As laboratory experiments Many laboratory
• observations (naturalistic, controlled, experiments can make
have high levels of control ,
participant). researchers can be more participants take part in
As well as choosing the most appropriate research confident it is the IV tasks that are nothing like
method, psyct1ologists have to also decide: directly affecting the DV. real-life ones so they lack
mundane realism .
• who the participants are (the sample) and how
they are going to recruit {the sampling technique) Participants may work out
the aim of the study and
• if they are using an experiment, which design act according to that rather
of study to use (e.g. repeated measures, than how they truly feel.
independent groups or matched pairs) This Is called "demand
• what the procedure of the study will be for the characteristics".
participants including what apparatus is needed
Field experiments
• the type of data they want to collect
(e.g. quantitative or qualitative). • These are experiments that take place in the
participants' own natural environment rather than
in an artificial laboratory.
Research methods • The researcher still tries to manipulate or change
Laboratory experiments an IV whi le measuring the DV in an attempt to
• These take place in a situation or environment see how the IV affects the DV.
that is artificial to participants in the study. • There is an attempt to control other variables that
• There are two main types of variable that need to could affect the DV.
be considered when running any experiment: Strengths Weaknesses
o The independent variable (IV) is the variable As field experiments take Situational variables can
that the psychologist chooses to manipulate place in a realistic setting, be difficult to control so
or change. This represents the different it is said that they have sometimes it is difficult to
conditions that are being compared in ecological validity. know whether it is the IV
a11y study. As the participants wi ll affecting the DV.
o The dependent variable (DV) is the variable not know they are taking As the participants will not
that the psychologist chooses to measure. It part in a study, there will know they are taking part
is always hoped that the IV is directly affecting be little or no evidence of in a study, there are issues
demand characteristics. with breaking ethical
the DV i11 an experiment.
guidelines.
• The psychologist will attempt to control as many
other variables as possible to try to ensure Questlonnal res
that it is the IV directly affecting tl1e DV. There • When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking
are different types of variable that ca11 also participants to answer a series of questions in
affect the DV and that have to be controlled if the written form.
possible.
• There are various types of question that a
psychologist can use within a questionnaire-
based study:
o Likert scales: statements that participants
read and then state whether they Strongly
agree 1 Disagree, etc. witl1 the statement.
o Rating scales: questions or statements where
th e participant gives an answer fn the form of
a number.

1.
 1 How psychologists research

o Open-ended questions: questions that allow Strengths Weaknesses

participants to develop an answer and write
As psychologists using As psychologists using
it in their own words. They write sentences to
case studies are focusing case studies are focusing
answer the question. on one indivldual (or unit on one individual (or unit
o Closed questions : questions where there are of individuals) they can of individuals), the case
a set amount of answers and participants collect rich, In-depth data may be unique. Th is makes
choose which answer best fits how they want that has details. generalisations quite
to respond. Participants are usually difficult.
studied as part of their As participants are studied
Strengths Weaknesses
everyday life which means in depth, an attachment
Participants may be more Participants may give that the whole process could form between them
likely to reveal truthful socially desirable answers tends to have some and the psychologist wh ich
answers in a questionnaire as they want to look good ecological validity. could reduce the objectivity
as it does not involve talking rather than giving truthful of the study.
face to face with someone. answers.
A large sample of participants If the questionnaire has Observations
can answer the questionnaire a lot of closed questions • This research method is about watching and
In a short time span participants might be observing people or animals and their behaviours.
which should increase the forced into choosing an
representativeness and answer that does not
• Prior to observing, the psychologist must create
generaJlsability of the findings. reflect their true opinion. a behavioural checklist (called an ethogram if
observing non-humans).
Interviews • This checklist must name each behaviour that
• These are similar to questionnaires but instead of the psychologist is expecting see. In addition, a
being in the written form they are in the spoken form . picture of the behaviour happening and a brief
• An interviewer asks a series of questions using description of that behaviour are useful.
the types highlighted above. Interviewers may • The behavioural checklist or ethogram must be
record the interview so they can go back and "tested " before the main observation to ensure
transcribe exactly what participants said . that all potential behaviours are covered and the
• Structured: this ls when a set order of questions observers can use the checklist or ethogram
is used. Each participant will be asked them in successfully. This is called a pilot observation.
that order. • Naturalistic observations are observations that
• Semi-structured: there are certain questions take place in a person's or animal's own natural
that must be asked of participants. However, environment.
the interviewer can ask them in a different order • Controlled observations are observations that
and/or ask other questions to help clarify a take place in a controlled setting such as a
participant's response. laboratory.
• Unstructured: this is when the interviewer has a • Participant observations are observations
theme or topic that needs to be discussed. The whereby psychologists become a part of the
interviewer may have an initial question to begin group they wish to observe. This can be overt
the interview but each subsequent question is (the group knows who the psychologist is and
based on the response given by the participaht. that they are being o.b served) or covert (the group
does not know that a psychologist is In the group
Strength Weakness
observing them).
If the interview has a lot Participants might be
of open questions then less likely to give truthful Strengths Weaknesses
participants wi ll reveal answers (maybe due to If the participants are If the participants are
more of the reasons why social desirability) as they unaware that they are aware that they are being
they behave in such a way are actually face to face being observed then they observed then they may
or have a certain opinion. with the interviewer and should behave "naturally". not act "naturally" and
might not want to be judged. instead show socially
As behaviours are
"counted " and are hence desirable behaviours.
Case studies quantitative, the process .i s It may be difficult to replicate
• A case study is not a '' true " research method as objective. the study if it is natutalistic
it uses other methods to collect the data. as many variables cannot be
controlled.
• It examines a single person or a unit of people
(e.g. a family) in depth.
• There may be something unusual about the
"case ti (e.g. a trauma or a mental health issue).
• The psychologist will use questionnaires,
interviews and observations to collect the data.

2
Participants and sampling Strengths of independent
groups
Weaknesses of
independent groups
• Participants are the people who choose t o take
part in a study. As participants only take There may be a problem
part in one condition they with participant variables
• The researcher must decide on a target population are less likely to guess the affecting the DV rather
(TP). This is the group of people that the psychologist aim of the study, reducing than the IV.
wants to take the same from in the hope that the the potential effects of More participants are
findings can generalise to and be representative of demand characteristics. required for th is type
that TP. The main ones are highlighted below: As participants only take of design compared to
o Opportunity sampling involves researchers part in one condition repeated measures.
recruit ing participants who happen to be there are no order effects
around at the time they need participants. (see the table below for
examples) that can reduce
o Self-selected or volunteer sampling involves the validity of the findings.
the researcher advertising for participants.
Therefore, participants choose whether they o Repeated measures : when a participant takes
want to participate. part in all of the levels of the IV. You must use
o Random sampling involves every participant in counterbalancing, which is sometimes called
the TP having an equal chance of being chosen. an ABBA design. For example, 50 per cent of
o Stratified sampling involves recruiting a participants do level A then level 8 of the JV
sample that is a mini version of the TP. and the other 50 per cent do level B then A.
Therefore, researchers recruit participants Strengths of repeated Weaknesses of repeated
from each major stratum in their TP (e.g. age measures measures
groups, gender and ethnicity). This eliminates any effect As all partici.pants take
Strengths of Weaknesses of of participant variables as part in all conditions, there
representative sampling representative sampling all participants take part is a chance of demand
(random and stratified) (random and stratified) in al I conditions therefore characteristics affecting
they are controlled. the study.
The researcher can Obtaining details of the
generalise to the TP with TP to use to draw the Fewer participants are Order effects can affect
more confidence. This sample may be difficult. needed for this type the findings of the study.
is because the sample Researchers cannot of design compared to Examples of these effects
Is more likely to be guarantee a representative independent groups. are: practice effect
representative of the TP. sample (as with random (participants getting
sampllng) - for example all better at a task when they
chosen participants cou ld complete a similar one for
be of one gender. the second time) r fatigue
effect {the more tasks
Strengths of non- Weaknesses of no~ participants do the more
representative sampling representative sampling tired they might become)
(opportunity and (opportunity and and boredom effect
volunteer) volunteer) (repeating slmllar tasks
can bore participants).
Large numbers of Researchers are unlikely
participants can be obtained to gain a wide variety of
relatively quickly and easily. participants to allow for
o Matched pairs: when participant s are mat ched
generalisation . on the variab le researchers wish to control for
People are more likely to
in the study. Once participants are matched,
participate if they have
already volunteered so the
each member of the pair takes part in one
drop-out rate should be lower level of the IV.
than with non-volunteers. Strength of matched pairs Weaknesses of matched
pal rs

Design of study Participant variables

are controlled for and
It can be a study In itself
to find participants who
(experimental or eliminated as the pairs
of participants have been
are matched on all of the
variables the psychologist
participant design) matched on them. has chosen. This is very
time consuming.
• This refers to how psychologist s allocate
There may be one or two
participants to the varying co nditions of their
participant variables that
experiment . There are three different designs:
are ~ove rlooked'' with the
o Independent groups: when a participant only initial matching and these
takes part in one leve l of the IV. If the IV could affect the DV rather
is naturally occurring (e.g. gender) then an than the IV.
experimenter must use thls type of design. In
a true independent groups design, participants
are randomly allocated to one level of t he IV.
3
 Issues and debates
in psychology
The application of • Debriefing. Psychologists must explain the full
aim of the study {especially if they had to deceive
psychology to everyday participants) at the end of the study.
• Right to withdraw. Psychologists should tell
life {its usefulness) participants that they can leave the study at any
• Some people argue that if studies and ideas from time and that their data will then not be used in
psychology cannot be used in everyday life then it the published study.
is not useful.
• Confidentiality. Psychologists must tell all
• 011ce a study has been published, then other participants that their responses will not be
psychologists may evaluate it in terms of identifiable as their own.
usefulness. This can be positive or negative.
• Protectio11. Psychologists must ensure that
• The extent to which something is useful is participants leave the study in the same physical
debating how the findings can be used (or not and psychological state in which they entered
used) in everyday life. the study.
Strength of conducting Problems of conducting • Observations. People can only be observed in
useful research useful research public places wt1ere any member of the public
The main advanta,ge is Studies might be unethical can see the behaviour.
that it is can be used to Jn order to gain more valid
improve human behaviour
in some way. For example,
results .
Studies need to be high
Ethnocentric bias
If we find a better way to This is when psychologists view the results,
in ecological validity to be
treat a mental Illness then of more use to society but behaviours or responses of a study that used
it is useful to society as a this can be quite difficult participants not from their own ethnic group through
whole. if they are conducted in a the eyes of their own ethnic experiences. As a result
laboratory, for instance. the psychologists may feel that their own ethnic
group is superior compared to the one(s) they are
studying and therefore misinterpret behaviours and
Ecological validity draw the wrong conclusions about the behaviour
• This refers to the extent that the setting a being studied.
study has been conducted in can be relevant to
everyday life. Reliability and validity
• Therefore, a study conducted in a laboratory using • Reliability refers to whether researchers can
human participants may be low in ecological test something again to see if they gain similar
validity as it is not a setting that humans are results. A laboratory experiment, with all of
used to. its controls, is said to be reliable as it can be
• Sometimes in a study tl1e task given to replicated quite easy to see if similar results
participants might also not be something that are obtained.
happens in everyday life - psychologists use • Validity refers to how accurate the findings are
the term "mundane realism " to describe tasks from a study.
involving things that happen in everyday life.

Ethics Individual versus

The British Psychological Society has strict guidelines
on wl1at ca11 and cannot be done on l1uman
participants in tl1e name of psycl1ological research:
• Informed consent. Tl1Ts is when participants are
fully aware of what the study is about and they
then give their permission to be used in the study.
• Deception. Psychologists should avoid deceiving
participants about aspects of tJ1e study unless
this makes the study useless.
situational explanations
• Individual explanations are to do with accounting
for bel1aviours from factors from within the
person (called "dispositional factors") such
as personality.
• Situational explanations are to do with accounting
for behaviours from factors from tl1e external
environment (the situation tl1at people find
themselves in).

4
 Strengths of
this debate
Findings can be very
useful to society as a
whole. If we find out which
behaviours are down to
lndividuals and which are
down to the situations we
find ourselves in, then we
can help explain human
behaviour more clearly.
If psychologists find that
there is an interaction
between both sides of
the debate then this is
useful too.
Nature and nurture
• Nature refers to behaviours that are thought to
be hard-wired into people pre-birth (innate or
genetic) - we are born with certain behaviours
and traits.
• Nurture refers to behaviours that are thought to
develop through the lifetime of the person.
Strengths of this debate
If we find out which
behaviours are down to
nature and which are down
to nurture, then we can
help to explain human
behaviour more clearly.
If psychologists find that
there is an interaction
between both sides of the
debate then this is useful.
Psychometrics
• These are usually paper-and-pen tasks that mean
"measurement of the mind" .
• They are standardised tests that people take
such as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test, an
aptitude test to gain a job or a test to help with
educational needs.
Strengths of psychometrics
As they are standardised on a
large sample of people, they
can be seen as being more
objective and scientific.
Comparisons can be useful
as people's resu lts are being
compared on the san1e,
standardised scale.
As they are standardised,
they are reliable measures
because we can use them
again and again to see if we
get similar results.
Problems of researching
this debate
It can be very difficult to
separate out what is an
individual factor and what
is a situation·al factor.
Studies might be unethical
in order to gain more valid
results.
Studies need to be high
in ecological validity to
be of more use to this
debate but this can be
quite difficult if studies are
conducted fn a laboratory.
Problems of researching
this debate
It can be very difficult to
separate out what is nature
and what is nurture.
If behaviour is seen to
be purely down to nature
{genetics) then this can
be very socially sensitive.
Certain sections of society
could use this to undertake
a ueugenic" movement
to get rid of people with
"inferior genes" . This is
clearly unacceptable.
Problems of using
psychometric tests
There may be issues
with validity. Is the test
;;ictually measuring the
behaviour it is supposed
to be measuring?
Some tests might be
seen as ethnocentric
as they might test
very specific cultural
knowledge rather than
the behaviour they
are supposed to be
measuring.
Quantitative and
qualitative data
• Quantitative data is in the numerical form and you
can perform statistical analyses on it.
• Qualitative data takes the form of descriptions via
words, sentences and paragraphs.
Strengths of quantitative Problems with quantitative
data data
As the data are numerical, As the data are numerical,
this allows easier they miss out on valuable
comparison and statistical information. If the answer
analysis to take place. is simply yes/ no or on
a rating scale we do not
As the data are numerical,
know why participants
they are objective and
scientific - there is chose the answer that
only minimal chance they did.
of psychologists Using these data can
miscalculating the data. be seen as reductionist
as psychologists are
reducing complex ideas
and behaviours down to a
number or percentage.
Strengths of qualitative Problems with qualitative
data data
The data collected is The interpretation of the
in-depth and in the words data could be subjective as
of the participants so we are dealing with words
it is rich and in detail rather than numbers -
and represents what psychologists could
participants believe. misinterpret participants'
As the data is directly meaning.
from participants we can There may be researcher
understand why they think, bias. Psychologists might
feel or act in that way. only select data that fits
into their hypothesis or aim
of the study.
Generalisations
• This term refers to how tnuch the findings from
a study can be applied to the people who never
directly took part in the study.
• This is not always directly linked to sample size
(e.g. a small sample size does not automatically
mean we cannot generalise).
• If behaviour is biological in nature (e.g. sleep and
daily rhythms) and all humans have the same
biological mechanisms then finding something
out using less than 10 participants may be
generalisable to a lot of other humans.
Snapshot and
longitudinal data
• Snapshot - this is when data are collected at
one point in time using a group of participants
performing a task, being interviewed, etc.
• Longitudinal - this Is when the same set of
participants is followed over a longer period of
time to examine things such as developmental
5
changes.
 2 Issues and debates in psychology

Strengths of
snapshot stud.ies
These studies can be
a time-efficient way of
collecting a lot of data.
These can be really useful
for conducting " pilot
research " and exploring
an area to see whether a
study is feasible.
Strengths of
longitudinal studies
These studies allow an
analysis of how behaviour
develops over time.
Individual differences
between peo pie in the
study are controlled for as
it Is the same people being
tracked over a set amount
of time .
Problems with
snapshot studies
As they do not follow
people over a period of
time, they are not useful
In tracking how behaviour
does develop or what
the long-term effects of
something are.
As they only cover one point
in time they only represent
those participants showing
that behaviour or opinion at
that point in tln1e.
Problems with
longitudinaJ studies
Not all participants will
want to be fol lowed for
the length of the study
and will drop out (called
" participant attrition "}.
This can reduce the
sample size and then the
generalisability of the study.
Psychologists could
become attached to the
participants in the study
wh ich means they could
be more subjective in their
analyses.
The use of animals in
psychological research
There are ethical guidelines and rules for using
animals in psychological research. The main ones
are as fol lows:
• The law - psychologists must work within the law
about protecting animals.
• Number of animals - this should be a kept to the
minimum amount to make statistical analysis
meaningful.
• Social environment- social species should be
kept together and non-social species should be
kept apart.
• Caging - housing in cages should not lead to
overcrowding and increased stress levels.
Reductionism
• This is when a psychologist believes that a complex
behaviour can be explained by reducing it to one
single cause or a series of component parts.
Determinism
• This is when a psychologist believes that a behavior
may be caused by factors such as our biology,
genetics and upbringing. Therefore, any individual
has no Free Will and does not choose how to
behave; It is already determined by something else.

The use of children in

psychological research
• Children aged under 16 cannot give their own
informed consent to take part in a study.
• Children aged under 16 must get parental
permission to pa.rticipate in studies or loco
parentis permission (e.g. from someone who
looks after them in a nursery).
• Some other issues to consider when working with
children Include their language capabilities and
whether the study involves children concentrating
more than they would usually do.

6
 Cognitive psychology
Core study 3.1
Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002)
Context
Early research into the field of lying behaviour had
sl1own mixed results in terms of what people actually
do wl1en fying. Some people avert their gaze and
become fidgety while others become very still and
hardly move at all. Very little research had been
conducted in f ield settings using people who could
and would lie spontaneously if the stakes were
high and Mann, Vrij & Bull found the perfect set of
participants for this: suspects in police custody.
Aim
To investigate the lying behaviours of suspects in
police custody - a high-stake situation that is real life
so would generate real lying.
Method
Design
• Detectives were asked if they could recollect any
videotaped interviews where t11e suspect had
definitely Iied at least once but also told the truth.
• Once a list l1ad been made of these the case files
were requested.
• One of tl1e research team then looked througl1 the
case tile to find forensic evidence or independent
witness statements that could easily corroborate
wit h the lie a11d truth in the interview.
• Overall this became a one-hour video with cl ips
from all 16 suspects.
• For a better comparison, the truths had to be
comparable in nature to the lies for inclusion.
• A total of 65 clips were used {27 truths and
38 lies).
• Each participant had a minimum of two clips
(one truth and one lie) and tl1e maximum was
eight clips.
• Eight behaviours were looked for in the clips:
Behaviour Coded by:
Gaze aversion the number of seconds that the
participant looked away from the
intervjewer
Blinking frequency of eye blinks
Head movement frequency of head nods (LJpward and
downward were counted separately);
head shakes (side to side) were
also counted
Self-manipulations frequency of head scratching,
scratching the wrist
Illustrators frequency of arm and hand
n1ovements (that either modified or
complemented what the suspect
was talking about)
Hand/finger any movements of the hands or
movements fingers without moving the arms
Speech frequency of saying things like
disturbances "ah " o r "mmm " between words ,
frequency of word and/or sentence
repetition , sentence change,
sentences not completed, stutters,
etc. - any devlation from the official
English language or the use of slang
was not counted here
Pauses the number of seconds where there
was a noticeable pause in the
monologue of the suspect, When
the suspect stopped speaking for
more than 0 .5 seconds when the
conversation was free flowing.
• For gaze aversion and pauses wl1en telling the
truth , the total length of time recorded for these
coded behaviours was divided by the total length
of time of the trutl1ful clips for that suspect then
multiplied by 60 to give a total length per minute.
This was repeated for lying.
• The frequency of blinks, head, arm or hand
movements while telling the truth or lying was
divided by the total lengt h of time for each truth or
lying clip and multiplied by 60 to give a frequency
per minute score.
• The total number of speech dist urbances during
the truthful and lying lips was divided by the total
number of words spoken during the truthful and
lying clips then multiplied by 100 to give a "' per
100 words " frequency score.
Participants
• The participants were 16 police suspects
{13 males and 3 females).
• Four of these were juveniles (three were aged
13 years and one 15 years).
• Fifteen were Gaucasian and one was Asian.
• The crimes for which the participants were being
interviewed about were tt1eft {n = 9) 1 arson
{n = 2), attempted rape (n = 1) and murder
{n = 4 ).
Procedure
• Two observers independently coded the eight
behaviours that were under investigation.
7
 3 Cognitive psychology

• They did not know which clips showed suspects

telling the truth and which showed lies. Also,
Evaluation
they were not told t he purpose of the study or Evaluation Related to Mann, Vrij & Bull
any hypotheses. Strength The suspects did not know that the
• The first observer coded every single clip. recordings were to be used for the analysis
of lying behaviours. Therefore, they were
• The second observer coded a random sample of
much more likely to be displaying real
36 clips coveri11g all 16 suspects so inter-rat er behaviours, making the findings of the
reliability could be measured. study more valid.
Strength All of the behaviours were coded
Results quantitatively wh ich made the whole
recording process objective and more
Truthful Deceptive scientific (see the details above on how
Behaviour M SD M SD the data was converted). Also, the inter-
Gaze aversion 27.82 9 .25 27.78 11.76 rater reliability exercise confirmed this as
the behaviours had been recorded reliably.
Blinks 23.56 10.28 18.50 8.44
Weakness This study may be difficult to replicate due
Head movements 26.57 12 .34 27.53 20.93 to the observation techniques used. For
Hand/ arm example, if the police know that tapes may
15.31 14.35 10.80 9.99 be used for analysls they may change the
movements
way that they interview the suspects which,
Pauses 3.73 5 .14 5.31 4.94
in turn, could reduce the validity of these
Speech findings.
5.22 3.79 5.34 4.93
disturbances

• Table 3 .1 Scores - truthful and deceptive Other points to consider include the following:
• Ethics: no informed consent was taken from the
These were t he significant differences between the suspects for t heir footage to be used for analyses
truthful clips and lying in terms of behaviour : in a psychological study.
• Lying was accompanied by a decrease in blinking • Reliability: as the researchers conducted a
(81 per cent of suspects). successful inter-rater reliability task, the behaviours
• Lying was accompanied by an increase in pauses recorded were those shown by the suspects. This
(81 per cent of suspects). can also affect the validity of the study as we can
• There were individual differences as there was not argue that they were also accurately coded.
one behaviour t hat all lia rs showed.
• The only other coded behaviour t hat came close
to being significant was hand and arm movements
which decreased for 69 per cent of the suspect s
when they were lying.
• Behaviour such as head movement was evenly
split in that 50 per cent moved t heir head
upwards an.d 50 per cent moved it downwards
when lying.

Conclusion
From t his study, the most reliable indicators of lying
in a high-stake situat ion are a decrease in blinking A. Figure 3.1. Can the police tell when a criminal is lying
and an increase in pauses when talking. or te lling the truth?

8

Core study 3.2
Loftus & Pickrell (1995)
Context
New information that is processed after an initial
memory is formed can become incorporated into
the recollection of the original event to form a "new"
memory that is not correct. Some psychologists,
including Elizabeth Loftus, call these false memories.
People do believe they are real though and this
can have huge effects on, for example, eyewitness
testimony and other evidence used in courts of
law. This study tested how easy it is to form false
memories in people.
Aim
To investigate whether it ls at all possible to get
people to form a false memory of an event that never
happened to them.
Method
Design
• The participants were sent a frve-page booklet along
with a letter explaining how to complete the booklet.
• The booklet contained four stories - three that
were true about the participant and provided by a
relative. The fourth story was a false event about
getting lost in a shopping mall.
• Each event was a single paragraph at the top of
the page and the rest of the page was blank so
participants could write down any details about
their memories of that event.
• Interviews with each relative took place in order
to obtain the three true events that happened
to the participant when he or she was around
5 years old. They could not be traumatic events
or family events that would be easy to recall.
• The relative had to provide information about
a shopping trip to a mall or department store.
Relatives were asked:
o where the family would have shopped when
the participant was 5 years old
o which family members used to go on shopping
trips
o what type(s) of store(s) might have been
appealing to the participant when he or she
was a child
o to confirm that the participant had never been
lost in a shopping mall or department store
when he or she was 5 years old.
• The event involving getting lost always followed the
same format for the participants: they were lost for
an extended period of time, they cried, they were
lost in a shopping mall or department store when
they were 5 years old, they were found and helped
by an elderly woman and then they were reunited
with their family.
Participants
• The study was completed by 24 participants
(3 males and 21 females) aged 18-53 years.
• They were recru ited via students of the University
of Washington.
• Each student gave details of a pair of individuals
(a participant and a relative of that participant).
• The pairs were usually parent and child or sibling
pairs.
• The relative of the participant had to be
knowledgeable about the participant's childhood.
Procedure
• Participants were told that they were taking part
in a study about childhood memory.
• Initially they were asked to complete the booklet
by reading the account from their relative and
then writing down all they could remember about
that event.
• If they could not remember anything they had to
state this.
• Once the booklet was completed, they mailed it
back to the researchers.
• Two interviews were then scheduled with
partjcipants, the first usually one to two weeks
after completing the booklet then another one to
two weeks after the first.
• Two interviewers, both female, conducted and
recorded each interview.
• The first interview: Participants were rem inded
of the four events they had written about in the
booklet. They were asked to recall as much
information about the event as possible.
• They were told that the interviewers were simply
interested in how much they could recall about
chi ldhood events and how their recollection
compared with the rec.o llection of the relative.
• Once participants decided they had remembered
as much as possible they had to rate the clarity of
that memory on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being not
clear and 10 being extremely clear.
• They had to rate on a scale of 1-5 how confident
they would be if given more time to think about
the event they would remember more details (1
was not confident and 5 was extremeJy confident).
• Once the interview was completed, participants
were thanked for their time and effort and asked
to think about the events and recall more details
at the second Interview.
• The second interview: This was the same as the
first Interview but at the end of the interview
participants were debriefed.
• This meant telling them that the study had
attempted to create a memory for an event that
had never actually happened.
• Participants were asked to pick which event they
thought was the false one. Then they were given
an apology for the deceptive nature of the study.
9
 3 Cognitive psychology

Results
• Combined, the 24 participants were asked to
remember 72 true events per recall session
(booklet, interview 1 and interview 2). They
remembered 49 of these (68 per cent).
Conclusion
Some people can be misled into believing a false
event did happen to them in their chi ldhood through
the suggestion that it was a true event. Therefore, in
some people, memories can be altered by suggestion.

100 Evaluation
90 Booklet
'O Evaluation Related to Loftus & Pickrell
...([)([) 80 • Interview 1
49/72 49/72 49/ 72 Strength The data such as the confidence ratings,
£l 70
E word length of recollections and clarity
([)
60 0 Interview 2
E ratings were numerical and could be
...([)Q) 50 analysed by calculating the mean scores for

-
'Q.O
co 40 true and false events. This enabled Loftus
c 7/24 & Pickrell to draw suitable conclusions
([) 30 6/ 24 6/ 24
...([) 20
0 based on these objective data.
Q..
Strength Loftus & Pickrell could calculate the
10 number of true and false events that
0 people recalled as being " factual " so
True False
comparisons could be made - there could
Event type be very little misinterpretation as it was
based on the participants' initial recall.
.& Figure 3.2 True and false events recal led per session of the event in the booklet. Comparisons
between the true and false events could
• In addition, participants used more words when be compared t o give a factual conclusion.
recalling the true events compared to the false
Weakness In th is study, the confidence ratings were
event (on average). The mean word length for true
numerical. While they appeared low for
events was 138.0 while for the false events it true and false events at both interviews,
was 49.9. we do not know why the participants felt
• During the first interview, 17 of the participants unconfident. The same applies to the
maintained that they had no recollection of the clarity ratings.
false event.
Other points to consider include the following:
• 75 per cent "resisted " the suggestion of the false
event and this continued at second interview. • Ethics: one issue in this study is deception. Some
psychologists could argue that the researchers
10 broke the ethical guideline of deception as the
participants were clearly deceived.
9 • Interview 1
• Howeve~, Loftus & Pickrell could argue that the
8
'Q.O
c 7
0 Interview 2 deception was crucial for their study to have
:;:i 6.3 6 .3 any validity.
~
6
~ • Ethics: protection is also an issue. Participants
·-....co 5
-c( .)
4 3 .6
did not leave the study in the same psychological
co 2.8 state as when they started it. Remember that
Q)
3 some participants did not pick out the false event
~
2 as being "false'' .
1
0
True False
Event type g
.& Figure 3.3 Clarity ratings
• In terms of confidence, the mean score for true
events was 2. 7 at first interview and then 2.2 at
second interview.
• For the false events these scores were 1.8 at first
interview then 1 .4 at second interview.
• At debrief when participants were asked to
choose which event they thought was the false
one, 19/ 24 chose the correct event.

.& Figure 3.4 Can we really have false memories implanted,

such as a memory of being lost in a shopping mall?
10
Core study 3.3 There were more f emale
pairs of eyes used in the
An equal amount of male
and female pairs of eyes
Baron.Cohen et al (2001) original test. was used.
The choice of two "Semantic opposites"
responses were always were removed and the " foil
Context "semantic opposites" choices '' (those that were
In 1997 a "Reading the mind in the eyes" test was (e.g. happy/ sad) which incorrect) were to be more
developed to assess a concept called theory of made it too easy. similar to the correct answer.
mind. This test appeared to discriminate between There may have been A glossary of all terms used
adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) and high comprehension problems as the choices on the eyes
functioning autistic (HFA) adults from control adults. with the choice of words test was available to all
The AS and HFA groups scored significantly worse used as the forced choice participants at all times .
on the test, which asked participants to look at a responses.
pair of eyes on a screen and choose which emotion A Table 3.2 Problems and attempts to solve them
they best showed. However, the research team were
not happy with elements of the original version and • Initially,. the "correct" word and the "foils" were
wanted to "upgrade" their measure to improve it. chosen by the first two authors of this study.
• They were then piloted on eight judges (equal
Aim sex).
1 . To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the • For the correct word and its foils to be used in the
revised scale of the eyes test. This was to check new eyes test, five out of the eight judges had to
whether the same deficits seen in the original agree with the original choice.
study could be replicated. • There had to be no more than two judges picking
2. To test a sample of normal adults to see whether a foil over the correct word.
there was a negative correlation between • At least 50 per cent of this group had to get the
the scores on the eyes test and their autism correct word and no more than 25 per cent had
spectrum quotient (AQ). to seJect a foil for it to be included in the final
3 . To test whether females scored better on the version of the eyes test.
eyes test than males. • From the original 40 pairs of eyes, 36 passed
these tests and were used.
Method Participants
Design There were four groups of participants:

Original problems New design element 1. One group consisted of 15 males with either AS
(if applicable) or HFA. They were recruited via a UK National
Autistic Society magazine or support group. They
Forced choice between Forced cholce remained
two response options but there were four had all been formally diagnosed.
meant just a narrow response options. There 2. In this group there were 122 normal adults
range of 17- 25 correct were 36 pairs of eyes recruited throughout adult community and
responses (out of 25) used rather than 25 - this education classes in Exeter or in a public library
to be statistically above gives a range of 13- 36 in Cambridge. There appeared to be a broad
chance. The range of correct responses (out range of people in this group.
scores for parents of of 36 ) to be statistically
those with AS were lower above chance. This means 3. This group consisted of 103 normal adults (53 male
than normal but again individual differences can and 50 female) who were all undergraduates at
there was a narrow range be examined better in terms Cambridge University (71 in sciences and 32 in
of scores to detect any of statistics. other subjects). They were all assumed to have a
rea I differences. high IQ.
There were basic and Only complex mental states 4. This group was formed from 14 randomly selected
complex mental states were used. adults who were matched for IQ with group 1.
so some of the pairs of
eyes were "too easy" Procedure
(e.g. happy, sad) and All participants, irrespective of group, completed
others "too hard" making the revised version of the eyes test. Each
comparisons difficult. participant completed it individually in a quiet roorn.
There were some pairs These were deleted. Participants in group 1 were asked to judge the
of eyes that could be gender of each image. Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed
"solved" easily because a questionnaire to measure their AQ. All participants
of eye direction (e.g.
were asked to read through a gl·o ssary of all words
noticing or ignoring).
and indicate any they were unsure of - they were
also reassured that they could revisit the glossary at
any time during the test.
 3 Cognitive psychology

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Baron..Cohen et al
Strength The revised eyes test was used with
all participants - this means that all
comparisons between the groups have
some validity as we are comparing on
the same set scale using the same
questions, etc.
A Figure 3.5 Example of male pair of eyes used in Strength The revised eyes test can be used .by
the test other research teams to see if they can
replicate findings and test for reliability.
Even though it was the older version of
Results the eyes test in the original study, this
study did find reliable results in terms
Group Eyes test means AQ means
(SD) of performance of AS/ HFA (low scores
(SD)
in both studies).
AS/ HFA adults 21.9 (6.6) 34.4 (6.0)
Weakness Some psychologists could question
General 26.2 (3.6) N/ A whether the revised eyes test is still
population actually measuring theory of mind
Students 28.0 (3.5) 18.3 (6.6) traits or j ust the ability to complete the
eyes test.
Matched 30.9 (3.0) 18..9 (2 .9)

A Table 3.3 Mean and standard deviation (in parentheses)

scores for the new eyes test and AQ by group
• The AS/ HFA group performed significantly worse
than the other three groups on the eyes test.
• In general, females scored better on the eyes test
than males.
• The AS/ HFA group scored significantly higher on
AQ than the other groups.
• The distribution of scores for the eyes test (all
groups merged) formed a normal bell curve.
Other points to consider include the following:
• The main advantage of this research is that it can
be used to improve human behaviour in some
way. Psychologists could now create therapies (or
training) to help people with AS or HFA improve
their social commu.n ication and social emotional
skills to help them integrate better into society.
• The eyes test does not take into account the "full
picture" of understanding emotions - in reality
there are cues such as body language and other
facial cues that can help people to understand
the emotions of others.

Conclusion
The revised version of the eyes test could still
discriminate between AS/ HFA adults and controls
from different sections of society as it replicated
previous findings. The new eyes test appeared to
overcome the initial problems of the original version.

12

Core study 3.4
Held & Hein (1963)
Context
One of the debates that psychologists have had for a
very long time is the nature-nurture debate. Previous
studies had ex.a mined the role of exposure to stimuli
and movement around stimuli as a way of developing
perception. One sense alone is not enough to
develop perceptual skills, so in this case visual and
kinaesthetic associations might be necessary. What
happens when an organism is deprived of these
associations was the crux of this study.
Aim
To investigate whether kittens have to see and
move to be able to develop skills such as depth
perception .
Method
Design
.& Figure 3.6 The kitten carousel
• The kitten labelled A {Active) was allowed to walk
around tl1e carousel to explore.
• Tl1e one labelled P {Passive) was placed in a
device where the paws could 11ot touch the
ground, preventing the kitten from walking.
• The device that connected the two kittens
meant that the P kitten moved in all of the same
directions as the A kitten but without engaging in
any walking.
• The distance between the kittens was 36 inches.
• The P kitten could move its legs within the device
but it was never in co11trol of its own movement s.
The kittens undertook three main tasks after having
time in the carousel:
1. Visually guided paw placeme11t. Each kitten was
held in the hands of an experimenter. The head and
forelegs were free {it was held by the body) . The
kitten was slowly 111oved forwards and downward
towards the edge of a table (horizontal surface).
2. Avoidance of visual cliff. There are two parts to the
apparatus used: t11e "deep side" is a patterned
surface about 30 inches below a large plate of
glass and the "shallow side'' is where the patterned
surface is attached to the underside of the glass.
The behaviours of the kittens were noted.
3 . Bl inking to an approaching object. Each kitten
was placed in a device similar to that used by the
A kitten. There was a large sheet of Plexiglass
placed in front of the kitten. An experimenter
would move a hand quickly towards the kitten
stopping just before the Plexiglass.
• There were other tests performed on the kittens
outside of the main three, which were:
o pupillary reflex to light being shone into it
o how the kittens reacted to having their paws
placed on the top of a table
o visual pursuit of a moving object.
Participants
There were 10 pairs of kittens used {so a total of 20)
and each pair came from a different litter. They were
all aged between 8 and 12 weeks.
Procedure
The ten pairs of kittens were split into two groups
called X and Y:
• The X group (eight of the pairs) were reared in
darkness from birth until the kitten assigned as A
was at the minimum size to be used in the kitten
carousel (age varied from 8 to 12 weeks). They
were then exposed to tl1e apparatus for tl1ree
hours per day.
• The Y group (two of the pairs) had three l1ours of
exposure t o the patterned interior of the carousel
from about two weeks old up until they were ten
weeks old. After this they began a three l1our per
day exposure to the kitten carousel. When not on
the apparatus they were kept in "lightless" cages
with their 111other and litter mates.
• There were six paw-placement assessments each
day after the exposures.
• As soon as one of the pairs of kittens showed
the ability to "paw place" both of the pair were
tested on the visual cliff (placed in the central
part and observed). They were then both retested
on the following day. Then the ·P kitten of each
pair was placed in a continuously lit room for 48
hours. They were then retested. This applied to
X group .
• The Y group did something slightly different.
On the iirst day that the A kitten showed paw-
placeme11t skills, it was tested on the visual cliff
and then retested the day after. However, the P
kitten simply kept getting exposed to the ca rousel
for three hours per day untf I it reached 126 hours.
Only then was it tested for paw placement a11d on
the visual cliff.
13
 3 Cognitive psychology

Results Also, Held & Hein can be assessed on ethical issues:

General Related to Held & Hein
Pair number Age in Ratio of descents evaluation
weeks * shallow/ deep (eth ics)
A p Ethics of using There were only 20 kittens used for the
1X 8 12/ 0 6/ 6 animals in entire study which allows for statistical
research analyses but also it is a small number
2X 8 12/ 0 4/ 8
of kittens overall.
3X 8 12/ 0 7/ 5
The kittens were housed in cages but
4X 9 12/ 0 6/ 6 eight pairs were reared in darkness
5X 10 12/ 0 7/ 5 and two in lightless conditions which
is not usual. This could have increased
6X 10 12/ 0 7/ 5 the stress levels of the entire litter and
7X 12 12/ 0 5/ 7 mother (not just the kittens used in the
BX 12 12/ 0 8/ 4 study).

1Y 10 12/ 0 6/ 6 The findings did show impaired

perceptual development in the P kittens
2Y 10 12/ 0 8/ 4 which can be seen as being harmful.
*At the beginning of exposure in the experimental apparatus Also, being raised in darkness could
be seen as not protecting the kittens.
A. Table 3 .4 Results of the visual cliff task
The kitten carousel could have been
This indicates that the P kittens had not developed stressfut for the P kitten as it had no
control but also the neckbrace for the
depth perception even in the Y group.
A kitten could have been stressful .
• As soon as the A kitten could show paw However, some psychologists could
placement, the paired P kitten 's ability was noted . argue that t he stress was transient
None of them passed this test. (short-lived) as, for example, P kittens
• The A kittens could also pass the remaining tests began to overcome their perceptual
deficiencies once placed in lit
but the P kittens all failed .
conditions.
• Following the 48 hours of continually lit living
arrangements for the P kittens, when retested on
the visual cliff they all went to the shallow side
and they coul d all pass the paw-placement test.

Conclusion
To develop "typical" perceptual development, kittens
need to be able to move around by themselves with
simultaneous visual feedback.

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Held & Hein
Strength The amount of t ime the kittens were exposed
to the apparatus, the tasks the kittens had
to do and the kitten carousel were all solid
controls in this study. Therefore , a different
s.e t of researchers could replicate this study
to test for reliability.
Strength With the controls in place, such as the kitten
pairings, the conditions in which they were
raised and the kitten carousel mechanisms,
Held & Hein could conclude with confidence
that the use of vision and movement affects
the perceptual development of kittens .
Weakness Group X kittens were brought up in
darkness and spent time in the kitten
carousel, which are not usual environments
for kittens. Therefore, it could be said that
the study tacked ecological validity.
Weakness The tasks that the kittens had to perform
(the visual cliff and the paw placement)
are not tasks that kittens in the natural
environment would have to perform.
14 Therefore, it could be said that the study
lacked mundane realism .
 Social psychology
Core study 4.1
Mllgtam (1963)
Context
What if you were ordered to do something that
caused harm or distress to another person? This
type of obedience, in wl1ich people obey orders to
cause l1arm, is called destructive obedience. Social
psychologists such as Stanley Milgram have been
particularly interested in dest ructive o.bedience.
Early psychological research into the Holocaust
focused on the idea that something distinctive about
Ger111an culture or personality led to the high levels
of conformity and obedience necessary for genocide
to take place. This is known as the dispositional
hypothesis. While Milgram was interested in this idea,
he was also interested in tl1e social processes that
take place between individuals a11d within groups. The
idea that we can explain events such as the Holocaust
by reference to the social processes operating in
the situation, rat11er than the characteristics of tl1e
individuals involved . is called the situational hypothesis.
Aim
To investigate l1ow obedient people would be to
orders from a person in authority t hat would resu lt in
pafn and harm to another person. More specifically,
the aim was to see how large an electric shock
participants would give to a helpless man when
ordered to.
Method
Participants
• Forty men aged 20-50 were recruited by means
of a newspaper advertisement.
• The sample was ttlerefore mostly a volunteer or
self-selecting sample.
1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.1 l2
1 5 · - - - -------- ~ 75 · -----------· 135 · -- - -------- ·195 ·--- - ----- -- · 255 ·----------- · 315 ·-----·----- · 375 · -----------· 435
VOLTS 30 45 60 VOLTS 90 105 1 20 VOLTS 151 16&l.SO VO CTS 210 225 240 VOLTS
SLIGHT. --- ___ - ·MODERATE · --- __ --· STRONG · ------ --·si:~~G. ____ --- _INTENSE ·-------·!~~~:., · ---_----~~~~- ___ --- __ j
SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK
A Figure 4.1 The control panel of the electric shock generator
• They were from a range of backgrounds arid
held a range of jobs: 37 .5 per cent were manual
labourers, 40 per cent were white-collar workers,
and 22.5 per cent were professionals.
• All were from tl1e New Haven , Connecticut, USA.
Procedure
• Participants were recruit ed by means of a
newspaper advertisement. They were promised
$4.50 for their time.
• Whe11 each participant arrived at Ya le Ur1iversity
he was int roduced to a man he believed to
be another participant . The two men were
then briefed on the supposed pu(pose of the
experiment, which was described to t hem as to
investigate the effect of punishment on learning.
• The other man was working for Milgram. He
was a 47-year-old lrish-Ame(ican accountant (a
confederate).
• The naive participant and the co11federate were
told that one of them would play t he role of a
teacher a11d the other a learner.
• They drew slips of paper from a hat to allocate
the roles , but this was f ixed so tt1at the naive
participant was always the teacher and the
confederate was always the learner.
• They were then immediately taken t o anotl1er
room where the learner was strapped into a chair
arid electrodes were attacl1ed to tiim.
• They were shown the electric shock generator.
This had a row of switches, each labelled with a
voltage, rising in 15·volt intervals from 15V up
to 4 50V.
• Partici pants were told that the shocks could be
extremely painful but not dangerous; they were
each given a 45V shock to demonstrate.
• There was a wall between the teacher and learner,
so that the teacher could hear but not see the
learner.
13 14 15 16 17 18 1 9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
450
270r 85r oo VOLTS 330 345r 60 VOLTS 390 405r 20 VOLTS VOLTS
X X X
SHOCK SHOCK SHOC K SHOCK ]
15
 4 Social psyct1ology
• The procedure was administered by an
experimenter, played by a 31-year-old male blology
teacher.
• The participant (in the role of teacher) read out
word pairs and to test the confederate (in the role
of learner) on his recognition of which words went
together.
• Each time the learner made a mistake, the
experimenter ordered the teacher to give a shock.
The shock got larger by 15V for each mistake.
• If the teacher refused to give a shock, a series of
prods were used.
Prod 1 - say " Please continuen or "Please go on".
Prod 2 - say "The experimenter requires you to
continue ri •
Prod 3 - say " It is absolutely essential that you
continue" .
Prod 4 - "You have no other choice, you must
go on".
• Up to 300V the learner did not signal any
response to the shocks. However, at 300V and
315V, he pounded on the wall. He was then silent
and did not respond to further questions.
• Teachers were considered to have completed the
procedure either when they refused to give any
more shocks, or when they reached the maximum
voltage on the shock machine.
• They were then interviewed. During the interview
they were asked to rate on a scale of 0-14 how
painful the last few shocks they gave were.
• They were told that the shocks were not real,
that the learner was unharmed, and that the
real purpose of the study was to investigate
obedience.
Results
• The average voltage given by participants was
368V; 100 per cent of participants gave 300V or
more and 65 per cent gave the full 450V.
• Psychology students had estimated that only
3 per cent of participants would give these
shocks.
• Average rating of how painful the shocks were
was 13.42 out of a maximum of 14.
• Most participants showed signs of tension during
the procedure including groaning, sweating, biting
lips and stuttering. Fourteen giggled nervously.
One had a seizure and the procedure was
stopped.
Conclusion
• People are much more obedient to destructive
orders than we might expect, and considerably
more than psychology students suggested in their
estimates.
• People find the experience of receiving and
obeying destructive orders highly stressful. They
obey in spite of their emotional responses.
16
• The situation trlggers a confl ict between two
aspects: to obey those in authority, and not to
harm people.
• Results supported the situational hypothesis
rather than the dispositional hypothesis.
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Milgram
Strength The drawing of lots, the timing
of when the scripted responses
were heard and going up in 15V
increments were all examples of
controls. Therefore, other researchers
could replicate this study to test it for
reliability. (Ethical guidelines may stop
this, but another study by Slater did
replicate this one.)
Strength As there were so many controls, such
as having a "test" shock, receiving
the prods at a certain time (in the
same order) and the shock generator
being the same for everyone, Milgram
could conclude with confidence that lt
was the situation that the participants
were placed in that caused the
obedience levels.
Weakness Sitting in a laboratory in front of a
shock generator is not an everyday
setting that people find themselves
in. Therefore, the study lacks
ecological validity.
Weakness Having to shock somebody who gets
a word-pair wrong is not a task that
people come across in everyday
life. Therefore, the study is low in
mundane realism.
Other points to consider include the following:
• Ethics - three ethical issues are highlighted in
this study:
o Deception: teachers thought that they were
giving learners real electric shocks. Also, they
were told that it was a study about learning
and not obedience.
o Debriefing: at the end of the study all was
revealed to the participants so they left
knowing that they had not harmed learners.
Milgram followed them up six months later
to check whether they were having any
psychological issues.
o Right to withdraw: the prods given by the
experimenter did mean it was difficult for
teachers to withdraw from the study and some
kept being convinced to continue even though
they wanted to leave.
• Usefulness: the study did highlight that the
situation may make people behave in the way
that they do rather than individual (dispositional)
factors. This could begin to help explain t hings
such as genocide so we can work on find ing ways
to stop them happening.

Core study 4.2
Haney, Banks & Zlmbardo (1973)
Context
A lot of people have a stereotypical view of prison
life and of prisoners. This may include thinking that
"they are always bad people and they never learn
from their time in prison". Could it be that prisoners
are simply "bad" people and this is what makes
prisons "bad" ? An alternative view could be that the
situation of being in prison turns these prisoners
"bad" and it is not because of some characteristic
within them. This is all focused around the individual
(dispositional) versus situational debate. The US
Navy sponsored the running of this study.
Aim
To investigate whether the behaviour of non-prisoners
in a simulated prison environment is more affected
by their disposition (Individual factors ) than by the
situation they have been placed in.
Method
Design
• The prison was constructed within a basement
corridor at Stanford University. There were three
small cells (6 x 9 feet) made from converted
laboratory rooms.
• There was just one entrance door to the whole
prison . A cot with a mattress, sheet and pillow
was the only furniture in each cell (one per
prisoner - three prisoners to a cell).
• There was a solitary confinement facility which
was an unlit room measuring only 2 x 2 x 7 feet.
• Several rooms in an adjacent wing of the basement
were used as accommodation for participants in
the role of guards plus a bedroom each for those
in the roles of warden and superintendent. There
was also an interview-testing room.
• Another room at the end of the "prison grounds"
housed the recording equipment and several
observers.
• The design centred on participants in the role of
prisoners being in the simulated prison 24 hours
per day for the duration of the study.
• They were placed three in a cell.
• The guards worked in three-man shifts that lasted
for eight hours per shift.
• During a shift they had to rema in in the prison but
when it was not their shift they were allowed to go
about their usual lives.
• The uniforms: The research team wanted to
promote a feeling of anonymity in both groups and
the uniform helped to do thts:
o The guards' uniform was a plain khaki shirt
and trousers, a whistle, a wooden baton and
reflecting sunglasses (so it was impossible to
make known eye contact with a prisoner).
o The prisoners had to wear a loose-fitting
muslin smock with their ID number on the
front and back, no underclothes, a light chain
and lock on one ankle, sandals made of
rubber and a cap that was made from a
stocking.
o As the smocks were worn with no underpants,
it made the prisoners assume more female
postures when sitting; this was an attempt to
emasculate them.
Participants
• There were 22 participants who took part in the
prison simulation stage of the study.
• These were chosen from an initial pool ·o f
7 5 people who had answered a newspaper
advertisement.
• This had asked for male volunteers to take part
in a study about "prison life" . They were told they
would get $15 per day if they were chosen for
the study.
• Every potential participant completed a
very extensive questionnaire about family
background, physical and mental health
history, prior experiences and attitudes towards
psychopathology (including involvement in crime).
• Initially, 24 were selected as they were judged to
be the most stable both physically and mentally,
most mature and least involved in any anti-social
behaviour.
• These were randomly assigned the role of either
prison guard or prisoner.
• All of the final 24 were healthy male college
students from Stanford. Twenty-three were
Caucasian and one was Asian.
• Two of the participants were used as "stand-by"
prisoners.
• One of the guards decided not to participate
just before the simulation so in total there were
10 prisoners and 11 guards.
• They all signed a contract guaranteeing them
a minimally adequate diet, enough clothing,
appropriate housing and medical care.
• Those who were prisoners were told to expect
little privacy and that they may have some
basic rights suspended but no physical abuse
would occur.
Procedure
• Guards: Those who had been assigned as guards
met one day prior to t he induction procedure for
prisoners.
• They were introduced to the research team but
two were called superintendent (the author of the
study) and warden (a research assistant).
• They were told that the team wanted to recreate a
prison environment, ethically.
17
 4 Social psyct1ology
• The guards' main task was to "maintain a
reasonable degree of order within the prison
necessary ·for its effective functionin.g" (Haney,
Banks & Zimbardo, 1973: 7).
• The warden ran through the administrative duties
of completing things such as shift logs, reporting
any criminal incidents plus the administration of
meals to the prisoners.
• They were only given minimal guidelines on how
to "act" in order to capture genuine reactions to
the simulation.
• Prisoners: The Palo Alto City Police Department
helped out with the initial stage.
• Each prisoner was arrested from his home (this
was unexpected).
• A real police officer charged prisoners on
suspicion of either burglary or armed robbery, told
them their legal rights, handcuffed them, searched
them and then took them to the police station.
• Once at the station they went through the usual
procedure of being fingerprinted and having a file
prepared about them before being placed in a
detention cell.
• Throughout all of this , the police officers acted as
they usually would with a real criminal.
• They did not answer any questions about the
study from prisoners.
• Once they had been t ransferred to the simulated
. -
prison , prisoners were stripped, sprayed with a
delousing deodorant spray and made to stand
alone (naked).
• They were then given their uniform and had an ID
picture taken.
• Finally, they were put into a cell and ordered to
remain silent_
• Prison routine: Once all of the prisoners had
completed their induction and were in their cells
' •
the guards read out the rules of the prison.
• Prisoners were told to memorise the rules.
• They were a.lso told that they would be referred to
only by the number on their uniform.
• Initially, prisoners were given three basic meals
per day.
• They were allowed three supervised toilet visits
per day.
• Two hours were given to them every day for
privileges, for example reading or writing a letter_
• Work assignments were given to prisoners too so
they ·could earn their $15 per day.
• There were two visiting periods per week
(scheduled).
• Three times per day prisoners were lined up for a
count - this consisted of checking all prisoners
were present and that they had learned their ID
numbers and the rules of the prison.
18
Results
• Overview: Overall , both sets of participants
became more and more negative about the
situation and when they rated their own
emotional state.
• Prisoners reported that they wanted to harm
others more and more as the simulation
progressed.
• Interactions between the two groups tended to be
negative and hostile.
• Prisoners became passive very quickly
while guards became more and more active.
Commands were the most frequent verbal
communications from the guards and they were
also impersonal (e.g. ID number).
• A total of five prisoners had to be released
because of extreme emotional depression which
included crying, rage and high anxiety.
• The fifth prisoner had to be released after being
treated for a psychosomatic rash that had
developed.
• The simulation had to be terminated on day 6
and the remaining prisoners were "delighted by
their unexpected good fortune n (Haney, Banks &
Zimbardo, 1973: 10).
• The guards, however, felt the complete
opposite. They were enjoying the extreme
control and power and did not want to give it up
so soon.
• All guards came to work on time and on
numerous occasions they worked extra hours
after their assigned shift had ended.
• Half of the prisoners did endure the situation and
not all guards were hostile.
• Some guards stuck within the rules they had
created while others went beyond them.
Reality of the simulation: One example was
the private conversations between prisoners.
Of these conversations 90 per cent centred
on prison life (e.g. food, punishments and
harassments).
• Simi larly, when guards took relaxation breaks
they spent the majority of their t ime talking about
prison life.
• The harassment given to prisoners when they
were out of the range of recording equipment
was greater than in the "prison yard " which was
monitored.
• Guards' aggression continued to increase
even when prisoners had stopped resisting the
demands placed upon them.
• One guard placed a prisoner in solitary
confinement and kept him there overnight (against
the rules) as he felt the researchers were being
too soft.
• A Catholic priest visited the simulation one day
and even then prisoners referred to themselves
by number rather than name.
• The prison consultant, priest and public defender
all stated that the simulation seemed "real ".
• Pathology of power: Those assigned the role of
guard held high social status in the prison, had a
group identity of the uniform and had the freedom
to control the prisoners.
• The aggression appeared to get stronger when
prisoners became a perceived threat (initially).
• Those who were the most hostfle tended to
become the leaders of the guards.
• After day 1 guards had changed prisoners' rights
into privileges that had to be earned for being
obedient.
• The pathological prisoner syndrome: Initially,
prisoners could not believe what was happening
and how they had lost their privacy.
• This soon passed and their next response was of
rebellion.
• This began with direct force which changed to
subtle rebellion including setting up a grievance
committee.
• It did not take long for any prisoner cohesion to
dissolve.
• It would appear that prisoners chose one of two
ways to cope with the situation: become sick or
become obedient.
• The researchers highlighted three elements that
were seen in the prisoners:
1. Loss of personal identity. All personal identity
was weakened as they wore the same uniforms,
they rarely spoke about life outside of the
simulation and they all referred to each other
using their ID number and not by name.
2. Arbitrary con trol. Prisoners found it
Increasingly difficult to cope with the
increasing ·s tronger control by guards,
especially via guards' often "mixed message"
approach.
3. Dependency and emasculation. Prisoners had
to depend on guards for virtually everything
fron1 toilet breaks (they were handcuffed and
blindfolded), lighting a cigarette and even
cleaning their teeth.
Conclusion
The situation that people find themselves in has
a stronger effect on behaviour than individual
(dispositional) factors. When people find themselves
in novel situations they adapt to what they think
they should do in that situation rather than acting on
internal factors.
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Haney, Banks & Zimbardo
Strength Although a ll participants knew they were in
a simulation, many appeared, rather quickly,
to produce "natural " behaviour depending
on the role given. Remember that the
prison consultant noted how ureal" the
situation was and how real the behaviour
was of the prisoners and prison guards.
Therefore, the study could be argued to
have some ecological validity.
Strength The observers could e.asity count the number
of times certain behaviours occurred and
double-check these with the footage that
was being recorded of the prison. This
means that the data are objective and can
be analysed statistically so there is minlmal
chance of misinterpretation.
Weakness Even though the prison consultant said
that the situation felt "real ", all of the
participants were very aware that they were
being observed via cameras and a research
team. Some of the participants (maybe
those who did not become the typical
guard) were acting in a way so as not to be
judged by the research team. Therefore,
they were not displaying true behaviour.
Other points to consider include the following:
• Ethics: the protection of participants is a.n
issue. Even though the study was stopped early
on day 6, that still meant at least five days of
prisoners being subjected to harassment, mental
a.buse and having to earn basic rights (e.g. food
and a bed).
• Individual versus situational explanations: the
idea was to see whether "bad" people make
prisons "bad" (e.g. it is dispositional). However,
this study supports the idea that the situation
we find ourselves in can dramatically affect our
behaviour as all of the participants had been
screened and judged as psychologically stable.
.A Figure 4.2 Do "bad" people make prisons a "bad " place
to be or is it the prison itself that turns people 0 bad?"
19
 4 Social psycl1ology
Core study 4.3
Piliavln, Rodin & Plllavin (1969)
Context
This study is concerned with bystander behaviour.
Bystanders are people who witness events and
have to choose whether to intervene or not. The
case of Kitty Genovese shocked the world as people
appeared to know she was being attacked but
thought other people were going to help her. One
reason why groups of people do not help individuals
in need is that responsibility is shared equally among
the group so that each person has only a sma II
portion. This is called diffusion of responsibility.
Aim
1. To study bystander behaviour outside the
laboratory, in a realistic setting where participants
would have a clear view of the victim .
2. To see whether helping behaviour was affected by
four variables: the victim 's responsibility for being
in a situation where he or she needed help, the
race of the victim , the effect of modelling helping
behaviour and the size of the group.
Method
Participants
• An estimated total of around 4450 passengers
travelled in the trains targeted by the researchers.
• These were all regarded by the researchers as
" unsolicited participants" .
• An average of 43 were present in each carriage
in which the procedure was conducted and
an average of eight were in the immediate or
"critical" area.
• The racial mix of passengers was estimated as
45 per cent Black and 55 per cent White.
Design and procedure
• The study was a field experiment carried out on
trains on the New York subway.
• The procedure involved a male experimenter
faking collapse on a train between stops, in
order to see whether he was helped by other
passengers.
• One particular stretch of track was targeted where
there was a 7.5-minute gap between two stations.
• Experimenters worked in teams of four - two
females to record the results, and two males who
would play the roles of victim and model helper.
• There were four teams, one containing a Black
male. There were two conditions for the victim:
drunk and ill. Each male taking the role of victim
took part in both drunk and ill conditions.
• The victim would stagger and fall 70 seconds
after the train left a station. He then lay still on
his back with eyes open, not moving until helped.
20
• Between six and eight trials were run each day,
between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m.
Four IVs were manipulated in the procedure:
1. victim 's responsibility: operationalised as carrying
a cane (ill - low responsibility) or smelling of
alcohol and carrying a bottle wrapped in a paper
bag (drunk - high responsibility)
2. victim's race: operationalised as Black or White
3. presence of a model: operationalised as whether
a male confederate, either close to or distant
from the victim, helped after 70 or 150 seconds.
4. number of bystanders: operationalised as how
many people were present in the vicinity.
• Four males, aged 24-29, and identically dressed
in casual clothes, took the role of models of
helping behaviour. Four model conditions were
applied to both apparently drunk and ill victims.
The model stood:
o in the critical area and helped after 70 seconds
o in the critical area and helped after 150 seconds
o in the adjacent area and helped after 70 seconds
o in the adjacent area and helped after 150 seconds.
• The DV, helping, was measured in the following ways:
o t ime taken for first passenger to help
o total number of passengers who helped.
• Qualitative data was also gathered in the form of
comments from passengers.
Results
• Passengers gave spontaneous help to 78 per cent
of victims and in 60 per cent of cases where the
victim was helped it was by more than one person.
• Most helpers were male. Table 4.1 shows the
main result of helping behaviour by group.
Responses to an ill (cane-carrying) or drunk person
Ill condition Drunk condition
% helped
95 50
spontaneously
% helped in under
83 17
70 seconds
A Table 4.1 Majn result of helping behaviour by group
• Ill versus drunk conditions - in the cane
condition, the victim received help 95 per cent
of the time without intervention from a model. In
the drunk condition, this was reduced to 50 per
cent. People took longer to help the drunk victim
than the Ill one: over 70 seconds in 83 per cent
of the drunk trials, but in only 17 per cent of the
cane trials.
• Race of victim - in the cane condition, Black
and White victims were equally likely to be
helped. However, in the drunk condition , Black
victims were less likely to receive help. Also, in
the drunk condition, there was a slight same-
race effeot.
• The effect of modelling - the model intervening
after 70 seconds was more likely to lead to help
from other passengers (in nine cases) than the
one intervening after 150 seconds (three cases).
• Number of bystanders - there was no evidence for
diffusion of responsibility. There was a mild effect
in the opposite direction - when more passengers
were present, victims were slightly more likely to
receive help.
• Other observations - in a significant minority of
trials (21of103), some passengers moved away
from the critical area. More comments were made
in drunk trials, and more when no passenger
spontaneousl.y helped.
Other points to consider include the following:
• Usefulness: this study could be used to educate
people that when in an emergency, we should
help others no matter who they are. The longer
it takes to help, the more chances there are
that the victin1 may suffer more in the long term
(especially if medical attention is needed).
• Generalisation: it would be difficult to generalise
past the sample itself as they were all urban
dwellers who were (presumably) used to travelling
on a subway train. People in urban areas are
more used to deindividuating (losing their sense
of identity) and feeling "anonymous".

Conclusion
• An ill person is more likely to receive help than a
drunk person.
• Men are more likely to help another man than
women are.
• People are slightly more likely to help someone
of their own ethnic group, especially when the
person appears drunk.
• There is no strong relationship between size of
group and likelihood of helping.
• The longer an incident goes on, the less likely .& Figure 4.3 What makes people help or not help people
people are to help (even if help is modelled), the in need?
more likely people are to leave the area, and the
more likely they are to discuss the incident.

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin
Strength The setting was a subway train which is
not artificial (it is a real situation that
many people find themselves in daily).
Even the ·event is something that could
easily happen so the study does have
ecological validity.
Strength As the setting was natural and no one
was aware that the whole situation was
staged, there was very little chance that
anyone would have shown behaviour to
fit the aim of the study. The behaviour
shown by the participants was natural
and therefore valid.
Weakness The positioning of people in the carriages
could not be control led for (this is just
one example). Therefore, they may not
have noticed the incident or ignored it
(e.g. as they were reading) so it may not
have been the type of victlm affecting
helping levels.
Weakness Participants in the train did not know
it was a study so were deceived and
obviously informed consent could not
be taken from them prior to the victim's
collapse. This goes against ethical
g·uidellnes (although formal guidelines
were not around at the time of the study).

21
 4 Social psycl1ology
Core study 4.4
Tajfel (1970)
Context
One idea on how we form prejudices is that we
develop an " us and them 11 (called in-group and
out-group mentality) and we group people into an
in group and an out group. Those in the out group
have different "features " from us and we then
develop prejudicial thoughts and then may act
negatively towards them (discrimination). In addition,
if resources are limited and both groups want the
same resource, this simply heightens the prejudice
and discrimination shown.
Aim
To investigate whether in-group favouritism and out-
group discrimination can happen in a group of people
who already know each other.
- 19 - 16 - 13 - 10 -7 - 4 -1
6 5 4 3 2 1
Method
Design (study 1)
• There were two stages to the study.
• First part: The research team simply created
40 clusters of dots that could be projected onto
a screen for the participants to see and make a
judgment on .
• Second part: A booklet of "matrices" was created
to allocate points to members of participants' in
group or out group in a variety of different ways.
Participants (study 1)
• Participants in this study were 64 boys aged
14-15 years .
• They were all from a comprehensive school in
Bristol, UK.
• They were all from the same "house" in the same
form at this school.
Procedure (study 1)
• Boys completed the tasks in groups of eight.
They entered a lecture room and were told that
the study was about visua I judgments. They had
to look at 40 clusters of dots and estimate how
many were in each cluster.
• In one of the conditions, boys were then told
that people do consistently overestimate or
underestimate the number of dots in a cluster.
• In another condition, boys were told that some
people are consistently more accurate atjudging
compared to others.
• All boys were then told that the research team
were interested in decision making too. The
researchers said as the boys were there, perhaps
22 they would like to take part in t his phase too.
• Boys were told that they would be split into
group.s based on their performance on the dot
cluster visual judgment task.
• Some were in the "overestimators" group and
some in the "underestimators" group (in the
second condition they were "better" or " worse "
accuracy groups).
• In reality, the boys were randomly assigned to a group
and it was not based on their visual judgments. This
created the in group and the out group.
• The boys were then told that they were to fill in
a book of matrices which allowed them to give
punishments, and rewards that would be converted
into real money at the end of the study.
• They did not know the identity of the boys they
were giving rewards and punishments to, just the
group they were in.
• They worked in their own cubicles to complete the
booklet and they were told that they would never
be giving themselves a reward or punishment. An
example of a matrix is shown in Table 4.2.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 -1 - 4 -7 - 10 - 13 - 16 - 19
.
.A. Table 4.2 Reward and punishment matrix
• There were six matrices used and each appeared
three times in the booklet.
1. In-group choices: the top and bottom rows
were to be awarded to members of their in
grou p only.
2. Out-group choices: the top and bottom rows
were to be awarded to members of the out
grou p only.
3. Intergroup choices: the top row represented
the reward given to a fellow in-group member
while the bottom row represented the
punishment given to an out-group member.
• Once everyone had completed their booklets, all
the boys were brought back together and given
the monetary value of the rewards that had been
allocated to them in the matrices .
Results (study 1)
• The result from each matrix choice was scored on
a scale of 1-14.
• A score of 1 represented giving a fellow in-group
member the minimum amount of points possible.
• A score of 14 represented giving the maximum
amount of points to a fellow in-group member.
• For the intergroup choices matrices, the large
majority gave the fellow in-group member more
points than the out-group member.
• For the in-group choices and out-group choices
matrices, the vast majority gave points that
represented fairness across the two members
being given points.
Design (study 2)
• There were two stages to the study.
• First part: The research team simply showed
participants 12 pieces of art, six reported to
be by Paul Klee and the other six by Wassily
Kandinsky, and asked which ones they liked. (No
painting had a signature on it.)
• Second part: A booklet of matrices was created
to allocate points to members of participants' in
group or out group in a variety of different ways.
Participants (study 2)
• Participants had the same characteristics as for
study 1 but different boys, and only 48 in total,
participated.
Procedure (study 2)
• This was the same as for study 1 but the boys
were randomly split into a Klee and a Kandinsky
group.
• The matrices used were different (four in total) to
test the following:
o maximum joint profit - represented the largest
amount they could give both people
o maximum in-group profit - represented the
largest amount that could be given to a
member of the in group
o maximum difference - represented the largest
difference that could be given between a member
of the in group and that of an out-group member.
An example of a matrix is shown in Table 4.3.
Conclusion
Even when based on non-existent differences (in
this case dot cluster estimation and art preference),
people will create in-group favouritism and out-group
denigration when resources are limited and sought
after by both.
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Tajfel
Strength The matrices were quantitative in nature as
they were simply a choice of two numbers
from a grid - a reward and a punishment.
Points awarded to the in group could be
easily compared to points given to the out
group (as they were pre·set matrices). This
required no interpretation.
Strength As the matrices were based on number
p.airs, the amount of points awarded to
each boy (as part of an in group) could
be analysed statistically (by adding up
the points or finding the average) so it
was easy to conclude that boys were
supporting in-group members much more
than those in the out group).
Weakness Boys were never asked why they were
allocating points in the way they did {for
both studies). This is missing out on
the reasoning behind their choices - we
cannot be certain that they were allocating
points based in the idea of in groups and
out groups.

23 22 21 20 19 18 17 Other points to consider include the following:

5 7 9 11 13 15 17 • Generalisation: it may be difficult to generalise
these findings beyond the sample. The reason
16 15 14 13 12 11 for this is that the boys were from the same
house in the same form from the same school in
19 21 23 25 27 29
Bristol, UK.
.. Table 4.3 Example of a matrix (maximum difference) • Snapshot study: this was a study at one point in
time so we do not know whether the allocation of
points was due, for example, to the boys being at
Results (study 2) that age or due to some other factor. We do not
• The researchers found that uwhen the subjects know if the boys continued to favour in groups
had a choice between maximizing the profit for all throughout the rest of their adolescent years.
and maximizing the profit for members of their own
group, they acted on behalf of their own group".
• The matrices with maximum difference showed
the strongest results in terms of discrimination -
boys chose a score that maximised their own
in-group member and minimised the out-group
member.

23
 Developmental psychology
Core study 5.1
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)
Context
Learning behaviour by imitating others is called
observational learning. Several studies before this one
had already demonstrated that children are influenced
by witnessing adult behaviour. However, previous
studies had tended to show children repeating adult
behaviour in the same situation. and in the presence
of the adult that modelled the behaviour.
Tl1is study is also concerned with the learning
of gender-specific behaviour. Previous stud.ies
had shown that children are sensitive to gender-
specific behaviours. For example, children see their
parents as preferring gender-stereotyped behaviour.
Aggression is a good example of a gendered social
behaviour, being associated with masculinity.
Aims
Overall aim: to investigate observational learning
of aggression. Specifically, the study aimed to see
whether children would reproduce aggressive behaviour
when the model was no longer present, and to look for
gender differences in learning of aggression.
Method
Participants
• There were 72 participants in total: 36 male and
36 female.
• All were selected from the nursery school of
Stanford University.
• Ages ranged from 37 months Uust over 3 years)
to 69 months {5 years and 9 montl1s).
• Tt1e mean age was 52 months (4 years and
4 months).
Design
• This was a laboratory experiment, using a
matched pairs design.
• The researchers tested the effects of three IVs:
o the behaviour of the model (aggressive or non-
aggressive)
o the sex of the model
o the sex of the children.
• There were eight conditions In all. The children in
each condition were matched for their aggression
levels.
24
• The matching was achieved by the experimenter
and a nursery teacher independently rating 51 of
the children on a scale of 0-5 .
• Very good agreement between the two raters was
achieved (0.89).
• The conditions were as follows :
1. An aggressive model was shown to 12 boys
and 12 girls . Six boys and six girls saw
aggression modelled by a same-sex model ,
while the rest saw it modelled by an opposite-
sex model.
2 . A non-aggressive model was shown to 12 boys
and 12 girls. Six boys and six girls sa"v non-
aggression modelled by a same-sex model ,
while the rest saw it modelled by an opposite-
sex model.
3. A control group of 12 boys and 12 girls did not
see a model display any behaviour, aggressive
or otl1erwise.
Procedure
The procedure consisted of three stages .
1. Modelling the behaviour. Each child was brought
individually into a play room and invited to join in
a game.
• This tasted for ten minutes.
• In the first two conditions there was also an
additional adult present in the room. In the
aggressive condition , this adult demonstrated
aggression towards a five-foot tall inflatable bobo
doll, kicking and hitting it, including with a hammer.
• Tl1e adult also said aggressive things, such as
''kick him ... pow .. . sock him on the nose" . In
the non-aggressive condition, the adult assembled
toys and did not interact with the doll.
• In the control condition, there was no additional
adult in tt1e roo1TI.
2. Aggression arousal . In order to annoy the
children and increase the chances of aggressive
behaviour, all the children were t t1en taken to a
different play room wit h some very attractive toys.
• After being allowed to play for around two
minut es, participants were told they were not
allowed to play with tl1ese t oys any more as they
were ~he very best" toys and they were going to
be reserved for other children.
3. Testing for delayed i1Tiitation. Children were then
observed playing for the next 20 minutes.
• Two more observers watched. The room contained
a range of toys including a smaller bobo doll. The
observers were unaware, while observing, which
condition the child was fn.
 Participant group Aggressive Aggressive Non-aggressive Non-aggressive No model
male model female model male model female model
Male imitative physical aggression 25.4 12.8 1.5 0.2 2.0
Female imitative physical aggression 7.2 5.5 0.0 2.5 1.2
Male imitative verbal aggression 12.7 4.3 0.0 1.1 1.7
Female imitative verbal aggression 2.0 13.7 0.0 0.3 0.7
Male non-imitative aggression 36.7 17.2 22.3 26.1 24.6
Female non-imitative aggression 8.4 21.3 1.4 7.2 6.1
.& Table 5.1 Mean aggression scores recorded by observers

Three types of aggression were recorded by

observers:
1. imitative aggression - physical and verbal
aggression identical to that modelled in stage 1
2. partially imitative aggression - similar behaviour
to that ca rried out by the model
3. non-irnitative aggression - new aggressive acts
not demonstrated by the model.
Results
• There were significant differences in levels of
imitative aggression between the group that
witnessed aggression and the other two groups.
• There were significant differences in levels of both
physical and verbal aggression . To a lesser extent
this was also true of partial imitation and non-
imitative aggression .
• Significantly more non-aggressive play was
recorded in the non-aggressive model condition.
• Table 5.1 s hows the different acts of aggressive
and non-aggressive behaviours.
The overall results were as follows:
• Children who had witnessed an aggressive model
were significantly more aggressive themselves.
• Overall, there was very little difference between
aggression in the control group and that in the
non-aggressive modelling condition.
• Boys were significantly more likely to imitate
aggressive male models. The difference for girls
was much smaller.
• Boys were significantly more physically aggressive
than girls. Girls were slightly more verbally
aggressive.
Conclusion
• Witnessing aggression in a model can be enough
to produce aggression by an observer.
• Children selectively imitate gender-specific
behaviour. Boys a.re more likely to imitate physical
aggression, while girls are more likely to imit ate
verbal aggression.
• The boys but not girls were more likely to imitate
aggression in a same-sex model; it could be
concluded only cautiously that children selectively
imitate same-sex models.
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Bandura, Ross & Ross
Strength A number of controls were in place in this
study. For example, the time they watched a
model for, the layout of the room and which
toys were available were the same for all the
children. Therefore, other researchers could
easily replicate this study to test it for reliability.
Strength As the controls were high for both parts of
the study (time watching the model, priming
before entering the observation room. etc.),
the researchers could be confident that it
was the actions of the model that caused
the chi ldren to show aggressive and non-
aggressive behaviour.
Weakness The set up was artificial because the child
(especially the first stage) was in a setting
not rea lly familiar to ch ildren. As a result
the findings cou ld be argued to be low in
ecological validity.
Weakness Some of the tasks expected of the child were
not usual (e.g. simply to sit and watch an
adult play with some toys and not get involved
in the play). Therefore, aspects of the study
could be low in mundane realism.
Other points to consider inc lude the following:
• Quantitative data: this enabled clear comparisons
to happen between all groups to see the effect
the model was having on behaviour. However,
we do not know why the children were acting in
they ways they did as no qualitative data were
collected to explore this.
• Ethics: the issue is this study is protection. The
children displayed aggressive behaviour and this
may have continued after the study had ended. The
children did not leave the study in the same physical
or psychological state in which they entered.

A Figure 5.1 Children in the study imitating the observed 25

behaviour of adults

Core study 5.2
Freud (1909)
Context
Sigmund Freud's approach to psychological theory
and therapy - called psychoanalysis - forms the
basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology.
Freud had a number of important ideas, some more
controversial than others. Most controversially of all
he proposed that childhood can be seen as a series
of psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterised
by a fixation on an area of the body and a distinct
pattern of relationships to parents.
The third and most crucial Freudian stage of
development is the phallic stage which lasts from
around 3 to 6 years of age. In the phallic stage,
children go through the Oedipus complex. This
involves the development of a strong attachment to
the opposite-sex parent, and a sense of the same-
sex parent as a rival for affection.
Aim
To give an account of a boy who was suffering from
a phobia of horses and a range of other symptoms,
and to use this case to illustrate the existence of the
Oedipus co mplex.
Method
Design
• The study was a clinica l case study. This means
that the participant is a patient undergoing therapy.
• Accounts of how often Freud saw the patient
(Herbert Graf, known as Little Hans) vary a little,
but it was almost certainly not more than twice.
• Little Hans' father conducted regular discussions
with his son and passed these on to Freud. who
analysed them in line with his theory.
Participant
• The participant was a Jewish boy from Vienna,
Austria .
• He was 5 years old at the start of the study,
although some events were recorded from a
couple of years earlier.
• He was called Little Hans in the study, however
his real name, Herbert Graf, was well known .
• Little Hans was suffering from a phobia of horses.
• His father referred the case to Freud and went on
to provide much of the case information.
Case history
• From around 3 years of age, Little Hans
developed a great interest in his penis.
• It was reported that he played with it regularly.
• Eventually, his mother became so cross that she
threatened to cut it off if he didn't stop.
• Hans was very disturbed by this and developed a
26
fear of castration.
• At around the same time, Little Hans saw a horse
collapse and die in the street, and he was very
upset as a result.
• When Little Hans was 4 years old, he developed a
phobia of horses .
• Specifically, he was afraid that a white horse
would bite him.
• When reporting this to Freud , Little Hans' father
noted that the fear of horses seemed to relate to
their large penises.
• At around the same time as the phobia of horses
developed, a conflict developed between Hans
and his father.
• Hans had been in the habit for some time of
getting into his parents ' bed in the morning and
cuddling his mother.
• However, his father began to object to this.
• Little Hans also had a dream about a large giraffe
that cried out and a crumpled giraffe.
• Little Hans' phobia worsened to the extent that
he would not leave the family house.
• By the age of 5 years, Little Hans' phobia lessened,
initially becoming limited to white horses with black
nosebands, then disappearing altogether. The end
of the phobia was marked by two fantasies:
o Hans fantasised that he had several children.
When his father asked who their mother was
Little Hans replied "Why Mummy, and you're
the Granddaddy" (Freud, 1909: 238).
o The next day, Little Hans fantasised that a
plumber had come and removed his bottom and
penis, replacing them with new and larger ones.
Results
• Horses represented Little Hans' father. White
horses with black nosebands were the most
feared because they resembled the moustached
father. Horses also made good father symbols
because they have large penises.
• The anxiety Little Hans felt was really castration
anxiety triggered by his mother's threat to cut off
his "widdler" and fear of his father caused by his
banishing Little Hans from the parental bed.
• The giraffes in Little Hans' dream represent
his parents. The large giraffe that cried out
represented Little Hans' father objecting to Hans.
The crumpled giraffe represented Little Hans'
mother, the crumpling representing her genitals.
The large giraffe, with its erect neck, could have
been a penis symbol.
• The chi ldren fantasy represents a relatively
friendly resolution of the Oedipus complex in
which Little Hans replaces his father as his
mother's main love object, but the father still has
a role as grandfather.
• The plumber fantasy represents identification with
the father. By this we mean that Little Hans could
see himself growing a large penis like his father's
and becoming like him.
Conclusion Other points to consider include the following:
• There may be an alternative explanation: some
• Little Hans suffered a phobia of horses because
psychologists argue that Little Hans' phobia was
he was suffering from castration anxiety and
not due to the Oedipus complex. They argue
going through the Oedipus complex.
that when young, Little Hans witnessed a horse
• Dreams and fantasies helped express this conflict collapse and die in the street in front of him - he
and eventually he resolved his Oedipus complex therefore associated the horse with death and
by fantasising himself taking on his father's role this then made him fearful of horses .
and placing his father in the role of grandfather.
• Qualitative data: all of the information from Little
Hans' father was qualitative (in the form of letters
Evaluation of correspondence). Therefore, the data is in
depth and can be used to explain why Little Hans
Evaluation Related to Freud was suffering from his phobia.
Strength The focus of the study was on Little Hans. • However, there may have been interpretation bias
Data were collected though letters from by Little Hans' father (who wrote the fetters) and
Little Hans' father which were detailed and
Freud (who interpreted the letters) to fit in with
contained a lot of information from little
Freud's ideas .
Hans himself. Therefore, the findings could
be valid as they are based on looking at the
whole situation in depth.
Strength Little Hans continued to be a little boy
throughout the study and lived his life
"as normal ". His father would ask him
questions about his dreams and feelings
and many parents would do that in everyday
life so the findings have some ecologlcal
validity. (Little Hans was never taken out of
his own home to be "studied ".)
Weakness Little Hans may be unique, making
generalisations quite difficult. The way that
he developed his phobia of horses may be
unique to him and ther€fore it may not help
to explain horse phobias in other little boys .A Figure 5 .2 Could little Hans' phobia of horses be
of a similar age. explained by Freud?
Weakness There was no close bond between Freud
and Little Hans, but the boy's father was a
"fan" of Freud's work. This could have made
the fattier only report aspects of the case
study to Freud that fitted in with Freud's own
ideas about child development.

27

Core study 5.3
Langlois et al (1991)
Context
Is attractiveness individually specific in humans or
do we all find the same faces more attractive? When
do we begin to show any preference to attractive
faces? Studies before this one had shown that young
infants appear to be drawn to faces that adults have
rated as being attractive over those rated as being
not so attractive. This surprised psychologists as
they had not expected any form of discrimination
based on attractiveness at such a young age.
Aim
To investigate whether infant preferences for
attractive faces extended beyond those for adult
female faces onto other types of faces (e.g. mal.e
and female adult White faces , adult Black female
faces and other young infants}. The aims for each of
the studies appear in its Design section.
Three studies were conducted.
Method
Design (study 1)
• The first study set out to investigate whether
infants show preference to attractive male and
female adult faces compared to those labelled
unattractive.
• There were 16 slides of women's faces and 16
slides of men's faces used in this study.
• Half of them had been rated attractive and half
unattractive.
• The final slides had been selected from a pool of
275 women's and 165 men's faces that had been
rated for attractiveness by 40 undergraduate
students.
• All of the slides that were rated as being
attractive and unattractive were then looked at
further.
• The final slides that were chosen had to have
facial expressions, hair length and hair colour
roughly evenly distributed across the attractive
and unattractive groups.
• All the males were clean shaven.
• Any clothing was masked and the person pictured
had to be showing a neutral pose.
• Mean ratings for attractiveness (out of 5)
were 3.46 (female attractive}, 3.35 (male
attractive), 1.44 (female u·nattractive}, 1.40
(male unattractive).
Participants (study 1)
• A total of 110 6-month-old infants were recruited
via the Children 's Research Laboratory at the
University of Texas.
28
• A total of 50 of these were eliminated from the
final sample for the following reasons: fussing
too much (n = 41), computer failure (n = 3),
experimenter error (n = 3) mother looked at
slides (n = 2) and child was born premature
(n = 1 ).
• This left 60 children (35 boys and 25 girls) with
an average age of 6 months and 6 days.
• Fifty-three of the children were White, five were
Hispanic, one was Black and one was As ian.
• All of them were tested within three weeks of their
sixth month birthday.
Procedure (study 1)
• Two faces, one that had been rated attractive and
one unattractive, were projected onto a screen
next to each other.
• Each child sat on his or her parent's lap around
35cm from the screen.
• The parent wore oc·cluded glasses so he or she
could not see the faces. This prevented any of the
parent's preferences being seen by the child.
• A light and buzzer sounded to grab the child's
attention every time a new pair of faces was
presented.
• Once the child had focused on the centre of the
screen the pair of faces would appear.
• The trial was labelled "began" when the child first
looked at one of the slides. Each trial lasted for
ten seconds.
• There were two sets of 16 slides used per child.
• Each set was divided into eight-trial blocks of two
slides each. In an attempt to control for "side
bias" in the child (e.g. prefers to look to the right
naturally), slide pairs were alternated throughout
the procedure.
• All slide pairs were both male or both female.
• Slides were presented in one of two ways:
alternating (pairs of males then females then
males, etc.) or grouped (all male then all female).
• After each and every eight-trial block there was a
five- to ten-minute break to stop the child getting
tired or bored.
• The order of presentation in which slides
appeared was randomised for each child.
• Trial length, slide movement and recording of
data were controlled by a computer.
• The experimenter observed the visual fixations of
each child in each trial on a video monitor.
• The direction of looks and their duration were
recorded .
• Using this televised image of the child, the
experimenter did not have to look at the projection
screen and therefore did not know which of the
two slides the attractive or unattractive face was.
• Reliability was checked via a randomly selected
sample of recorct·ings.
• Finally, to examine whether the child's preference • A total of 11 of these were eliminated from the
might be influenced by the attractiveness of the final sample for fussing too much (n = 11). Two
mother, photographs were taken of each mother's more were excluded as they were not tested
face and they were rated for attractiveness by 72 within three weeks of their sixth birthday.
undergraduates. • This left 39 children (19 boys and 20 girls) with
Design (study 2) an average age of 6 months and 15 days.
• The slides were of 16 Black women from a pool • Thirty seven of the children were White and two
of 197 faces rated for attractiveness by 98 White were Hispanic.
and 41 Black undergraduates. Procedure (study 3)
• Amount of hair and skin colour were evenly This was the same as for study 2 except no
distributed across conditions. attractiveness ratings of mothers were taken.
• Mean attractiveness ratings for the attractive
group were 3.41 (White raters) and 3 .42 (Slack
raters) and for the unattractive group they were
Results (combined)
1.44 {White raters) and 1 .54 (Black raters). High Low
attractiveness attractiveness
Participants (study 2)
Type of face M SD M SD
• A total of 43 infants, who were 6 months old,
Study 1: Male and
were recruited via the Children's Research 7.82 1 .35 7.57 1.27
female faces
La.boratory at the University of Texas.
Study 2: Black
• Three of these were eliminated from the final 7.05 1.83 6.52 1.92
female faces
sample for the following reasons: fussing too
Study 3: Children's
much {n = 2) and equipment failure (n = 1 ). 7 .16 1.97 6.62 1.83
faces
• This left 40 children (15 boys and 25 girls) with
an average age of 6 months and 5 days. A Table 5.2 Mean fixation times for high- and low-
attractiveness slides
• Thirty six of the children were White, two were
Hispanic, and two were Black. • Study 1: Children looked significantly longer at
Procedure (study 2) attractive faces than unattractive ones.

The procedure was similar to that for study 1 but with • Sex of face had no effect - children looked longer
the following changes: at any attractive face.

• The presentation type was not used (alternating • Children tended to look at same-sex faces for
longer (only significant for males).
versus grouped) as the children were only looking
at Black women 's faces. Male face Female face
• Each t rial block consisted of four (not eight) pairs Sex of infant M SD M SD
of slides.
Male 7 .95 1 .45 7.36 1.31
• The mothers' faces were rated for attractiveness Female 7.69 1.35 7.81 1 .33
by 49 undergraduates.
A Table 5.3 Mean fixation times for sex of ch ild
Design (study 3) participant x sex of face interaction
The design was similar to that for study 1 but with
the following changes: • Study 2: Children looked longer at the attractive
Black woman 's faces than the unattra.ctlve ones.
• The slides were of 16 boys who were 3 months
old, selected from a pool of 60 boys and 62 girls • Children looked for longer at any face on their first
who had been rated for attractiveness by 40 two trials compared to all of the other trials.
undergraduates. • Study 3: Children looked longer at t he attractive
• Slides showing four males and four females who baby faces than the unattractive ones.
had been rated attractive were used, as were • As with study 2, children looked for longer at any
slides of four males and four females who had face on their first two trials compared to all of the
been rated as unattractive. other trials.
• Clothing was masked and all those pictured had
neutral expressions. Amount of hair was equally Conclusion
distributed across the attractiveness conditions.
• All three studies show that children do prefer
• Mean attractiveness ratings were 3.02 for the attractive faces compared to unattractive faces
attractive group and 1.69 for the unattractive group. irrespective of gender, colour of skin and age.
Participants (study 3) • It would appear that children can discriminate
• A total of 52 infants, who were 6 months old, from an early age between attractive and
were recruited via the Children's Research unattract ive faces.
Laboratory at the University of Texas.
29
 • As the children had not been exposed to much Other points to consider include the following:
media depicting what is attractive, it could be • Quantitative data: mean fixation times were
argued that these preferences are inbuilt into taken (and assessed via reliability tests) so the
humans. findings are objective. However, we do not know
the reasons why this happened as the data were
Evaluation quantitative and the young children could not tell
us anyway.
Evaluation Related to Langlois et al
• Ethics: there are issues with the use of children
Strength There were many controls in this study
in research. Even though the parents gave
(e.g. the standardised procedure followed
permission for their children to be used in the
in all three studies, the time the sl ides
were projected for and the masking of study we do not know how distressed, etc. it
other cues in the slides). Another research made the children when they had to look at lots
team could easily replicate this study to of pictures.
test for reliab ility using a different sample.
Strength As there were controls (e.g. the time the
slides were projected for and how the
slides were chosen), Langlois et al could
be confident it was attractiveness of the
face that was causing the child to look at a
st ide for longer.
Weakness Looking at a projector and having computer
equipment and video monitoring nearby Is
not a usual setting for young children so
it is difficult to know if they would prefer
attractive faces in a more natural setting.
Therefore. the study has low levels of
ecological validity.
Weakness In this study the child sat on the parent's
lap, the parent wore occluded glasses and
then pairs of faces were shown to the child
who was monitored on what he or she was
looking at. These things do not happen to
young children in everyday life so the study
lacks mundane realism.

30
 Core study 5.4
Nelson (1980)
Context
Many psychologists have been interested in the
development of moral behaviour and reasoning.
According to Piaget, after tl1e age of 10 years,
children seemi11gly develop a skill in morally judging
behaviour based on its motive. However, research
after Piaget had developed these initial ideas had
shown that children as young as 6 years old would
often look at the motive behind a bel1aviour before
111orally judging it. Previous studies had not allowed
children to show whether tl1ey understood the motive
behind behaviour before judging. Children this young
migl1t believe that motives are important but fail to
interpret them correctly or remember them when
questioned -tl1ey may misinterpret the intentions of
the motive as set out by a11 adult.
Aim
To investigate whether children as young as 3 years
old use motives and outcomes when morally judging
behaviours when they are explicit and made relevant
to tl1em (and are available when judging).
Method
Design (study 1)
• Four versions of a story were used.
• E.ach story was about a boy throwing a ball
(chosen as pilot research had seen this as a
11eutral act).
• The motive and outcome differed per story:
Story Content
Good motive The boy was playing with a ball and
his friend did not have anything to
play with . He wanted to throw the
ball to his friend so they could play.
Bad motive The boy was playing 11Jith a ball but
he was angry with his friend that
day. He wanted to throw the ball at
his friend to hit him on purpose.
Good outcome The boy threw the ball , his friend
caught it and they played happily.
Bad outcome The boy threw the ball but his friend
did not catch it. Instead the ball hit
his friend on the head and made
him cry.
• In addition to each story, there were two sets of
black and white drawings to accompany it.
• The drawings were 25cm by 23cm illustrating the
motive, behaviour and outcome. An example is
shown in Figure 5.3.
• Figure 5.3 Drawings to accon1pany the story
• Orie set of drawings conveyed emotion via facial
expressions only (implicit motive) while the other
set conveyed it explicitly by connecting cartoon-
like representations of the goal to t l1e head of the
boy throwing the ball {explicit motive) .
• Children who judged the boy throwing the ball as
being "good" had to point at one of three smiling
faces {5. 5cm to 7 .5cm in size) which represented
"a little bit good" to "very good" .
• This technique was also used if a child judged
the boy throwi11g the ball as being "badn but using
frowning faces. A seventh face, 4.5cm in size,
represented "just okay" (a term used as many
children in a pilot used it to convey a neutral
judgment).
• All of these were combined to create a numerical
score per judgment from 1 {very bad) through to 7
{very good).
Participants (study 1)
• There were 60 pre-school chi ldren used for
study 1.
• They were all aged between 3 and 4 years
{average 3.4 years).
• In addition , 30 "second grade" children were used
aged between 6 and 8 years (average 7. 4 years).
• There was a roughly even split between males
and females. The children were mostly white ~
middle-class and living in urban areas.
• Parents gave consent for their children to take
part in the study.
Procedure (study 1.)
• Cl1ildren of each age group were randomly
assigned to one of the three presentations
{verbal, motive implicit and motive explicit).
• There were 20 children per group in the young
group and 10 per group in the older group.
• Each child heard all four stories and these were
randomised per child.
• Each child was tested individually by the interviewer.
• Before tl1e actual stories were told, chi ldren
familiarised themselves with the 7-point faces
scale via two stories {one about being very good
and one about being very bad).
• Children in the picture groups were also
familiarised with how the pictures worked.
• In the actual study, children were told to listen
very carefully to each story as they would be
expected to tell the story again later.
31
 • After each story had been told, child ren were • A further 28.33 per cent of the younger group
asked whether the little boy had been a good boy, ignored the outcome information and made
a bad boy or just okay. their judgments according to the valence of the
• They were asked to i11dicate via the faces how motive only.
good or bad the little boy had been. If the child was Design {study 2)
in one of the picture conditions, the pictures were
• This study was based on the idea that in study 1
introduced at the appropriate time in the story.
the younger group in the verbal-only story
• The pictures remained in front of children until condition were basing their entire judgment on the
after they made their judgments. motive but not the outcome. This may have been
• After they had made their judgments, the pictures because the motive was always presented before
were removed (in the picture condition groups) the outcome.
and the child was asked to re-tell the story aloud • If younger children are more interested in valence
to the interviewer. (e.g. good, bad, positive , negative) rather than its
• If the motive or outcome was m issing from their source (motive or outcome) then when the order
recollection, specific questions were asked, such is reversed (so outcome comes before motive),
as "Why did the boy throw his ball?". younger children should disregard the motive
whenever there is a bad outcome.
Results {study 1) • The design was exactly the same as study 1 but
the outcome came before the motive in the stories.
3-year~lds 7-year~lds
(n = 60) (n = 30) Participants (study 2)
Good Bad Good Bad • Participants in study 2 were 27 pre-school
motive motive motive motive children. Their mean age was 3.8 years.
Good outcome 6.55 2.27 6.20 3.46 • Each child was randomly assigned to one of the
Bad outcome 4.17 1.60 4 .47 1 .56 three presentation types (verbal-only, motive-
implicit picture and motive-explicit picture).
A Table 5.4 Mean ratings per combination by age
• Everything was identical to study 1 but the
• The main character in the good motive conditions description of the outcome came before that of
combined had an average score of 5.35 whereas the motive.
for the main character in the bad motive
conditions it was 2.27 . Results {study 2)
• There was a similar pattern for outcomes, with
Good outcome Bad outcome
good outcomes scoring 4.70 on average and bad
outcomes only 2.92. Good Bad Good Bad
motive motive motive motive
• It was also seen that when the motive or outcome
Verbal only 6.11 3.56 2.67 1.78
was bad (especially so for the motive) it had a
larger effect on judgments than if anything was Picture - motive
7.00 2.11 2.33 1 .1.1
seen as being good. impl icit
Picture - motive
• When the motive information was explicit (good 7.00 3.56 4.22 1.11
explicit
or bad) it had a greater effect on judgments than
when it was implicit or verbal only. A Table 5.5 Mean ratings per combination of
• Children appeared to use the outcome presentation, outcome and time
information in the good motive stories under all
• The main finding of this study was that the
three conditions, but for the bad motive stories
children in the verbal-only condition were less
this was only for those who saw pictures.
influenced by motive that those in both picture
• The younger group made more errors in recall for conditions (as can be seen by the scores in
motives and outcomes compared to the older group. Table 5.5).
• There was no effect of presentation (verbal or • Even with the outcome preceding the motive,
picture) on outcome recall errors. However, for the effect of motive on judgments was not less
motive recall errors, there were fewer errors when than that of outcon1e - remember in study 1 the
pictures were presented. motive came first and children could just have
• There were significantly more errors of recall been basingjudgments on the first thing that
in the younger group when the motive and the they heard.
outcome were incongruent {e.g. good motive but • Children also made more errors of recall when the
bad outcome). motive and outc,o me were incongruent (e.g. bad
• In the younger group, 40 per cent of children motive, good outcome).
rated the character negatively whenever there was
just one negative cue, irrespective of its source
(motive or outcome).
32
Conclusion There is another point to consider:
• In study 1, the children were told all four stories
• Motive is a powerful tool used by younger children
in the presentation (e.g. all four stories verbally).
to make a moral judgment.
The children may have been bored, muddled the
• Mode of presentation affects the judgment s of stories together or become tired, all of which
younger children with verbal-only presentation could have affected the moral judgments they
of material; as soon as a child hears something made especially for the third or fourth story.
"bad" any further information has limited itnpact
on judgments.
• If the presentation involves pictures then
judgments are based on a combination of both
outcome (good and bad) and motive (good
and bad).
• Younger children are more likely to recal l
information on moral judgments more accurately if
congruence is experienced (e.g. good motive and
good outcome) rather than when incongruence is
experienced.

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Nelson
Strength Nelson could. analyse, statistically, the
different combinatlons of motive and
outcome (e.g. good motive but bad
outcome) to see which of the stories had
the highest and lowest mean scores. Al l
four combinations for both age groups could
easi ly be compared to see the effects of age,
niotlve and outcome on moral judgments.
Strength As children simply pointed at a face and
this was converted to a numerical score,
there was no subjectivity involved. The
measuren1ent was objective for the chi ld
{no reasoning was needed) so Nelson could
ana lyse the scores statistically and draw
sensible conclusions about the effect of
motive and outcome on moral judgments.
Weakness As children simply pointed at a facer Nelson
does not know the reasoning behind why
each child chose the face. Children were not
asked for their reasoning which is important
when it comes to moral judgements.
Weakness Children may well have gone along with what
they could remember from the two pilot
stories rather than what they truly believed
as they thought that was the desirable way
to answer. This would certainly affect the
va lidity of the findings .

33
 Physiological psychology
Core study 6.1
Schachter & Singer (1962)
Context
Early ideas that looked into emotions focused on
purely physiological factors. The assumption was
that every emotion has a distinct physiological
state. Psychologists began to assess the role of
psychologica l factors such as thoughts {cognitions)
in emotions and how we experience them. Could it
be that some emotions have a similar physiological
basis but the way we are thinking at the time {e.g.
because of what we are doing) makes us experience
tf1em as different emotions? Therefore, are
emotions a11 interaction between physiological and
psychologica l factors?
Aim
To investigate what role cog,n itive factors have in the
experience of an emotion (how we label it, etc.) when
we are in a state of physiological arousal tl1at has no
immediate explanation. Also, the researchers aimed
to see whether when we do t1ave an appropriate
explanation for feeling a certain emotion we always
label it as the most appropriate emotion. In other
words, the researchers were testing the two factor
theory of emotion.
Method
Design
As soon as participants had agreed to an injection of
suproxin (the name given to the "drug" used which
the participants thought was a vitamin), they were
placed into 011e of the four groups:
1. Epinephrine informed (Epi Inf): Participants in this
group were injected with epinephrine and were
told that so111e people feel side effects of it and
that these would last no more tha11 20 minutes.
The side effects that they were told about were
ha11d shaking, heart poundi11g and feeling warm.
2. Epinephri11e ignorant (Epi lgn): The experirne11ter
simply injected participants, said nothing about
any side effects and then left tl1e room.
3 . Epinephrine misinformed {Epi Mis): Participants
were injected with epinephrine and told that some
people feel side effects and that these would last
no more than 20 minutes . However, they were
given incorrect information - they were told that
feet feeling numb, becoming itchy and developing
a headache were common side effects.
34
4. Sal ine: Participants were injected witl1 a saline
solution {salt) and followed the same procedure
as the Epi lgn group.
If participants were in the euphoria group the
following occurred:
• As soon as tl1ey had been injected, the
experimenter left and then returned with a stooge
(a person who poses as a true participant but is
a11 actor and is part of the study) .
• Participant a11d stooge were introduced to each
other.
• They were both told that they had to wait
20 minutes before beginning the "tests of vision".
• The room they were in was not tidy an,d the
experimenter apologised for this.
• The experimenter left, saying that participants
could use the paper, rubber bands and pencils
that were lying around tl1e room.
• The stooge then completed a set procedure that
was designed (it was l1oped) to bring about a
feeling of euphoria.
• He or she drew fish on a piece of scrap paper and
then complained tt1at tl1e paper was no good so
screwed it up and tried to throw it into the bin.
• The stooge would always miss and then try to
make it into a basketball game and get tl1e true
participant involved.
• The stooge would then make things such as
paper airplanes , a slingshot from a rubber band
to tire paper across the room, and tried to hula-
hoop (all witl1 items deliberately left in the room
for tl1is purpose).
For participants in the anger group, the set-up was as
follows:
• Participants met tl1e stooge in the same way as
participants in the euphoria group.
• They were told that they needed to use the
20 minutes to complete a questionnaire that was
handed to them.
• Just before beginning, the stooge would tell the
participant that it was unfair that the researchers
had not revealed the injection beforehand and that
it is difficult to refuse 011ce you say yes to a study.
• At regular points when the stooge was completing
the questionnaire the Individual would raise
issues with it.
• The first few questions were standard ones about
personal information, what you eat. etc.
• As the questionnaire progressed, the questions
became more and more personal and concerning
to answer. For example, the questionnaire
included statements such as "does not bathe or
wash regularly" and participants were asked to
name someone from their immediate family to
whom the statement was most applicable.
• The stooge angrily crossed out the items. Further
questions include frequency of sexual intercourse
and at this point the stooge shouted "To hell with
it! I don't have to tell them all this! "
• They rated how angry they felt, how good or happy
they felt and they were asked if they had felt
any of the side effects that they had been led to
believe they might.
Participants
• A total of 184 male students from the University
of Minnesota (introductory psychology class) took
part in the study.
• Around 90 per cent of students in these classes
volunteered to be in a subject pool.

• The stooge then sat back on the chair, ripped up
the questionnaire and threw it all over the floor,
got his or her books and left the room.
All four of the injection conditions experienced the
euphoria procedure. Three conditions experienced
the anger procedure (not the Epi Mis).
Two measures of emotion were collected :
• Observation - unbeknown to participants they
were being watched through a one-way mirror.
• The stooge would engage in 14 standard
behaviours during the euphoria condition.
• For each of these standard behaviours, the
behaviour of the participant was classified into
one or more of four categories: 1. Joins in with
the activity; 2. Initiates a new activity that the
stooge had not shown; 3. Ignores the stooge;
4 . Watches the stooge.
• There was more than one observer to test for
reliability (and observers agreed on 88 per cent of
the observations).
• For the anger condition , behaviour was coded
under six categories: 1. Agrees with the stooge;
2. Disagrees with the stooge; 3. Displays neutral
behaviour; 4. Initiates agreement or disagreement
(e.g. says "Boy, I hate this kind of thing" but not
as a response to the stooge); 5 . Watches the
stooge; 6. Ignores the stooge.
• Self-reports - when the session with the
stooge had ended , participants were asked to
complete a questionnaire asking them about a
range of things .
• They received two extra points in their final exam
for every hour they took part in an experiment.
• All participants were cleared by the student health
service to check that they would not be harmed
by the injection.
Procedure
• Participants were told th.a t the study was about
the effects of a vitamin supplement on vision .
• When they arrived they were taken to a private
room and it was explained to them that the drug
that would be used was suproxin.
• Participants were tllen asked if they would agree
to the injection and just one refused .
• After this, a physician entered the room to give
the injection.
• Depending on the condition that participants had
been placed in, the procedure followed the Design
section above (e.g. if in the Epi lgn/ euphoria
group they followed what is reported in the
relevant " Design" section).
• After participants had completed the
questionnaires, the researchers stated that the
experiment had now been completed.
• They explained the deception element of the
study and how it was necessary and then asked if
participants had been suspicious of the stooge.
Results
• In all of the epinephrine conditions, pulse rate
increased as expected.

Conditi on N Pulse Self-rating of "side effects"

Pre Post Palpitation Tremor Numbness Itching Headache

Euphoria
Epi Inf 27 85.7 88.6 1 .20 1 .43 0 0 .16 0.32
Epi lgn 26 84.6 85.6 1 .83 1.76 0 .15 0 0 .55
Epl Mi s 26 82.9 86.0 1 .27 2.00 0 .06 0 .08 0 .23
Placebo 26 80.4 77.1 0 .29 0.24 0 .09 0 0 .27
Anger
Epi Inf 23 85.9 92.4 1 .26 1.41 0 .17 0 0 .11
Epi lgn 23 85.0 96.8 1 .44 1.78 0 0 .06 0 .21
Placebo 23 84.5 79.6 0 .59 0.24 0 .14 0 .06 0 .06
A. Table 6.1 The effe.cts of the Injections on bodily state

35
 • Those in the epinephrine groups experienced
more palpitations and tremors.
Evaluation
• There were five participants where it was clear Evaluation ReJated to Schachter & Singer
that the epinephrine was having no effect Strength Schachter & Singer had many controls,
whatsoever. such as the set order of the stooge 's
activities, what the person injecting
• Participants in the Epl Inf group were significantly
said and did, plus what was injected
less euphoric than those in the Epi Mis group. and how the observations were set out
• Participants in the Epi Inf group were significantly and categorised. This means another
less euphoric than those in the Epi lgn group. researcher could easily replicate this study
to test for reliability.
• There was no difference between the placebo
and participants in the Epi Mis group on levels of Strength As there were many controls, such as the
euphoria. instructions given to the four groups and
how the stooge behaved, the researchers
Condition N Self-report scales could be confident that it was the
Epi Inf 25 0.98 information provided to participants that
directly affected the moods and emotions
Epi lgn 25 1.78
they reported .
Epl Mis 28 1.98
Weakness The task of be ing injected with an
Placebo 26 1.61 "unknown" drug, sitting with a stooge as
you attempt to complete a questionnaire
.& Table 6.2 Self-report of emotional state in the euphoria
condition is not a usual task that people conduct in
everyday life. Therefore , the study can be
• The Epi Mis group engaged in the most activities said to be low in mundane realism .
and initiated more behaviours.
• The only significant difference was between the Other points to consider include the following:
Epi Mis and Epi Inf groups. • Ethics - two issues are raised by this study:
Condition N Self-report scales o Deception: participants thought that they were
Epi Inf 22 1.91 receiving a vitamin supplement called suproxin
(when it was actually ephinephrine). They
Epl lgn 23 1.39
also thought that the stooge was another real
Placebo 23 1.63
participant who had been injected and was
.& Table 6.3 Self-report of emotional state in the anger completing the questionnaires .
condition o Protection: participants were injected, which
• None of the groups differed significantly from could have caused physical pain. Also, as they
each other on these scores but participa·n ts in were in situations that could bring about euphoria
the Epi Inf group showed the highest levels of or anger, they were not leaving the study in the
self-reported anger. same psycholog~cal state as they entered.
• Behaviourally (through the observation), the Epi • Use of independent groups: the results may
lgn group showed the most overt anger of any have been affected by participant variables as
group (on average). each participant only took part on one of the
conditions. Participants who were " naturally"
Conclusion more euphoric or angry could have been in those
particular groups and therefore it was not always
There are two factors involved in our experiences of the labelling that was affecting behaviour.
emotions: our physiological arousal or state and the
• Volunteers: the sample was made up of volunteer
information or cognitions that help us to understand
students which may not be representative of a
the behaviour we feel. These interact and make us
wider population when it comes to the effects of
feel different emotions.
cognitive factors on emotional behaviour.

36

Core study 6.2
Dement & Kleltman (1957)
Context
The topics of sleep and dreaming are clearly hard to
investigate because the participant is necessarily
asleep and so cannot communicate with the
researcher. Even when participants are awake,
only self-report data can be obtained about dream
content, and these alone might not be valid, as they
are subjective. The study of sleep and dreaming
became more scientifically rigorous with the invention
of physiological techniques to measure brain activity
that indicated dreaming (the electro-encephalograph,
or EEG) and allowed the electrical recording of eye
movements (the electro-oculogram, or EOG) rather
than their direct observation.
To remember the meaning of EEG it can help to break
the word down:
• electro (electric)
• en cephalo (in head)
• graph (writing).
The same EEG electrodes and machine can also be
used to record eye movements. The output - called
an EOG - indicates the presence or absence of eye
movements, their size and their direction (horizontal
or vertical).
Aim
To investigate dreaming in an objective way by
looking for relationships between eye movements
in sleep and the dreamer's recall. These included
whether dream recall differs between rapid eye
movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement
(nREM sleep), whether there is a positive correlation
between subjective estimates of drea m duration
and the length of the REM period and whether eye-
movement patterns are related to dream content.
Method
• To test whether dream recall differs between REM
and nREM sleep: participants were woken either
in REM or nREM, but were not told which stage
of sleep they had been in prior to waking. They
confirmed whether they had been having a dream
and, if so, described the content into a voice
recorder.
• To test whether subjective estimates of dream
duration are related to the length of the REM
period: participants were woken following either
5 or 15 minutes in REM sleep. They were asked
to choose whether they thought they had been
dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes.
• To test whether eye-movement patterns represent
the visual experience of the dream content or
whether they are simply random movements
arising from the activation of the central nervous
system during dream sleep: the direction of
eye movements was detected using electrodes
around the eyes (EOG). Participants were woken
after exhibiting a single eye-movement pattern for
longer than one minute. Again, they were asked to
report their dream.
Design
• The levels of the IV were REM sleep or nREM
steep and the DVs were whether a dream was
reported and, if so, the detail.
• The data were used in both experimental and
correlational designs.
• Experimental analysis: the levels of the IV were
waking after 5 or 15 minutes, and the DV was the
participant's choice of 5 or 15 minutes.
• Correlational analysis: the two variables were the
participant's time estimate and the number of
words in the dream narrative.
• The IV of eye-movement pattern cou Id not be
manipulated by the experimenters, so this was a
natural experiment (conducted in a laboratory).
The DV was the report of dream content.
Participants
• Nine adult participants were used in this study
(seven male and two female).
• Four of these were mainly used to confirm the
data from five who were studied in detail .
• Those studied in detail spent between 6 and
17 nights in the laboratory and were tested
with 50-77 awakenings; those used to confirm
the findings stayed only 1 or 2 nights and were
awoken between 4 and 10 times in total.
• E.a ch participant was identified by a pair of initials.
Procedure
• During the daytime prior to arrival at the
laboratory, each participa nt ate and drank
normally (excluding drinks containing alcohol or
caffeine).
• Participants arrived at the laboratory just before
their normal bedtime and were fitted with
electrical recording apparatus.
• This included electrodes attached near the eyes
(to record eye movements) and on the scalp (to
record brain waves).
• Once in bed in a quiet, dark room, wires from
the electrodes (which fed to the EEG in the
experimenter's room) were gathered into a "pony
tail " from the participant's head, to allow the
person freedom of movement.
• The EEG ran continuously through the night to
monitor the participant's sleep stages and to
Inform the experimenters when the participant
should be woken up.
• Participants were woken by a doorbell that was
loud enough to rouse them from any sleep stage.
• The doorbell was rung at various times during the
night and participants indicated whether they had
been dreaming prior to being woken and, if so,
described their dream into a voice recorder. 37
 • They then returned to sleep (typically within
5 minutes).
• When the narrative was analysed, it was
considered to be a dream only if it was a
coherent, fairly deta iled description of the content
(i.e. vague, fragmentary impressions were not
scored as dreams).
Results
• Participants described dreams often when woken
in REM but rarely from nREM sleep (although
there were some individual differences).
• When awakened from nREM s leep, participants
tended to describe feelings (e.g. pleasantness,
anxiety, detachment) but this did not relate to
specific dream content.
Sleep stage REM-sleep nREM·sleep
(level of IV) awakenings awakenings
Dream No Dream
recall recall recall
Number of times 152 39 11
participants
reported the
presence or
absence of a
dream (DV)
.&. Table 6 .4 Instances of dream recall following waking
from REM and nREM sleep
• Waking pattern did not affect recall.
• Specifically, participant WO was no less accurate
despite being misled, and participant ON was
no more accurat e even though he might have
guessed the pattern of wakings.
• Recall of dreams during nREM sleep was much
more likely when the participant was woken soon
after the end of an REM stage.
• When asked instead whether they had been in
REM sleep for 5 or 15 minutes, participants
responded more accurat ely. They were 88 per
cent and 78 per cent accurate respectively for
5- or 15-minute REM durations.
Right
was not. Participant ON frequently found he could
recall only the end of his dream, so it seemed
shorter than it actually was.
• There was a significant positive correlation
between REM duration and number of words in
the narrative. The r values varied between 0.4
and 0. 71 for different participants.
• Dream narratives for very long durations (e.g. 30
or 50 minutes) were not much longer than those
for 15 minutes. Participants did report, however,
that they felt as though they had been dreaming
for a long time, suggesting that they could not
recall the early part of the dream .
• Three of the nine participants showed periods of
predominantly vertical eye movements, and each
was allied to a narrative about vertical movement.
• In one, the participant dreamed about standing
at the foot of a tall cliff, using a hoist (a kind of
winch or pulley).
No
• They reported looking up at climbers at various
recall
levels on the cliff, and down at the hoist
149
machinery.
• A single dream followed predominantly horizontal
movements. The participant reported dreaming
about two people throwing tomatoes at each
other.
• On ten occasions, participants were woken after
little or no eye movement. Here, they reported
either watching something in the distance, or
staring with their eyes fixed on a single object.
• There were 21 wakings following mixed eye
movements. In these instances, the participants
reported looking at people or objects nearby
(rather than far away) - e.g. fighting or talking to a
group of people.
Time of waking after REM stage
Within 8 minutes After 8 minutes
Number of wakings 17 132
conducted
Number of dreams 5 6
recalled
Percentage of 29 5
D Wrong I occasions on which
dreams recalled

.r:.
--fil
:::::J
40 +---'
.&. Table 6.5 Number of dreams recalled following wakings
from nREM sleep after an REM stage
.... c:
~E 30+-~ • When woken from nREM sleep, participants
Cl) -
"i"' (/) returned to nREM and the next REM stage was
E c
(0 .2 2 0 - - not delayed. When woken from REM sleep,
~ co participants generally did not dream again until
o E
~ 10+-- the next REM phase.

0 4-----'
after 5 minutes after 15 minutes Conclusion
Total (for 5 participants) • Dreams probably (although not certainly) occur
.&. Figure 6.1 Accuracy of dream-length estimations after only during REM sleep, which occurs regularly
5 or 15 minutes of REM sleep throughout each night's sleep. Dreams reported
• Although most of the participants were highly when woken from nREM sleep are ones from
accurate (with only 0-3 incorrect responses), one previous REM episodes.
38
• The finding that the length of an REM period and
its estimation by the participant are very similar
shows that dreams are not instantaneous events
but rath.e r they are experienced in "real time " .
• Eye movements during REM sleep correspond
to where, and at what, the dreamer is looking in
the dream. This suggests that eye movements
are not simply random events caused by the
activation of the central nervous system during
dream sleep, but are directly related to dream
imagery.
Other points to consider include the following:
• Generalisation: only five people were studied "in
detail" and four more were used to confirm these
findings. This could make it difficult to generalise
beyond the sample of people because of the
sample size.
• Reductionism: the findings are all based around
biological mechanisms affecting our dreaming
state. Some psychologists may see this as being
reductionist as there are psychological mechanisms
that could be affecting dream content.

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Dement & Kleitman
Strength Dement & Kleltman controlled many
variables, such as pre-study levels of
caffeine and alcohol, the doorbell sound,
the EEG monitoring, etc. This means that
another researcher could easily repl icate
this study to test it for reliability.
Strength The high levels of control so that
participants all experienced the same
cond itions, such as the EEG monitoring
and how data were recorded , mean
that for each part of the experiment the
researchers could confidently conclude .A Figure 6 .2 Participants slept in a sleep laboratory
cause and effect (e .g . that dream recall is attached to an EEG monitor
affected by stage of sleep).
Weakness Participants had to sleep In an unusual
environment (a laboratory) with electrodes
attached to their head (EEG monitor)
which is. of course, an artificial setting
for them. Therefore, the study has low
ecological validity.
Weakness The task of being woken up and then
asking to recall dream content or
estimate dream length is not a normal
activity for people to engage in. Therefore,
the study lacks mundane realism .

39

Core study 6.3
Ma~ulre, Frackowlak & Frith (1997)
Context
One memory system has only recently begun to be
studied - the system involving topographical memories.
These are memories that allow us to navigate and find
our way around familiar environments. Think of a route
that you take quite often with a ll of the landmarks that
you pass. By doing this you are activating topographical
memories. If the route has some meaning to you then it
fs called a topographica l semantic memory. As you are
visualising your route, you are using what psychologists
call a cognitive map. This is a "mental map" that helps
you visualise your route before you embark on your
journey. A cog11itive 111ap also allows you to recollect your
route after your journey is complete and you may add to
this map if a new landmark becomes part of the route.
Aim
The study set out to investigate whether there
are specific brain regions that are responsible for
semantic topographical memory (in this study,
routes that had been or cou ld be used by taxi drivers
in London). The research team also wa11ted to
investigate if there were brain functioning differences
between tasks that involved topographical or non-
topographical memories. They also wanted to see if
these two types of memories were affected by whether
the memory was a sequence of logical events or not.
Method
Design
• Participants had to complete six tasks.
• Each task was performed twice.
• Five of these were releva11t to the current study. It
was a repeated measures design with all participants
completing all tasks (counterbalanced too).
• The whole design was a 2 x 2 design with
t opographical/non-topographical being factor 1
and sequencing/non-sequencing being factor 2.
T+ T-
s+
routes film plots
S-
famous landmarks film frames
40 £ Table 6.6 T+ means It ls testing topographical;
S- means it is testing non-sequencing
These were the five tasks:
1. Describe the sl1ortest route between a starting
point and a destination in the City of London.
(Topographical and sequencing.)
2 . Describe a landmark known to the taxi drivers
(al l world-famous ones) in t erms of features ,
appearance etc. (Topographical an.d non-
sequencing.)
3 . Describe the plot of films (familiar to the
participant) between two given points in the film.
(N on-topographical and sequencing.)
4. Describe individual frames of some famous
films that were fam iliar t o the participants
(not the plot but the imagery, characters, etc. ).
{Non-topographica l and non-sequencing.)
5. Repeat two sets of four-digit numbers {this was a
baseli11e task so this simple level of activity could
be compared to that seen in tt1e other four tasks).
• All of the tasks were completed verbally, with the
participant blindfolded.
• Each task occurred whfle the participant was
undergoing a posit ron emission tomography (PET)
brain scan .
• These types of scan allow psycl1ologists to see in
real time i,vhich section{s) of the brain are active
during specific tasks.
• Each participant, through a forearm cannula,
received a H;5 o intravenous bolus over a 20-second
-
period followed by a 20-second saline flush.
• This happened 12 times per participa11t.
Prior to the experimental tasks, participants had to
complete a questio11naire that asked about:
1. the areas of London that they were familiar with
2. fill11s that they thought they were "very familiar
with" from a list of 150 films from 1939 t o the
present day
3. wl1ich of 20 world-famous landmarks they could
visualise in their mind's eye and had visited.
Participants
• A total of 11 right-ha11ded , qualified and licensed,
male taxi drivers took part in the study.
• Their average age was 45 years and none had any
l1istory of neurological illness.
• The .average time they 11ad spent being a London
taxi driver was 14.3 years{+/- 12 years).
The shortest time any participant had been
a taxi driver was three years. All participants
gave informed consent prior to taking part. All
volunteered to take part.
Procedure
• After the questionnaires had been completed
about familiar routes, landmarks and films, each
participant u11derwent a PET sca11.
• Each participant performed the tasks in a
drfferent order. Participa11ts completed a total of
12 tasks each.
• Every task lasted 90 seconds and there was an
8-mi11ute gap between each task.
• Once al.I tasks were completed, each participant Other points to consider include the following:
was debriefed. • A strength could be that as the study was testing
physiological mechanisms, the results could be
Results generalisable to a wider population as we all have
• There was no difference in the amount of speech the same brain regions explored in this study
recorded for the four main tasks so no one task (e.g. right hippocampus).
demanded more of the participants than the • The sample was quite restrictive in terms of
other tasks. demographics (using only London taxi drivers).
• When recalling the taxi route across London, Jt could be argued that the findings about the
there were very little differences in routes chosen right hippocampus being crucial in sequential
by the 11 participants . topographical memories might only be so marked
in taxi drivers.
Task Region of brain activated
Route in Extrastriate regions, medial parietal lobe,
London posterior cingulate cortex, parahippocamal
gyrus and right hippocampus
Landmarks Posterior cingulated cortex~ medial
parietal lobe, occlpito-temporal region and
parahippocampal gyrus
Rim tasks Left frontal regions, middle ten1poral gyrus,
combined left angular gyrus

• The cerebellum was activated in all tasks

compared to baseline.
• The major differenc.e between t he topographical
tasks was that the right hippocampus clearly -
played a role in the sequencing aspect of • Figure 6.3 What areas of the brain do taxi drivers use
topographical memories as this was only ever to take you to your destination?
activated during the route in London task.

Conclusion
The research team could conclude that the regions of
the brain used in semantic topographical memories
are similar to those seen in previous studies,
especially the strong role of the right hippocampus
in sequential route planning. This seems to be the
region that stores inforn1ation about routes in a
sequence, especially those that have developed over
a longer period of time.

Ev·a luation
Evaluation Related to Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith
Strength There were many controls (e.g. the pilot
questionnaire, the routes chosen to
describe, the landmarks, the specific time
a description was required while being
scanned) so the study could easily be
replicated to test for reliability.
Strength As there were many controls, such as the
tasks given to participants, the researchers
can be more confident that it is the type
of task that is directly affecting the brain
function of the taxi drivers.
Weakness The setting of undergoing a PET scan in an
artificial environment is not ecologically valid
- it is not something taxi drivers usually do.
Therefore the study lacks ecological validity.
Weakness Being blindfolded while describing a route
verbally during a PET scan is not a task that
taxi drivers usually perform - therefore the
study lacks mundane realisrn .
41

Core study 6.4
..
' attractiveness. The faces were presented,
Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007)
Context
Psychologists have been studying attraction for
years with a main focus on facial attractiveness and
social reasons as to why people become attracted
to each other. When looking at courtship in other
species. olfactory cues (smells) have been shown
to be very important in "attraction " . So, is it the
same in humans? Compared to many other species,
our ability to detect smells is quite limited (the
Jacobson's Organ helps detect smells and we have a
small Jacobson's Organ in relation to our body size).
Aim
To investigate whether the perceived attractiveness
of faces is affected by olfactory cues. The
researchers wanted to see if a pleasant or an
unpleasant smell would affect judgments of facial
attractiveness.
Method
Design
• Pictures of 40 male faces were chosen from an
established database. All the pictures were 13cm
wide and 17cm high.
• All the faces had been assessed already for
attractiveness many times and were labelled high,
medium or low attractiveness as a result.
• The research team chose a total of 20 faces that
were rated high attractiveness and 20 that were
rated low attractiveness.
• Four odours were chosen for the study: synthetic
body odour, a male fragrance called Gravity,
geranium and rubber.
• A pilot study confirmed that the Gravity and
geranium smells were "pleasant'1 and the body
odour and rubber were "unpleasant".
• A computer-controlled olfactometer was used to
deliver the odours during the study.
• The odours were diluted in the following ways to
ensure that none had a more intense smell than
the others: body odour 0 .33 per cent, geranium
1.0 per cent, Gravity 0.5 per cent and rubber
1.2 per cent.
• The design was a repeated measures experiment
(within participants).
• Each session consisted of 3 blocks of
40 randomised trials (so each participant had to
complete 120 trials in total).
• Every face was presented three times, once with
a pleasant odour, once with an unpleasant odour
and once with clean air.
• The research team counterbalanced the
combinations of face and odour by creating
42
four subgroups of ten faces (five attractive
and five less attractive) matched for mean
randomly, as follows :
1. ten with clear air, geranium and body odour
2. ten with clean air, Gravity and rubber
3. ten with clear air, geranium and rubber
4. ten with clean air, Gravity and body odour.
• The same odour was never presented in
consecutive trials.
• The whole experiment lasted for 50 minutes per
participant.
Participants
• Sixteen female participants from the University of
Oxford took part in the study.
• They had a mean age of 26 years (ranging from
20 to 34).
• None of them knew the purpose of the study.
• All were asked to complete a confidential
questionnaire to ensure that they had a normal
sense of smell, had no history of any olfactory
disorders and had normal vision or corrected-to-
normal vision (e.g. wore glasses).
Procedure
• Each participant sat on a chair that was 70cm
from a computer screen.
• Participants sat with their chin on a chin rest to
keep their head stable. Figure 6.4 shows the
order of events for one trial.
1. Participants were told to look at a cross on the
screen.
2. They were instructed to exhale as soon as they
heard a quiet tone.
3. They were instructed to inhale through their
nostrils as soon a.s they heard a loud tone.
4. One of the four odours (or clean air) was
delivered via the olfactometer 500ms after
they had performed step 3.
5 . The participants then had to decide whether
an odour had been presented or not.
6. A fixation cross that was on the monitor
disappeared 1 OOOms after the odour had
been delivered and a face appeared for
500ms. When the face disappeared so did any
odour that was being delivered and clean air
was delivered.
7 . The screen then turned black for 2000ms then
each participant was presented with a 9-point
rating scale. They had to rate the face for
attractiveness with 1 being least attractive and
9 being most attractive.
8. As soon as the response had been logged, the
fixation cross reappeared 10 OOOms before
the next trial began.
9. There was a rest period of 5 minutes after
each block of 40 trials.
 Key
100ms
•
Quiet tone : Clean air
200ms

1500ms
Odour presentation
Loud tone
200ms
Loudspeaker
5 OOOms

1 OOOms

Time Face presentation

500ms

a 2 OOOms

until response

10 OOOms

.A Figure 6 .4 Order of events

• At the end of each session, participants had to

rate each odour on three dimensions (intensity,
pleasantness and familiarity).
• This was completed on a labelled magnitude
scale (LMS) - a line with 0 on one end and 100
on the other for them to mark with a pen where
their response lay.
Results
• Faces were rated less attractive when an
unpleasant odour was presented compared to a
pleasant odour.
• There was no significant difference in
attractiveness ratings for pleasant odours
compared to clean air.
Conclusion
It would appear that olfactory cues can regulate our
perception of facial attractiveness. The participants
in this study consistently rated faces as being less
attractive when presented with an unpleasant odour.
Evaluation
Evaluation
..
Related to Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence
Strength Controls in this study include the pre-rating
of faces for attractiveness, the odour
concentrations and the standardised
presentation of each trial. Therefore, the
study cou ld be replicated with a different
sample to test for reliability.

• When the scores for both pleasant odours and
both unpleasant odours were merged, the average
ratings for attractiveness were as follows : clean
air (4.90), pleasant odours (4.85) and unpleasant
odours (4.42).
• The LMS data showed that the pleasant and
unpleasant odours were more intense than clean
air (as expected).
• The unpleasant odours were indeed rated as less
pleasant compared to the pleasant odours.
Strength The standardised procedure, including
the delivery of the different smel ls for the
same face, means the researchers can be
confident it was the odour being presented
that affected the ratings of attractiveness.
Weakness The setting was artificial as participants
sat on a chair with their chin on a chin rest
(and this is not a settingthey would often
experience in the real world).
Weakness Having an odour released near your face
and then having to rate a picture on
attractiveness ls not something that would
happen in everyday life. Therefore, the study
lacks mundane realism.

Facial attractiveness Odour Mean (SD)

Clean air Geranium Gravity Body odour Rubber
High 5.70 (0.21) 5.40 (0.23) 5. 73 (0.24) 5.39 (0.21) 4.96 (0.25)
Low 4.10 (0.16) 4.06 (0.20) 4 .15 (0.20) 3.64 (0.21) 3.72 (0.23)

.A Table 6. 7 Mean attractiveness ratings 43

 6 Pt1ysiological psychology

Quantitative data only was collected for this study. Other points to consider include the following:
This method can be evaluated as follows: • Use of repeated measures means that any
participant variables have been controlled for.
Evaluation Related to Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence This is because all participants rated all pictures
Strength The ratings given by the participants were under unpleasant odour, pleasant odour and clean
numerical (on a scale of 1-9) so averages air conditions.
could be calculated to show the difference
• As they rated all pictures under unpleasant
between the attractiveness ratings per
odour, pleasant odour and clean air conditions,
odour presented .
participants may have been able to work out
Strength The ratings were given by participants
the aim of the study and give ratings based on
and analysed for a mean score per
that rat her than their own personal judgments
presented odour. There was no room for
misinterpretation of results or drawing (demand characteristics).
the wrong conclusion. This made
comparisons easy.
Weakness The researchers did not discover why
participants rated each face the way they
did (i.e. the researchers did not know the
reasoning behind the attractiveness ratings
of the faces). Therefore, the data lack
some of the richness of detail that could
have been collected via qualitative data.
Weakness Some participants may have worked out
the aim of the study and recorded ratings
that fitted in with the study aims (demand
characteristics), e.g. they may have rated
faces more attractive when pleasant
odours were presented as they felt that A. Figure 6.5 Can smells affect how attractive we find
was expected. This could also be the case someone?
as they rated all faces under pleasant and
unpleasant odour conditions.

44
 The psychology of individual
differences
Core study 7.1
Rosenhan (1973)
Context
Abnormal psychology is an area of huge interest
for many students approaching the subject for the
first time. Jt is one of the most controversial areas
that we will learn about, mainly because of the
implications of diagnosing individuals as "abnormal"
or "mentally ill" on their subsequent treatment.
Attempts to classify abnormality formally have been
made by psycl1iatrists - doctors with medical training
who consider mental illness as equivalent to otl1er
forms of illness. Psychiatrists use tl1e Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders {DSM) to
classify abnormal behaviour and d iagnose patients .
Rosenhan and others have criticised the medical
model of mental illness as part of wl1at is known
as the "anti-psychiatry movement". One of the
most serious criticisms levelled at psychiatry is
that it actually increases the suffering of those who
receive a mental health diagnosis. This is because
it removes control from the patient, who can then
be manipulated for political and social purposes.
A second major issue that concerned Rosenhan
was the reliability and validity of diagnosis: to what
extent can tl1e sane be consistently and accurately
distinguished from the insane?
Aim
To investigate whether the sane can be reliably and
accurately distinguisl1ed from the insane.
• Study 1 investigated whether normal, sane
individuals would be admitted t o psychiatric
hospitals, to see if and how they would be
discovered.
• Study 2 examined whether genuine patier1ts
would be misidentified as "sane" by various
hospital staff.
Method (study 1)
Participants
• Eight pseudopatients were adu lts over the age
of 20 and included Rosenhan, a psychology
graduate student in his twenties, psychologists,
a pediatrician, a psychiatrist, a painter and a
l1ousewife.
• Three pseudopatients were female, five were male.
• All used false names, and those with careers
in mental health claimed to have an alternative
occupation to avoid attracting any special
attention from staff.
• Rosenhan was the first pseudopatient and his
involvement was known only to the hospital
administrator and chief psychologist.
• The settings were also varied. To make the
fi11dings generalisable, pseudopatients sought
admission to a variety of hospitals.
• Twelve hospitals were chosen, across five states
in the United States.
• They ranged from old and shabby to modern and
new, and included public, private and university-
funded hospitals.
• Staff-to-patient ratios also varied greatly.
• The ''real" participants were the doctors and
nurses in each hospital.
Design and procedure
• After calling the hospital for an appointment, the
pseudopatient arrived at the admissions office
of the hospital and asserted that he or she had
been heari11g voices, which were unclear but were
saying "empty" , "hol low" and "thud ".
• Pseudopatients all reported that the voices were
unfamiliar and were of the same sex.
• All other detalls of pseudopatients' lives,
relationships and experiences were given
truthfully to the medical staff, with the exception
of their 11ame, participation in the current study
a11d, in some cases, occupation.
• Pseudopatients entered the study understanding
that they l1ad to be released from the institution
by their own means, by convincing staff th ey were
sane.
• On the ward, pseudopatients behaved "normally"
and attempted to engage others in co11versation .
• They indicated to staff that they were no lo11ger
experiencing any symptoms, obeyed the rules
and routines of the ward and pretended to take
prescribed medication without fuss .
• The study was a participant observation:
researchers acted as genuine patients while
keeping a written record of their personal
experience in each institution.
• In four hospitals, pseudopatients also observed
staff responses t o a specific request. They
approached a member of staff and asked: "When
am I likely to be discharged?"
45
 7 The psychology of individual differences
Results {study 1)
• Despite showing no symptoms of insanity once
admitted, pseudopatients were not detected by
staff in the hospitals.
• Failure to recognise sanity therefore was not
related to the quality of the hospital.
• All except one received diagnoses of
schizophrenia, and were discharged with a
diagnosis of "schizophrenia in remission".
• The length of stay in hospital ranged from 7 to
52 days, the average stay lasting 19 days.
• During the first three trials, 35 out of a total of
118 genuine patients voiced suspicions about
the sanity of the pseudopatients.
• They made accusations such as "You're not
crazy ... you're checking up on the hospital" , while
none of the hospital staff raised such concerns.
• There was a strong tendency towards a type 2
error in diagno·sis, which is when a healthy person
is diagnosed as ill.
• Once admitted with a diagnosis of mental illness,
subsequent .behaviour by pseudopatients was
interpreted in light of their diagnosis. Rosenhan
calls this the "stickiness of psychodiagnostic
labels". These are exam pl es of "pathologica I
behaviour" from the observers' experiences:
o When pacing in the hospital corridors from
boredom, pseudopatients were asked by a
nurse if they were nervous.
o When recording behaviour in notes on the
ward, pseudopatients were described by the
nurse as "engaging in writing behaviour".
o Waiting outside the cafeteria before lunch,
pseudopatients were said to demonstrate the
''oral-acquisitive" nature of their conditions.
• Experience of hospitalisation was overwhelmingly
negative and unpleasant.
• Hospital staff avoided interaction with patients.
• On average, attendants spent only 11.3 per cent
of their time mixing with patients in the dayroom .
• The doctors emerged even less often; on average,
they left the separate staff areas only 6. 7 times
a day.
• The results of the separate observation
conducted in four of the hospitals directly
measuring staff interaction with patients found
that avoidance of a patient's questions was high.
• Powerlessness was evident in each institution.
• There was a lack of confidentiality; patients' case
notes were read openly by casual members of
staff who had no therapeutic input.
• Patients' personal hygiene and waste evacuation
were monitored, and toilet cubicles had no doors.
Even the initial physical examinations were
conducted in a semi-public room.
46
• The depersonalisation of patients was also a key
finding. There were instances where ward staff
attendants physically abused patients in the
presence of other patients.
• A total of 2 100 pills were administered
to pseudopatients (although they were not
swallowed).
• Many other patients also disposed of their
medication, unchallenged by staff as long as
patients remained cooperative.
Method {study 2)
Participants
• Participants were psychiatric staff at one research
and teaching hospital who had been briefed on
the findings of the main study.
• Judgments were made on 193 patients who were
admitted for psychiatric treatment.
Design and procedure
• The staff were informed that at some point
during a three-month period, one or more
pseudopatients would attempt to gain admission
to the hosprtat.
• Each staff member was asked to rate each
patient - either at admission or on the ward -
according to the likelihood that the patient was
an imposter.
• A 10-point scale was used, with 1 reflecting
the strongest belief that the patient was a
pseudopatient, and 10 the strongest belief that
that patient was genuine.
Results {study 2)
• Of the patients admitted during the three-month
period, 41 were rated with high confidence to be
pseudopatients by at least one member of staff.
• Of these patients, 23 were suspected by at least
one psychiatrist, and 19 were suspected by a
psychiatrist and at least one other staff member.
• No pseudopatients actually presented themselves
to the hospital for admission during the period of
this study.
• Psychiatric staff committed a type 1 error by
identifying mentally ill patients as healthy.
Conclusion
This study challenges the idea that psychiatric
professionals can effectively distinguish between
individuals who are sane and those who are insane:
• In study 1, Rosenhan concludes that
psychiatrists are unable to reliably identify sane
pseudopatients (type 2 error: false positive) .
• In study 2, he claims to demonstrate that
psychiatrists fail to reliably detect insanity
(type 1 error: false negative).
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Rosenhan
Strength Staff were unaware that they were being
observed and so were most of the
patients (some did have an idea the
pseudopatient was not a real patient).
Therefore, what was being seen was the
usual behaviour of participants in their
everyday surroundings, so this aspect of
the study has ecological validity.
Weakness Different hospitals may be run in different
ways (e.g. have different admissions
procedures or daily routines) which
makes replication of this study in another
hospital difficult.
Other points to consider include the following:
• Usefulness: the findings from this study can be
used to improve human behaviour in general,
especially linked to mental illness and how it
is treated. The findings were used to improve
psychiatric care and the diagnosis process as
this study highlighted the problems of the
systems at that t ime.
• Ethics: there were elements of deception and
issues with the right for the pseudopatients
to withdraw voluntarily and be protected from
physical and psychological harm. However, all of
these were necessary for the study to achieve
valid results.
47
 7 The psychology of individual differences
Core study 7.2
Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)
Context
Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a rare
psychological condition. So little is known about the
disorder that some professionals doubt its existence
at all. Nowadays, MPD is known as dissociative
identity disorder {DlD) in the Diagnostic Statistical
Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM).
DID is defined by DSM-IV as the presence of two or
more distinct identities, or distinct identities that
each have their own way of perceiving and thinking
about the environment and self. According to the
diagnostic criteria, at least two of these personality
states recurrently take control of the individual 's
behaviour. Although plural identities are present,
it is important to remember that they all exist as
manifestations of one person.
Two or more personalities coexist, but only one is "in
control " of the person at a given time. The different
personalities might not be aware of one another's
existence and experience. This means those with the
disorder might experience dissociative fugues, and
be unable to recall important personal information.
MPD is an example of a neurotic disorder. It is not a
form of schizophrenia, although many people confuse
the two conditions.
Aim
To give an account of the psychotherapeutic
experience of an individual who was considered to
have multiple personalities.
Method
Participant
• The participant was a 25-year-old married mother
with a 4-year-old daughter; her real name was
changed in Thigpen & Cleckley's report to "Eve
White " to preserve her anonymity.
• She was the oldest of three siblings and was
employed as a telephone operator.
• This young woman was initially referred to Thigpen
for therapy after complaining of severe and
blinding heada.ches. At her first interview she also
mentioned experiencing blackouts following such
headaches.
Design and procedure
• This research is considered a classic case study.
• The case of Eve was explored primarily through
psychotherapeutic interviews. Some of the
interviews conducted with Eve were done under,
or following, hypnosis, in order to draw out
different personalities.
• The study took place over a period of 14 months,
and material was gathered from approximately
100 hours of interviews.
48
• In addition, background information was obtained
through interviews with family members, including
Eve's husband.
• These were carried out in order to back up
Eve's account of events from her childhood to
adulthood. Quantitative measures were taken of
Eve White (EW) and Eve Black (EB).
• These included psychometric measure.s of
memory and IQ.
• She also underwent two projection tests that were
subjected to analysis by the researchers. These
included an exercise drawing human figures, and
interpreting Rorschach ink blots.
• Later in the case study, when the third personality
"Jane'' appeared, all three were subject to an
electro-encephalogram (EEG).
Results
Eve White ( EW)
• Initially, the therapists report some slight progress
in treating EW's symptoms following discussion of
some of her emotional problems.
• EW was thought to be suffering from personal
frustrations and difficulties with her husband
(from whom she was currently separated).
• During the course of a session EW was unable to
recall details of a recent trip she had made.
• Hypnosis was induced and her memory was
restored. Several days later, a letter from EW
was received about this therapy session written
for the most part in her own handwriting, with
the exception of the final paragraph, which was
written in a childish scrawl.
• The letter was the first indication that anything
was unusual about EW's case, as she had
presented herself as a self-controlled and
truthful person.
• At the next session, EW denied sending the letter,
but was distressed and agitated and finally asked
whether hearing an imaginary voice would indicate
she was "insane" .
• Later in this interview EW's entire manner and
voice changed and she introduced herself as
" Eve Black".
• Her IQ was 110.
Eve Black (EB)
• EB appeared mischievous, light-hearted and
playful as she was interviewed.
• She seemed to have existed independently from
EW since childhood. She was found to have
separate thoughts and feelings from EW, but also
had awareness and access to EW's life while she
herself was absent.
• Despite this access to EW's thoughts, EB had
little sympathy for her. While EW loved and
missed her daughter (from whom she was also
separated), EB was unconcerned and glib about
the suffering of EW.
• Initially, persuading EB to "come out" required
hypnosis, but over time this was no longer
necessary.
• However, EB was never hypnotisable, and
attempts to " call outn both personalities
simultaneously were unsuccessful and
distressing to EW.
• EW was forbidden from playing in the woods as a
child; one day EB took over and broke her parent's
strict rule. Upon her return, EW was whipped for
her disobedience, much to her con·fusion and
dismay. Her parents corroborated this story and
also expressed their puzzlement at such out-0f-
character behaviour in their normally obedient and
honest daughter.
• Similar instances occurred in Eve's adulthood.
Her husband recalled an incident where he
discovered she had spent an enormous sum of
money on clothes; he had abused her for being
so careless and indulgent. As it was EB who had
indulged in the expensive shopping trip, EW was
deeply bewildered and apologetic for such an
irresponsible lapse in her behaviour.
• EB's other distinctive behaviours included
drinking to excess, hooking up with strange men
and, allegedly, even committing to a prior secret
marriage.
• Her IQ was 104.
Jane
• In a session after the headaches had restarted,
EW was discussing a painful childhood memory
when suddenly her head dropped back and her
eyes closed.
• Two minutes later she looked around the room
confusedly and asked where she was.
• Another transformation had taken place, with
mannerisms and characteristics highly distinct
from either EW or EB. Jane - as she called herself
- was more confident, interesting and assertive
than timid EW, but without the personality faults
of EB.
• She was aware of the behaviour of the other
two personalities, but could not access their
memories prior to her emergence.
• The EEG conducted several weeks later on
all three personalities traced 33 minutes
of recording, including intervals of at least
5 minutes of each personality, and some
transitions between individuals.
• Tenseness was most pronounced in EB, next in EW,
and least of all Jane. Muscle tension was greatest
in EB, and the test indicated it was easiest to
transpose from EB to EW. EB's results were only
borderline normal, with some records showing an
association with psycho.p athic personality. Both EW
and Jane's records were normal.
Conclusion
• Despite the debate over the existence of MPD,
the researchers concluded that they were not
tricked by a skilful actress but had observed the
existence of three distinct personalities within
one individual.
Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Thigpen & CleckJey
Strength The researchers focused on just the one
person (Eve} and ran many psychological
and physical tests on her to assess the
three "d[stinct" personalities. A lot of data
were collected to help differentiate between
the three, making the findings more valid.
Strength It could be argued that the study has some
ecological validity as Eve was in therapy
and the assessment followed what could
happen in a therapeutic setting.
Weakness The researchers only studied one person
and she may be a unique case. This would
make generalising difficult as she may not
represent any other person who claims to
have more than one personal ity.
Weakness Some psychologi.sts could argue that
Thigpen & Cleckley got attached to Eve as
a patient and lost objectivity because they
wanted to find differences between the
three personalities. This could obviously
reduce the validity of the findings as the
researchers may have only reported data
that confirmed their Ideas.
Thigpen & Cleckley also collected some qualitative
data. These can be evaluated as follows:
Evaluation Related to Thigpen & Cleckley
Strength The interviews and psychometric testing
were in depth so a lot of detail was
recorded. All of it represents what was
actually happening to Eve in her three
personality states so the researchers
were looking at as much data as possible.
Therefore, It is not reductionist.
Weakness The researchers may have only reported
data that confirmed what they believed as
some of the data collected were subjectively
analysed (the interview transcripts and
what Eve was feeling). They may have also
misinterpreted some of what Eve was trying
to get across in her interviews.
49
 7 The psychology of individual differences

Core study 7.3 • The extreme groups were those in the top 2.5 per
cent when the difference was calculated between
Billington, Baron-.Cohen & Wheelwright (2007) the s .Q-R and EQ scores for each participant.
• Task 1: Embedded figures task (FC-EFT). This task
Context involves seeing a series of 12 pairs of diagrams
(see Figure 7 .1 for an example).
Psychologists have long been interested in why
there are gender differences in the numbers of
people studying certain subjects at school, college
and university. In subjects such as mathematics
and sciences, there has always .been a marked
difference in the number of males and females
choosing to study them. This research team were
interested in "cognitive style" and whether they
could explain gender differences (rather than finding
males are better than females in these subjects).
Two examples of cognitive style are empathisers
(people who have the ability to identify another
person's mental state and respond using a range A. Figure 7 .1. Embedded figures task (FC-ECT) example
of corre ct emotions) and systemisers (people who diagram
have the ability to analyse the rules underlying a Source: Based on Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright,
system in order to predict a behaviour - systems 2007
include machines, weather systems, mathematics,
maps, etc.). • Participants' task was to choose which of the two
more complex diagrams contained the smaller
shape within it.
Aim • It was a forced-choice task. so participants had to
To investigate four issues: choose just one of the more complex shapes.
1. To see whether there is still a sex difference • If participants failed to respond in 50 seconds
in the number of people studying the physical then the task automatically moved on to the next
sciences and humanities. pair of shapes.
2. To see whether males are more likely to be • Every time participants got the answer correct
systemisers and females more likely to be they were awarded 1 point.
empathisers.
• There was an additional bonus point added to
3. To see whether physical science students are participa nts' scores every time they were in the
more likely to be systemisers and humanities fastest 25 per cent for that pair of shapes.
students more likely to be empathisers.
• Therefore, the range of scores was 0 to 24.
4. To see whether cognitive style is a better
• Task 2: The eyes test. The participant was given
predictor than sex in explaining enrolment
four choices of emotions and asked to choose
onto physical science courses compared to
the one that is the closest to the emotion that the
humanities courses.
eyes are conveying.

Method apologetic fnendly

Design
There were two questionnaires and two performance
tasks. All of these were accessible and completed
via a secure university website.
• Questionnaire 1: Systemizing quotient-revised
scale (SQ-R). It consists of 75 ite·ms. The score
range on the questionnaire is 0-150.
uneasy dispirited
• Questionnaire 2: Empathy quotient (EQ). It
consists of 40 items. The score range is 0-80. A Figure 7 .2 Eyes test

• From these two questionnaires, participants could • If the participant failed to respond in 20 seconds
be classified as one of five brain types: then the task automatically moved on to the next
o type S (systemiser) pair of eyes.
o type E (empathiser) • There were 36 pairs of eyes to rate and a point
o type B (balanced) was awarded for each correct choice -the same
bonus point system was used here as i·n the
o extreme type S
FC-EFT task.
o extreme type E.
50 • Therefore, the range of scores is 0-72.
Participants Female Female Male Male
• For this study 415 participants were recruited. physical humanities physical humanities
•
• They were either studying for a physical science sc1ence sc.1• ence
degree or a humanities degree. FC- 15.05 14.07 15.03 14.14
EFT (3.05) (2.40) (3.14) (2.63)
• Physical science subjects included mathematics,
phys.ics, engineering and astronomy. Eyes 32.86 46.82 31.83 33.79
• Humanities subjects included classics, law, test (6.65) (12.07 ) (7.23) {8.00)
theology and history. .A. Table 7 .3 The two tasks - mean and standard deviation
• The average age of the participants was 21 years scores for each sex split by degree choice. Standard
(standard deviation of 2.51 years). deviations are in parentheses
• Of the participants, 87. 7 per cent were right-
• There was a significant relationship between
handed, 10.6 per cent were left-handed and
sex and cognitive style: 66 per cent of males
1. 7 per cent were ambidextrous.
were categorised as type S or extreme type S
• They were recruited through e-ma ii and (only 28.8 per cent of females); 36.8 per cent of
advertisements across the university offering females were categorised as type E or extreme
the incentive of a prize draw. type E (only 10.3 per cent of males).
• Females performed significantly better than males
Sex Degree N % of tota.1N
on the eyes test.
Female Physical 108 26
Humanities 104 25.1 • There was no significant sex difference in the
Total 212 51.1 FC-EFT.
Male Physical 160 38.6 • Of the physical science students, 56.3 per cent
Humanities 43 10.4 of them had a type S or extreme type S profile
Total 203 48.9 (only 29.4 per cent of humanities students). Of
Total Physical 268 64.6 the humanities students, 41.5 per cent had type
Humanitjes 147 35.4 E or extreme type E profiles (only 14.2 per cent of
Total 415 100 physical science students)
.A Table 7.1 Percentage of participants studying each • Physical science students performed significantly
degree category. by sex better on the FC-EFT compared to humanities
students.
Procedure • Overall, males tended to be classified as
• Those who volunteered to take part in the systemisers whereas females tended to be
study could visit the secure university website classified as empathisers.
and complete the questionnaires and tasks in • Overall, physical science students tended to
any order. be classified as systemisers whereas females
• They did not have to complete both questionnaires tended to be classified as empathisers.
and tasks in the same sitting but they could • All of the main predictors could predict degree
only attempt each task and complete each choice but there was a rank order:
questionnaire once. 1 . Brain type was the strongest predictor (type E,
type S, etc.}
Results 2. Performance on the FC-EFT task was the
Overall, there was a significant sex difference in second predictor.
degree choice with 59.1 per cent of physical science 3. Performance on the eyes test was the next
students being male and 70.1 per cent of humanities predictor.
students being female.
4. Sex was the weakest predictor (but it still was
Female Female Male Male significant).
physical humanities physical humanities
• •

SQ~ R
science
61.23 51.54
science
65.46 58.65
Conclusion
(20.60) (19.18) (18.17) (21.17) • It would appear that the "sex difference" in
degree choice between physical sciences and
EQ 43.48 46.82 35.59 40.56
humanities is less of an actual sex difference
(12.56) (12.07) (10.39) (10.33)
but more of a cognitive style difference .
.A. Table 7.2 The two questionnaires - mean and standard
• Students with certain brain types (systemisers
deviation scores for each gender split by degree choice.
and empathisers) tend to pick thejr degrees
Standard deviations are in parentheses
differently - systemisers pick physical science
subjects in the main while empathisers pick
humanities subjects in the main .

51
 7 Tl1e psychology of individual differences

Evaluation Other points to consider include the following:

• Usefulness: the researchers used psychometric
Evaluation Related to BiJlington, Barol'H:ohen & tasks in the study which meant comparisons can
Wheelwright be useful as people's results are being compared
Strength Participants completed the on the same, standardised scale.
questionnaires by themselves {they did
• Reliability: the study can be easily replicated
not have to answer questions in front
of anyone) so they were more likely to
using the same standardised psychometric tests
give truthful answers. (FC-EFT and the eyes test) to test for reliability
with a different sample.
Strength A total of 415 partic ipants took part in
the study over a short period of time
giving a wide spread of results that
could be applied to students of physical
science and humanities subjects.
Weakness As they completed the questionnaires
by themselves, some partic ipants
may have chosen answers that made
them "look good'" rather than how they
truly process information (e.g. as a
systemiser).
Weakness There may have been some questions
that participants had to choose an
ans...ver for that was not how they truly
process information but was the closest
ans...ver to how they do it - therefore, £ Figure 7 .3 What makes students choose the subjects
it may not be a completely true they do for their university degrees?
representation of their cognitive style.

Volunteer or self-selecting sampling can be evaluated

as follows:
Evaluation Related to Billington, Baron-Cohen &
Wheelwright
Strength A total of 415 participants came
forward to participate (a researcher
simply advertised) and they could
complete the study when it was
conven ient for them (so they were more
likely to complete it).
Strength No drop-out rate figures were given so
we can assume that most participants
completed all four tasks.
Weakness Only motivated students of physical
science and humanities subjects would
have come forward to participate, so
it might be difficult to generalise to
those who are less motivated to take
part in a study but are completing
similar degree programmes. We cannot
be certain that those who chose
not to participate followed the same
general patterns for systemisers and
empathisers.

52

Core study 7 .4
Veale & Riley (2001)
Context
This study was conducted as a result of a body
dysmorphlc disorder (BOD) patient that one of the
authors had come into contact with . The patient had
told one of the researchers that he had just spent six
hours staring at himself in a series of mirrors.
BOD is an anxiety disorder that is related to body
image. BOD patients will experience concern about
their appearance that can be quite disruptive to daily
routines. There may be excessive use of mirrors or
picking at the skin which helps the person deal with
the worries about his or her appearance. Statistics
suggest that around 80 per cent of BOD patients
engage in mirror-gazing behaviours (the remainder are
usually the complete opposite - they remove mirrors
from the house or avoid them). This is why Veale &
Riley conducted this study as only theoretical ideas
had been debated (e.g. the cognitive behavioural
model suggests that niirror gazing in BOD helps to
increase self-consciousness and selective attention
hence maintaining the BOD condition in patients -
they can constantly see what they do not like).
Aim
To investigate the function, frequency and role of
mirror gazing in BOD patients .
Method
Design
• A questionnaire was designed to gather
information on the function, frequency and rote
of mirror gazing in the lives of BOD patients and
non-BOD individuals.
• The questionnaire consisted of the sections given
in Table 7 .4.

Section Type of questions

Length of time Participants were asked the average duration of " long" sessions in minutes (during the last or
mirror gazing previous month). They had to estimate the maximum amount of time on one occasion that they had
spent in front of a mirror in hours and minutes. They were asked the average duration of frequency
of "short" sessions during the last or previous month in minutes.
Motivation This was a 12-item section where participants had to rate how much they agreed with each
before look1ng in statement (strongly agree, agree, neither disagree or agree, disagree and strongly disagree).
a mirror Example statements were: "I have to make myself look my best", "I need to see what I like about
myself" and "r have to know what I look like and I can't until I look in the mirror·· . They answered
the items for a ulong" session then repeated it for a ''short" session. At the end they could
note anything else that motivated them to mirror gaze.
Focus of Participants were asked to rate their concentration levels on the mirror during both " long" and
attention "short" sessions. The scale was from + 4 to - 4 with +4 representing "I am entirely focused on an
impression or feeling that I get about myself" and - 4 representing "I am entirely focused on my
reflection in the mirror".
Distress before Participants had to rate the level of distress they felt before and after a "long" and ~short" session.
and after looking The scale was 1- 10 where 1 represented "not at all distressed" and 10 represented "extre111ely
Into the mirror distressed". For both the "long" and ushort" sessions, they had to rate three times:
(a) before looking in the mirror
(b) immediately after looking in the mirror
(c) after resisting the urge to look in a mirror (this was not taken for ''short" sessions in error).
Behaviour in For botl1 " long" and ''short" sessions, .participants had to estimate the percentage of time they
front of the engaged in a range of nine behaviours whlle mirror gazing. Participants had to ensure that the total
mirror reached 100. The nine behaviours were:
1. Trying to hide my defects or enhance my appearance by the use of make-up
2. Combing or styling my hair
3. Trying to make my skin smooth by picking and squeezing spots
4. Plucking or removing hair or shaving
5. Comparing what I see in the mirror with an image that I have in my mind
6. Trying to see something different in the mirror
7. Feeling the skin with my fingers
8. Practising the best position to pull or show in public
9. Measuring parts of my face.
They could then list other behaviours not listed above.
Type of Iight They were asked whether type of light was important for mirror gazing on a vfsual analogue scale
preferred from wnatural daylight" to uartificial light".
Type of reflective They were asked ff they used a series of mirrors or any other reflective surface for gazing (e.g. the
surface backs of CDs).
Mirror avoidance They were asked if they avoided any types of mirror or sttuatf ons involving mirrors . 53
.A. Table 7.4 Sections on the Veale & Riley questionnaire
 7 Tile psycllology of individual differences

• A " long" session was defined as " ... the longest Attention on the whole
time during the day that the person spends in or specific parts of
front of the mirror" (Veale & Riley, 2001: 1383). appearance {0-100 70.5 {24.3 ) 44.5 (34.02)
on visual analogue
Participants
scale} in long session
• Participants were 52 patients diagnosed with
Distress before long
BOD - they fu lfilled the Diagnostic and Statistical 6.44 (2.3) 1 .6 {0.83)
session (1- 10}
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for BOD.
Distress after long
• A group of 55 control participants (non-BDD) were 7.63 (2.2) 2.40 (2.3)
session (1-10)
recruited from personal contacts of the authors. Distress resisting
• The groups were matched on age and sex. gaze for long session 6.82 (2.6 ) 2.38 {2 .5)
(1- 10)
Procedure
• All participants were asked to complete the self- .& Table 7 .5 Characteristics of BOD patients and non-BOD
report mirror-gazing quest ionnaire. patients (the controls)

• They were told that the questions were about Section Key results
behaviours from the last or previous month.
Length of The mean duration t ime for a long session
• They were also asked , prior to completion, time mirror for BOD patients was. 72.5 minutes but
whether they had engaged in a "long" session in gazing only 21.3 for the controls. The duration of
front of the mirror in most days within the last or a short session was 4.8 minutes for the
previous month. BOD group and 5.5 for the controls (not a
• If they had then they completed the questionnaire significant difference).
based on "longn sessions. Afte r completing the Motivation BOD patients were more likely to at least
questionnaire they repeated the same process before agree with all 12 items. Controls were
but for "shortn sessions (e.g. quick glances). looking in much more likely to be interested in being
a mirror presentable. BOD patients were more likely
to use the mirror if they felt depressed.
Results Focus of Only for a "long" session did BOD patients,
• 44/52 BOD patients (84.6 per cent) and 16/54 attention compared to controls, focus on internal
controls (29.6 per cent) re ported having a "long" impressions and feelings rather than the
session in the last or previous month. external reflection they were gazing at. BOD
patients were more likely to focus on j ust
• For "short" sessions, 45/52 (86.5 per cent) of BOD
one part of their face rather than the whole
patients and 43/ 55 (79.6 per cent) reported having face compared to controls.
one or more in the last or previous month.
Distress For both types of session, BOD patients
BOD mean Controls mean before rated themselves s ignificantly more
( SD) (SD) and after distressed than controls. For u long"
Age 30.1 (8.6) 33.4 (8.9) looking into sessions, BOD patients continued to be
the mirror more distressed compared to controls after
Sex {% male) 40.4% 48% mirror gazing. They also reported more
Mean duration of long distress if they resisted gazing compared
72.5 (94.8) 21.3 {19.6)
session (minutes) to controls.
Maximum duration Behaviour BOD patients and contro ls estimated the
of longest session 173.8 (205.3) 35.5 (29.3 ) in front of same proportion of time engaging in using
(minutes} the mirror make-up, combing/styling hair, picking
Mean number of short spots and feeling skin. BOD patients were
• 14.6 (13.6} 3.9 (3.4) more likely to compare what they saw
sessions
with an image in their mind about how
Mean duration of short
4.8 (5.4 ) 5 .5 (12.8} they should ideally look and trying to see
sessions (minutes)
someth ing different in the mirror. These
Type of light preferred were for " long" sessions.
(natural daylight or
38.5 (32.4 ) 41.6 (27.0) For "short" sessions BOD patients were
artificial} on visual
more likely to use the mirror for checking
analogue scale
make-up, practising the best position to
External or internal show in public and comparing what they
focus of attention saw with an image In their mind about how
- 0.49 (2.9) - 2.2 (1.9)
(- 4 to + 4 ) tor long they should ideally look .
•
session
BOD patients listed many other behaviours
External or internal they engaged in (e.g. washing rituals,
focus of attention combing eyebrows and squashing features
- 1.12 (2.7) - 1.15 (2.1)
(- 4 to + 4 ) for short to see how things would look If they had
session plastic surgery).

54
 Type
of light
There were no significant differences.
preferred
Type of For " long" sessions, BOD patients were
reflective more likely to use a series of mirrors
surface (52.4% of patients) compared to controls
(6.7%). For ushort" sessions, both groups
used shop windows to gaze. However, BDD
patients reported a wide variety of surfaces
they would use including cutlery, vehicles,
TV screens, car mirrors and taps.
Mirror Two-thirds of BOD patients and 14% of the
avoidance control group reported avoiding certain
mirrors. There were four types of selective
avoidance of mirrors noted by BOD
patients:
1. To avoid looking at a specific "defect"
(e.g. if the nose was seen as a defect
they would avoid mirrors where it could
be seen, choosing smaller hand-held
mirrors to hold above the nose).
2. To avoid mirrors labelled as "bad" or
"unsafe " as they had been assoc~ated
with a specific bad image.
3. Only using private mirrors; avoiding
those in public as they could be too
upsetting.
4. A "flip" between avoidance and gazing -
patients may gaze and plck skin and
keep gazing until the skin heals. Then
they would avoid mirrors and not pick
skin again until they felt the urge .
Evaluation
A wealth of quantitative data were collected which
ena.b led the researchers to easily compare scores
within and across the two groups.
Evaluation Related to Veale & Riley
Strength BDD patients were probably more likely to
admit to aJI of their mirror-gazing activities
as they did not have to reveal them to a
person face to face . This should increase
the validity of the find ings.
Weakness As mirror gazing is core to BDD, some
or all of the patients may have given
answers that made the psychologists
judge them in a "better light ". They may
not have revealed all of their mirror-gazing
behaviours to give the impression that their
behaviours were not strange or different.
There is also an ethical issue to consider:
• The guideline concerning protection is relevant to this
study. Some psychologists could argue that making
BOD patients reflect on what they do, by keeping a
tog to use when completing questionnaires, makes
their condition worse as they are now answering a lot
of questions about it BOD patients might engage in
mirror gazing more often as a result of the study. It
could be argued that the BOD patients were not truly
protected in this study (e.g. writing about the mirror
gazing and that they do it because of depression
could make the depression worse).

..A. Table 7.6 Results per section of the Veale & Riley
questionnaire

Conclusion
The researchers concluded: " BOD patients hold
a number of problematic beliefs and behaviours
in their mirror use compared to controls . Mirror
gazing in BOD does not follow a simple model of ...
compulsive checking ... (and) is best conceptualised
as a series of idiosyncratic and complex safety
behaviours, that is designed to prevent a feared
outcome .. . (Veale & Riley, 2001: 1389).

.A Figure 7.4 What role does mirror gazing play in BOD?

55
 Exam centre for AS level
The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/or comments that appear in this book were written by the
author. Jn examination, the way marks would be awarded to answers like these may be different
This section will cover the different sty/es of questions that are likely to be asked in core studies 1 and 2.
There will be some example answers with marks attached to them alongside author's brief comments.
Core studies 1
Section A
Q: In the Held & Hein study, name two of the tests
the kittens had to perform after being in the
kitten carousel. (2 marks)
A: The kittens performed more than two tests but
two of them were avoiding the visual cliff and
eating behaviour.
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark
for "avoiding the visual cliff". The other behaviour is
incorrect. As the question asked the student to "name"
that is all you have to do, so "the kittens performed
more than two tests but two of them are .. .'' is not
necessary. You can simply name two tests. Therefore
just stating "avoiding the visual cliff and guided paw
placement" would be likely to receive 2 marks.
Q: In the Veale & Riley study, who were the two
groups of participants and what were they
matched on? (2 marks)
A: There was a group of people diagnosed with body
dysmorphic disorder (BOD) and a control group
without BOD. They were matched on age and sex.
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive
2 marks as the student has answered both parts of the
question correctly.
Q: Outline how Tajfel spltt the boys Into different
groups for either of his studies. (2 marks)
A: He split them into an in group and an out group
and because all of the boys knew each other this
was not easy. They completed books of matrices
to see who liked who and whether the boys would
discrin1inate against the out group.
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive O marks
as it does not answer the question set. The answer
needed to cover the boys being rando111ly assigned to
either the underestimators or the overestimators groups
after they had conducted the dot cluster visual judgment
task as an example from study 1 .
Q: Outline one result from the Loftus & Pickrell
study. (2 marks)
A: The mean clarity rating for false events at the
first interview was 2.8/ 10.
56
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark.
The student has given the correct mean value but has not
compared it to either the mean clarity rating for the true
event or the mean clarity rating for false events at second
interview. In these types of question make sure you make
a comparison to be likely to gain the second mark.
Q: Outline two controls that Langlois et al used in
their study. (4 marks)
A: The slides that were used in study 1 were
matched between the attractive and unattractive
groups in terms of hair colour, hair length and the
facial expressions used. Also, all of the slides
had been rated for attractiveness beforehand
and only the top ones were chosen.
Comment: This 4-mark question is normally marked
2 + 2. The first control is very clear and explains what
was controlled across the two conditions so would be
likely to receive 2 marks. The second control is not as
clear as the student does outline one other control but
the outline is brief and we do not know what the control
was (e.g. it is not stated that they used roughly the top
eight most attractive faces for males and females from
the original pool of faces). Therefore. this section would
be unlikely to receive more than 1 mark. Overall it is
expected that the answer would gain 3 niarks.
Q: Outline two differences between Eve White
and Eve Black in the Thigpen & Cleckley study.
(4 marks)
A: Both underwent IQ tests and Eve White had a
score of 110 while Eve Black had a score of 104.
It would appear that Eve Black would drink to
excess a lot which is something that was never
seen in Eve White.
Comment: This 4-mark question is normally marked 2 + 2.
The first comparison, based on IQ, would be likely to score
2 marks as It correctly distinguishes between the two
personalities. The second comparison would also be likely to
score 2 marks as it directly compar-es the two personalities.
If the student had not stated "never seen in Eve White" the
answer have been likely to receive 1 mark. Therefore, overall
this answer would be expected to receive 4 marks.
Q: Outline the sampling technique used by Milgram
in his study and outline one weakness of this
technique in relation to his study. (4 marks)
k Volunteer sampling. He placed an advert in a
newspaper and people matching the criteria
applied to be a participant. The weakness is
that it may not be representative of the target
population so lacks generalisability.
Comment: This 4·mark question is normally marked 2 +
2. The student would be likely to gain 1 mark for naming
volunteer sampling and a second mark for outlining
it. The weakness is correct but It can probably only
score 1 mark as the student has not directly answered
the question which states "in relation to his study''.
Therefore, overal l this answer would be expected to
receive 3 marks.
Section B
Q: Evaluate one of the studies below in terms of
strengths and weaknesses.
Bandura , Ross & Ross
Tajfel
Loftus & Pickrell. (10 marks)
A1: Bandura , Ross & Ross made children watch
a model either play with a bobo doll and be
aggressive or they watched a model simply
playing with other toys. Some of the children
saw a sam&sex model while others witnessed
an opposite·sex model. After they had watched
the model play, they were sent Into another
room that had some really nice toys in it. Just
as they were about to play with the toys, an
experimenter came in and told them that those
toys were not for them and stopped them from
playing. This was used to make the children feel
mild aggression. The chi ldren were then placed
in another room where there was a one·way
mirror and they did not know that they were
being watched. In the room there were a variety
of toys including a bobo dol l. The children were
watched by more than one observer and it was
noted what behaviours, both physical and verbal,
they displayed . The observers did not know which
condition the child was in. As the children did
not know they were being watched, more natural
behaviour would be shown. However, making a
chi ld aggressive is not ethica l.
Comment: This student has misread the question or has
not understood what "evaluate " means. For evaluation we
are looking for strengths (what was good about the study)
and weaknesses (what things were not so good about the
study) in terms of methodology, sampling, ethics, etc. In
this answer the procedure of the Bandura, Ross & Ross
study is described quite well. The last two sentences
begin to hint at some evaluation such as more natural
behaviour being shown and that aspects of the study
might have been unethical. However, these comments are
very brief and this answer therefore probably be placed in
the 1- 3 mark band on a mark scheme paced - it would
be expected to receive 2 marks.
A2: One strength of the Bandura, Ross & Ross study
is that there were many c.o ntrols put in place.
For example, the order of events when the child
was watching the model, how the children were
all made mildly aggressive and the amount of
time they were observed for in the final room with
the bobo doll were the same for all participants.
This makes the study replicable so we can test
it for reliability using a different sample. Also,
as the children were matched on aggressive
levels before the study, it rules out predisposed
lev~ls of aggression affecting the children~s
behaviour. Therefore, the researchers could have
more confidence with the cause and effect in
the study - the behaviour and sex of the model
caused the imitated aggression in the children.
One weakness is the ecological validity of the
study. The children were in an environment that
they were not used to and playing with toys they
may never have seen before. The environment of
sitting and watching a model in a room and then
being placed in a room alone to play is not a
setting children are familiar with. We do not know
if the children would act the same in a "real-life"
environment and be just as aggressive so the
study has low levels of ecological validity. Finally,
ethics can be criticised here. Participants should
leave the study in the same psychological and/
or physical state that they entered. The children
clearly showed aggressive behaviour that they
had not shown at the beginning of the study so
this guideline was broken. Also, the children
may have found the whole study psychologically
stressful as they were witnessing aggression and
ideally this should not happen in a study.
Comment: This student has answered the question
directly throughout. Two strengths and two weaknesses
have been covered and each point is directly linked to
Bandura, Ross & Ross. Therefore, this answer is likely
to be placed in the 8- 10 band on a mark scheme. Given
the quality of answer it would be expected to receive
10 marks.
Q: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case
studies as a research method using one of the
studies listed below:
Freud (Little Hans)
Thigpen & Cleckley. (10 marks)
A; I have chosen Freud for this answer. A weakness
of this study is that it was done on just one boy.
This makes it difficult to generalise to other
people as Little Hans ' experiences may have
been unique and he may have been unique
meaning other boys may be fearful of horses for
different reasons. In fact Freud did ignore that
Little Hans had seen a horse die and this could
be why he was fearful. Little Hans' parents were
big fans of Freud and they were the ones who
gave Freud the information so it could have been
biased - they may have only reported things Little
Hans said that supported what Freud believed in .
Also, Freud's interpretation of Little Han's dreams
and fears was very subjective as it was only his
opinion. It was never checked with anyone else.
Comment: Th is answer covers only weaknesses and all
are correct but the question asked for strengths too.
As the answer is one-sided it is likely to be placed in
the 4 -5 band on the mark scheme. Given how many
weaknesses have been correctly covered this answer
would be expected to receive 5 marks.
57
 The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/
or comments that appear in this book were written by
the author. In examination, the way marks would be
awarded to answers like these may be different.
Core studies 2
Section A
Q: Describe the case study as a research method.
(5 marks)
A: This usually involves one person.I or a family
unit. It uses other methods to collect data such
as questionnaires and int erviews ..I A lot of
qualitative data.I can be collected. Little Hans is
an example.I of a case study. Case studies are
not generalisable as they simply focus on one
individual.
Comment: As you can see this answer would normally
receive 4 marks. One mark is expected to be awarded
per correct aspect of a case study until the maximum is
reached. Usually in this style of question. 1 mark should
be awarded for an example of a study that has used the
method from the 20 you have studied for AS level.
Q: Describe the field experiment as a research
method and outline how it was used in the
Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study. (5 marks)
A: A field experiment takes place in the natural
environment of the pa rticipant ..I An IV is
manipulat ed and a DV is measured ..l In the
Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study the setting was
natural to the participants and the DV was the
t ime taken for people to he lp the model. .I
Comment: In t hese types of question, you can normally
achieve a maximum of 3 marks for a general description
of a method (in this case a field experiment) and then a
maximum of 3 marks for the linking of it to the named
study (in this case Piliavin. Rodin & Piliavin). Therefore,
this answer woufd have normally received 2 marks for
the general description and 1 mark for the specific
example linked to Pillavin. Rodin & Piliavin. The "setting
was natural to the participants" would not normally
have received a mark as the student did not state what
the natural setting was. If the natural settlng had been
identified then it is likely that 1 mark would have been
gained . Overall, this response would be expected to
receive 3 marks.
Qa: Design an alternative study to the Piliavin, Rodin
& Piliavln study using a questionnaire as the
research method and describe how it could be
conducted . (10 marks)
A: I would advertise for my participants in my
college asking for people to take part in
a questionnaire study on "accidents and
perception". I would want to recruit about
30 people with half males and half females
[who]. When they turn up for the study in my
classroom [where], the questionnaire will ha,ve
the instructions on it to tell them what to do. The
questionnaire would have a scenario on it about
58 how a person is walking down the street and f alls
over and needs helping (I would have one who
is young and drunk and one who is old and frail
[how]). One group would have the description
based around the participant being alone and the
other group would have it describing a crowded
place. I would ask them a series of questions,
e.g. "How quickly would you help that person? "
and " On a scale of 1-5 how likely are you help
this person (where 1 is 'Not at all likely' and 5 is
'Extremely likely'}?" [what] and then get them to
justify their answers.
Comment: This answer covers the main areas of
design: the " who'' (volunteer sampling and number of
participants), the "where '' (a classroom), the "how" (a
questionnaire with a scenario on it that is described
here) and the " what" (the measuring of response
time and reasons for helping or not helping. The only
omission (and it is minor) is the "when " - e.g. are
participants given a t ime limit to answer all questions?
Tiierefore , the answer is likely to fall into the 7-8 mark
band a.s it describes an alternative study that could be
replicated but there is a minor omission. This answer
would be expected to receive 8 marks.
Qb: Evaluate this alternative way of studying
bystander behaviour in methodological and
ethical terms. (10 marks)
A: It will be easy just to photocopy 30 questionnaires
compared to setting up an actual scene like in the
original Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study. However,
people may lie in the questionnaire to make
themselves look good - plus what they say in a
questionnaire may not be how they would react in
an actual situation so it does lack some validity.
Also, the questions I have asked could be seen
as leading as the questionnaire asks them how
quickly they would help rather than initially asking
them whether they would help or not - people
may be led to answer that they would help when
maybe they would not. Ethics are fine as I will
debrief them.
Comment: There are quite a few brief practtcal evaluation
points here that are a ll linked to the study designed in
Qa . However, there is no debate about ethics so this
answer would be unlikely to achieve more than 7 marks
according to the mark scheme; it would be likely to fall
into the 5-6 mark band as It covers practical issues
briefly throughout and does not cover ethics. Overall, this
answer would be expected to receive 6 marks.
Q: Outline what is meant by " qualitative data" .
(2 marks)
A: Qualitative are data that are not numerical so you
cannot calculate things like the mean response .
It is t he opposite of quantitative which are
numerical data.
Comment: Th is answer shows a common n1istake.
The question asks about qualitative data and the
student has not explained what it is, only what it is not.
Therefore, this answer would be expected to receive
0 marks.
Q: Outline what is meant by "quantitative data".
(2 marks)
A: Quantitative data is numerical data that Is
collected. You can perform statistics on it like
working out the mean. An example of this type of
data is the fixation time that the babies looked at
faces In the Langlois et al study.
Comment: Three good points that are all creditworthy are
made: referring to numerical, statistics then giving an
example. This answer is likely to receive 2 marks.
Q: Describe how the Loftus & Pickrell study is an
example of the cognitive approach. (3 marks)
A1.: It is cognitive as it looks into memory and
forgetting.
Comment: This answer would only be likely to receive
1 mark as memory and forgetting are core areas of the
cognitive approach.
A2: It is cognitive as it examines the role of
false memories in people's lives. Cognitive
psychologists look at how we input information,
then how we process it and then finally how
we retrieve it. In the Loftus & Pickrell study the
researchers looked at how a false memory can
be "inputted" into a person via the individual
reading the account of a relative. The processing
was then the participants processing the
information into their memory and believing it
could be true. The final part was to see whether
the person could retrieve the false memory and
believe it had actually happened.
Comment: This is a thorough response that tells the
examiner what a cognitive psychologist would be
interested in and then links each section to the Loftus &
Pickrell study. It would be likely to receive 3 marks.
There are 10-mark questions in this section of
core studies 2 and some will resemble the ones
already covered for core studies 1 (see page 57 ).
There are other types of question that could be
asked.
Q: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
the physiological approach using Dement and
Kleitman as an example. (10 marks)
A: One strength of the approach is that it is very
scientific and uses laboratory experiments
and methods such as brain scanning that
are objective. This was seen in the Dement &
Kleitman study as the participants had EEG
readings which objectively showed braln activity
during the different stages of sleep. However, as
many studies are conducted in the laboratory,
findings may lack ecological validity as people are
in situations that they would not find themselves
in on a daily basis and physlological mechanisms
may not be the same - e.g. in the Dement &
Kleitrnan study as the people were sleeping in
a controlled environment with wires attached to
them and they may have dreamt differently as
a result.
Comment: One very good strength and one very good
weakness are covered here. The student has been
able to outline a general strength of the physiological
approach and then relate it directly to Dement &
Kleitman. The student repeats this for the weakness.
However, and this happens quite often, the question
is asking for strengths and weaknesses so we have
to have two of each to get towards the top end of the
marking range. This answer is likely to fall into the
5-6 mark band . As it covers "at least one strength and
one weakness " and because it ls a very good answer in
terms of quality it would be expected to receive 6 n1arks.
Section B
Q: Using the studies listed below, answer the
question that follows:
Dematte, dsterbauer & Spence
Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith
Dement & Kleitman.
Describe how data were collected in each of
these studies. (9 marks)
A: In the Dement & Kleitman study the participants
were attached to an EEG monitor to collect data
about their brain waves. They were also woken
up at various times during the night and asked
about what they were dreaming. This was via
a doorbell sound and once the participants
had woken up they had to say if they had been
dreaming or not and, if so, describe the dream.
The EEG continually monitored their brain wave
activity throughout the night.
In the Dematte, 6sterbauer & Spence study, the
participants had different odours presented to
them when a face appeared on a screen and they
had to rate them on how attractive they were.
In the Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith study they
used a. PET scan to see what was happening to
the taxi drivers.
Comment: Each of the three studies are normally
marked separately out of 3 marks. For the Dement &
Kleitman study, this answer would be likely to receive
3 niarks as It clearly describes well how the data were
collected using EEG and then the doorbell-recollection
method. For the Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence study,
this answer could receive 2 111arks: the student has
some idea about how the data were collected using
odours and then how participants rated the faces but
more detail is needed to gain 3 marks. For the Maguire,
Frackowiak & Frith study, this answer is likely to receive
1 mark. The student has mentioned the correct brain
scan used (PET) but have not then told us how it was
used to collect data. Therefore, overall this answer would
be expected to receive 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 marks.
Q: Using the studies listed below, answer the
question that follows :
Milgram
Haney, Zimbardo & Banks
Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin.
Describe how the sample was recruited in each
of these studies. (9 marks) 59
 A: Milgram advertised for participants in a local
paper asking people to apply to take part in
a study on memory. It asked for people from
different occupations (factory workers, clerks,
etc.) and that they must be aged 20-50 and
male. Applicants would earn $4.50 if they
were chosen.
In the Haney, Zimbardo & Banks study
participants also volunteered to take part in
the study after reading an advertisement. All
of those who responded to the advertisement
were given an extensive questionnaire asking
them about family background and mental and
physical health. Those who were judged to be the
m.o st mentally stable of all applicants were then
Q: What are the advantages of using longitudinal
invited to take part.
In the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study, the
A: Longitudinal studies allow a researcher to
participants were recruited via opportunity
sampling. Anyone who happened to be in the
carriage at the time that the researchers ran a
trial were effectively participants in the study.
Comment: Each of the three studies is norn1ally marked
separately out of 3 marks. For the Milgram study, this
answer is likely to receive 3 marks as a clear outline of
how the participants were recruited is given. The answer
Is also likely to receive 3 marks for the Haney, Zimbardo
& Banks section as it too clearly outlines how the
participants were recruited. The Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin
response lacks some detail about the location so it is
likely only to gain 2 marks. Therefore, overall this answer
would be expected to receive
3 +3 + 2 = 8 marks.
Q: What problems may psychologists face when
conducting research using a field experiment?
(9 marks)
A: One problem is ethics. It may be difficult to
gain informed consent if the participants do
not know they are taking part in a study. For
example, in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study the
participants did not realise they were in a study
so no informed consent could be taken. Another
problem is in debriefing. Again, if the participants
do not realise that they have been in a study or
leave the location of the study before it ends,
they can never be debriefed - in the Piliavin,
Rodin & Piliavin study, a participant may have
left the carriage very quickly at the next stop
so could not be debriefed. Another problem is
causing psychological stress. If the participants
do not know they are in a study then they could
be put under unnecessary psychological stress.
For example, in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin
study the people may have been stressed at
watching someone collapse near to them. One
final problem is that is can be difficult to control
situational variables.
60
Comment: Every different problem is normally marked
separately out of 3 marks. The first problem noted here
is ethics. The student gains credit for outlining what a
problem could be and then linking it to a named study,
in this case Piliavin, Rodin & Pi liavin. However, ethics
as a problem can only be credited once so even though
the student has written about consent, debriefing and
stress, all of them come under the problem of "ethics" .
Therefore, this section is like ly to receive 3 marks. The
answer mentions one more relevant problem in lack of
controls wh ich is not explained or backed up with an
example from a study, so this is likely to re'Ceive 1 mark.
Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to
receive 3 + 1 + 0 = 4 marks.
studies in psychological research? (9 marks)
analyse how behaviour develops over time,
for example throughout childhood and into
adolescence. Therefore researchers are more
likely to make valid conclusions as they have
tracked: the same people over that time and
analysed any c.hanges that have happened .
Another advantage is that, as you are tracking
the same people, individual differences
are controlled for and this makes findings
more valid as it rules out certain participant
variables affecting any dependent variable or
outcome. Also, many longitudinal studies collect
qualitative data so it means that there is in-
depth data to help draw more valid conclusions.
For example, in the Little Hans study Freud
collected a lot of data from Little Hans' parents
which covered aspects such as his behaviours,
dreams and fears that could allow Freud to
analyse Little Hans in depth and understand why
he feared horses.
Comment: Every different advantage is normally marked
separately out of 3 marks. The first advantage is about
being able to track development over time. This is quite
well expressed but no study is used to back it up so it
is likely to gain 2 marks. The same Mrule" applies to the
advantage of controlling certain participant variables -
the advantage is described well but no study is referred
to, so this section is likely to receive 2 marks. The
advantage of collecting qualitative data is also outlined
well but this time the answer does refer to a study
effectively so this section is likely to receive 3 marks.
Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to
receive 2 + 2 + 3 = 7 marks.
 Psychology and education
Stage 1: Pre-conditioning
8.1 Perspectives on .--------------------
I

: Food
I

:
,-------------------~
I
1 Salivation
t
:
learning :I (UCS)
•--------------------
'----------'~

:I I (UCR)
•--------------------
I

:I

Behaviourist applications .-- - -- -- -- - -- - - - - -- --

I I
,- --- -- ·- -- - - ---- ·- --- -
I I
: Bell : • :
(NS) :.....-----~ No response :
to learning I
•--------------------
I I
•--------------------
:

The behaviourist perspective was covered i11 AS

level (see also page vi). Remember that it is about Stage 2: Conditioning
observing the observable and how we learn things
:-- - ~ - ----- ~------ - -, :---- - -------- -- ----.
: Food and bell • SaJivat!on :
through our environment and the organisms within it. : (UCS + NS) '------....:: (UCR) :
:--- - --------~-----~~ t ___________________ J
Classical conditioning
• This follows the idea of lear11ing through Stage 3: Post-conditioning
association.
.-- - ---- ----- --- -----
• I
.- ----- -------- ------
I t
1
1
Bell '---------,~
1 Salivation :I
• Pavlov trained dogs t o salivate to the sound of a : (CS) :i I
{CR) :I
•--------------------
I

bell without any food being present. •-------------------·

.A Figme 8.1.1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov's experiment)
• He l1ad conditioned that behaviour into the dogs.
• Pre-conditioning requires associations to already • Again, after several associations, the new NS also
be "in place" that can then be used to help to becomes a CS (given tl1e code CS2 as it is a new
condition the organism. CS - a second one).
• A pre-programrTied biological relationship has • This then produces a CR.
to already be in existence. For example, food Operant conditioning
naturally produces the response of produci11g
• This fol lows the idea of learning through
saliva in many animals.
consequences.
• The food is called the unconditioned stimulus
• It is based around the idea of reinforcement
(UCS) and the salivation is called the
and punishment. Table 8 .1 .1 shows the four
unconditioned response (UCR).
mechanisms that can be used to l1elp an
• A neutral stimulus (NS) must be chosen that organism learn a behaviour, using an example
does not elicit any biological response and this linked to education.
can be used to co11dition a new behaviour in the
organism . Positive Negative
• The conditioning process requires the UCS and Reinforcement A child shows A child has not been
the NS to be presented at the same time so friendly behaviour behaving very -wet I
that the organism can associate the two things. in the classroom In class and keeps
so the child is getting detentions.
• The UCR will still happen as the UCS is still awarded a gold However. the child
present. star and a sweet. begins to behave well
• Post--conditioning is when the NS can be presented The child is more and so the detention ls
on its own and it produces a response similar to likely to show removed. The child is
the UCR. that behaviour more likely to behave
again well in the future
• The NS has now turned Into a conditioned
Punishment A chi ld is not A child is not
sti1Tiulus (CS) and the UCR has turned into a
behaving very behaving very nicely
conditioned response (CR).
nicely to another to another child. As
• The organism has now been classically conditioned. child. The child is a result. the child's
The process is show11 in Figure 8.1.1. given a detention "golden time " (extra
which means he playtime) is removed
Higher-order conditioning
or she arrives and the child has to
• This is more relevant to the processes of learning home late. The sit in the classroom
in education. child is less likely alone. The child is
• This is when there is an established CS-CR link to repeat the less likely to repeat
behaviour the behaviour
but a new NS is presented every time the CS is
presented. .& Table 8.1.1 61
 Applications (based
on the behaviourist
perspective)
Programmed learning
• This type of learning is based around
reinforcement.
• The whole technique is based around "steps to
learning".
• The student is given a questjon and asked to
respond. Two things can happen:
o The student is correct. If this is the case then
praise, reward or appropriate feedback is
given and the student moves on to the next
question. The positive reinforcement mot ivates
the student to continue to the next question.
o The student is incorrect. If this ls the case the
Individual may be given additional information
or questions that essentially guide him or her
towards the correct answer. This is designed
so that the student begins to understand why
the response was incorrect.
• Some psychologists (e.g. Lefran9ois) have
stated that this type of learning does not apply
to modern educational practices but some of the
principles such as reinforcement and reward do.
Behaviour modification techniques
• These techniques also follow the idea of operant
conditioning.
• They are techniques based around the idea of
reinforcement and punishment that shape the
student's behaviour in order to improve it.
• By shaping we change the behaviour of a student
to be more desirable by only rewa rding aspects
of behaviour we want repeated and ignoring or
punishing those behaviours we do not want to see.
• Specific Ideas include the following:
o Sticker charts can be used . When first
starting school, children can be rewarded with
a sticker each and every tirne they display
good behaviour (e.g. cooperating, being
friendly). When children have reached a certain
set number of stickers on the chart they are
rewarded with something that they like (e.g.
more playtime, a sweet).
o The naughty corner or step can be used
to try to get rid of undesirable behaviour.
For example, if children are disruptJve or
aggressive they can be given a set amount
of time in an area designated for "naughty
children" (in the corner of a room or on a
special chair).
o Tokens can be awarded. This follows a
similar pattern to the use of sticker charts.
Students gain tokens (e.g. a plastic chip) for
different desirable behaviours. When they have
collected enough they can exchange them
62
for a privilege (e.g. extra playtime, going to
use the library). Each privilege has a different
"value " .
Humanistic applications
to learning
• The basics of humanism centre on the
uniqueness of every individual.
• A core idea of humanism is that there are no
general laws that apply to all individuals.
• Overall, we are the product of our own
experiences and as these are different for
everyone, all of us are different.
Underlying theory (Rogers, 1951)
• The idea of humanism stems from Rogers and his
ideas about client-centred therapy.
• The basics include that we are unique individuals
who have all had different life pathways and this
makes us all different.
• We also have free will over our own behaviour and
create our own pathways in life.
• What we perceive as rea l is unique so no other
person can truly understand us as that person
has not had the same experiences.
• We all need to self-actualise - this is working
towards a goal we have set ourselves t hat will
make us feel "whole".
• We are who we are due to our life experiences.
Applications (based on
humanism)
Cooperative learning
• All of this is based around the idea of a non-
competitive environment for learning.
• Groups of up to six students are set a task that
requires face-to-face interaction.
• Roles are assi·gned and the provision of tasks is
divided among the group so everybody is working
towards their strength. This is called positive
interdependence.
• Group members are expected to share, cooperate
and learn throughout the task set.
• The end rewards and the ultimate goal can only
be achieved if all group members contribute.
• It develops interpersonal skills such as taking
turns, collaboration and positivity.
Learning circles and the open classroom
• An open classroom is a core idea of humanism.
• Open classrooms are about individual growth and
goal setting where the most important person is
always the student.
• There is no curriculum as such and there can be
students of all ages in the same classroom .
• There is a low student-teacher ratio with very
little control or element of competition.
• Within ah open classroom, a teacher could set up
learning circles in two main ways:
o Learning together: this is similar to
cooperative learning in that a group of four to
six students work together.
o The material encourages all members of the
group to help each other.
o Praise is given for cooperation and for
completing the task correctly.
o There is no competition between the groups
who are given the same task.
o Student teams achievement division - this ls
also based on cooperative learning, but initially
the group members have a mixture of ability.
o Any new material that is vital to the task is
"taught" to students in a traditional way.
o Al l students are encouraged to help each
other.
o Team scores are calculated and the team that
has progressed the most since the last task
gets the most recognition (so it is not always
the best score that wins ).
Summerhirl School
Visit http://www.summerhillschool.eo.uk/ and make
notes on how the school runs and what a typical day
or term is like for a student.
Cognitive applications
to learning
• This approach was covered at AS level and the
basics can be found on page v.
• This approach to education is based around the
way students think and process information in
order to learn.
Underlying theory (Piaget)
• A child develops in stages that are linked t o the
child 's age.
• During. a sensori-motor stage (up to 2 years of
age) children have a simple focus on developing
their senses and moving around to learn.
• At the pre-operational stage (2-7 years old) children
begin to think and reason but find it difficult to see
the world from the viewpoint of someone else. They
also tend to find logical tasks difficult.
• At the concrete operational stage (7- 11 years
old) children begin to develop more adult-like
thinking patterns and appreciate logic more.
However, sometimes their logic is not based on
how an adult would th1nk.
• In the final stage, the formal operational stage
(11+ years old), logical and abstract thoughts
are developed and children can begin to think for
themselves.
• Schemas (or schemata) are also useful. A
schema is a " packet of information " about a
certain object, idea, experience, etc.
• Child'ren develop schemas over time and they
change depending on the experiences a child has.
For example, initially a child will have a mental
representation of a "tree" in his or her head. Initially, all
"trees are trees". Over time and with education, the child
learns there are different types of tree so will develop a
schema for an oak, a fir tree and a maple tree.
Applications
Discovery learning
• This idea was proposed by Bruner and the idea
was that it can help to educate students in the
classroom.
• It follows the idea that students are not presented
with all of the material "there and then" (which
can be called spoon feeding) but they have to
organise it themselves with cognitive effort.
• Students must be ready to learn and discover
new things by looking for relationships between
different bits of information.
• Students need to be in a motrvational state that
is optimum (not over- or under·aroused).
• Students require that they are exposed to
information from a range of situations - this
allows them to look for relationships between
them without simply " being told" .
• The correct mode of representation needs to be
chosen - th is can be related to both the age of
a student and how complex an idea is. Children
move from enactive (senses and motor learning)
through iconic (concrete facts and ideas) to
symbolic (abstract ideas) representation.
• Spiral curriculum refers to a programme of
learning that involves returning to core ideas that
are looked at in increasing depth each t ime so
students gain a more solid understanding of them.
Expository teaching or reception learning
• Ausubel felt that discovery learning can be too
time consuming and overall may not be effective
in aiding understanding.
• Expository teaching is when students are given
all of the information that is necessary on a topic
in its final form - they do none of the initial work.
• Reception learning is when students have to
learn the expository teaching material.
Ausubel stated that there are two ways that
traditional teaching can be improved via expository
teaching:
• Derivative subsurnption - when students are
made to relate any new information to previously
learned material.
• Correlative subsumption - when students have to
change what they already know to allow the new
information to relate to what they know.
63
 Overall, other techniques that can be used that
involve expository teaching include the following:
• Advance organisers - this involves things such
as ideas and concepts that are given to students
before any new materia l is learned in a lesson.
• Dlscrfmlnabllity - a teacher should try to use
correlative subsumptions more than derivative ones.
• Making it meaningful - there should be sufficient
background material already presented and
stored so that the student can then be prepared
to learn new ideas.
Zone of pro.ximal development ( ZPD)
• Vygotsky coined the term "zone of proximal
development (ZPD) " to describe the difference
between what learners can achieve by themselves
and what learners can achieve with the help of a
more experienced person (e.g. a teacher).
• One student might have a large potential for
mathematics while another in the same classroom
finds mathematics very difficult. The first student
64
has a large ZPD while the latter has a small ZPD.
As a result, a teacher would have to use different
techniques to teach the two students.
• One way in which a teacher could help any
student is through an idea called scaffolding. This
is a process whereby a teacher (someone with
the knowledge) attempts to pass this knowledge
on to someone with less knowledge (the student).
• Scaffolding is about creating structured materials
that allow students to gain in confidence with a
particular topic with the relevant help.
• Basic ideas that allow students to gain some
knowledge include fill-in-the-gaps exercises or
matching terms to definitions by connecting them
with a line.
• ''Templates'' can be used that break information
down for the student.
• If, for example, you were asked to write an essay-
style answer to a question, a handout giving some
guidelines on how to write it could be provided.

8.2 Special educational
needs
Definitions, types and
assessment of special
educational needs
(including gifted children)
Definitions of special educational needs and
giftedness
• The Department for Education in the UK defines
special educational needs as follows:
"Children have special educational needs if they
have a learning difficulty which calls for special
educational provision to be made for them.
Children have a learning difficulty if they:
(a) have a significantly greater difficulty in learning
than the majority of children of the same age; or
(b) have a disability which prevents or hinders
them from making use of educational facilities
of a kind generally provided for children of the
same age in schools within the area of the
local education authority
(c) are under compulsory school age and fall
within the definition at (a) or (b) above or
would so do if special educational provision
was not made for them. Children must not be
regarded as having a learning difficulty solely
because the language or form of language of
their home is different from the language in
which they will be taught.
Special educational provision means:
for children of two or over, educational provision
which is additional to, or otherwise different
from, the educational provision rnade generally
for children of their age in schools maintained by
the LEA, other than special schools, in the area
(b) for chi ldren under tw,o , educational provision
of any kind ."
See Section 312, Education Act 1996
• In 2008 the Department for Children, Schools and
Families in the UK defined giftedness as:
"children and young people with one or more
abilities developed to a level significantly ahead
of their year group (or with potential to develop
those abilities)".
Types of special
educational needs
Dyslexia
• The British Dyslexia Association's definition
is: "Dyslexia is a combination of abilities and
difficulties that affect the learning process in one
or rnore of reading, spelling and writing. It is a
persistent condition.n
Age
Persistent
Symptoms/ indicators
Children who have dyslexia:
(so not linked
to age of
• have "good '' and "bad" days for no
reason
child)
• confuse directional words such as
~ up " and "down"
• can find sequencing difficult (e.g .
putting beads in an order)
• have problems with numbers and
adding up "in their head"
• have a short attention span
• have problems organising themselves
Pre-school • have delayed speech development
• jun1ble up phrases (e.g. saying "beddy
tear'' instead of "teddy bear")
• have difficulties expressing
themselves through speech
• have difficulty with rhyming words and
phrases
• have difficulty in remembering labels
for objects (e.g. chair, bed)
Early school
years
• have difficulty learning sounds
of letters
• show unpredictable spelling
• have difficulty in copying written
words and sentences
• can confuse letters such as "b"
and "d"
• haVe poor "word attack skills" - the ability
to process and make sense of unfamiliar
words by breaking them down
Middle • have a slow reading speed
school years • have problems with correct spellings
• have problems recognising and
understanding new words.
£ Table 8 .2.1 Characteristics of dyslexia broken down
by age
Source: Adapted from NHS and British Dyslexia Association
information
Autism spectrum disorders
• Autism spectrum disorders is a term given to a
group of ttdisorders" that cover a wide spread of
social and intellectual issues.
• These disorders include autism itself and
Asperger syndrome.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) has diagnostic criteria for autism
and Asperger syndrome but the following are the
main characteristics of autism:
• Impairment of social interaction: those affected
have difficulty with reciprocal social interactions.
This may come across as being disinterested.
Also, some may like the social contact but fail to
reciprocate it.
• Impairment of social communication: a wide
range of communication skills may be affected.
Many children with autism fail to develop "useful
speech" .
• They may find it difficult to use speech to
communicate with others. 65
 • There may be a lack of intonation in the voice
and non-verbal communication, such as eye
contact and use of gestures, is very limited or
non-existent.
• Impairment of social Imagination: they have great
difficulty thinking imaginatively.
• Pretend play is either absent or they play the
same thing over and over again.
Asperger syndrome is a form of autism:
• It is similar to what Is outlined above but those
with Asperger syndrome appear to have fewer
speech problems and tend to have above average
intelligence.
• They also usually have specific learning difficulties
such as dyslexia, dyspraxia or attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Giftedness
According to the Department for Children, Schools
and Families, the general characteristics of gifted
and talented learners include the following:
• They are good readers and verbally fluent for their
age. They may also verbally respond very quickly.
• They have a wide general knowledge, learn quickly
and have interest in topics that older children are
studying.
• They communicate well with adults and show
"novel " approaches to problem solving. Also, they
prefer verbal compared to written activities.
• They have a good memory.
• They are probably musical and/or artistic.
Causes and effects of one
specific learning difficulty
or disability
Dyslexia
• Recent advances in this area have focused on a
biological cause for dyslexia.
• If a person has been diagnosed with dyslexia
then there is a 40-60 per cent chance that
the person's child or children will also develop
dyslexia.
• There could be "faults" within the phonological
processing centres of the brain in dyslexics. The
specific areas could be:
o broca's area, which is involved in the
production of speech and writing
o parietotemporal region , which is thought to
be involved in analysing a written word or
sentence
o occipitotemporal region, which is thought
to be involved in looking at words and then
identifying what they are.
• The cerebellum could play a role in dyslexia as this
area controls elements of language production but
also coordination and balance which can also be
lacking in people with dyslexia.
66
• Genetic a11alysis has shown that genetic variants
may account for some of the reading difficulties
and other factors linked to dyslexia.
• Wilcke et al (2012) reported that a variant
of the genetic material labelled FOXP2 may
well be able to account for some of the
phonologlcal processing difficulties that
dyslexics display.
• Elbert et al (2011) reported that a certain region
of the KIAA0319 gene could contribute to the
reading difficulties displayed by many dyslexics.
• Effects are highlighted on page 65.
• ADHD is covered on page 7 4.
Strategies for educating
children with special
needs
Integration versus separation
• Johnson & Jones (1999) highlighted some pros
and cons for integrating students with autistic
spectrum disorders into mainstream schools :
o Pros: there were increased chances of social
interactions; easier access to resources;
specialist teaching methods; broader
opportunities for qualifications; opportunity to
spread awareness of their need to others; a
better understanding of social rules in a real-
world everyday context.
o Cons: there were too many people to deal
with socially; the curriculum may have been
too inflexible; staff were less likely to have
been trained on the disorder; there were fewer
opportunities to explore the social world. "safely".
• The Council for the Registration of Schools
Teaching Dyslexic Pupils (CReSTeD) is a UK-
based organisation that lists schools that have
specialist provision for children with dyslexia.
In 2013 it had 78 schools listed with specialist
dyslexia units. Most of these schools will
integrate dyslexics into mainstream education but
they also have provision for specialist lessons
and help where it Is needed for a student.
For gifted students, acceleration or enrichment?
• The Department for Children, Schools and
Families recommended a combination of
acceleration and enrichment including:
o stretching targets for a gtft:ed child taking into
account previous knowledge and skills
o providing learning activities that stretch th.e
child through acceleration and enrichment
o making opportunities for independent learning
o enabling learning in settings beyond the
classroom
o providing individual support for aspects such
as language to stretch and challenge
o ensuring rich provision of educational
activities.
• Renzulli (1977) created an enrichment triad
model which was used in schools in the United
States in the 1970s. The model is shown in
Figure 8.2.1.
Type1
General
exploratory
activities
Type 3
Individual and small-group
investigation of real
problems
.A. Figure 8.2.1 The enrichment triad model
• Type I activities were designed to expose students
to a range of hobbies, occupations, places, etc.
that are not covered in the curriculum.
• Type ll activities were designed to promote things
such as problem-solving skills, "how-ton skills and
oral and visual communication skills.
• The type Ill category was designed so that a
student can choose an area of interest to pursue
with extra curricular t ime.
• Types I and II were available to the top 20 per
cent of an ability group with type 111 given to the
top 3 per cent of students (or more depending on
the model adopted by a specific school}.
Dyslexia
A variety of strategies can be used to help students
who have dyslexia:
• The Alpha-to-Omega method for reading, writing
and spelling is a scheme based on phonetics. It
introduces words, grammar, punctuation, etc. in a
series of logical steps to help dyslexic students
begin to read word s. Then they write them and
get the spelling correct. Pictures are used so that
students have to match sounds and words to the
correct picture.
• Colour can be used to address issues for
dyslexics:
o Many dyslexics have been found to find white
paper quite "glaring1' making it difficult to
read text.
o Most schools in the UK now have interactive
wh'i teboards this can be problematic for
dyslexics in the classroom. The use of cream
or pastel shades of paper or background to an
interactive board can help to reduce th e glare
and the words appear clearer.
o Some dyslexics prefer a coloured overlay on a
piece of paper (a plastic coloured sheet) or they
wear tinted reading glasses with their preferred
colour as their lenses. The coloured filters are
said to help with the visual stress of reading.
An Intuitive Colorimeter can be used by an
optometrist to find a dyslexic's preferred colour.
o Finally, the choice of colour for the text is
crucial - some colour co.m binations such as
red text on white background can make the
words "invisible" to some dyslexics.
• Phonics can be used to help dyslexics. There are
six stages to this:
1. Phonemic awareness - this helps students to
recognise different phonemes and what they
sound like.
2. Phonic instruction - this teaches students how
to "sound out" a printed word by recognising
the different letters in a word.
3. Spelling and writing instruction - this
encourages students to combine letters to
make words and then say them .
4. Fluency instruction - students practise reading
words correctly. They are also encouraged to
read faster each time.
5. Vocabulary instruction - this allows students
to .begin to recognise the words they have
a Iready learned.
6. Comprehension instruction - students are
encouraged to ask questions about uncertain
words and their meanings and are asked the
meanings of previously learned words.
Evaluation extra
These methods have application and are useful.
Schools can use different methods for d ifferent
students to help them with their education.
Education can be individually tailored to each student
to help the student achieve his or her full potential.
67
 8 Psychology and education
8.3 Learning and
teaching styles
Definitions
• Learning styles refer to how a student can take in
information, process it and then use it for some
purpose (e.g. taking an exam).
• Teaching styles refer to how a. teacher delivers
the material to a class of students to help them
understand it.
The onion model (Curry, 1983)
• In the onion model, the outer layer is called
instructional preference. This layer:
o represents what a student favours in terms of
how he or she likes to be taught
o can be affected by many factors , including the
classroom environment, who the teacher is,
how the teacher teaches and expectations
from self and parents
o is quite "unstable" and can change from
day to day depending on which of the above
factors is affecting the student.
• The middle layer is called informational
processing style. This layer:
o represents how the student processes
information
o has a focus on how the student takes in the
information, processes it in the bra in and then
uses it to perform a certain task
o is more stable as it is "deeper into the onion"
so the student's preferred style tends to remain
the same in different classes and subjects.
• The Inner core is called cognitive personality style.
This layer:
o represents the student's "core " way of
thinking - for example, some students prefer to
look at a problem from various angles before
answering it and will do this no matter what
subject they are studying; other students will
take a step-by-step approach so they tackle a
problem in a logical order before answering.
o is associated with other "core" elements,
including personality traits such as being an
extravert or introvert.
Instructional
preference
_ _ .....,__ Cognit ive
persona lity style
68 A. Figure 8.3.1 The onion model (Curry, 1983)
Grasha's (1996) six styles of le·a rning
• Independent - students learn at their own pace,
by themselves on things such as coursework
projects.
• Dependent - students look to the teacher and
to other students for help and structure. The
preference here is to be told what to do.
• Competitive - this style is about being motivated
to do better than classmates and seeing
academic achievement as being very important.
• Collaborative - this involves working and
cooperating with other students and the teacher.
The preference is for small-group work and
projects.
• Avoidant - this is when students feel
unenthusiastic about learning and become
uninterested.
• Participant - students are eager to work and get
involved in acttvities. The idea behind this is to
meet the teacher's expectations.
Formal and informal styles (Bennett, 1976)
• Formal style - this is a teacher-centred approach
to deUvery.
• The teacher Is in control of the lesson .
• The tea.c her decides what is being taught, how
it will be taught, who sits where and how the
classroom is arranged.
• Informal style - this is a student-centred
approach to delivery.
• The lesson is a negotiation between the student
and the teacher in terms of what is taught, how it
is delivered and how the assessments work.
• Bennett noted that when lessons were about
academic content then the formal style brought
about better results than the informal. This
suggests that having structure to lessons ,
brought ln by the teacher, allows students to
understand concepts better and then use them at
a later date.
High initiative and low Initiative (Fontana, 1995)
The characteristics of high-initiative teachers are as
follows:
• They are aware of the individual needs of each
student (e.g. the student's preferred learning style,
what special educational needs the student has).
• They are willing to learn from students (e.g. learn
more about how the class wants to be taught) .
• They allow all students to make full use of their
range of skills and abilities (e.g. use a variety of
tasks so everyone can work to a strength).
• They allow students to make informed choices
(e .g. for coursework there may be a range of
options so students can choose their favourite).
• They encourage development of self-confidence
and independence in learnir1g and they give
students responsibilities.
Measuring learning and Kolb's (1984) learning styles
Cohcr'ete
teaching styles .
experience
Feelfng
Approaches to study inventory (ASI)
(Entwistle, 1981)
The questions are all answered on a rating scale and E
::)

an overall score can be calculated. The four different Accommodating ~ Diverging

"learning orientations" are as follows: fee l and do r:: feel and watch
8
• Meaning orientation - this includes taking Active Processing Continuum Reflective
a deep approach to learning (questioning a experimentation~-----+-----,.. observation
lot), using evidence to make a knowledgeable Doing Watching
c::
argument, being able to interrelate ideas, Q
Converging Q. Assimilating
engaging in comprehension learning as well think and do ~ think and watch
as operation learning (using f acts and logic) cf
and having intrinsic motivation (students can
motivate themselves). Abstract
• Reproducing orientation - this includes taking a conceptualisation
"surface approach" (students like to memorise), Thinking
being syllabus-bound (relying on the teacher A Figure 8.3.3 Kalb's learning styles
for learning objectives), improvidence (showing
strong attention to detail) and fearing failure. • Accommodator - students who like to do things
and get involved in the experience of learning will
• Achieving orientation - this includes taking
be in this category. Accommodators may be risk-
a "strategic approach" (being aware of
takers and do things via "trial and error".
the academic demands of a subject) and
achievement motivation (being quite competitive • Asslmllator - assimilators tend to be motivated
with confidence). by asking questions such as "Wh-at is there to
know?" They are more interested in abstract
• Non-academic orientation - this Includes having
ideas tha.n concrete ones. They like accurate,
disorganised study methods, having negative
structured delivery of information.
attitudes to studying in general, "globetrotting"
Uumping to quick conclusions not based on • Converger - students in this category like the
all the facts available) and extrinsic motivation practical application of any idea and like logical
(wanting to get qualifications). progression of topics.
• Diverger - students In this category like to be
Teacher-centred and student-centred styles
imaginative when learning. They like to view ideas
(Kyrlacou & Wiiiiams, 1993)
from many angles and like material presented in a
• Kyriacou & Williams (1993) devised an inventory systematic way.
that could be completed by teachers. An excerpt
is shown in Figure 8.3.2.
• It measured the degree in which teachers were
Evaluation extra
student- or teacher-centred in their job. • The measures are psychometric. This allows
standardised measures of teaching and learning
• Teachers have to complete a series of
styles to be taken from many different people
statements by simply ticking how it best
so that comparisons can be made between
describes how they work.
people. As the measures are quantitative they are
objective and reliable.

Statement X x Tend to X 0 Tend to Y y Statement Y

Activities carried out by students are Activities carried out by students
restricted to those set out by the are variable and negotiated with the
teacher teacher
Students' activities are mainly writing Students· actlvities are mainly
and listening problem solving and experimental
The teacher's main activity is to The teacher's main activity is to
lecture and provide information facilitate and enable students to learn

4 Figure 8.3.2 Some of the bipolar terms used to measure teacher-centred and student·centred teaching styles
Source: Adapted from Kyriacou & Wilkins , 1993

69
 • However, the measures do not tell us why the
person learns in a particular way. All we know
about is the learning preference and not why the
learning has happened.
Improving learning
effectiveness (study skills)
The 4-mat system (McCarthy, 1990)
1 . Motivation - students may be asked to devise
a lesson individually about a particular topic.
Similarities and differences are noted via a
discussion between the students.
2, Concept development - all of the students'
lesson plans are discussed so that a lesson can
cover what all students like in terms of the way
they learn. This means that the teacher can direct
the learning to appropriate tasks.
3 . Practice - all students engage in practical
activities in the classroom to develop a deeper
understanding of the topic areas.
4. Application - students will be given a novel
situation or experience and they have to use the
knowledge they have already gained from the first
three stages and apply it to this new situation.
PQRST method
• This method is about improving the effectiveness
of learning through the use of textbooks.
• The idea is to do more than simply "read " the
material in a textbook by going through the
following stages:
1. Preview - the idea here is to "skim read "
a chapter by focusing on words in bold, the
headings and subheadings used and reading
any introduction or summary or bullet-point
sections.
2. Question - students go back and look at any
headings or subheadings again. Then they
need to turn these headings into questions.
70
3. Read - students read each section carefully,
maybe highlighting points or making notes
in the margin. The questions generated in
stage 2 should be a focus and students should
try to find the answers to them as they read.
4. Self-recitation - students recall the
information after each section either out loud
or to themselves.
5. Test - when a chapter is completed, students
try to recall as much of the chapter as
possible using the questions to help them.
Strategies for effective learning and thinking
(SPELT) (Mulcahy et al, 1986)
• If we can get students to understand and
appreciate how students learn then teachers can
improve students' ability to learn.
• This can then turn into students becoming
autonomous learners who know exactly the best
ways in which they learn.
• The teacher must have a range of techniques that
can help any students, such as problem-solving,
memory, logical and organisational techniques.
There are three phases:
1. Students are taught about the different
techniques (e.g. problem-solving, memory,
organisation techniques) by a teacher using a
formal style of delivery.
2. Students "'try out'" a number of techniques and
then evaluate them in terms of effectiveness for
them. The delivery moves towards an informal
style of delivery as each student can work
individually at his or her own pace.
3 . Students then begin to use the strategies that
they evaluated favourably in different situations
or classes. They continue to evaluate these
strategies' effectiveness and the delivery is
now informal.
 • This vision motivates us to work towards relevant
8.4 Motivation goals and ideas as it is what we actually want.

and education • We analyse the chances of us succeeding or

perforinance
Definitions, types and
theories of motivation
Extrinsic and intrinsic
• Extrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a
task or behaviour because it gives positive
reinforcement (e.g. a reward ) or it avoids some
kind of punishment.
• This might mean a student is motivated to get the
best grade possible.
• Intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task
or behaviour because it gives internal pleasure or
helps to develop a skill.
• Students will attribute success to their own desires
(autonomy) and may be interested in simply
mastering a task rather than focusing on a grade.
Behaviourist theory
• This idea follows the ru les of operant conditioning
covered on pages 61-62.
• Students are motivated by rewards .
• The more they are rewarded, the more likely they
are to repeat behaviour or complete a task.
Humanistic
• Maslow created a hierarchy of needs that starts
at basic needs and moves up to higher-level
"meta needs" .
• A student must work up the hierarchy of
needs (shown in Figure 8.4.1) to achieve self-
actualisation - th is is realising and reach ing one 's
ful I potential.
Self-
actualisation
needs
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
.& Figure 8.4.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
failing (again looking to the future) and use these
as motivators.
• We can also use knowledge from the past to see
whether it is worth attempting to continue with a
task or pursue a new idea.
Improving motivation
Behavioural: effective praise (Brophy, 1981)
• It is not just the act of praising that motivates, it
is about how it is delivered.
• Brophy had noted that onl,y about 6 per cent of class
time is devoted to praise and this is not enough.
• Praise should only be delivered in response to
specific behaviours.
• The target behaviours that will be praised need to
be defined clearly to all students.
• Praise should appear to be sincere, credible and
spontaneous (so teachers do need to think on
their feet).
• When praising performance, praise should be
given only when a student meets clearly defined
standards set out by the teacher.
• Praise should be in.formative: students should
know why they have been given it.
• Praise should be individually specific - so it
should be given for the recognition of hard work
and effort with difficult tasks.
• Praise should attribute success to effort over
anything else.
Brophy also noted these examples of ineffective
praise:
• Praise ls given random ly.
• Generic, bland , positive comments are given that
are not specific to the student nor the task that
the praise is based around.
• Rewa rds given are not related to performance .
• Praise is used when comparing student with student.
• Praise is not linked to effort.
• Praise is given but success is attributed to ability
alone or external factors such as luck.
• Praise is used as a symbol of power.
Cognitive: McClelland ( 1958)
• McClelland believed that a need for achievement
was just as powerful as a motivator.
• He defined it as " ... a stable, learned characteristic
in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and
attaining a level of excellence".

Cognitive • People with a high need for achievement will seek

out situations in which they can compete against
• The key to motivation is about how we think and
a "set standard " .
process information.
• In education these could be improving their grades
• The cognitive approach is based around our potential
or performing better than last time on a task. They
ability to see the future "as we would like it to be" .
may also avoid tasks that appear to be "too easy".
71
 • They will choose tasks that are seen as a
challenge to them.
• People with a low need for achievement tend to
be more motivated by a desire to avoid fail ure.
• They will seek out easy tasks so they can avoid
failure.
• They may also seek out very difficult tasks
where failure appears the only option as almost
everyone will fail these tasks.
• They will avoid tasks that other people may
succeed at due to their fear of failure.
Cognitive-behavioural: self-efficacy
There are four main components:
• Personal accomplishments - previous success in
a particular task increases our self-efficacy.
• If we have succeeded before there is no reason to
think that we will not do the same again.
• However, failure will lower self-efficacy.
• If we continue to succeed at tasks and our self-
efficacy remains high, then the occasional failure
at a task will have little impact on us.
• Vicarious experience - this is based around
watching others succeed or fail at a task.
• If we watch other people succeed without
any negative consequences that it may well
strengthen our own self-efficacy.
• Verbal persuasion - this is based on the idea
that verbal praise from someone else about a
student's potential ability to succeed can help
and can instil confidence into the student.
• It is not as strong as d irect experience but it can
help if the student has repeatedly failed at a task
previously.
• Emotional arousal - th.e level of anxiety and
stress. that a student feels can have an effect on
the student's self..efficacy.
• If students have too much or not enough anxiety
or stress they can have low self-efficacy and
therefore may easily fail a task.
• A moderate amount of anxiety and stress is optimal
for self-efficacy to work well - feeling nervous before
an exam might actually help you feel more positive
about your potential ability compared to crying and
not wanting to enter the exam room.
Motivation issues:
attribution theory and
learned helplessness
Attributing causes to behaviours
Weiner (1984) noted that there are three main
factors that can affect motivation based around how
we attribute success and failure to a certain task:
• Locus of control -this was developed from an idea
by Rotter. An internal locus of control is about us
feeling we have control over why we perform well (or
not) on a task. An external locus of control is about
72
us feeling something outside of us, such as luck or
fate, makes us perform well or badly on a task.
• Stablllty - this is concerned with how much we
perceive an attribution to be affecting us over time.
For example, if we attribute a success to luck, this
is clearly an unstable forc.e as it is unpredictable.
However, if we attribute success or failure to
something stable, such as our own ability, this can
be consistent over time and it motivates us more.
• Controllability - this is about how much we
feel control over any factor that could affect
our performance on a task. Elements that are
controllable include students carefully planning
revision for an exam or choosing to complete a
homework task. However, sometimes things are
uncontrollable as they are " out of our hands"
(e.g. catching a cold from a friend before an
exam) and this makes students underperform.
Learned helplessness
• Seligman first developed the idea of learned
helplessness with research using dogs.
• He found that when dogs could not escape the
negat ive experience of electric shocks no matter
where they stood in a cage, they simply gave up
trying to escape and lay down.
• When they were then put in a similar situation
where they could escape by jumping into part of
the cage where they would get no shocks, they
did not - they had learned to be helpless.
• If students attribute any failure to their own ability
then this can develop into learned helplessness.
• They will perceive any task as being one they will
fail at and will simply give up and not perform to
the best of their ability or try at all.
• They become passive and helpless in even new
situations and challenges as they believe they will
ultimately fai l as this is what has happened (or
been attributed) previously.
• There may be gender differences here too - girls
tend to attribute failure to lack of ability while
boys tend to attribute failure to lack of effort.
• If the feedback is constantly negative without any
constructive comments, action points or areas to
improve on, then students will develop learned
helplessness. As a result, they will not make an
effort on future tasks as they wfll expect failure
based on their previous ability and feedback.
Changing attributions
• Students show more effort when they attribute
success to internal and unstable factors that they
can control or if there are stable internal factors that
were out of their control for that specific task. Some
methods of changing attribution are outlined below.
Attribution retraining
• Teachers can discuss the attri.b utions of failure
with students and explore reasons why students
fa iled or underperformed that move away from
internal blaming.
• Teachers and students could explore this further
with role play.
• Teacher modelling is another technique where
teachers give examples of when students wrongly
attributed failure .
• Student modelling can involve inviting previous
students back to talk about their successes
especially those who now feel internally
motivated.
• Finally, teachers could get students to analyse
success as this may be something students
never do.
Attribution change techniques
• Students should be discouraged from believing
that all success is down to ability. Saying
something like " I succeeded because I am a
competent person and worked hard" is a better
attribution style .
• Teachers need to help students who attribute
failure to ability by talking about the potential that
failure was due to lack of effort.
• Teachers can also arrange tasks so that
students who work hard can attain and then
begin to attribute some success to ability rather
than luck.
• Finally, a teacher can give feedback to even good
pieces of work with a message that yes, students
worked hard, but their best is yet to come so they
should continue on this growth pathway.
The Dweck way
• Teachers should simply avoid using person-
oriented phrases such as "I am proud of you"
or "You really are good at this " as these will
make students feel all of their ability is down to
personal attributes rather than effort.
• Instead, teachers should use process-oriented
phrases such as "You really tried hard on that
task" or ''Now, that was a good way to do it" as
these promote more stable internal effort-based
attributions.
73

8.5 Disruptive
behaviour in school
Types, explanations
and effects of disruptive
behaviours
• These are behaviours that the teacher finds
unacceptable and that can stop the flow of
a lesson.
Conduct
• Distracting other students - a student may
want to settle down to work but another one is
constantly talking next to that student or trying to
steal his or her pen, etc.
• Attention-seeking - these behaviours are used to
make sure that people know who the student is
and the individual strives for attention.
• Calling out - th is involves a student either
answering a question without being asked or just
generally shouting out words and comments to
others when they are t ryi ng to work (or even when
the teacher is trying to teach).
• Out-of-seat behaviour - this is when students
choose not to sit where they have been asked to.
They may walk around the classroom disrupting
other students who are trying to work or simply
walk out of the classroom.
Immaturity and verbal or physical aggression
• This usually takes the form of bullying.
• Bullying can be verbal (calling people names),
physical (actua lly hitting or kicking someone) and/
or emotional (making someone feel bad for who
they .are).
• These behaviours ca n happen face to face, in
or outside of a classroom or via "cyber bullying"
which is bullying through use of technology.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• ADHD is characterised by some of the following
behaviours: being restless, getting easily
distracted, shouting out answers, having difficulty
in following instructions, interrupting others and
not appearing to listen to others.
• It seems to be found much more often in boys
than girls.
• The above behaviours will be very disruptive in the
classroom and the effects will be the same as in
the "Conduct " section above.
• Students with ADHD might also find it difficult to
acquire new skills as they cannot pay attention for
long enough to follow the instructions although
they want to learn.
Causes of ADHD
• Genetics - there may be a faulty gene that causes
ADHD as the prevalence rates in identical twins is
74 high and the condition tends to n run in families" .
• Neurotransmitters - children with ADHD
might have a chemical imbalance in the
brain. Neurostranmistters {e.g. dopamine and
noradrenaline) have been linked to ADHD as
these help to regulate behaviours such as
impulsivity and lack of attention.
• Physiological arousal - there are two ideas here:
the first is that those with ADHD have an over-
aroused central nervous system that causes
them to be "stimulus-hungry" all the time to
fulfil this over-arousal and this leads to a range
of disruptive behaviours. The second idea is
the opposite - it is about the central nervous
system being under.aroused and how this leads
to students not paying attention or being able to
maintain attention as they are not "stimulated
enough" .
Poor teaching style
• Some psychologists believe that a poor teaching
style can make stud·ents become disruptive.
• Any given class can contain such a wide range
of students from different backgrounds and
with different abilities that sometimes it can be
difficult for the teacher to react correctly to all of
the behaviours being shown.
• According to Kounin (1970), there are five
characteristics of effective teachers which will
decrease the rate of disruptive behaviour:
o They show "withitness ": they know what is
going on in every part of the classroom and
act upon the disruptive verbal and non-verbal
behaviours.
o They "overlap" {multi-task) in the classroom.
o Their work has "smoothness and momentum":
they stick to objectives and do not let
disruptions make them deviate from what
they had planned for the lesson.
o They carry out "group-alerting": using random
questions so students have to be attentive ..
Unpredictability can make students more
attentive.
o They provide "stimulating seatwork": a range
of activities that make students "stay in
their seat" as they are engaged and wanting
to learn .
Causes and effects of
one disruptive behaviour
(bullying)
Causes
• Attachment style - Rigby (2013) noted that
bullies tended to have been insecurely attached
as a child.
• There are two types of insecure attachment that
can be seen in children:
o avoidant, where the child appears to be
emotionally detached from his or her mother
 o resistant or ambivalent. where the child
appears to want comfort and to form a bond
but then may stubbornly resist when the
mother wants to hug the child, etc.
• It would appear that those children who show
an avoidant attachment style are more likely to
be bullies at school as they have not formed an
emotionally stable bond.
• Family functioning - Rigby (2013) noted that the
ways families function on an emotional level may
be linked to whether a child bullies at school.
• Research had shown that children who reported
that they did bully at school tended to report that
their family did not appear to sympathise with
them when they felt sad or that the fami ly did not
work as a "unit" to overcome problems at home.
• Parenting styles - Rigby (2013) noted that an
authoritarian style of parenting is strongly linked
to bullying behaviour.
• An authoritarian style of parenting sets out strict
rules on children being obedient, respecting
elders no matter what they say or do, and
tolerating questioning.
• If children fai l to do any of these, they may be
severely punished. One of the issues here is that
the authoritarian parent does not explain the
rules - they are rules and that is that.
• Socio-economic status - Jansen et al (2012)
reported that children from disadvantaged family
backgrounds with a low socioeconomic status
were more likely to be bullies.
• Teaching environment - Laeheem (2013)
discovered that an authoritarian classroom
management style leads to more bullying -the
more that children are exposed to inflexible rules
and punishment the more likely it is that they will
turn to bullying.
Effects
• Ttofi & Farrington (2012). A longitudinal study
suggested that around one third of bullies engage
in criminal behaviour after leaving school. Also,
those who are bullied are twice as likely to
become depressed later in life compared to those
who have never experienced bullying.
• Sesar et al (2012). In their sample of 249 college
students, those who had experienced being
bullied had higher levels of anxiety, sleeping
problems and depression compared to those who
had never been bullied.
Corrective and preventive
strategies
• Corrective strategies are ones that are used as
the disruptive behaviour is happening or has just
happened.
• Preventive strategies are ones that are used to
stop the disruptive behaviour from happening in
the first place.
Preventive: effective discipline
Cotton (1990) reported seven core ideas:
• Commitment - the entire staff of a school needs to
be committed to any policy in the school. This would
cover appropriate behaviours in the classroom.
• High behavioural expectations - the policy must
have clearly high standards of behaviour that
must be adhered to.
• Clear rules - the rules and punishment for
disruptive behaviour must be very clear and
some schools get their students to help produce
these so everyone is involved and knows what
is expected of them. Students a re more likely
to " stick to" rules if they are involved with the
production of them.
• A "warm" climate - staff must take personal
interest in students and their achievements,
goals, etc. and give students support whenever it
is necessary.
• A supportive headteacher - the headteacher
needs to be "seen around school", caring
for students too and showing some informal
behaviour towards them when necessary.
• Delegation of responsibility - the headteacher
oversees everything but individual teachers are
responsible for each and every class they take in
terms of behaviour and sticking to policies.
• Close ties with the local community - having
parental involvement in the school with a solid
flow of information is important so that everyone
knows what is happening in the school.
• Wang, Berry & Swearer (2013) interestingly noted
that having the "warm'' and "positive" climate
appears crucial in the success of a prevention
programme for bullying.
• Cross et al (2011) reported on the Friendly Schools
Program, noting that if everyone was committed to
it and there was support from the local community
(usually through parents) then there was significantly
less bullying even 36 months after the programme
started (based on data from 29 schools).
Effective classroom management
The features Kounin noted (see page 7 4) cover
elements of effective teaching and classroom
management. In addition, teachers need to:
• have high expectations for correct behaviour with
a warm, friendly approach to all students
• have clearly established rules and expectations
that are always followed (including potential
punishments)
• make sure that rules are acted upon promptly and
fairly if a student breaks one or more of them
• maintain a good pace in lessons so students are
always actively engaged in tasks rather than trying
to be disruptive.
Corrective: behaviour modification
• Behaviour modification tends to be based around
the mechanisms of operant conditioning.
75
 • Students can learn from the consequences of
their behaviours.
• Students have to know what the problem
behaviours are (e.g. what disruptive
behaviours are too common). They must also
be made aware of what behaviours are not
happening that should (e.g. those on the list
of appropriate behaviours). While it is not
necessary, the student could be involved in
defining the behaviours.
• Teachers may also keep a "count " of how often
the disruptive behaviour is happening to make
students fully aware of what they are doing.
• Teachers and students may disclJss what could be
causing the disruptive behaviour to see whether they
are seeing it from "the same angle". They need to
identify potential triggers for the disruptive behaviour
and then see if anything is actually reinforcing it
(Remember that reinforcing a behaviour is increasing
the probability it will happen again.)
• Teachers need to find strategies through selective
reinforcement to reinforo.e the appropriate
behaviour and punish or ignore the disruptive
behaviour. They may choose to use a reward chart
for appropriate behaviour.
• Teachers must monitor how effective the
programme is an.d change reinforcers if
necessary.
76
Cognitive behaviour modification (self-instructional
manual)
• Cognitive behaviour modification is based on
the idea that changing someone's thoughts can
then change the way the person behaves . In
self-instructional training, the follow ing steps
are followed:
1. Cognitive modelling - teachers must conduct
tasks while '1talking out loud'' - they need to
cover what they are doing, why they are doing
it, etc.
2. Co-working -target students are asked to
repeat the task above and also say out loud
what they are doing. The teacher can still
guide target students so that they experience
success.
3. Imitation - target students then reproduce the
task but without any help from the teacher.
They still talk out loud about what they are
doing.
4. Sub-vocal performance (with lip movement) -
target students then repeat the task again
while saying the instructions "in their head"
but moving their mouth as if they are saying
the words (making no sound).
5. Sub-vocal performance (without lip
movement) - target students repeat the task
as in step 4 but with no lip movement.

8.6 Intelligence
Concept, types and tests
of intelligence
Concept of lntelllgenc.e and IQ
• Sternberg stated that intelligence is: " ... mental
activity directed toward purposive adaptation
to, and selection and shaping of, real-world
environments relevant to one's life". (1985: 45).
• IQ stands for intelligence quotient. It is a
quantitative measure of a person 's intelligence
based on the person's performance on an IQ
test which is designed to measure a range of
capabilities. The overall score is based on the
following equation:
mental age
IQ = . x 100
chronological age
Therefore, the average score is 100 no matter what
chronological age you are so it is an attempt at
finding a standardised measure of intelligence.
Stanford-Binet Test
• Alfred Binet based his test on the idea that
intelligence was more to do with mental reasoning
and problem solving than motor skills.
• He devised a test and kept refining it before a
final version was released in 1911 to help test
children.
• Children scored on a scale depending on how well
they performed in each section of the test to give
them a menta I age.
• Their score could then be compared to their
mental age to see who was "slow" .
• Lewis Terman from Stanford University took Binet's
ideas and developed them further with a test for
US children, hence the Stanford-Binet test.
• In 1916 he released the US version of the test
that could be used in schools to assess children.
• This test has been continually rev,ised up until its
latest version from 1986.
• All of the test items are devised with the idea that
the majority of children, at that age, should be
able to answer them.
• The current version of this test has four
components: verbal reasoning, abstract or visual
reasoning, quantitative reasoning {ability to
"handle" numerical data) and short-term memory.
Weschler (WAIS and WISC)
• Weschler developed a new test of intelligence in
1939 as he felt that the Stanford-Binet test relied
too much on language ability plus it was only for
children.
• The Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and ,
some 20 years later, the Weschler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) were devised to improve
on the Stanford-Binet test.
• Both the WAIS and WISC are divided into two
parts: a verbal scale and a performance scale. A
few example tests from ea.ch scale are shown in
Figure 8 .6. 1.
• The verbal sca le consists of the following tests:
o General information. This test consists of
general knowledge questions about the world.
o Comprehension. This assesses practical
information and ability to use past experiences
to answer questions .
o Arithmetic reasoning. Verbal problems that are
number based are given in this test.
o Similarities. This test asks questions about
ways in which two objects or concepts are
similar.
o Digit span. A series of numbers are presented
verbally and then the person must repeat them
forwards and backwards in order.
o Vocabulary. This test has questions about
definitions of words, etc.
o Letter number sequencing. Letters and
numbers are presented orally in a mixed-up
order (e.g. H1F7S9P4) - the person has to
recite the numbers in numerical order then the
letters in alphabetical order.
• The performance scale consists of the following
tests:
o Digit symbol. Points on various shapes are
given numbers and then the person is asked
to recall what shape (or part of a shape) a
certain number is.
o Picture completion. The missing part of a
picture must be discovered and named.
o Block design. Designs seen on pictures must
then be built with blocks.
o Picture arrangement. A series of comic-strip
pictures must be placed in order to tell a story.
o Matrix reasoning. A geometric shape has to be
selected from a range of alternatives in terms
of similarity.
o Object assembly. Pieces of a puzzle must be
assembled into a complete object.
o Symbol search. Paired groups of target
symbols are shown to the person. The person
is then shown some search groups of symbols
and has to say whether any of the target
symbols appear in it.
• Therefore. a person's IQ is calculated based on the
individual's performances across all of these tests.
• One advantage of the WAIS and WISC is that
you have a score for each person on each test -
therefore, you can see a person's strengths and
weaknesses on certain tasks which can help with
support at school, for i nstance.
77
 VERBAL
General Information
What day of the year Is Independence Day?
Similarities
In what way are wool and cotton alike?
Arithmetic reasoning
If eggs cost 60 cents a dozen. what does 1
Vocabulary
Tell me the meaning of corrupt .
Comprehension
Why do people buy fire Insurance?
Digit span
Listen carefully, and when I am through, say the numbers
right after me.
7 3
4 1 8 6
Now I am going to say some more nurnbers. but I want you
to say them backward.
3 8 4 1 6
PERFORMANCE
Picture completion
I am going to show you a picture with an important
part missing. Tell me what is missing.
'85
SUN MON TUE WED THU FRI
1 04 5 6 7
3 1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30
A Figure 8.6.1 Sample items from the WAIS test
Source: Thorndike & Hagen, 1977
The British Ability Scale
(BAS)
• This is now in its third version and is divided into
early years and school age formats .
• There are three brief assessment scales that are
quick measures of number, spelling and reading
abilities (see Table 8.6.1).
• The main element of the BAS is its cognitive
scales which are divided into two categories:
o The core scales are six cognitive tests
that measure verbal ability, non-verbal
reasoning ability an d spatial ability. There
are two for each ability. The test scores are
simply added together to generate a general
conceptual ability (GCA) score. Therefore,
an overall score is generated but there are
component scores that can be looked at
separately.
o The diagnostic scales can be used to
measure specific cognitive abilities such as
object recall, recogn ition of pictures , speed of
information processing and number concepts.
Therefore, like the WAIS and WISC, there is the
overall score (the GCA) but the advantage is you
get component scores and if something else needs
assessing then there are the diagnostic scales that
can help pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of a
child's abilities.
78
Picture arrangement
The pictures below tell a story. Put them In the right
order to te II the story.
egg cost? Block design
Using the four blocks, n1ake one just like this. ~.,,1---.:ii
Object assembly
If these pieces are put together correctly, they will make
something. Go ahead and put them together as quickly
as you can.
Digit~symbol substitution
SAT Code 6 0 D x 8
2 3 4 5
Test
6 8 x 0 6 0 8 x 6 8
Reliability, validity and predictive validity
• Reliability refers to the consistency of something -
in this case, testing whether we score the same
in an intelligence measure over time.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure - in
this case, whether the test actually measures
intelligence.
• Predictive validity refers to a test's ability to
predict a specific behaviour that the test is
supposed to be measuring.
• Myers (1998) noted that for the Stanford·Binet
test, the WAIS and the WISC, the reliability
scores are + 0 .90 - this means that when
retested on the same scale, most people score
virtually the same (the maximum reliability score
.is + 1 .00) .
• A way to measure reliabil ity is called a test-retest
method.
• For this, a sample of participants is tested on the
same measure one or two months apart.
• If there is a strong positive correlation between
the results the measure is judged reliable.
Intelligence and educational performance
• In a comprehensive review of the field, Sternberg,
Grigorenko & Bundy (1991 ) reported that there
may be some kind of link between IQ and
educational performance.
 CLUSTERS
Verbal ability Non-verbal Spatial ability SNC
reasoning ability
Recognition of 45 45
designs
Word definitions 52
Pattern 45 45
construction
Matrices 34 34
Verbal slmllarities 51
Quantitative 36 36
reasoning
Sum of T-sco res 103 + 70 +90 = 263 160

Verbal ability Non-verbal Spatial abll lty GCA SNC

reasoning ability
Standard score 102 74 91 86 79
Confidence 93-111 68- 85 82- 102 80- 93 73-88
interval (95%)
Percentile 55 4 27 18 8

CLUSTER Standard score Description of standard score

Verbal ability 102 Average
Non-verbal reasoning ability 74 Low
Spatial ability 91 Average
GCA score 86 Below average
SNC score 79 Low

A Table 8.6.1 BAS cluster scores

• Studies had shown a correlation of between
+ 0.40 and + 0.50 betwee·n IQ scores and
educational attainment.
• However, Sternberg was quick to point out that there
were vast differences in these correlations depending
on the sample, the tests used and what was being
used to measure educational performance.
• Sternberg, Grigorenko & Bundy reviewed 29
studies and found that between 10 per cent
and 22 per cent of variance in specific subject
achievement at school can be accounted for by IQ.
• The research team did note that there had not
been any research which had assessed the link
between IQ and academic performance using
a representative national sample (outside of
samples used to standardise the test).
• Abu-Hilal & Nasser (2012) noted that there was
an indirect link between IQ and mathematics
ability for boys and not girls.
• They found that boys with a high IQ exerted more
effort when studying mathematics and this led to
better results compared to low IQ boys who did
not exert much effort.
• For girls, the high and low IQ groups exerted the
same amount of effort but the high IQ group
performed better at mathematics.
• A longitudinal study by Duckworth, Quinn &
Tsukayama (2012) reported that IQ predicted
changes in standardised achievement test scores
over time more than "self-control" factors (e.g.
homework and classroom conduct).
• Emery & Bell (2009) reported that scores on one
section of the BioMedical Admissions Test (used
by the University of Cambridge) called "Scientific
knowledge " correlated strongly with high exam
scores once these students had been accepted
and were studying at the university.
Theories of intelligence
Factor~nalytic approach (Cattell, 1971)
• There are different "-clusters" of intelligent behaViours
and skills that can be measured on any test.
• Factor analysis allows a psychologist to interrelate
(correlate) aspects of a test to see which iten1s or
sub-scales link together strongly.
• Factor analysis is a complex statistic techn ique that
does thatjob - it allows psychologists to see which
elements of a test relate strongly to each other and
from that each "factor" that is found can be named
(e.g. verbal intelligence, problem-solving skills).
• Spearman originally had an idea that there was
one factor within intelligence. He called it g for
general intelligence.
• He believed this because he found that v irtually
all items on an intelligence test correlated with
one another strongly, hence there was just one
general factor of intelligence.
79
 • Thurstone did note that the g factor was evident
through a range of different tests but that they
differed in the amount of g that was being shown
via the correlations.
• He stated that there were seven factors including
numerical ability, spatial ability and verbal fluency.
• Cattell (1963, 1971) proposed another theory
based on factor analysis, which is that there are
Just two main forms of intelligence:
o Crystallised intelligence: this is intelligence
based on previous knowledge and skills.
Therefore, tests that include vocabulary and
reading comprehension are testing this type of
intelligence.
o Fluid intelligence: this is intel ligence based on
novel ways of thinking. For example, tests that
ask for the next number in a sequence test
this type of intelligence.
• Cattell believes that crystallised intelligence appears
to be maintained in a person throughout life whereas
fluid intelligence begins to decline at the age of 40.
Multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983)
Gardner stated that there are seven different types
of intelligence in a person . They are:
• linguistic - speech production, syntax and semantics
• musical - our ability to create and understand
sounds such as pitch, rhythm and timbre
• logical-mathematjcal - the use of logic a.nd
mathematics to help solve problems
• spatial - our ability to perceive spatial information
and recreate visual images in our " mind's eye",
plus our ability to rotate shapes visually
• bodily-kinaesthetic - our ability to use movement
and our body to solve problems (use of motor skills)
• intrapersonal - understanding our own feelings
and intentions
• interpersonal - understanding and recognising the
beliefs, behaviours, feelings and intentions of others.
Trlarchlc theory (Sternberg, 1988)
Sternberg believed that there are only three main
areas of " practical" intelligence:
• Academ ic problem-solving - these are skills that
are tested via things such as an IQ test. The
questions are well structured and there is always
a single correct answer.
• Practical - these are skills that are often needed
for everyday tasks. These tasks may not be very
well defined and have multiple solutions where a
person has to choose which one is best to solve
an issue, etc.
• Creative - these are the skills and behaviours
that we show when trying to cope and tackle with
novel situations (we may, for example, draw on
previous knowledge that could be applied to a
novel situation).
80
Alternatives to
intelligence
Emotional intelligence
Salovey & Mayer (Myers, 1990 ) identified a part of
people's social behaviour that they called emotional
intelligence:
• Emotionally intelligent people are self-aware.
They can manage their emotions well in different
circumstances and not be overwhelmed by one
single emotion such as depression or anxiety.
• They can easily delay any self-gratification in
pursuit of a reward: they do not let impulses
overcome them.
• They have strong empathy skills .
• They can handle other people's en1otions easily
and skilfully. They can handle conflict well.
• They succeed in aspects of life that require
emotional awareness rather than ac·a demic
prowess (e.g. marriage and parenting) .
Creativity and unusual uses test
• Creativity involves finding .a solution to a problem
that is both unusual and novel.
• It requires an element of "thinking outside of the
box" and maybe tackling a problem from a non-
logical or non-traditional way.
• Newell , Shaw & Simon (Matlin, 1963) outlined
that one or more of the following criteria
have to be met for something to be labelled
"creative ":
o The answer does have novelty and is useful
(either to an individual or society).
o The answer means that we reject ideas that
had previously been accepted.
o The answer comes from a period of intense
motivation and persistence with the task.
o The answer clarifies a problem that was
originally seen as being vague.
• There are many ways of measuring creativity. One
is called the Divergent Production Test and some
example questions are given below.
Try to answer the following:
1 . Here is a simple familiar form: a circle.
How many pictures of real-life objects
can you draw in a one-minute period,
using the circle?
2. Many words begin with UL" and end with "N".
Write down as many as you can, in a one-
minute period. The words can have any number
of letters between the "L" at the start and the
"N" at the end.
3 . Imagine that normal height for an adult is
1 metre. In a one-minute period, list as many
consequences of this as you can.

4. Look at this list of names:
BETH HAROLD GAIL
JOHN LUCY SALLY
These names can be classified in many ways. For
example, number of syllables cot:Jld be used.: Beth,
Gail and John have only one syllable, the other
names In the list have two. In a one-minute period,
classify the names in as many Wqys as you can.
5. Here are four shapes.
Combine them to make: a face, a lamp, a piece
of playground equipment, a tree. You can use
each shape once, more than once, or not at all in
forming each object and each one can be shrunk
or expanded to any size.
Another way of measuring creativity is through the
unusual uses test.
• This presents people with various objects (e.g. a
brick, a matchbox, a pen) and asks them, in a set
period of time, to come up with as many different
ways as possible in which the objects can be used.
• Those who think of many ways are said to be
creative in the way that they think a.nd reason .
Problem solving: means-end analysis, planning
strategies and backwards searching
A lily pad grows so that each day it doubles its size
(area). On the 20th day of its life, it completely
covers the pond. On wt)at day of its life was the
pond half covered?
• Means-end analysis is a problem-solving strategy
where the problem solver has to divide the
problem into a smaller number of " sub-problems''
in order to reach the goal.
• Each "sutrproblem" should reduce the
difference between the starting point and the
end point. Therefore, we figure out the "ends"
of a problem and then figure out the " means"
by which we will do it - hence means- end
analysis.
• Some psychologists have tried to use computer
simulations to show how a human uses means-
end analysis.
• The computer breaks down a problem to a
number of smaller problems and solves each one
before moving on to the next.
• Therefore, means end analysis is an example of
a planning strategy that we can use when problem
solving.
• There are other planning strategies that humans
may use when attempting to solve problems.
• One is called trial and error in which a person
tries lots of different ways to solve a problem ,
fails and makes errors throughout and then
solves the problem this way.
• We may also use an analogy - this is about using
the solution to an earlier problem to help us solve
a new one.
• Backwards searching is a final technique that
we may use to help us to solve a problem. The
problem solver starts at the goal state (e.g. what
needs to be solved or the end state) and works
backwards from this towards the original (or start)
state.
Answer to the Illy pad problem
The lily pad covered the pond on the 19th day of
its life .
You could have worked it out by noting that the IHy
pad was doubling in size (c;irea) each day, so if it
completely covered the pond on the 20th day, it
had to have half covered the pond the day before.
All it took to cover the pond was one more day.
81
 Psychology and health
9.1 The patient-
practitioner
relationship
Practitioner a.nd patient
interpersonal skills
• Interpersona l skills refer to the social skills
shown bet\veen two {or more) people when they
are attempting to communicate effectively.
• Practitioners can use a variety of verbal a.rid non-
verbal skills to ensure that the patient is listening
and can understand the information being
conveyed.
Non-verbal communications
• Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal aspects of
speech.
• These include elements such as the speed of
the speech, the flow of the speech, tl1e volume of
the speech, the intonation used, the clarity of the
words spoken and fitted pauses (e.g. saying "err"
or "urm" ).
• These can be used to help (and can hinder) the
passage of information between a practitioner
and a patient.
• Research has shown that when a doctor used
an angry tone to persuade an alcoholic to have
treatment, tl1e patient's willingness decreased
markedly (Rosental, 1967).
• If the doctor has a warm and friendly tone then
the patient is more likely to listen to and trust
the doctor.
• Facial expressions are a very important
comr11unication cue.
• Many of the "basic" emotions of a human,
irrespective of culture, are conveyed in the same
way across the globe.
• The interpretation of these cues appears innate
as humans blind from birth will still show tl1ese
emotions {Russell , 2005).
• A facial cue can convey meani11g to a patient
when ta lking about a diagnosis, for instance.
• Gestures can be used in conjunction with verbal
communications. Hand movements, shrugging of
the shoulders and using arms are all examples of
gestures.
• A thumbs up might mean "good" in Britain but
other cultures might not see it as that.
82
• Personal space Invasion is another 11on-verbal
communication. We cover this in tl1e "Psychology
•
and environment" section on page 112.
Appearance can be another powerful non-verbal
cue as to whether a patient will listen and trust a
doctor:
o A doctor who appears to be well dressed
and tidy will .b e trusted more than one who is
casually dressed and a little untidy {Russell ,
2005).
o However, vvhen the patient is a child, a doctor
who is casually dressed may relax a child more
than a very formally dressed doctor.
Verbal communications
• Medical jargon rs one potential hindrance when it
comes to verbal commu11ications between doctor
and patient.
• McKinlay {1975) was the first to note tl1at medical
jargon can affect what the patient understands
about the consultation.
• He tested women's knowledge of 13 regularly
used "medical terms" and found that almost
everyone could not u11derstand words such as
protein, umbilicus, purgative and suture.
• Terms such as navel and breech were understood
by ma·11y.
• 011ly just over one-third of patients understood
each of the 13 words correctly.
• One issue that Russell (2005) noted was that,
wl1en a doctor did use jargon, many patients
were very reluctant to stop tl1e doctor and ask for
clarification as they do not want to be seen as
bei11g less intellectual.
Other factors that can affect verbal communications
in interactions include the following:
• Volume of informatior1 - Ley (1988) stated that
patients tend to remember just over 50 per cent
of the information given to them in a consultation .
• Primacy effect - patients te11d to be better at
remembering and reca lllng information from the
beginning of the consultation.
• Knowledge - patients who have some medical
knowledge tend to recal l more of the consultation .
• lmporta11ce - patients remember and recal.I only
what they feel is important "to them " in the
consultation
• Instructions - these are more likely to be
forgotten if presented orally (many are printed on
drug labels now).
Practitioner diagnosis
and style
Doctor-centred and patient-centred style
Byrne and Long (1976) analysed about 2 500
recorded medical consultations across many
countries and discovered two main "styles":
• The doctor-centred style meant that the doctor
asked questions that were closed so that the
patient could only answer "Yes " or "No" .
• When the patient attempted to expand on
answers or try to give more information, it was
mainly ignored.
• It would appear that the doctor wanted to make
the symptom-diagnosis link with no extra
communication and everything was based on
"fact" rather than any discussion.
• The patient-centred style meant that the doctor
asked questions that were open so that the
patient could explain and expand on answers.
• The doctor using this style would try to limit
the use of medical jargon to ensure that the
patient understood the diagnosis and potential
treatment.
• The doctor would encourage patients to express
themselves how they wished and would ask for
clarification as and when rt was needed.
Practitioner diagnosis: type I and type II errors
1. Type I error. This is when the doctor diagnoses
somebody as healthy when the patient is actually
physically or psychologically ill. Many believe
this to be the most serious of the two errors as
the patient does not get any treatment and the
condition continues to get worse.
2. Type II error. This is when the doctor diagnoses
somebody as ill when In fact person Is healthy.
(See Rosenhan, 1973).
Disclosure of Information
• Sarafino (2006) noted occasions when the patient
can hinder the communication. These were when
the patient:
o wants to criticise the doctor or becomes angry
o clearly ignores what the doctor is saying
o insists on more tests and medication when
the doctor says there is no need
o wants a certificate for an illness that the
doctor does not believe the person has
o makes sexual remarks towards the doctor.
• Any of the above can stop a consultation "in its
tracks " as the doctor may not know how to handle
such a situat ion.
• A patient may show a real concern about a
condition that is only minor or show no concern
about a condition that is major. The doctor stfll
needs to get the correct information from the
patient to make a diagnosis.
• Sarafino (2006) noted that patients simply
interpret symptoms differently from each other (or
they have a different hierarchy of what they feel
are the "main symptoms" of an illness).
• Patients may not have the requisite vocabulary to
describe accurately the symptoms they are feeling.
Misusing health services
Delay in seeking treatment
Safer et al (1979) devised a model after interviewing
many patients that tried to explain why patients will
delay treatment:
1. Appraisal delay - this refers to the time taken
for a person to interpret a physical symptom as
a potential indicator of illness. This is affected
by immediate sensory information - something
bleeding or making a person experience major
levels of pain will be interpreted much more
quickly as "something wrong" than a small pain,
for instance.
2. Illness delay - this refers to the time tak.en
between people recognising that they are ill and
then actually seeking some form of medical
attention. This is affected by familiarity - a
new and different symptom wlll create a faster
reaction and help seeking behaviour than an old
symptom that re-occurs.
3. Utilisation delay - this refers to the time taken
between deciding to seek medical attention and
actually doing so. This is affected by a number of
factors such as cost, how severe the pain is and
whether the person feels that going to get help
will cure the illness.
Misuse: hypochondriasis
• Sarafino defined hypochondriasis as the "tendency
of individuals to worry excessively about their own
health, monitor their bodily sensations closely,
make frequent unfounded medical complaints,
and believe they are ill despite reassurances by
physicians that they are not". (2006: 250).
• Fallon (2010) noted three types of hypochondria:
o The obsessive-anxious type are people who
worry that they are ill despite reassurances
from a doctor that they are not. They believe
that the doctor has missed something serious.
o The depressive type either go to the doctor
crying that they are about to die and that there
is no point testing them , or they refuse to go
to the doctor.
o The somatoform type exhibit many of the
physical syn1ptoms of an illness and always
assume it is a very serious problem. They
always think they have the worst illness
possible given the symptoms.
• Gropalis et al (2013) noted a cognitive-behavioural
element to the condition. Hypochondriacs might
have faulty information processing in the brain.
Those who have high anxiety when it comes to
83
 9 Psychology and health
health-related issues always direct their attention
towards any source of health threat. They can
also easily access memories of illnesses.
• Schwenzer & Mathiak (2012) reported that
the cognitive bias described here could be a
"general " bias towards "less positive" views.
Participants without any knowledge of Chinese
language characters had to guess whether, just
by looking at them, they portrayed a positive or
negative meaning. This was used to see what
biases lie in processing information that is clearly
not related to illness in any way. Those who had
higher hypochondriasis scores on a scale rated
the characters as being less positive than those
with low hypochondriasis scores.
M isuse: Mi.inchhausen syndrome
• This syndrome was named after a Karl Freidrich
Hieronymus Baron von Munchhausen who told
wild tales of travels and adventure in the 1700s.
• The condition is a "-factitious disorder" which
describes symptoms that are artificially produced
by the patient rather than it being a natural illness
process.
• Turner & Reid (2002) noted the three main
features to be:
o simulated illness (artificial symptoms)
o pathological lying (pseudologia fantastfca)
o wandering from place to place (peregrination).
• It is an extreme form of factitious disorder
accounting for about 10 per cent of all factitious
disorder case studies.
• A generic but typical case would involve a patient
who has travelled to different hospitals under
different names turning up and giving a factitious
history of his or her condition.
• Patients may simulate symptoms and in some
cases eat contaminated food to vomit or produce
blood.
• Many illnesses are claimed and the most
common are feve rs, infections, bleeding and
seizures.
• Turner & Reid state that these patients may go
through medical procedures that do not show
that they have a " real illness" and that many are
then "caught out" by inconsistencies in their self-
reported medical histories.
• In addition to MQnchhausen syndrome there is
Munchhausen syndrome by proxy.
• In these instances the mother or other caregiver
of a child deliberately exaggerates and fabricates
illness of the child.
• The caregiver may induce physical and
psychological problems into the child . It is now
referred to as factitious disorder by proxy.
84
• Criddle (2010) noted three levels of this
syndrome :
1. M ild (symptom fabrication). The caregiver
may claim the child experiences mild
symptoms of a.n Illness (that the child does
not have).
2. Moderate (evidence tampering). The caregiver
may go as far as manipulating laboratory
specimens of the child or falsifying the child's
medical records.
3. Severe (symptom induction). The caregiver
induces an illness into the child including
diarrhoea, seizures and even sepsis. These
methods may also include poisoning with
things such as insulin and salt, applying faecal
matter to open wounds to get them infected
and injecting urine into the child .
Case studies
• Zibis et al (2010) reported the following case of
Munchhausen syndrome. A 24-year-old woman
had been referred to a surgeon as she had
extremely painful, stiff and swollen right hand
and arm. She reported having had four previous
operations on the same region. Four days into
her treatment at the hospital she developed a
"fever temperature" that would not react well to
any drug. However, diagnostic tests could not
locate any infection or fever. It was discovered
that she was preheating thermometers to take
her own temperature and that she was often
heard punching the wall at night (presumably
with her right hand). She was also seen reading
a lot of medical text books about hand diseases
a.nd amputations. The medical staff stopped her
treatment. Her temperature dropped back to
usual levels and, 20 days after taking her cast off,
her arm was free of any injury.
• Faida et al (2012) reported on a 40-year-old
woman Who had injuries to her right leg. She
was complaining of arthritis of the right leg with
headaches and ulcers. During her hospitalisation,
her conditions got worse and she could no longer
walk on her right leg. Tests to examine why this
could be the case showed nothing abnormal
about the leg. When a standard x-ray was taken of
her leg, it was revealed that a sewing needle was
embedded in her right calf. When the hospital
staff questioned her about this she became
very aggressive and denied any knowledge of it.
She then attempted to jump out of the hospital
window to escape but thankfully was stopped.
Many of her symptoms resolved spontaneously
after this incident.

9.2 Adherence to
medical advice
Types of non-adherence
and reasons why patients
do not adhere
Types and extent of non-adherence
Clarke (2013) noted different types of adherence and
if we reverse them we can identify different types of
non-adherence, which are:
• not adhering to short-term advice (e.g. to take
three pills per day, five hours apart, for one week)
• failing to attend a follow-up interview or a referral
•
appointment
not wanting to make a lifestyle change (e.g.
reducing then quitting smoking or taking more
exercise)
• not engaging in preventative measures linked to
health (e.g. using contraception).
According to Sarafino (2006), up to 40 per cent
of a given population fail to adhere to the medical
advice given to them. That is, two in five people do
not follow their doctor's advice. In addition, Sarafino
found the following:
• When medicine needs to be taken for short-term
acute illness, the adherence rate climbs to
67 per cent.
• For longer-term chronic regimes, the figure
appears to be around 50 per cent.
• People tend to adhere more just before or just
after seeing a doctor.
• For anything that means a change in lifestyle
people's adherence appears to be very low.
• Sarafino (2006) was quick to note that these are
probably overestimates of non-adherence as the
data are only based on people who were willing
to take part in a study and then admit to non-
adherence.
Rational non-adherence
• Laba, Brien & Jan (2012) wanted to try to
understand rational non-adherence using a
community sample of patients in Australia. The
patients were given a discrete choice online
survey that wanted to estimate the importance
of eight medication factors on non-adherence.
These were :
o immediate medication harm
o immediate medication benefit
o long-term medication harm
o long-term medication benefit
o cost
o regimen
o symptom severity
o alcohol restrictions.
• Six of the factors appeared to affect choice
of adherence rationally in the sample (the two
that did not were symptom severity and alcohol
restrictions).
• Therefore, rational non-adherehce is a complex
interaction between the six remaining factors
with an overall cost-benefit analysis by individual
patients finally predicting whether they will adhere
or not. It was noted that when a potential health
outcome was framed in terms of ''side effects"
the person quite rationally was more likely not to
adhere than if a health outcome was framed in
terms of "therapeutic benefits'' .
Measuring adherence and
non-adherence
Subjective: self-reports
• One technique that can be used is for patients to
complete self-reports with questions related to
how much they are adhering to the treatment.
• Patients can be given booklets to re cord when
they took certain drugs or engaged in certain
behaviours that are asked of them as part of their
treatment.
• Psychologists are sceptical about the validity and
reliability of such measures as patients could
easily lie about what they have done in terms of
adhering to treatment.
• Kaplan & Simon (1990) noted that if the
questions are direct and simple to answer then
this technique can be used successfully to
measure rates of adherence.
• Patients may give socially desirable answers
especially if they have not been adhering to the
treatment prescribed to them.
Objective: pill counting, biochemical tests, repeat
prescriptions
• One other way of measuring adherence is by
simply counting the amount of pills left in a
bottle and working out whether the patient has
taken the recommended amount over a certain
time period.
• This can assess whether the patient has followed
the correct procedure and taken the specified
amount of tablets.
• However, just because the pills are not in the
bottle any more does not mean they have actually
been taken.
• A patient may well have thrown the pills away (as
in the Rosenhan study) or just placed them in a
different container.
85
 9 Psychology and health
• Another way to measure adherence is to run
biochemical tests on the patient.
• These include urine analysis and blood tests to
detect levels of the drug that the patient should
have consumed.
• Psychologists believe these are the best methods
to use after reviewing the field (e.g. Roth, 1987),
but the tests are very expensive compared to the
other options available.
• While these test s do detect drug levels, they still
do not show total adherence to a regime, only
that the person has ingested enough of the drug
for it to be detectable.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
A local health charity wants you to help it
decide which is the best way to measure
adherence to medical advice. In your report to the
charity, you must outline at least three ways and
highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each
technique.
Improving adherence
Improve practitioner style, provide information and
behavioural techniques
• Practitioners can ensure that the patient
understands the "disease process" and the pros
and cons of treatment.
• They can use simplified, non-medical language.
• They can use measura.ble statements fo r
treatment rather than generic advice (e.g. with
people who take regula r exercise by swimming,
saying that they should swim 20 lengths each
time they go for a swim, rather than telling t hem
to take some exercise daily).
• Any key information which is vital to the treatment
should be stat ed more than once.
• Any written instructions should have no ambiguity
whatsoever.
• Practitioners can ask the patient to repeat the
instructions at least once.
Burke, Dunbar-Jacob & Hill (1997) highlighted four
techniques that work:
• Tailor the regimen - ensure that the treatment
programme is compatible with the lives of the
patients. For example, if exercise is part of the
treatment t hen make sure it can fit into their lives
if they work full-time.
• Provide prompts and reminders - these serve as
cues so the patient is reminded of the treatment
(e.g. having the day printed on the drug packaging
so patients know whether they have taken the pill
on the correct day).
86
• Use self-monitoring - ask patients to keep a
written record of what they do. These act as
prompts and the patient is more likely to stick to
the treatment if they have to keep a record.
• Use a behaviour contract - a "contract" can be
drawn up between doctor and patient to reach
certain treatment goals wtth appropriate rewards.
Use of text messaging
• Lewis et al (2013) reported on a scheme that
sent tailored text messages to people currently
undergoing HIV treatment.
• After being assessed prior to receiving text
messages, the patient s received reminder texts,
answered weekly adherence texts and for those
who adhered to treatment they received tailored
messages such as " He shootsl He scores!
Perfect med adherence. Great job! "
(2013: 250).
• For those found to be non-adherent they were
sent reminder texts such as "Stop, drop and pop.
Take your meds now! " (2013: 250).
• The patients reported being very receptive to
the text messaging system and appreciated the
messages.
• The adherence to medication (self-reported)
improved significantly during the three months
when texts were sent (especially among those
who had begun the study not adhering to
treatment).
• Objective measures of adherence such as viral
load confirmed that these patients had been
adhering to treatment.
Letters
• Zhang & Fish (2012) examined whether a
simple letter through the post may improve
adherence to a variety of t reatments in a
healthcare setting.
• They also wanted to investigate whether different
types of treatment were affected in the same way
via a reminder letter.
• Adult patients were followed to check for
adherence rates to a variety of health issues such
a.s colonoscopies, general x-rays, vaccines and
general eye tests for diabetics.
• A first ren1inder letter was sent out one month
after the appropriate time frame for treatment
for urgent cases and after two months for non-
urgent cases.
• If these were not responded to then the second
letter was sent out one month after the first.
Table 9.2..1 shows the adherence rates for a
variety of treatments followed in the study.
 Treatment No reminder One letter as reminder Two letters as reminders Non·adherence

Colonoscopy 35 11 14 45
Mammogram 57 16 5 34
Cardiac testing 11 5 0 4
Ultrasound 55 7 1 5

Note: Numbers refer to number of patients

A Table 9.2.1 Adherence rates
Source: Zhang & Fish (2012)

Memory intervention breakfast time I will take my pills" get them to

think " With my first cup of tea of the day I will
lnsel et al have proposed a multifaceted approach to take my pills."
improving adherence through cognitive tasks (note
• Teach - ask - wait - ask again - wait - ask
the plural):
again. This allows patients to rehearse intentions.
• Emphasise routine - have medication in same Leaving a sufficient gap at the second "wait" (as
place and same time each day or each time it has long as 15 minutes) can help improve memory for
to be taken. intention, according to lnsel et al.
• Develop cues (e.g. have a pill pot on the
breakfast table in full view rather than in a box in
a drawer).
Evaluation extra
• These techniques are useful. The different
• Elaborate the action (e.g. get the patient to
techniques can be used with different patients to
shake the bottle before taking the pills to make it find one that works - this means that adherence
more memorable so they don't take a repeat dose
" plans" can be individually specific and this
immediately).
should increase the chances of patients "sticking
• Do It now. As soon as a cue is present the to " their drug regimeh.
patient takes the pills there and then - a five-
• The cognitive approaches are objective.
second delay can cause forgetting and non-
This is a strength as it is seen as being a
adherence. scientific approach - we are looking at aspects
• Implementation intentions - make it all specific, of adherence that can be manipulated and
so rather than having patients thinking "Around measured. We can establish cause and effect.

87
 9 Psychology and health
Types and theories of pain
Definitions of pain
• According to Sarafino (2006), pain can be a
sensory and/ or emotional discomfort which tends
to be associated with actual tissue damage or
threatened tissue damage including irritation.
Acute and chronic organic pain
• Acute pain refers to times when patients
experience temporary pain for about six months
or less.
• They experience anxiety while the pain is there
but this dissipates quickly once the pain begins
to disappear.
• When pain lasts continually for more than a few
months, it is referred to as chronic pain.
• People experiencing this will have high levels
of anxiety and may well develop a sense of
helplessness and depression.
• This is especially true if treatment is not helping.
The pain interferes with daily life, thoughts and
sleep patterns.
Psychogenic pain
• Not all pain stems from physiological
mechanisms.
• Psychogenic pain refers to episodes where there
is no organic (physiological) cause of pain but the
person is experiencing pain.
• One controversial element of pain perception has
been phantom limb pain .
• This is a condition whereby a patient who is an
amputee still experiences pain in a limb that Is
not longer physically there or in a limb that has no
functioning nerves within it.
• The pain is described in the same way as any
other ache or pain that people experience daily.
• Pain is often described as shooting or burning or
like cramp.
Specificity theory of pain
• It was predicted that we have a sensory system
that is dedicated to pain.
• These series of neurons form a pathway to a
dedicated pain centre in the brain.
• The more this pathway is used, the more intense
the pain is as experienced by the person.
• This theory states that pain is purely physiological
and that there are nerve centres in the brain that
exclusively process this information.
• Some psychologists have found evidence for
certain fibres being exclusive to pain but others
state that they cannot find them.
88
• There are sensory fibres in our s.kin that can
detect heat, cold and certain pressures but
these can also detect pain so the "exclusivity"
argument is now a weak one.
Gate control theory of pain
• Melzack & Wall (1965) proposed the idea of a
gate control theory for pain.
• Pain is detected and still picked up by sensory
signals but the spinal cord plays a key role in the
experience of the actual pain.
• The spinal cord has a mechanism with in it that
acts just like a gate: it is either open or closed in
the main.
• If it is open the pain is experienced but the spinal
cord can modulate the pain level by having the
gate slightly rather than fully open.
• There are three main factors in the gate-opening
process:
o The amount of activity in pain fibres is a factor.
The more ''noxious " the pain stimulus is, the
more likely the gate will be opened {e.g. if
someone has a severe cut).
o Another factor is the amount of activity in other
peripheral fibres. These are called A-beta fibres.
They carry information about "low-Jevel pain"
(e.g. a scratch or a touch). When there is activity
in these fibres the gate tends to close as the
pain is low level and not dangerous.
o Messages from the brain play a part.
Information such as excitement and anxiety can
affect how much the gate is opened or closed.
• Sarafino (2006) noted conditions that can open
or close the gate in the spinal cord. The following
can open the gate:
o severe injury
o anxiety, worry, depression, etc.
o focusing too much on the pain , plus boredom.
• The following can close the gate:
o medication
o positive emotions (e.g. laughing through
happiness)
o rest and relaxation
o distraction from the pain.
Measuring pain
Self-report measures
• These are usually questionnaire-based methods
that allow the person experiencing the pain to
rate how severe the pain is.
• Common examples would be the use of a box
scale, a verbal rating scale or a Likert-type scale.
• Patients may also be asked to keep a pain diary
so the physician can monitor when the pain is
happening and how the patient feels .
 Box scale:

No pain ( O ( 1 ] 2 J 3 J 4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 j 10 I Worst pain possible

Verbal rating scale:
No pain Some pain Considerable pain Worst pain possible

Llkert-type scale:
The example questions below would be answered using the options of:
Strongly agree, Agree, Don't know, Disagree, Strongly disagree.
1. The pain usually gets worse at night.
2. Pain relief helps m.e control my pain .
..._ Figure 9.3.1 Scales for recording pain - box rating, verba l rating and Ukert-type scales

PAIN DIARY FOR:

DATE: Did you change your medication today? If yes, describe:

Pain rating scale:

No pain 0 1 2 3 4 5 Unbearable pain

Time Pain rating and Activity at start What medication did Pain rating after Comments/ other
body position of pain you take and how 1or2 hours problems
much?

S.30 p.m. 5/ \ower balK Leaned over and /\spirin (2.) 4 - he\ped a C.ou\d $tand up
pain dra99ed dining \itt\e better
c.hair awai from
tab\e
ll.OO p.m. ?../ \ower balK Liin9 ftat on balK Ibuprofen (Z.) l - he.\pt-0 Troub\e. getting to
du\\ alne in the bed s\eep: got to s\eep at
around z..oo a.m.
-
-
• - ..... ~ -
-.i'--..-
~ - -
.

....... - ...... - . .....

~ .....

A Figure 9.3.2 Example of a pain diary

Psychometric measures and visual rating scales
• One standardised psychometric measure of pain
is the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ).
1. A diagram of a body is presented to the
patient who simply has to mark where the pain
is located around the body.
2. There are 20 sub-classes of descriptive words
of which the patient has to choose a maximum
of one per class. The further down the list in
each sub-class the word is, the more points it
scores so that an overall pain rating index can
be calculated.
3. The patient has to describe the pattern of
pain from three sub-classes of words and then
produce some qualitative data about what
things relieve but also increase the pain.
4. The final part gets the patient to rate the
strength of the pain via six questions. The
scores for the questions are added up to
create a present pain intensity score.

89
 9 Psychology and health

Part l. Where Is Your Pain? Part 2. What Does Your Pain Feel Like?

Please mark on the drawing below the areas where you Some of the words below describe your present pain.
feel pain . Put E if external, or I if internal, near the areas Circle ONLY those words that best describe it. Leave out
which you mark. Put El if both external and internal. any category that is not suitable. Use only a single word
in each appropriate category - the one that applies best.
1 2 3 4
Flickering Jumping Pricking Sharp
Quivering Flashing Boring Cutting
Pulsing Shooting Drilling Lace rating
Throbbing Stabbing
Beating La nc inati ng
Pounding
5 6 7 8
Pinching Tugging Hot Tingling
Pressing Pulling Burning Itchy
Gnawing Wrenching Scalding Smarting
Cramping Searing Stinging
• Crushing
9 10 11 12
Dull Tender Tiring Sickening
Sore Taut Exhausting Suffocating
Htrrti ng Rasping
Aching Splitting
Heavy

13 14 15 16
Fearful Punishing Wretched Annoying
Frightful Gruelling Blinding Troublesome
Terrifying Cruel Miserable
Vicious Intense
Ki Iii ng Unbearable
17 18 19 20
Spreading Tight Cool Nagging
Radiating Numb Cold Nauseating
Penetrating Drawing Freezing Agonizing
Piercing Squeezing Dreadful
Tearing Torturing

Part 3. How Does Your Pain Change With Time? Part 4. How Stron2 Is Your Pain?

1. Which word or words would you use to describe the People agree that the following 5 words represent pain of
pattern of your pain? increasing intensity. They are:

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
Continuous Rhythmic Brief Mild Discomforting Distressing Horrible Excruciating
Steady Periodic Momentary
To answer each question belovv, write the number of the
Constant Intermittent Transient
most appropriate word in the space beside the question .
2. What kind of things relieve your pain? 1 . Which word describes your pain right now?
2. Which word describes it at its worst?
3. Which word describes it when it is least?
3. What kind of things increase your pain? 4 . Which word describes the worst toothache
you ever had?
5 . Which word describes the worst headache
you ever had?
6. Which word describes the wo rst stomach-
ache you ever had?

• Figure 9.3.3 The MPQ

Source: Melzack, 1975

90
• Visual rating scales can come in the form of
visual analogue scales as shown in Figure 9.3.4.
No pain [ - - - - - - - ] Worst pain possible
.& Figure 9.3.4 Visual analogue scale for recording pain
• The physician can measure (witl1 a ruler) the
distance along the scale to get a numeric
measure of how intense the pain is - other
questions and bipolar adjectives can be used on
these scales too.
Behavioural or observational scale
• The UAB Pain Behavior Scale can be used by
nurses to assess the degree of pain a patient is
in by observing the person's behaviour.
• The patient will be asked to perform several
activities such as walking around, sitting down
then standing up and the nurse then rates each
of tl1ese to give a total score of how much the
pain is affecting the patient's behaviour.
Parameter Points
verba l complaints none
occasional
frequent
non-verbal complaints none
occasional
frequent
down tin1e none
0 to 60 minutes
> 60 minutes
facial grimaces none
mild and/or Infrequent
severe and/or frequent
standing posture normal
mildly impaired
distorted
- .
-
.
-" •
.& Figure 9.3.5 The UAB Pain Behavior Scale
• In addition, structured clinical sessions can
be used and these can be tailored to the pain
condition a patient has.
• Patients can be asked to perform a series of
tasks linked to the pai n {e.g. if it is lower back
pain one of the tasks may be to tie their shoe
laces).
• A trained observerthen watches the recording
and scores the patient so an overall pain score
can be calculated.
Pain measures In children
• There is 011e question11aire that has been
developed that can be used just with children -
the Pediatric Pain Questionnaire.
• Cl1ildren have to describe their pain in their own
words then choose as many adjectives as they
want to, to help describe their pain some more.
• There is a visual analogue scale used with faces
as the bipolar ends and then, similar to the MPQ,
a picture of a person so they can indicate where
the pain is.
.& Figure 9 .3.6 The Pediatric Pain Questionnaire
Finding
0 Managing and controlling
•
0.5 pain
1
Medical technJques
0
• PerlpheraJly active analgesics - these inhibit
0 .5
the production of certain neurochemicals that
1
are produced as a result, for example, of tissue
0 damage. Common examples of these drugs
0 .5 are aspirin and ibuprofen. Aspirin, for instance,
1 reduces the experience of pain but also reduces
inflammation that could be causing the pain.
0
0.5 • Centrally acting analgesics - these are good at
reducing acute pain in the short term as they act
1
directly on the central nervous system. Examples
0 of these drugs are codeine and morphine.
0.5 • L-0cal anaesthetics - these can be applied locally
1 to the site of pain (or be injected) to give almost
- immediate relief. They block the nerve cells at the
site of damage. An example of this type of drug is
.
novoca1ne.
• Indirectly acting drugs - these are drugs that
are used for other conditions but can also help in
pain management. For example, antidepressants
can help reduce psychological aspects of
depression but they can also help relieve pain .
Psychological techniques: cognitive strategies
Sarafino (2006) noted a range of otl1er cognitive
strategies that can be used with patients. These
include:
• Distraction - this technique gets patients to
focus on something that is not linked to the pain
in any way. This can include looking at a picture,
singing a song, playing on a video console or
having to focus on someone's voice. Distractors
have to be relevant to patients and be engrossing
enough for them. Hence, they have to be
individually tailored.
91
 9 Psychology and health
• Imagery - this can be called guided imagery and
involves patients creating a mental scene "far
removed" from the current state of pain. This
could be a pleasant place (e.g. a beach) and the
therapist has to guide them through the scene to
distract them from the pain. The therapist may
ask about sights and sounds, for instance. The
aim is to create a "place" that cannot be linked to
the pain being experienced.
Alter.n ative techniques
• Hypnosis - patients who are good hypnotic
subjects could benefit from using hypnosis as
part of their pain management. The hypnotist can
use suggestions and imagery to help patients
cope with pain. It is common for the suggestion
92
of analgesia (pain relief) t o work on hypnotic
patients as a result of their high levels of
suggestibility.
• Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimuJation
(TENS) machines - these machines have
electrodes which are placed either side of the
source of pain. The machine then sends a mild
electrical current between the electrodes which, in
theory, reduces the sensation of pain.
• Acupuncture - this is an ancient Chinese practice
of inserting special fine metal needles under
the skin of patients. Areas are chosen to insert
these needles depending on the sourc·e of the
pain. Once inserted, the needles are "twirled " or
stimulated electrically.

Causes and sources
of stress
Physiology of stress and effects on health
• The physiological response to stress is controlled
by two bodily systems:
o The autonomic nervous system is
composed of two approximately antagonistic
sub-systems, the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches. This system acts
rapidly to stimulate physiological changes
such as breathing and heart rate as well as
affecting the second element, the endocrine
system.
o The endocrine system provides a slower
communication route through the body using
hormones released in response to signals
from nerves or from other glands.
• In an emergency, the sympathetic branch of the
autonomic nervous system responds quickly,
preparing for "fight or flight".
• The sympathetic nervous system also sends
impulses to the endocrine system, which
responds by releasing hormones that enhance
the preparation for action.
• This mechanism, which links the sympathetic
nervous system to the adrenal medulla, is called
the sympathetic adrenal medullary system.
• Stress can have a range of effects on health,
such as the following:
o Cardiovascular problems can occur. These can
include hypertension (high blood pressure) and
atherosclerosis (the build up of fat deposits in
blood vessels). Both of these increase the risk
of having a heart attack.
o Gastrointestinal disorders might be
experienced. An increase in stomach acids
can lead to ulcers and digestive problems.
Also, conditions such as irritable bowel
syndrome can also be made worse by stress.
The GAS model
• Selye (1947) described the body's response to
stress and began to explore the links between
stress and illness.
• He induced stress in rats using stressors such as
heat and fatigue.
• The rats showed the same physiological
responses regardless of the nature of the
stressor; they had enlarged adrenal glands and
they developed stomach ulcers.
• Selye proposed that the body responded to any
stressor by getting itself ready for action . Three
stages are involved:
1. Alarm reaction: the bodyts mechanisms for
dealing with danger are activated. It Is based
around the fight or flight mechanism In animals.
Physiological reactions include respiratjon rate
increasing, heart rate increasing and blood
pressure rising.
2 . Resistance stage: the person struggles to
cope with the stress and the body attempts to
return to its previous physiological state.
This happens if no more stress is experienced.
However, the person is more vulnerable than
before so if stress is experienced before
returning to the previous state, the person will
struggle to cope.
3 . Exhaustion stage: if the stressor persists
and the body cannot return to its previous
state, phys'ical resources become depleted,
eventually leading to collapse.
Ca uses of stress
Lack of control
• Rotter (1966) identified a personality variable he
called the locus of control.
• People who attribute control to factors they
cannot govern, such as chance or the behaviour
of other people, are described as having an
external locus of control.
• Those who believe that they are respons ible for
themselves have an internal locus of control.
• Wallston et al (1978) developed the health
locus of control scale. This measure, which
looks specifically at an individual's beliefs about
the factors that determine the person's health
outcomes, assesses three dimensions:
o Internal health locus of control - this is the
extent to which the individual feels able to be
responsible for his or her own stress levels.
For example, a person may believe "My own
lifestyle choices are what will affect my stress
levelsn.
o Powerful others' control over health - this
refers to the individual's belief in the role that
other, important, people (such as doctors,
family and friends) play in the experience of
stress. For example, a person may hold views
such as "Whenever I feel stressed, I should
consult a trained professional".
o Chance health locus of control - this refers
to the role that the individual assigns to pure
" luck". An individual may believe: " No matter
what I do, if I am going to get stressed, I will
get stressed" .
Work
• Johannson et al (1978) aimed to study the
physiological and psychological stress responses
in the two categories of high-risk and low-risk
workers.
• There were two groups: the high-risk group
consisted of 14 workers who had a complex
job and worked at a set pace governed by the
production line; the low-risk group was made up
of 10 workers who worked at their own pace as
cleaners or maintenance staff. 93
 9 Psycllology and health

• The research team measured workers' adrenaline Personality

(through urine samples) and body temperature on
arrival at work,, and at four other times throughout
the day, self-rating of mood and alertness, and
caffeine and nicotine consumption.
• Baseline measurements were taken at the
sa1ne times of the day when t he workers were
at home.
• It was found that workers in the high-risk group
had adrenaline levels twice as high on arrival at
work than when they were at home. Their levels
continued to rise throughout the day, whereas the
low-risk group had adrenaline levels 1 .5 times the
amount recorded at home and their levels lowered
throughout the day.
Life events
• Holmes & Rahe (1967) constructed a questionnaire
called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale
(SRRS). See Figure 9 .4.1 for an excerpt.
• It is used to measure the amount of stress that a
person experiences over a cert ain amount of time
(usually one year).
• They initially conducted research into how
different life events are perceived in terms of how
stressful they are.
• Each of the 43 life events was given a score out
of 100 and these scores were called life change
units (LCUs).
• People simply had to add up how many LCUs they
had scored over one year.
• Holmes & Rahe noted that people who score
more than 300 LCUs in a given year are much
more likely to become ill due to the amount of
stress they experienced.
• Friedman & Rosen man (197 4) observed that their
coronary patients, tended to sit on the edge of
their seat, leaping up frequently to enquire how
much longer they would be kept waiting for their
appointments.
• The possibility of a connection between the heart
conditions and the tense, frenetic behaviour of
these individuals led to the proposal of "hurry
sickness", later renamed "type A".
• Type A individuals tend to be highly competitive,
aggressive, impatient and hostile , with a strong
urge for success.
• Their behaviour tends to be goal-directed and
performed at speed. In contrast, people with type
8 behaviour are relatively "laid back", lacking the
urgency and drive typical of type A individuals.
Daily hassles
• We do not have to experience major life-changing
events to experience stress.
• Everyday events can also ,be a legitimate source of
stress. Activities such as losing your keys, spilling
milk when in a rush or having to give a presentation
at school can cause high levels of stress.
• Lazarus (1981) developed a scale called the
Hassles Scale that lists over 115 different
dai ly events .
• People rate each event on a set scale. The higher
the score, the more stress they have experienced
and this in turn increases the chance of ill health .
• The research team also created an Uplifts Scale
(events that are positive and happy) to see
whether these can offset the potential stress
caused by daily hassles. Figure 9.4.2 shows an
excerpt from the Hassles and Uplifts Scale.

R.a nk Ufe event Mean val.ue Rank Life event Mean value
1 Death of spouse 100 23 Son or daughter leaving hon1e 29
2 Divorce 73 24 Trouble with in-laws 29
3 Marital separation 65 25 Outstanding personal achievement 28
4 Jail term 63 26 Spouse begins or stops work 26
5 Death of close family member 63 27 Beginning or ending school 26
6 Personal injury or illness 53 28 Change in living conditions 25
7 Marriage 50 29 Revision of personal habits 24
8 Fi red at work 47 30 Trouble with boss 23
9 Marital reconciliation 45 31 Change in work hours or conditions 20
10 Retirement 45 32 Change in residence 20
11 Change in health of fami ly 44 33 Change in schools 20
member

4 Figure 9.4.1 Excerpt from the SRRS questionnaire

Source: Holmes & Rahe, 1967

94
 Please fill out this questionnaire just before you go to bed.
HA.SS LES UPLIFTS
How much of a hassle was this item for you today? How much of an uplift was this item for you today?
0 = None or not applicable 0 = None or not applicable
1 = Somewhat 1 = Somewhat
2 = Quite a bit .2 = Quite a bit
3 = A great deal 3 = A great deal
Please circle one number on the left-hand side (hassles) and one number on the right-hand side (uplifts)
0123 1. Your child(ren) 0123
0123 2. Your parents or parents-i n-law 0123
0123 3. Other relative(s) 0123
0123 4. Your spouse 0123
0123 5. Time spent with family 0123
0123 6. Health or wellbeing of a family member 0123
0123 7. Sex 0123
0123 8. Intimacy 0123
0123 9. Family-related obligations 0123
0123 10. Your friend(s) 0123
0123 11. Fellow workers 0123
0123 12. Clients, customers, patients, etc. 0123
0123 13. Your supervisor or employer 0123
0123 14. The nature of your work 0123
0123 15. Your workload 0123
0123 16. Your job security 0123
0123 17. Meeting deadlines or goals on the job 0123
0123 18. Enough money for necessities (e.g. food, clothing, housing, healthcare, taxes, insurance) 0123
A Flgure 9.4.2 Excerpt from the Hassles and Uplifts Scale questionnaire
Source: Delongis, Folkman & Lazurus (1988)

Measures of stress Management of stress

Physiological measures: recording devices and
sample tests
• Blood pressure monitors are used to measure
both systolic and diastolic pressure. Each of
these is given a number and the result is written,
for example, as 115/ 75 (this is an ideal reading).
If a person has a reading that is 185/125 then
this indicates severe hypertension that is likely to
be caused by extreme stress.
• Blood and urine tests can used to measure
levels of cortisol in our body. Cortisol is a stress
hormone. Higher levels indicate that t he body is
physiologically stressed.
Medical techniques
• Benzodlazapines are a group of drugs (including
valium) that directly affect stress reactio ns in the
centra l nervous system.
• Beta-blockers are a group of drugs that reduce
the anxiety and blood pressure linked to stress.
These act on the peripheral nervous system
and block activity from ephinephrine and
norepinephrine .
• Drugs should only be used as a short-term,
temporary measure f or dealing with stress.
Psychological techniques: biofeedback and Imagery

• Galvanic skin response devices have electrodes
that are attached to a person's finger tips. They
measure the amount of electrical resistance in
the skin. Higher levels of skin response can be
an indicator of autonomic nervous system arousal
which is linked to stress.
• Biofeedback is a technique that att empts to get
people to take control of their own physiological
state.
• Usually, people are wired up or connected to devices
that measure key physiological processes such as
heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension.

Self-report questionnaires • The equipment gives instant and continuous

There are questionnaires that people can complete
that give a numerical measure of stress. These have
already been covered above, such as the SRRS and the
Hassles and Uplifts Scale (Figures 9.4.1 and 9.4.2).
readings of these key physiological measures.
The idea is that people take voluntary control of
their physiology using the id.ea of rewards.
• If people are attempting to reduce their resting
heart rate and they can see that d eeper breathing 95
 9 Psychology and l1ealth
and relaxation is doing this instantly then they are
more likely to want to do the same next time.
• Imagery can also be used to reduce stress
in people - techniques involve using mental
imagery to distract people from thinking about any
stressors they have.
• They may be taught relaxation techniques to help
with the distraction. These may include visual
imagery to take them "away from their stressors"
and deep-breathing exercises or even yoga and
meditation .
• People using mental imagery will have to imagine
a variety of situations that have nothing to do with
the stresses they are currently experiencing.
Preventing stress
• One technique to prevent stress that has
generated a great deal of research and following
by therapists is stress inoculation therapy
(Meichenbaum, 1996). There are three stages:
1. Conceptualisation phase - this is when a
relationship is built between the trainer and
the client. The trainer will educate clients
about the nature and impact that stress has
on their lives. The trainer may even show
how clients may be currently making their
stress worse without them even knowing they
are doing it. Clients are then encouraged to
see perceived stressors as "problems to be
solved" rather than as a negative experience.
They are introduced to different coping
96
mechanisms and strategies that they can then
go and use. They are also taught to break
stressors down into short-term, intermediate
and long-term coping goals.
2. Skill acquisition and rehearsal phase - this
is when the elements from stage 1 have
been taught and clients have to put them into
practice. The skills are initially practised with
the trainer and in the clinic but then clients
are encouraged to try them in the real world.
Some of the coping mechanisms could include
relaxation training, cognitive restructuring,
interpersonal communication skills and using
social support to help them in times of need.
3. Application and follow-through phase - this
is when there are opportunities for clients
to apply all of the coping skills to increasing
levels of stressors. Additional techniques,
such as using imagery, modelling, role
playing and rehearsal, are used in the form
of upersonal experitTients" so that clients
cah show th at they can cope with any level
of stressor. These help to consolidate the
skills they have already learned. They are also
followed up with booster sessions to ensure
that the entire process is working.
• The whole technique is flexible and can be a
simple 20-minute session for people who are just
about to go into surgery to 40 one-hour weekly
sessions for people who cannot cope with any
level of stress.

9.5 Health proinotion
Methods for promoting
health
Fear arousal
• The idea behind fear arousal is that If you " scare
people enough" then they will change their
thoughts and behaviour.
• Roberts & Russell (2002) noted that while fear-
arousing methods may be effective, there are
certain factors that can affect whether the person
it is aimed at does adhere to the message. These
factors are :
o the unpleasantness of the fear-arousing
message
o the probability that the event will occur if the
person does not follow the message given
o the perceived effectiveness of the
recommended action portrayed Jn the
message.
• Therefore, idea lly, the message should be
relatively unpleasant; people must believe that
what it is warning about wUI happen to them and
that any "evasive" action will be effective.
• Janis & Feshbach (1953) reported that only
minimal fear is effective.
• They showed participants a film about dental
hygiene and each group either got a strong fear
message, a moderate or a minimal fear message.
• The group who got the minimal fear message
showed the highest level of agreement with the
advice (36 per cent) compared to the strong fear
group (8 per cent).
Yale model of communication
Hovland et al (1953) conducted many studies at
Yale University which helped to form this model of
persuasive communication:
1 . Attention - the message must grab people 's
attention. Sound and visual stimuli are the most
effective. Therefore , using television might be
better than using leaflets or the radio.
2. Comprehension - for a message to be successful
it must be understood by the recipient. Therefore,
messages need to be clear, concise and short.
3. Acceptance - finally, the overall message has
to be accepted by the recipient for a change in
behaviour to occur. The person does not have
to believe the message but must accept it and
behave according to it for it to be persuasive
communication.
There are several factors that can affect any or all of
the three stages above.
• The communicator is a factor because a
message is more persuasive if the communicator
is attractive, is similar to the rec ipient and rs
likeable.
• The content needs to be carefully considered.
It is best to cause mild fear and best when the
message is presented verbally and visually. A
one-sided or two-sided argument needs to be
considered too.
• The medium used is another factor to consider.
The communicator needs to choose whether
a television campaign would work better than
a radio or leaflet campaign . If the message is
simple and straightforward then conveying it via
television is best; if it is complicated then written
media is best.
Providing information
• Mass media include television , radio, magazines
and newspapers.
• One "popular" approach to providing information
is for health services and the government
to inform the general population about the
negative consequences of certain health-related
behaviours (e.g. smoking and drinking alcohol).
The following applies to this approach:
o It appears to have limited success as many
people misunderstand the messages.
o This is especially true if people are not that
motivated to change their behaviour anyway.
o If people are motivated to change behaviour
then it can be useful.
• Saratino (2006) gave the example of Cable
Quit, a television show that helped people to
prepare to quit unhealthy behaviours by giving out
information from the first day they decided to quit.
Around 17 per cent of people had still quit a year
later after watching the programmes.
• The Internet can be used to provide information
as there are now thousands of websites that
promote healthy behaviour and allow people to
track their own progress and meet others online
to help motivate them to change.
• Medical settings can be useful - having
information displayed in a doctor's surgery or a
doctor's office might make people believe the
messages more . As the information is given in
a professional setting it might receive instant
respect.
Health promotion in
schools, worksites and
communities
Schools
• Walter et al (1985) reported on an US study of 22
elementary schools which introduced a curriculum
that had a focus on physical fitness and nutrition.
• The schools were randomly assigned either to
participate in the programme or act as a control .
• The children who received the curriculum had
lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels
compared to the control children after one year.
97
 9 Psychology and health

• However, many schools cannot afford to introduce

such curricula which would include having
Promoting health of a
specialists come in to teach. specific problem
Worksltes Britt, Silver & Rivara (1998) aimed to test the
• One classic worksite health promotion example is effectiveness of a bicycle helmet safety campaign.
that of the company Johnson & Johnson. It targeted those in low income. It was part of a
Head Start Program . There were 18 different schools
• It began a programme called Live For Life in
of 880 children with a control group of 200. The
1978.
Program comprised of:
• The programme covered thousands of its
• Clasroom activities
employees. It educated people on hea Ith
knowledge, how to manage stress, exercising, • Education of parents
weight control and smoking cessation. • Home visits
• Each employee who takes part has an initial • Fitting of helmets
health screening that assesses the person's • A skills and safety event
current health status. • Children had to wear a helmet on school grounds.
• Employees then take part in a lifestyle seminar • Helmet use doubled in the health promotion group
that promotes healthy living. (43%to 89%)
• After this, employees take part in action groups • The control group rose to (42% to 60%)
that are led by professionals in their fields based
on the initial health screening.
• Employees are then monitored for a year to see
whether they are following their programme. In
addition to this, the workplace itself has exercise
areas and nutritional food served in Its cafeterias.
• Studies conducted in the company show that
employees who take part in the Live For Live
programme increase their physical activity levels,
decrease in weight and are more likely to quit
smoking co mpared to employees who do not take
part in the programme.
Communities
• One example of a community-based wellness
programme was that of a study of three communities
in the United States (Pdrquhar et al, 1977).
• The aim was to get communities to change their
health-related behaviour in an attempt to reduce
the risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Three communities in Northern California were
selected for being very similar demographically.
• Two of them shared the same television and radio
stations whereas the third did not (and acted as a
control comparison).
• The two that shared the same media were
subjected to a two-year campaign about
cardiovascular disease that included warnings
but also information on changing diet, inc reasing
exercise and the disadvantages of smoking.
• In all three communities, a random selection of
males and females were chosen to be followed.
• The researchers interviewed them annually
and also took measurements such as weight,
cholesterol level and blood pressure to be used
as a predictor for cardiovascular disease.
• The control comparison community sample saw
risk increase over the duration of the study while
the two communities following the campaign
showed some moderate decreases.

98 • Longer-term follow-ups were conducted and the

largest success came from those who were older.
 9.6 Health and safety
Definitions, causes and
examples
Definitions of accidents
One definition of an accident could be a misfortune
or a mishap especially if it causes an injury or even
death.
Causes: theory A and theory B (Reason, 2000)
• Theory A is when the individual may be to blame.
Accidents at work are primarily caused by unsafe
behaviour of an individual.
• Theory B is when work systems may be to blame .
Accidents at work are primarily caused by unsafe
work systems and procedures.
• However, it may be that theory A factors and
theory B factors combine to cause accidents
rather than one or the other causing them.
Examples of Individual and system errors
Individual errors (theory A)
• The sinking of the Titanic in 1912 could be
blamed on the captain of the ship. The argument
is that he had an illusion of invulnerability. This
term actually refers to something linked to
"groupthink" - this is when a mode of thinking
becomes so dominant within a group that
realistic alternatives (and better alternatives) are
overlooked, especially under stressful conditions.
Therefore, the members of the group believe that
they are immune to accidents.
• The Pacific Western Airline crash (1978)
was blamed on human error. The airplane
attempted to land early on a runway due to
miscommunication between the pilots and the air
traffic controllers. It happened in a snow storm .
The pilots noticed a snow plough and tried to
abort the landing but the plane hit it before they
managed this. The estimated time of arrival for
the flight was miscommunicated and. several
safety procedures were not followed by the pilots .
System errors (theory B)
• Both the Three Mlle Island (1976) and Chernobyl
(1986) nuclear plant accidents could. be blamed
on the rapid rotation of shifts for the workers in
both plants plus some poor designs and layout
of safety equipment and procedures which meant
that workers found it very difficult to cope with the
situation .
• When the Herald of Free Enterprise (1987) ferry
sank the accident was blamed on poor systems
and safety procedures that were difficult to follow.
Accident proneness and
personality
It may be that some of the theory A factors that
are predicted to cause accidents could be down to
certain personality types.
Accident prone personality and personality factors
• Farmer & Chambers stated: "accident proneness
is a personal idiosyncrasy of relative permanence
predisposing the individual to a higher rate of
accidents" (1926: 3).
• Research has failed to uncover an actual "accident-
prone personality" but it did unearth other
personality traits that could contribute to accidents.
A recent review of the field (Clarke & Robertson,
2006) revealed the following:
• People low In conscientiousness appeared to
be involved in more accidents. That is, people
who are low in social responsibilities and/ or
thoroughness in their jobs tend to have more
accidents.
• People low In agreeableness appeared to be
involved in more accidents. That is , people
who are low in pleasantness, tolerance and
helpfulness tend to have more accidents.
• People high in extraverslon may be involved
in more accidents. This is slightly different
as it appears that people who are outgoing
and boisterous do get involved in more traffic
accidents but no more occupational accidents
than introverts.
Another recent find ing about accidents showed
that it may not be personality as such that causes
accidents but handedness (Bhusham & Khan, 2006):
• They investigated 80 locomotive drivers and their
accident records.
• There appeared to be a higher accident rate among
those who were left-handed and left-footed.
• However, it may be that the design of locomotive
cabs makes it more difficult for left-handers and
left-footers to use them effectively.
Human error and the illusion of invulnerability
• Cognitive overload is when a person cannot
cope with the psychological demands of a
work situation. This is usually when there
are competing tasks that need psychological
attention and the person cannot process all of
the information simultaneously.
• Shift work patterns (see the " Psychology and
organisations" section, page 154) also have an
effect. People working on the night shift are more
likely to have accidents because between 3 a.m.
and 6 a.m. we are in a ''cognitive low" and our
reaction times and dexterity are at our lowest
performance level.
99
 9 Psychology and health

Reducing accidents Safety promotion

•
and promoting safety campaigns
behaviours See the study by Britt, Silver & Rivara about bicycle
helmet safety on page 98.
Reducing accidents at work: token economy
• A token economy is an example of behaviour
modification using rewards to increase the
likelihood that someone will perform a desired
behaviour.
• Token economies can be organised in a variety
of ways as long as there ls an incentive to
perform well.
• In standard token economies, a token is given for
desired behaviour (the token could be a plastic
token or points) and these can be exchanged for
a reward of some form.
Haynes, Pine & Fitch (1982) reported on one such
programme that attempted to reduce the number of
accidents experienced by bus drivers.
• There were daily reports posted in the restroom
for the drivers giving details of any accidents that
had happened.
• Drivers were placed in teams to compete against
others to have the best safety record. This was
used to promote group safety as well as individual
safety.
• The teams scored points for how well they did and
the winning team could convert those points into
cash or other prizes at the end of the competition
period.
• There was a 25 per cent reduction in accidents
and the saving made on insurance claims paid for
the winning prizes.
Reorganising shift work
The best option here is to move towards a slow
rotation of shifts rather than a quick rotation of shifts
so that workers ' circadian rhythms have a chance to
alter to the new shift pattern. This is covered in the
"Psychology and organisations" section on page 155.

100
 Psycholo and
environment
• Tl1e participants were asked to record their
feelings while watchi11g and listening and they
also rated the slides for beauty.

Definitions and sources
Definitions of noise
• A simple definition of noise is an "unwanted
sound".
• It could be said that noise is a sound that has a
psychological componer1t (whether it is wanted or
11ot) and a physical component (processed via the
ear and brain).
• Also, a noise has to be detectable. The point at
which it is detected varies between individuals.
• Figure 10.1.1 shows the decibel (dB) levels of
various objects and scenarios.
Transportation noise and occupational noise
• Transportation noise refers to unpleasant sounds
generated by cars, trains, planes, etc.
Mace, Bell & Loomis (1999) wanted to see if
transportation noise from an aircraft would affect
how much people e11joyed a natural la11dscape:
• They used a laboratory simulation in which
helicopter noise was played at 40dB or 80d8
wl1ile the participants were watching slides of
tranquil views of natural landscapes.
• Tl1e louder the noise the more annoyed the
participants became and it also had a negative
impact on tranquillity and freedom .
• Even the ratings of the slides for beauty were
lowered when the 80dB noise was played.
Tl1erefore, it would appear that aircraft noise is a
source of annoyance and it reduces the pleasure
of viewing natural landscapes.
Occupational noise refers to unpleasant sounds that
are generated in the work environment from things
such as machinery and even work colleagues. It can
be disruptive for two reasons:
• People may be trying to concentrate but the
noise demands attention and also increases
physiological arousal , making concentration much
more d ifficult.
• The noise can be wl1at psychologists call "wide-
band ", i.e. it is coming from a variety of sources
and is constant. Roberts & Russell (2002)
noted that workers can be exposed to longer-
term noises due to machinery, such aircraft
mechanics (up to 120d8), coal miners (105d8)
and even pig farmers (110d B - especially at
feeding time).

dB Example
140 Painfully loud Pait1fully loud

130 Machine gun fire at close range

120 Maximum vocal effort

110 Music at a concert

100 Chainsaw

90 Lawn mower Hearing damage after 8 hours

80 Underground train

70 Fast traffic

60 Busy office

50 Conversation Quiet

40 Residential area at night

30 Clock ticking Very quiet

20 Leaves rustling

10 Normal breathing

0 Hearing threshold

... Figure 10.1..1 The decibel scale

101
 10 Psychology and environment
Riggio (2000) noted how occupational noise may
have an impact on workers :
• It would appear that noise does not affect
performance if it is below 90d8 unless someone
is carrying out a complex verbal work task.
• Unpredictable and intermittent noises are much
more disruptive than a constant, steady noise.
• High-pitched noises interfere more with
performance on a work task than low-pitched
noises.
• Noise, in general, appears to affect the level
of work errors rather than overall rates of
performance.
Factors that make noise annoying
• Volume - higher intensity sounds are more
disruptive and. anything over 90d8 can be
perceived as disturbing. There is an interaction
here between volume and loudness. Volume is
the actual physical level of noise as measured
in decibels whereas loudness is the subjective
experience of the sound. The context of the
sound can affect annoyance (sounds appear
louder with a quiet background environment),
as can habituation (getting used to a repetitive,
monotonous sound, e .g. when living near a
rail track).
• Predictability - if a noise is predictable and
expected then we are less likely to find it annoying
compared to a noise that is unpredictable and
not expected. It is easier to ignore or get used to
something that is predictable.
• Perceived control - if we are able to control a
noise then this reduces the amount of annoyance
we feel. Any strategy that puts us "in control "
lessens the effect of annoyance, so If we can
close a window to reduce a noise we find it less
annoying. However, if a strategy fails to reduce
the annoyance we are likely to be even more
annoyed by the noise.
Negative effects on social
behaviour in adults and
performance in children
Anti-social behaviour
• One anti-social behaviour that could be affected
by noise is aggression.
• It has been predicted that as noise increases
arousal, any behaviour that that requires arousal
will become more intense.
Geen & O'Neal (1969) tested this as follows :
• They showed participants either a violent boxing
film or a non-violent sports film .
• After watching either film, the participants were
given an opportunity to be aggressive towards
a confederate "victim" using an electric shock
apparatus.
102
• They were told that the higher numbered buttons
gave a larger shock and they were also told that
the length of time they held th.e switch down for
was the length of time the confederate would
be shocked for. In reality, no one was actually
shocked.
• During this shock phase the participants were
either exposed to whatever noises were naturally
in the laboratory or a two-minute blast of 60d8
white noise.
• The partic.ipants who were exposed to the white
noise delivered more shocks to the confederate.
• Those who had watched the violent boxing film
and were exposed to the white noise gave the
highest number of shocks and for the longest
duration.
Pro-social behaviour
Mathews & Canon (1975) ran two studies to
test whether noise affects pro-social behaviours
(behaviours that include things such as helping
others):
• In the laboratory study participants were
split into three groups. They were exposed to
either 48d8 of normal noise or 65d8/ 85d8 of
white noise played through a speaker. When
participants arrived for the study they were
greeted by a confederate who got them to wait in
a laboratory for a few minutes . The confederate
sat and read a j ournal in the same room with
other papers and materials balanced on his or
her lap. When the experimenter came into the
room to get the participant, the confederate got
up and accidentally dropped the materials right in
front of the participant. The frequency of helping
behaviour was recorded. A total of 72 per cent
of the participants helped when the n.o ise was of
a normal level whereas only 67 per cent helped
when the noise was 65d8 and 37 per cent helped
when the noise was 85d8.
• ln the field study a confederate would drop a box
of books while getting out of car. In half of the
trials he wore a cast on his arm . Noise was also
manipulated so that half of the trials were carried
out with "normal background levels" which were
measured to be 50d8, whereas in the other half
a confederate used a lawnmower that generated
87dB of noise. The amount of passers-by that
helped was measured in four conditions. The
resu Its showed that noise had little impact on
passers-by when the person was not wearing
a cast - around 15 per cent of people h.e lped
out. However, noise had an impact on helping
behaviour when the person wore a cast. When
the noise was at normal background levels, 80
per cent of passers~by helped out. However, when
the noise was loud (e.g. from the lawnmower),
helping behaviour decreased to 15 per cent. It
would appear that loud noises lead people to not
pay attention to cues that indicate a person may
need help.
Performance in children • The mean amount of food items recal led can be
• Cohen, Glass & Singer (1973) examined children seen in the Table 10.1.2.
living in a high-rise apartment block that was Ethnicity of Malay Malay Indian Indian
directly above a highway. Those on the lower participant •
music music music music•

floors were obviously exposed to a higher level and and and and
of noise. Unsurprisingly, the children on the Malay Indian Malay Indian
lower floors had poorer hearing discrimination food food food food
than the children on the upper floors. This could Ch inese 5.12 3.96 4.67 5.54
have had a direct effect on their reading skills Malay 7.87 4.1.2 9.50 4.92
as the children who lived on the lower floors had
Indian 7.00 7.96 10.29 12.38
significantly poorer read ing skills for their age.
• Bronzaft & McCarthy (1975) tested the reading .A Table 10.1.2 Type of music played and food items
recalled
ability of two sets of children from the same
school. One class was situated near a railroad • Malay students recalled more Malay foods
track while the other class was on the opposite, irrespective of the music being played and Indian
quieter, side of the school. Around 11 per cent students recalled more Indian food irrespective
of teaching time was lost due to noise in the of the music being played. This shows that music
railroad class and these children's reading ability can affect consumers' ability to recall food items
was significantly poorer com.pared to that of the but only if the context is not based on one's own
children in the class on the quiet side.
culture.

Positive uses of sound Stress reduction

• Han et al (2010) reported on the effects that
(music)
Consumer behaviour
North, Hargreaves & McKendrick (1999) examined
whether in-store music affected wine selections:
• During a two-week period, a display was set up at
the end of an aisle in a supermarket that had four
French wines and four German wines displayed in
it, matched for affordability and sweetness.
• Stereotypical French music (played in an
accordion) or German music (featuring brass
instruments) was played on alternate days.
• Once customers had placed a bottle of wine
from the display in their trolley or basket an
experimenter approached them and asked them
questions about their purchase.
• Carr et al (2012) examined the role of music
• A total of 82 shoppers purchased wine from
the display and 44 of these completed the
questionnaire.
• Table 10.1.1 shows the amount of bottles sold as
each type of music played.
Bottles sold French music German music
French wine 40 12
German wine 8 22
.A Table 10.1.1 Wine purchases by type of music played
Yeah & North (2010) examined the role of "musical
fit" on the ability of consumers to recall products. By
• Kushnir et al (2012) noted that if women were
" musical fit~' the researchers meant that the music
fits in with the product (as above with the wines):
• A total of 144 students from Malaysia (24 each
of Malay, Indian and Chinese) were played either
Malay music or Indian music.
• They were then asked to list as many Malay and
Indian foods as they could and were given as
much time as they needed to do this.
music intervention had on stress responses
in patients who were undergoing mechanical
ventilation in hospital. A total of 137 patients
were randomly assigned to either a music-
listening group, a headphone-wearing group or a
control group. Physiological measures of heart
rate, respiratory rate , oxygen levels and blood
pressure were taken pre- and post-intervention.
There was a significant reduction in heart rate
and respiratory rate in the music-listening
group compared to a significant increase in
the control group. There were no significant
changes in the headphone-wearing group. This
shows that music can be used as a short-term
"therapy " for patients undergoing mechanical
ventilation .
therapy for patients who had persistent post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They used
a sam·ple of patients with PTSD who had not
responded positively to cognitive behaviour
therapy (CBT). A total of 17 patients formed the
sample. Nine of these received group music
therapy and the remaining eight were the control
group. All patients had previously not responded
to CBT. The group who underwent music therapy
had a significant reduction in the severity of their
PTSD syn1ptoms ten weeks after starting the
therapy.
allowed to choose their favourite music to listen
to prior to a caesarean section , their experience
was more positive , they perceived fewer threats
from the situation and their blood pressure
reduced compared to a control group.
103
 10 Psychology and environment

r------------------, r--------------- ----,

I I
: Testing attention
I : Testing attention I
I Analysis of the
: performance in a • difference between
performance in a
I '
: ••
: quiet environment : voice environment
I
I two conditions (no
I •• Between
I
: {music with lyrics) background music
•••
I
I I
groups
Group 1 _......___ _ _ _ _ _.....__--'••
I
• - at all/ background
I
• '• music with lyrics) analysis of
(n = 49) •
•• ' --- --- ·-----------·'
·-- differences in
•
•• attention
N = 102
I
• ·-------------------
• ·• scores
I
I : Testing attention •• Analysis of the (between no
I
•
•
'I
• : I performance in a ,'• difference between music and
Group 2 :
I
I voice environment •• two conditions (no
(n = 53)
'•
t---------.--~ . background)
• :
I
(music without I
• background music
'I
'
I
••
•' •• I' lyrics) • at all/ background
•I I
•
• I
music without lyrics)
I I '
I ''
~-------------------·
I I

·-·----------------·
.& Figure 10.1.2 Participants in one of two test conditions: group 1 (music with lyrics), group 2 (music without lyrics)
Source: Based on Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012)

Performance • They were given. 10 minutes to complete as many

Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012) examined whether music of the 100 examples as possible.
with or without lyrics affected attention perfor111ance: • Table 10.1.3 shows the results. At baseline the
• A total of 102 participants from Taipei County two groups did not differ significantly on their
University took part in the st udy. attentional performances.
• They were randomly allocated to one of two Group Mean baseline Mean score with
conditions, as shown in Figure 10.1.2 . score background music
'

• All participants had to complete the Chu Attention Music with lyrics 105.5 98.4
Test, a psychometric measure of attentional Music without 109.3 10 6 .7
performa nee. lyrics
• Th is is a 100-item t est where participants .A. Table 10.1.3 Mean scores: baseline and with
are asked to indicate the number of times background music
an asterisk (*) appears in a series of
scrambled codes.

104

10.2 Density and
crowding
Definitions, measurements
and animal studies
Social and spatial density
• Social density refers to when the amount of
individuals in a set space is varied. For example,
we could study the behaviour of rats by having a
20 square-foot cage for them to live in but one
condition has 20 rats in the cage and the second
condition has 40. The population changes but the
physical space does not.
• Spatial density refers Lo wl1en tl1e amount
of space fs varied but not the group size. For
example, we could study colonies of 20 rats; one
group gets 20 square feet of cage but the second
group gets 40 square feet of cage. The physical
space changes but not the population size.
Crowding
• A crowd is a gathering of people (usually a large
amount) t hat forms a cohesive group.
• The ter111 "crowding" refers to situations when
people come together to form a group - so it is
the act of becoming a crowd.
• Cohesive or spectator crowds form when the
people have shared interests (e.g. supporting the
same team or attending a pop concert) .
•
•
4
•
3
•
.A Figure 10.2.1 The "rat city'' used to study the effects of high density on rats
• Participatory crowds are when al l the crowd is
involved in an event (e.g. a charity run).
• Escape or trampling crowds occur when people
are attempting to get away from danger (e.g. when
there is an emergency evacuation).
• Violent crowds form when one crowd Is attacking
a11other group or i11dividuals (e.g. during riots) .
Animal studies
Calhoun {1962) examined the role of crowding and
social density on the behaviour of rats . He placed
a small number of male and female rates into a
"universe" or "rat city" .
• Calhoun allowed the rats to reproduce at
their own rate and soon the rat city became
overpopulated.
• Tl1e apparatus ha.d been designed to house
48 rats quite comfortably but the population
grew to be much larger than that.
• There were four quadrants or pens to the rat
city with ramps between them, except numbers
1 and 4 were not connected (see Figure 10.2.1).
These were called "end pens".
• When the population was fewer than 48, males
easily established their own harems , mating with
them and defending their pen successfully.
• The females tended to their young and built nests
for them.
• There was very little aggression within the colony.
• As the social density continued to increase there
was a dramatic change in the rats' behaviours.
1
•
•
105
 10 Psychology and environment
• In pens 1 a11d 4 the rats still attempted to
continue their usual social behaviours and were
successful to an extent because there was only
one entrance to these pens.
• The males who lived in pens 2 and 3 became
very aggressive, no harems were successfully
defended and males would mate with any female.
• The female rats in pens 2 and 3 became
ineffective at nurturing their young by failing to
provide suitable nests or move them out of danger.
• The infant mortality rate became as high as
96 per cent in these pens.
• Calhoun called t his area a "behavioural sink".
Crowcroft & Rowe (1958) examined the role of social
density on reproduction in the wild house-mouse:
• They created seven colonies of one adult male
and two adult females.
• Each colony had a pen measuring six square feet.
• When the pens became crowded the mouse
population tended to level off as the reproductive
capabilities of the females declined rapidly
(e.g. due to inactive ovaries). This could not be
down to stress as there was no aggression shown
in the pens.
• Some of the colonies were then transferred to
very large pens (100 square feet) and it did not
take long for the reproductive capabilities of
the females to return to normal levels and the
population increased as a result. It wou ld appear
that in this species of mouse a self-regulatory
mechanism has evolved for limiting the population
when social density gets too high.
Effects on human health,
pro-social behaviour and
performance
Pro-social behaviour
Bickman et al (1973) assessed whether crowding
affected pro-social behaviour in st udents:
• Experimenters dropped envelopes that had an
address and a stamp on them In various places in
three different dormitories. One was of low density,
one of medium density and one of high density.
• The amount of envelopes then placed in a
mailbox was measured (see Table 10.2 .1 ).
Low density 3 Medium density High density 3 crowded in accommodation is to live in a low-rise
malled % mailed mailed
88 79 58
.6. Table 10.2.1 Envelopes mailed by students living in
different density conditions
Health
• Lundberg (1976) conducted a study with
male passengers on a commuter train as the
participants. Lundberg wanted to compare them
when the train had high density compared to low
106
density. In the high-density condition (when there
were many commuters but interestingly everyone
could still find a seat), negative physiological
arousal reactions were noted. It was discovered,
through urine samples, that the commuters in
the high-density trains had elevated levels of
epinephrine, an indicator of stress.
• McCain, Cox & Paulus (1976) reported that
prisoners who lived in conditions of low spatial
density and low social density reported less
sickness compared to those in high-density
prisons.
• Baum & Koman (1976) noted that there are
gender differences in aggression depending
on social and spatial densities. Males put into
small rooms who expected it to be crowded
behaved much more aggressively than females
did. However, any increase is social density did
not produce an increase in aggression. When
participant s expected large numbers of people at
a venue they tended to withdraw rather than be
aggressive.
Performance
• Paulus et al (1976) examined the performance
of participants in solving a maze while the
researchers manipulated either spatial density
or social density. The number of errors was
recorded per participant and the results are
shown in Table 10.2.2 .
Spatial density Social density
Low 34.20 32.13
High 37.44 39.50
.6. Table 10.2.2 Performance in solving a maze as affected
by spatial and social density
• It would appear that in situations of high social
density, performance was at its worst whereas
low social density situations brought the lowest
amount of errors.
Preventing and coping
with the effects of
crowding
Modifying architecture
• McCarthy & Saegert (1979) suggested that one
way in which we can reduce our feelings of being
rather than a high-rise building. They noted that
high-rise buildings are associated with greater
fee lings of being crowded, including having less
perceived control within the building and feeling
less safe.
• Halls of residence (or dormitories) for students
can be designed in such a way to prevent
feeJings of crowding by their occupants. Baum
& Valins (1977) examined how students felt in
two different types of architectural layouts as
illustrated in Figure 10.2.2.
 I
• - - - ,..._. . . • • I

Bedrooms
Bedrooms Bathroom Bedrooms Lounge
...__.__,j I I I I I l ....._.__, .___ _,___.....__. I I J L-L ...._.__, l

I I I I I
Bedrooms

Lounge

.A Figure 10.2.2 Student accommodation in a corridor-style layout and as a small suite

Source: Based on Baum & Valins (1977)

• Those in the smaller suites of between four and six would fee l before entering, or they were given no
people with a central lounge felt much less crowded such information.
than those corridor-style rooms where students felt • Prior to entering they were also given a task of
they were forced into unwanted interactions which finding their way around the store to locate a
increased their sense of being crowded. number of items.
Other aspects include the following: • In high-density conditions, performance was
• Positioning furniture around the edge of a room poor on the task but those who had been given
rather than in the centre deceases the sense of information so they were expecting it to be busy
crowding (Sinha et al, 1995). did perform better on the task and reported more
• Having bright colours on the wall or e11hanced positive emotions compared to those who were
lighting can reduce the feeling of being crowded not given any cognitive control.
(Nasar & Min, 1984). Karlin , Rosen & Epstein (1979) examined cognitive
reapp ra isa I:
Visual escape
• Participants were people who wanted to reduce
• Baum et al (1976) noted that having types of
their anxiety related to feeling crowded on public
visual escape can reduce the feelings of being
transport. They were spilt into four groups:
crowded. These include having a window in every
room so there is an opportunity to look out, o Group 1 participants were given muscle
pictures that can help people "escape from their relaxation training.
room" and mirrors that can help to increase the o Group 2 participants were given cognitive
perceived size of the room. reappraisal. This involved t hem being told
• Evans & Wener (2007) noted that people use they could improve their mood and anxiety
window seats as a visual escape on buses and levels by focusing on positive aspects of the
trains so a better design is to have two seats situation.
rather than three seats so everyone has a clear o Group 3 participants were given imagery
view of a window. If the view is partially blocked training. This involved them being told to
then having a series of televisions for people engage in mental imagery using pleasant
to watch would help as it distracts people from distracting thoughts.
feeling overcrowded. o Group 4 participants were simply told
Coping ''to relax" and were not given any further
instructions.
Langer & Saegart (1977) investigated how people
cope with the effects of crowding as follows: • Participants in group 2 (cognitive reappraisal)
reported the most success and positive
• Participants were either given information about
responses to crowded transportation situations.
levels of crowding in a grocery store and how they

107
 10 Psychology and environment
10.3 Natural disaster
and technological
catastrophe
Definitions, characteristics
and examples
Natural disaster and technological catastrophe
• Natural disasters are those occasions when
nature takes control and causes large amounts of
damage or even death .
• Technological catastrophes are incidents that
are due to human factors (usually errors or
mishaps) although they too may cause large-scale
destruction.
• A disaster appears to have two main factors:
o destruction that requires some form of help
or aid
o disruption of the usual daily events in people's
lives.
Real-fife examples
One example of a natural disaster was the Tsunami in
2004 on Boxing Day (called the Indian Ocean Tsunami).
It killed over 230,000 people in 14 countries with waves
as high as 100 feet.
Research your own examples of natural disasters
and technological catastrophes. Examples could be:
• natural disasters: the eruption of Mount St
Helens in 1980; the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake
• technological disasters: the nuclear power plant
accident at Chernobyl; the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
Behaviours during events,
and methodology
Contagion
• Le Bon (1879) suggested that the behaviour
of an individual within a crowd is irrational and
uncritical; an individual within a crowd loses the
measure of the norms that usually govern his or
her behaviour and so becomes "primitive" and
acts strangely as a result.
• Contagion theory suggests that behaviour
spreads like a contagious disease.
• Le Bon proposed four determinants of
"contagious" behaviour within a crowd:
o Suggestibility: individuals become more
inclined to respond to the ideas of others,
especially when proposed in an authoritative
manner and in the absence of a clear leader.
o Social contagion: individuals within a crowd
arouse and respond to one another thereby
amplifying the intensity of their interactions.
o Impersonality: individuals lose their appreciation
of themselves and others as people.
108
o Anonymity: within a crowd each individual
loses his or her sense of individuality.
Scripts
A script in this context is when people have a mental
representation of what to do in an emergency
situation. We have schemata (which are mental
representations) that allow us to "cope » with an
emergency by following the steps in a logical order to
get to safety (Shank & Abelson, 1977).
Laboratory experiments
Early research tended to be conducted in a
laboratory. Mathews and Canon (1975) noted
that people were less likely to help other people if
background noise was above 85dB. It may be that
they could not concentrate on immediate cues to
give help as the noise was too distracting.
See the information on page 1 about laboratory
experiments. Think about how laboratory experiments
apply to emergency behaviour research.
Simulations
Simulations are when psychologists use settings
that 'mimic' a real life disaster to see how people
respond. For example, they may use a fuselage of
an airplane to see how a group of passengers try to
escape from a disaster.
Psychological intervention
before and after events
Before: preparedness
Balluz et al (2000) examined the predictors for
people's responses to a tornado warning:
• A total of 146 participants were questioned about
their actions during the tornado warning.
• A total of 64 participants responded positively to
the warning by seeking shelter with 58 of those
doing so within five minutes of the siren.
• Balluz et al discovered that four factors were
associated with seeking shelter:
o having graduated from high school
o having a basement in one's house
o hearing the siren
o having prepared a plan of response once a
siren is heard.
• From this study it is clear that a pre-plan of action
is necessary for increased safety in a tornado
prone area.
• Also, local public health officials should educate
people more about what to do when a siren
is heard as only 45 per cent of this sample
responded positively to it.
Sattler, Kaiser & Hittner (2000) examined disaster
preparedness at the peak of the hurricane season in
the United States:
• In one of their studies, they gave questionnaires
to 257 participants who were preparing for
Hurricane Emily.
• Questions were asked about demographic.s,
the extent of property damage from a previous
hurricane, the amount of distress felt after a
previous hurricane and preparedness for the
impending Hurricane Emily.
• The questionnaires were completed one or
two days before Hurricane Emily was due to hit
Charleston, where the survey was taking place.
• One of the measures taken was that of
preparation for the hurricane.
• About half of the participants had petrol for the
car (59 per cent), had flashlights (57 per cent),
had bottled water (52 per cent), had candles and
matches (51 per cent), had batteries (51 per cent)
and had canned or dried food (49 per cent).
• The following factors correlated strongly with
preparation:
o age: the older the participant, the more
prepared the person was
o income: the higher the income, the more
prepared the person was
o following the news broadcasts on the
television
o knowing the evacuation route
o the distress level from a previous hurricane:
the more distress experienced, the more
prepared the person was.
Evacuation plans
Loftus (1972) examined a subway system after a fire
to assess the evacuation plans that were in place
and concluded the following:
• There should be a way of gaining people's
attention without causing panic.
• Written messages should be short and to the
point so that they are quick to read.
• Any important messages should be repeated.
• The plans must give people trying to escape
some confidence.
• If any of the plans are presented orally they must
be clear (e.g. the speaker's accent must be
considered).
Tamima & Chouinard (2012) reported on "in
progress " evacuation plans in Montrea l, Canada,
should an earthquake occur. They noted that the
following are crucial for success:
• Assess the vulnerability of the built environment
to know what could happen to buildings and
then plan the evacuation around these potential
eventualities.
• Assess the demographics of the population which
would be affected by an earthquake and then plan
the evacuation around this information.
• Plan sensible routes out of an affected area to
shelters for those worst affected.
• Get the community involved in evacuation
planning so the first time they know about the
plan is not when the earthquake is happening.
• Have clear maps for evacuation routes that are
easy to follow.
After: treating PTSD
Chemtob et at (1997) examined the effectiveness
of psychological intervention after Hurricane lniki in
Hawaii:
• Two groups of participants (n = 43 overall)
who had been exposed to the hurricane were
assessed before and after being involved in a
" multihour debriefing group" .
• To provide some control for the passage of time,
the two groups overlapped their debriefing.
The assessment before the debriefing of the
second group took place at the same time as the
assessment after the debriefing of the first group.
• Irrespective of the group the participants were
in, the debriefing reduced psychological distress,
supporting the idea that psychological debriefing
is useful after disasters.
Carmichael (2000) reported on a novel approach to
post-disaster psychological intervention:
• A counsellor used the Wizard of Oz as a focal
point for a group of survivors after a tornado in
a small US community. During the last hour of a
three-hour meeting attended by 30 residents, the
counsellor began to use details from the story of
the Wizard of Oz as metaphors to help alleviate
the stress of the disaster.
• The counsellor used Dorothy's shoes as a
metaphor for inner strength, the dog as significant
people and the Yellow Brick Road as the trauma
recovery process. The common focal point of
the story appeared to be effective in aiding the
recovery process of the residents .
Flnally, Lesaca (1996) noted a downside to post-
disaster counselling for the counsellors themselves:
• He compared 21 counsellors who had provided their
services after a major air disaster with counsellors
who provided a general counselling service.
Measures of PTSD and depression were taken in
both groups 4 1 8 and 12 weeks after the disaster.
• At 4 and 8 weeks, the disaster counsellors
reported significantly more PTSD symptoms and
depressive symptoms compared to the general
counsellors .
• However, these differences had disappeared at
the 12-week assessment
Herald of Free Enterprise
This disaster occurred when a ferry capsized and
sank off Belgium killing 197 people. Survivors were
examined for PTSD:
• Joseph et al (1997) discovered that there was a
relationship between emotional expression three
years after the event and PTSD five years after
the event.
• Those who believed, emotionally, that having
negative attitudes were a sign of weakness were
more likely to show PTSD symptoms.
1.09
 • Also, Joseph et al (1996} noted that those who
scored high on a measure of "have intrusive and
avoidant activities" tended to show higher levels
of depression and anxiety three years after the
sinking.
London Bombing
• This event happened on 7 July 2005.
• Rubin et al (2007) telephoned 1 010 Londoners
11-13 days after the bombings occurred.
• The researchers wanted to assess stress levels,
perceived threats and travel intentions.
• Seven months after this, 57 4 respondents were
contacted again and asked similar questions.
• Around 11 per cent of people in the sample were still
feeling "substantial stress" and over 40 per cent still
felt personally threatened by the events.
110
• Around 20 per cent had reduced travelling around
London as a result.
• Answers to questions 11- 13 days after the
bombings showed around one-third of the
sample at this time point felt substantial stress
and intended to travel less as a result of the
bombings.
• Only 1 per cent of the sample felt they needed
psychological intervention post-bombings.
• Wilson et al (2012) examined the transcripts of 18
people who received cognitive behavioural therapy
(CST) after the bombings to help them with PTSD.
The clients tended to focus on recollection of
direct experiences during the bombings, the horror
of it all and reconnecting with the outside world
on the day of the event plus feelings of PTSD and
depression the day after the bombings.
 10.4 Personal space Secondary
territory
Medium degree
of occupation
Personalisation occurs
to some extent but only
and territory (e.g.
classroom)
and perception
of ownership:
when the occupancy of
the territory is legit imate
we believe that (e.g. within about one
Definitions, types and we are one of
only a limited
month of a new class,
each person may stick
measures number of with the same seat for
users of the the rest of the year. That
Defining space and territory territory. person legitimately owns
• Bell et al (1996) define personal space and that seat every lesson).
territory as a •· . .. portable, invisible boundary
Public Low degree of Personalisation tends to
surrounding us, into which others may not territory occupation and be temporary as we may
trespass. It regulates how closely we interact (e.g. area perception of not revisit the territory
with others, moves with us, and expands and on a beach, ownership: we for some t ime. We
contracts according to the situation in which we seat on a believe we are tend not to defend this
find ourselves'' (1996: 275). bus) one of many territory in the way we
• Hall (1963) distinguished between zones of people who use wou Id if it were primary
this territory. or secondary territory.
personal space (called spatial zones by Hall)
based around interpersonal relationships we may A. Table 10.4.2. Three types of territory
have (see Table 10.4.1).
Source: Altman (1975)
Distance Usual activities and relationships
Intimate Contact is intimate (e.g. comforting Alpha space and beta space
(0 to 11h feet) another or having sex). Physical • Alpha space is the personal space that is
sports such as judo and wrestling objective and can be measured directly {e.g. the
allow invasion of the intimate zo.ne. actual distance).
Personal Friends are allowed to get into this • Beta space is the personal space that is
(11h to 4 feet) zone, especially those who are
subjectJve and is how a person feels when being
close to us. Your usual everyday
invaded.
interactions will trespass into this
zone too. Measuring space: slmulatJon
Social People we do not really know Little (1968) examined cultural differences over 19
(4 feet to 12 feet) personally, but whom we meet quite different social situations in a sample of Americans,
regularly, are allowed into this zone. Swedes, Greeks, Italians and Scots:
Business-like contacts are also
allowed here. • They had to place dolls at distances that reflected
where they would stand in real social situations.
Public This zone is for formal contact
(more than 12 (e.g. someone giving a public • The situations they had to assess included two
feet away) speech). good friends talking about a pleasant topic, a
shop owner discussing the weather with his
A. Table 10.4.1. Spatial zones
assistant, two people talking about the best
Source: Hall (1963) place to shop and two strangers talking about an
unpleasant topic .
• Altman (1975) noted that we have three different
types of territory (see Table 10.4.2). • Figure 10.4.1. gives the average distances at
which participants placed the dolls in the 19
Type of Occupation Amount we different social situations .
territory of territory/ "personalise" the
perception of territory Stop-distance
ownership This technique involves getting someone to approach
Primary High degree of The territory is a participant from a variety of angles and getting the
territory occupation and personalised in great participant to say '' Stop" when he or she begins to
(e.g. own perception of detail so that the owner feel uncomfortable. The actual distance is measured
home, ownership: we has complete control so that a ,. picture " of the amount and shape of
office believe that we and others recognise personal space can be generated. This can then be
space, permanently this almost Immediately re-assessed in different situations.
bedroom) own the after entering it.
territory and Uninvited intrusion Space invasions
others believe can have serious These types of measurements involve directly
this too. consequences. invading the space of other people and noting how
they react or asking them how they felt.

1.11
 10 Psychology and environment

40 Males D Females

Q.-'- -
American Swede Scot Greek Italian Average of
all nations
Nationality

~ Figure 10.4.1 Results from the Little (1968) study

Invading space and invaded the personal space of 62 males an.d 63

'females in a university library in a number of ways.
territory They either sat next to the participant, sat one
seat away from the participant or sat opposite the
Invasions participant. After the invasion had taken place,
Middlemist et al (1976) wanted to investigate the Fisher & Byrne asked the participant to complete
proposal that invasion of personal space produces a questionnaire about the experience.
arousal: • For the second aim, a different researcher was
• The setting was a men's public lavatory. used who was not told the aim of the research
According to the researchers this was an ideal (called the single~blind technique). This person
setting as ''norms for privacy'' are already set up had to observe 33 males and 33 females
(the space between the urinals), so the effect and record where they placed their personal
that distance had on arousal could be easily belongings on a library table.
measured. The men's public lavatory had three Happiness rating - the higher the score, the more
urinals in It. happy participants were:
• Sixty participants were randomly assigned to
Sitting next to Sitting opposite
one of three conditions: (1 ) the experimenter
stood immediately next to the participant, (2) the Male 29.15 23.57
experimenter stood at the other end of the three Female 23.46 26.79
urinals to the participant or (3) the experimenter
was absent. Attractiveness rating - the higher the score, the more
attracted they were to an opposite-sex confederate:
• Two key measures were taken. The first was a
measure of how quickly the participant began to Sitting next to Sitting opposite
urinate. The second measure was how much tfme
Male 10.99 9.14
the participant took to urinate.
Female 9.87 10.14
• The closer the experimenter stood, the longer it
took for the participant to begin urination. Also, Perceived level of crowding - the higher the score,
the closer the experimenter stood, the less time it the more they felt crowded:
took the participant to "complete" urination.
Sitting next to Sitting opposite
• The evidence suggests that invasion of personal
Male 11.48 17.04
space in men produces physiological changes
Female 16.60 14.76
associated with arousal. The more the personal
space was invaded, the more aroused the men A Table 10.4.3 Ratings for happiness, attractiveness and
became. perceived level of crowd ing
Fisher & Byrne (1975) carried out a study with two
Table 10.4.4 shows the number of "barrier
main aims:
placements" observed on the table participants
1. To examine gender differences in the invasion of were sitting at.
persona l space.
Barrier next to Barrier opposite
2. To examine how gender affects the pu.tting up of person person
barriers to indicate to others where our personal
Male 9 15
space is.
Female 17 6
• For the first aim, Fisher & Byrne's confederates
1.i2 (people who knew what the experiment was about) A Table 10.4.4 Barrier placements
Defending territory
and space
Defending primary territory
Newman (1972) introduced the concept of defensible
space to psychology:
• The term refers to an area of physical space that
can be perceived as clearly belonging to someone.
• Any visitors to this space would quickly realise
that it is someone else's territory.
• Newman (1972) then argued that if defensible
spaces were deliberately designed into new multi-
dwelling buildings, residents would feel more
ownership over certain areas.
• People would be more likely to "look out for one
another and their properties" .
• As a result, crime should decrease and a sense
of community would be introduced.
Ham-Rowbottom, Gifford & Shaw (1999) examined
defensible space theory by assessing police officers'
judgments about whether a house would be burgled :
• A series of 50 photographs of detached houses
was shown to 41 police officers.
• Each house had been scored on characteristics
that were believed to be good indicators of
defensible space.
• A total of ten physical characteristics were
correlated with less vulnerability to burglary:
o At least three-quarters of the house is visible
from the road.
o At least three-quarters of the yard is visible
from the road.
o A glass panel is not located next to the front
door.
o A garage is present.
o The front door is solid with no glass.
o The back yard is separated from the front yard
by an actual barrier.
o More windows are visible from the road.
o The front door is visible from the road.
A Figure 10.4.2 Examples of defensible space around properties
o
o
The distance from the road is less than 20 feet.
A neighbour's house is visible in the
photograph.
• The more phys ical barriers there are around
a house, the less likely it will be a victim of
burglaries and other crimes.
MacDonald & Gifford (1989) had discovered that
defensible space did not deter burglars:
• They surveyed 43 males who had been
convicted of breaking and entering by showing
them 50 photographs of houses.
• Each participant had to rate every photograph on
a 7-point scale of vulnerability to burglary.
• The houses that had easy surveillance were rated
as the ones least likely to be burgled.
• However, territorial displays (e.g. fences) around
a house actually increased the likelihood it would
be burgled.
Defending public territory and territorial markers
• Smith (1983) noted that there were cu ltural
differences in the way people defend their area
on a beach. The Germans showed a much more
striking sense of territoriality compared to the
French. The Germans showed many more actions
linked to territorial behaviour. For example, they
were much more likely to erect sandcastles to
indicate that the particular area of the beach was
reserved for them.
• Hoppe, Greene & Kenny (1972) examined the
effectiveness of territorial markers in libraries
and pubs. In libraries, leaving a territorial marker
such as a note.b ook was no more effective than
leaving no territorial marker when people asked
a neighbour at a desk to defend it for them while
they went away to do something. However, about
half of the neighbours in the no territorial marker
group subsequently placed their own territorial
markers in the space they had just been asked
to save. In the pub study, a half-full glass of
beer was found to be very effective at marking
territory compared to a personal marker such as
a sweater.
113
 10 Psychology and environment

• One aim of the study was to examine any

10.5 Architecture and potential differences in attitude between urban

behaviour: housing and suburban dwellers. The other aim was to

examine whether there were differences in self-
design and urban esteem between urban and suburban dwellers.
• Two groups of participants completed a series of
renewal questionnaires that measured attitudes towards
eating and self-esteem among others.
Theories and effects of • A total of 268 suburban females (mean age
16.2 years), 389 urban females and 281 urban
urban living on health and males (combined mean age of 16.0 years)
social behaviour completed the questionnaires. One of the
main factors examined was the relationship
Adaptation level between perceived weight and actual weight
• The idea of adaptation level states that any (see Table 10.5.1.).
stimuli that are intense, complex or novel can Group 3 of participants 3 of participants
lead to either a positive or negative effect who perceived who were actually
depending on the past experience of the themselves to be more than 103
individual concerned. overweight over their ideal
• Due to the differing levels of stimulation in a city body weight
or urban area (e .g. you may find a quiet park or Suburban females 63 14
a busy shopping mall) everyone can find their Urban females 35 45
optimal level of stimulation. Urban males 19 39
Behaviour constraint
A. Table 10.5 .1 Relationship between perce ived weight
• The idea of behaviour constraint is that people and actual weight
living in urban areas feel their behaviour is
constrained in some way compared to that of Soderberg et af (1994) examined the differences
people living in rural areas. For example, people in prevalence rates of H.IV in rural , semi-urban and
may feel fearful of crime in urban areas and, for urban area in Tanzania (see Table 10.5.2):
instance, they know that when they go shopping • During the period from March 1988 to April 1991
they will experience a crowded shopping centre. all blood donors at the llembula Luteran Hospital
• This may lead to people experiencing negative (Tanzania) were asked about their home village,
effects and as a consequence of this they may occupation, age and marital status.
wish to try to reassert their freedom from these • They were also tested for the prevalence of HIV
constraints. antibodies in their blood sample.
Environmental stress • A total of 3 474 males and 1287 females
participated in the study.
• The idea behind environmental stress is that
specific stimuli in urban areas have negative Group Overall Urban SemJ~urban Rural
effects on our lives (e.g. crowding and noise have rate( % ) rate( % ) rate (3 ) rate( % )
been shown to negatively affect humans). Male 6.6 13.6 7.2 3.7
• As we may feel threatened by such stimuli, Female 7.0 15.0 7 .9 3 .0
a stress response may be elicited, either
A. Table 10.5.2 Prevalence rate of HIV-1 split by gender
emotionally, behaviourally or physiologically (or
and place of residence
any combination of the three).
Overload Effects on social behaviour
• This theory states that people living in urban • The study by Bickman et al (see page 106) can
areas are bombarded with so many stimuli that all be used here to show how pro-social behaviour is
of them cannot be processed. affected by urban living - this is because urban
• The stimuli can come from a variety of sources living is of a higher population density.
(e.g. other humans living in the urban area, noise, • In addition, Altman (1969) found that 95 per cent
too many people being around, even trying to find of rural homes allowed a female visitor to use
the correct amount of money for the car park). their telephone to call a friend (the woman was
a confederate in the study). This was compared
Effects on health
to just 40 per cent of homes in urban areas.
Fisher et al (1994) investigated attitudes towards When the confederate was male, 40 per cent of
eatjng and weight concern in urban and suburban rural homes allowed him to use the telephone
adolescents: while this was allowed in only 14 per cent of
urban homes.

114

Evaluation extra
• Studies like these have application and are
therefore useful . They allow health services
to t arget areas of a country to try to reduce
the number of incidences of disease. Certain
groups can be targeted more effectively (see the
examples above) to improve the quality of life of
those people.
Urban renewal and
housing design
Renewal and building design
One examination of defensible space theory examined
two adjacent housing estates in New York City:
• The two estates were called Van Dyke and
Brownsville.
• The Van Dyke estate consisted of a series of
14storey buildings separated by small spaces
that had little or no defensible space.
• The Brownsville estate, on the other hand,
consisted of six X-shaped buildings only three
stories high.
• As a result, the entrances to the Brownsville
estate were less frequently used and non-
residents could be more easily spotted than on
the Van Dyke estate.
• Within the Brownsville buildings, children played in
the hallways and stairwells and it was common for
residents to leave their doors open.
Another example that is used to show bad design
is the Pruitt-Igoe project in St. Louis , Missouri (Bell
et al, 1996):
• The estate was built in 1954 with the ethos of
"no wasted space". The project was constructed
to relocate 12 000 people into 43 buildings, each
11 stories high . The entire complex had 2 762
apartments.
• The main features of the building were as follows:
o Narrow hallways led to the apartments.
o There were no semi-private areas for people to
meet up in (so no areas to oversee).
o The project was expensive to build.
o The wall tiles were designed so that graffiti
could be easily removed.
o The light fittings seemed indestructible.
o The radiators and lifts were vandal-resistant.
• After a few years the entire project was in
disarray. Within the buildings there was
broken glass, rubbish and destruction of the
"indestructible" features . Many windows were
boarded up or smashed, the lifts had been
repeatedly used as a toilet and the top floors
were not lived in. Crime and vandalism were
commonplace. The car park was littered with
semi-destroyed cars and the children's playground
was covered in broken glass.
• By 1970, of the 43 buildings only 16 were still
lived in.
• In 1972 the entire project was demolished.
Many people believed that the lack of
defensible space had caused the downfall of
the Pruitt-Igoe dream.
Newman
• Sommer (1987) compared the crime rates in
university high-rise halls of residence compared to
cluster halls which have more defensible space.
The latter were seen to have much lower rates of
crime and vandalism.
• Brunson (2000) examined the Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the
United States as it had recently invested millions
of dollars into regenerating urban areas using
defensible space theory.
• Brunson noted that some regenerations had
worked, lowering crime levels and bringing about
a more cohesive community. However, not all had
been so successful.
• A total of 91 residents were surveyed. All were
living in an area with moderate defensible space.
• Those who defended their near-home space
reported that the neighbourhood felt safer and
that there was a more cohesive community
compared to residents who did not defend their
near-home space.
• Those who spent time outside reported more
often that the neighbourhood was a safe place.
• Those who participated in "greening" activities
believed that the community was more cohesive.
Community environmental
design
Shopping mall atmospherics
• In Malaysia, Ali (2013) researched into factors
that affect a mall's attractiveness and influence
consumers to visit it. The following factors were
important:
o Entertainment had to be part of the experience.
o There had to be a variety of shopping outlets
(e.g. outlets should not all be clothes shops}.
o Mall essence was a factor- ensuring the
place "felt" like it would be a good "mall
experience".
o Design of the mall was also important (e.g.
ease of passage throughout, parking, signage).
• Runyan, Kim & Baker (2012) wanted to see
whether kiosks and kiosk salespeople affected
people's perceptions towards a shopping mall.
When smaller kiosks were present it had a
negative effect on shoppers' perceptions of the
mall. However, it did not make any difference
whether the salespeople were aggressively
selling or being passive; people still did not see
them as adding anything to the mall. Aggressive
11.5
 10 Psychology and environment
salespeople did get consumers more aroused but
in a negative way.
• Swamynathan, Mansurali & Chandrasekhar
(2013) examined people's preferences for a
new shopping mall. Four main factors emerged
that influence people's decisions on choice of
shopping mall via its atmospherics :
o Lifestyle: people are more likely to visit if the
mall is a status symbol, having high-quality
goods in it and fashionable shops .
o Infotainment: having entertainment, being
able to window shop and having a place simply
to "hang out" were also important.
o Customer retreat: customers need to feel
safe within the mall and visible hospitality
appeals.
o Retail atmospherics: this includes factors
such as value-added comforts in the mall, it
being a " single stop shop" and clean .
Casino environments
• Wan (2013) researched the casino design
preferences of Chinese gamblers. Interviews
were carried out with 25 gamblers who visited
casinos in Macau. A total of 30 preferences were
identified overall, of which 11 were seen as being
the most important. These included the casino
11.6
being spacious and open , having grand exterior
and interior designs, having certain themes within
the casino itself, having clear signage and having
some form of greenery or natura I landscape.
• Casinos may wish to utilise the findings of a study
by Spenwyn, Barrett & Griffiths (2010). They got
participants to play an online version of roulette
under one of four conditions:
o fast tempo music under white light
o fast tempo music under red light
o slow tempo music under white light
o slow tempo music under red light.
• Dollars spent per spin alongside speed of betting
was measured. Having fast tempo music under
red light made participants bet quicker. There was
no effect of music or lighting conditions on dollars
spent per spin.
Public places
Whyte (1980) noted that plaza areas for pedestrians
liven up a public area - things like food vendors,
sunny areas, seated areas, fountains etc. encourage
people to congregate.
Reread the work of Newman and projects such as
Brownsville, Van Dyke and Pruitt-Igoe (page U5)
to pick out good and bad practice for the design of
public places .

10.6 Environmental
cognition
Definitions, measttres, errors
and individual differences
in cognitive maps
Definitions
Tolman (1948) defined a cognitive map as an internal
representation that animals develop about the
spatial relationships within their environment.
Measures
Sketch maps
Lynch (1960) was one of the first to get people to
simply sketch maps of their areas to see how they
were representing their surroundings psychologically.
He found five n1ain categories:
• paths: shared routes for travel (e.g. footpaths
and roads )
• edges: boundaries that are defined (e.g. walls of
buildings or coastlines)
• districts: large spaces with a shared
cha racteristic (e.g. The West End in London)
• nodes: points on a map that act as a focus for
behaviour (e.g. town squares, roundabouts or
major road junctions)
• landmarks: distinctive features used as reference
points wh ich are generally visible from a distance
(e.g. a place of worship or a tall skyscraper).
Multidim ensional scaling
This is a statistical technique u.sed to assess the
"cogn itive distance" people believe landmarks are
separated by. Participants are asked to estimate
distances between a number of buildings on a route.
Once this is completed , a computer program can
process the data and generate a " map" based on
these estimations (so that people's drawing skills are
not affecung how they perceive a map, etc.). If these
are compared among a group of participants who
have all estimated the distances, if all are consistent
then a relatively accurate map should be produce<:!.
However, as Bell et al (2001) noted, people may
well exaggerate the distance between unpleasant
landmarks or travel paths they do not usually take.
Errors
L.loyd & Patton (2011) asked participants to learn
locations on one of three cartographic maps which
contained true or novel location names:
• In terms of recall errors th.e following were found:
o There were fewer cognitive distance errors for
reference points that were central to the map .
o There were fewer errors in recall when a
reference point was part of a cluster.
o Females made fewer errors than males when
learning novel maps.
o Males made fewer errors than females when
learning maps with true names and places.
Steyvers & Koojiman (2009) examined the
differences in error rates using cognitive maps of a
fictitious zoo between sighted and visually impaired
participants:
• Participants were matched on age, gender and
education. The matched pairs were randomly
assigned to one " information type ":
o survey-type descriptions such as "the area
containing the indoor animal exhibits is
north of the children's recreational area"
(2009: 226)
o rout~type descriptions such as "on your right
is the petting zoo; turn right and then left after
passing the petting zoo; the aquarium is now
on your right" (2009: 226).
• Participants listened to the tape of information
twice and then were asked questions such as
"Which animals wiU you find east of the insect
house?" (survey-type) and " Standing on the path
with your back to the petting zoo and facing the
monkeys, which animals are on your left?" (route-
type ) (2009: 226).
• Visually impaired participants showed no
difference in the frequency of errors between
survey-type and rout~type descriptions. Sighted
participants made fewer errors with the survey-
type descriptions. Overall, sighted participants
made fewer cognitive map errors.
Individual differences
• Huynh, Doherty & Sharpe (2010) noted that when
asked the draw a map, males and females tend
not to differ with the initial drawing. However, as
the map got more elaborate and detailed, females
drew more landmarks on their maps while males
drew more pathways.
• The Steyvers & Koojiman (2009) study can also
be used to show individual differences.
Cognitive maps in animals
Squirrels
Jacobs & Liman (1991) investigated the role of the
cognitive map in allowing animals to search for food
they had stored themselves:
• Each grey squirrel (sciurus carolinensis) was
released into a 45m 2 area to bury ten hazelnuts .
• The location of each food item was recorded and
the nuts were then removed. The squirrels were
returned to the area individually 2 , 4 or 12 days
later.
• New hazelnuts had been placed at the individuals '
own hiding places and at an equal number of
randomly chosen sites which had been used by
other squirrels.
• The squirrels were more likely to find nuts from
places where they had buried them even when they
had to pass the sites chosen by other squirrels.
117
 10 Psycho logy and environment

Bees •
• •
Capaldi & Dyer (1999) examined the role of
• • •••
••••• •
• • ••••• ••
• • • •• •
orientation flights on the homing performances of •
honeybees: •• • •
327" • 0 .63
• There were three groups of bees: ~ .30 •• • •
• •
•• ••
o resident bees: bees that already lived in the •
p = 0.011 • p = 0 .000
test location ••
o first-flight bees: bees that had n.ever been • •
outside of the nest • •• • •••
•• •
o reorienting bees: worker bees that had 0 .1 gauss No current
foraging experience at a different site from the
.& Figure 10.6.2 Scatter of pigeons from the release site
test site.
• Bees in the latter two groups were allowed on an
"orientation" flight that typica lly lasted less than
ten minutes.
• On the experimental trials after this~ homing
ability was measured via vanishing bearings and
homing speed (see Figure 10.6.1).
• When the first-flight bees were tested after the
orientation flight, they returned to the hive faster
than the reorienting bees.
• First:..flight bees also had faster homing rates than
resident bees.
• When they were released at a distance, resident
bees tended to outperform the other two groups.
• When there were landmarks near to the target
hive, all groups tended to head towards the hive
(vanishing bearings were similar). However, when
they were released out of sight of any landmarks
(so they had to rely on route memory), first-flight
bees performed poorly, whereas resident bees
could still find their way home.
Resident Reorienting Flrst-ffight
. ..•........
. .. .. ..
Site A~ . •
... ••••
• •••
. ~
•'...,...;...•
•• •
•
.. •. .& Figure 10.6.3 Pigeon wearing on Its head a device that
. . .
. .
• •'I I

...... • •••• • •• • • ••

-
• ••
. •••
. • •••
'. :: ~-1·;·~~.~ ~
..... generates a magnetic field
• 4 ) :!
..:•..• • • •
~......
. . .. .
........•.. .•..
•• •
,_.- ~·

::•••
•
.....
.....
- :•

.
· ~- ·:·
.• •• . ••
........... ..
-....
• •
• Therefore, it would appear that changes in the
•• • • • •••
•
magnetic fields that a pigeon experiences affects
..• .• •••....•• ..•..•. .. ...•• •
... its ability to way-find .
•
.. ·... :.•• ..:.··· ...
......
• • • ••
Site E .• •
·:•.....•· ••
...
. •••
•
..... .
•
•

...•
!',. •••

Designing better maps;

••
:
.... . .'
••
...
••
': . •
•
•• .•. .. .. ...
·.... - ....
.. •
.• •.... .. .....·•..•••
...__,,_~
• •
• ..
• •
.. .
·~

•
.. • •
• • •• ~..

way-finding
.& Figure 10.6.1 Bees ' homing ability measured via
Map design
vanishing bearings - site A landmarks were near to the
target hives; for site Ethe bees had no route memory • Levine (1982) and Levine et al (1984) have
suggested strategies for improving the usefulness
Pigeons and magnetite of "you are here " maps.
Walcott has researched the homing abilities of • To aid their navigation users need to know where
pigeons for many years: they are in relation to the map.
• It would appear that magnetlc fields do help • This can be achieved if they can correctly identify
pigeons find their way home. a minimum of two features both on the map and
• Walcott noted that applying a magnetic field in the environment.
of 0.1 gauss to the heads of homing pigeons • This is called structure-matching and enables
increased the scatter of the pigeons as they left users to place themselves accurately on the
their release site (see Figure 10.6.2). map. For example, a "you are here" dot may
pinpoint your position along a road running down
the map.

118
• Many passengers travelling from north to south
prefer to hold their map upside down to assist
navigation.
• This restores the map to its correct orientation;
that is, it achieves direct correspondence
between the map and the real world - what is
ahead on the road is "up" on the map (forward-up
equivalence) and features to the left on the map
are oh the left-hand side of the road.
Way-finding
• Possession of a cognitive map may neither be
necessary for nor guarantee successful way-
finding, the process of navigating through an
environment.
• We may use published maps, ask others
for directions or obtain other experience or
information to help us to find our way.
• By keeping moving until we find somewhere
familiar or by returning to a known location we can
re-establish effective way-finding:
o Determine the location.
o Localise the destination .
o Select a route.
o Decide how to travel.
• Way-finding is also facilitated by a high degree of
visual access, that is, being visible from different
perspectives.
• In a hilly town we are likely to be able to obtain
different views of buildings and streets, increasing
visual access.
• Conversely, underground, such as in car parks or
particularly on tube traihs, our visual access is
limited and so assimilating information about the
relationships between locations is difficult.
• How difficult an area is to understand in terms of
the amount of detail and its intricacy is referred
to as the complexity of spatial layout.
• Way-finding is hampered in environments with a
very complicated spatial layout. Within a building
this may result from having several floors,
unpredictable interconnections both across and
between floors and having a different floor plan at
each level.
Virtual way-finding
Revisit Core study 6.3 for AS level on page 40 as the
researchers used virtual way-finding in their study
where taxi drivers had to mentally (virtually) plan a
route from location A to location B.
U9
 Models of abnormality
• Jahoda (1958) noted that people who have ideal
11.1 Definitions of mental health:

abnormality o
o
show no signs of distress in everyday life
are rational and can Introspect correctly
Deviation from statistical norms o are able to self-actualise
• This is an objective way of defining abnormality. o can cope with stressful situations
• Anything that is statistically rare is classified as o have a realistic outlook on tl1e world
being abnormal.
o have good self-esteem
• However, the cut-Off point beyond which something
o can successfully work.
is ''statistically rare" has to be decided.
• 011e example of this is the distribution of FaiJure to function adequately
scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) tests. These • People who cannot function or experience
usually follow a normal distribution in any given psychological distress {and then try to get l1elp)
population with many people clustering around are showing that they currently have some form
the average of 100 and then fewer and fewer of "abnormal behaviour".
scoring the higher or lower IQ points as dictated • Therefore, anyone who is showing signs of
by the range of scores. psychological distress, be it at home or work , is
mean ··abnor111al".
I
I
I Problems with defining and diagnosing abnormality
I
>.
(.) I
• Statistical norm fails to take into account the
c: I social context of behaviour. For example, people
Q)
:l 65%
Cf •
I who score 130+ in an IQ test are in the upper
....
Q)
LL.
I
• 2.5 per cent of scores but they would be labelled
95%
gifted rather than abnormal.
• Judging social nor111s fails to account for sub-
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 cultural differences in behaviour that could end
IQ up with an over-representation of "abnormal
behaviour" in a certain group of people.
A Figure 11.1.1 Normal distribution of scores on an
IQ test • People may not fulfil one of Jahoda's criteria for
ideal me11tal health yet still have ideal mental
• People scoring below 70 on an IQ test are in the health.
bottom 2.5 per cent of a population and cou ld • Focusing on failure to function adequately is
therefore be classed as "abnormal". reductionist. There are otl1er factors involved in
Deviation from social norm the diagnosis of ab11ormal behaviour rather than
• We would label people "abnormal" if their simply suffering.
behaviour did not fit in with cultural and societal Reread Core study 7 .2 for AS level on page 48 and
norms. use this as an example of how there are problems
• If their behaviour is not seen as being "correct" defining what is abnormal behaviour.
or "moral" then we may feel that they are acting
abnormally. Models of abnormality
• Social norms do change over time and as a Medical or biological
result so wfll the parameters of this definition .
A medical professional would believe the following
For example, in 19th-century Great Britain, moral
about abnormality:
insanity in women was defined as "women who
have inherited money and spend it on themselves • Psychological abnormality is an illness just like
rather than on male relatives". one based on physical conditions. It can be
diagnosed and treated in the same way.
Deviation from Ideal mental health
• Tl1e focus is 011 the physiological nature of the
• This definition focuses more on what characteristics problem behaviour rather than behavioural or
a person should have for ideal me11tal health rather emotional factors. Somethi11g biological is the
than directly defining "abnor111al" . cause.
120
• Symptoms shown can be understood in terms of
some malfunction or disruption of the person's
biological systems.
• Mental illness can be treated in the same way as
any physical illness via drugs. surgery, etc.
Behavioural
A behaviourist would believe the following about
abnormality:
• Dysfunctional behaviour is learned in the same
way as any other behaviour.
• Mental health issues occur due to the principles
of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• The focus is on observable behaviour that can be
seen directly rather than "interna.I " mechanisms
such as biology or emotions.
• Mental illness can be treated using behavioural
techniques (e.g. using rewards to change
dysfunctional behaviours into functional
behaviours).
Psychodynamlc
A psychodynamic psychologist would believe the
following about abnormality:
• The quality of relationships we have with
our parents in early childhood are of critical
importance to mental health in adulthood.
• Any early traumatic experiences that may disrupt
our relationships are more likely to cause mental
health issues later in life.
• Our early experiences (especially the negative
ones) are stored in our unconscious mind and
this affects our mental health.
• Mental illness is an emotional response to
trauma, any unmet childhood needs and
unsatisfied biological instincts .
Cognitive
A cognitive psychologist would believe the following
about abnormality:
• Dysfunctional behaviours are caused by faulty
information processing and thought processes,
usually as a result of some early experiences.
• Mental health issues are caused by purely
cognitive factors (e.g. memory systems, irrational
beliefs).
• Mental hea Ith issues can be dealt with by
restructuring the cognitions of people (e.g. helping
them to think more positively or restructuring the
way they process the information they receive
day to day).
Treatments of abnormality
Biological and medical
These are the majn biological and medical treatments~
• Drugs - these can help control neurotransmitter
levels in the brain which could be causing the
mental health issue.
• Electroconvu lsive therapy (ECT} - electrodes are
placed on specific areas of the person's skull
and a very brief electrical current is passed
through them.
• Psychosurgery - people with certain rnental
health issues could have a section of brain
removed, lesioned or ablated.
Psychotherapies
The main psychotherapy is psychoanalysis. Many
techniques are used:
• Free association - this is w.hen the patient is
allowed simply to talk about anything and the
therapist has to pick out what is causing the
issue.
• Dream analysis - this involves looking at dream
content for hidden meanings .
• Hypnosis - this is used to access unconscious
conflict.
Cognitive behavioural
The main cognitive behavioural and behavioural
therapies are as follows:
• Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
involves the therapist continually challenging any
irrational thoughts.
• Systematic desensitisation is when a person
constructs a hierarchy of fear and works up the
hierarchy using relaxation techniques to overcome
a phobia.
• Flooding is a process during which people
confront a fear directly and cannot escape until
they have calmed down.
Effectiveness and appropriateness of treatments
Each of the therapies listed above will feature
across the five disorders that you need to study:
schizophrenia, abnormal affect, addiction and
impulse control disorders, phobias and obsessive--
compulsive disorders. Effectiveness studies and the
appropriateness of certain treatments will be covered
within the treatment section of all five disorders .
1.21
 11 Models of abnorn1ality
11.2 Schizophrenia
Types, symptoms and
characteristics
Schizophrenia was first called " dementia praecox"
(premature dementia) as it affects people's thoughts,
emotions and behaviours.
Types
Schizophrenia is an "umbrella" term used to outline
a range of different psychotic disorders that affect
thoughts, emotions and behaviours. These are the
main diagnostic types :
• Simple - when people gradually withdraw
themselves from reality.
• Paranoid - when people have delusiona I thoughts
and hallucinations and may experience delusions
of grandeur.
• CatatonJc - when people have motor activity
disturbances that may involve them sitting or
standing in the same position for hours.
• Disorganised - when people have disorganised
behaviour, thoughts and speech patterns. They
may also experience auditory hallucinations.
• Undifferentiated - when an individual does
not fit into one of the types above but is stjfl
experiencing affected thoughts and behaviours.
Characteristics
For a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) outlines
the following:
• The person shows two of the following for at
least one month: d.e lusions, hallucinations,
disorganised speech , disorganised or catatonic
behaviour, flattening of emotions; or continual
voices in the head giving a running commentary
of what is happening.
• The person must show social and/ or occupational
functioning that has declined .
• There must be no evidence that medical factors
are causing the behaviours.
Symptoms can be split into positive and negative:
• Positive refers to the addition of certain behaviours.
For example, hallucinations, delusions of grandeur
or control and insertjon of thoughts are all positive.
• Negative refers to the removal of certain
behaviours. For example, poverty of speech,
withdrawal from society and flattening of mood
are all negative.
Case Studies
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Find two rea l~ life case studjes of people
being either diagnosed with schizophrenia
or living with schizophrenia.
122
Explanations of
schizophrenia
Genetic
• This idea states that there is a link between
schizophrenia and inherited genetic material.
• If this is the case then the closer our genetic link
is to someone diagnosed with schizophrenia, the
more likely we are to be diagnosed ourselves.
• Gottesman (1991) examined over 40 studies
conducted in Europe to pool data on research
focused on genetics and schizophrenia.
Relative Percentage risk
Nephews or nieces 4
Ch ildren 13
Non-identical (dyzgotic) twins 17
Identical (monozygotlc) twins 48
In cont rast; general population 1
A. Table 11.2 .1 Link between genetics and schizophrenia
Source: Gottesman (1991)
• It would appear that the data supports the idea of
schizophrenia being inherited as the more genetic
material the individuals shared, the more likely
they were to be diagnosed too.
• However, the highest risk was 48 per cent (and not
100 per cent, indicating a wholly genetic trait) so it
looks as if people may be born with a predisposition
to develop schizophrenia and it is some environmental
influence that ultimately causes it.
• Yang et al (2013) analysed ten "candidate " genes
that could be responsible for schjzophrenia in a
sample of 1 512 participants. While there was
no single gene that appeared to be associated
with schizophrenia , the DAO gene was strongly
associated with schizophrenia in comparison to
all of the other candidate genes.
• Roofeh et al (2013) noted that the human
leukocyte antigen region of a genome could well be
a plausible cause for some types of schizophrenia.
• It is interesting to note in the Yang et al (2013)
study that the DAO gene ma.y interact with
another called RASD2 which may affect dopamine
production (see below for more on dopamine).
Biochemical (dopamine hypothesis)
• This idea is based around the idea that
schizophrenia is caused by an excess of
dopamine in the brain. There are two key points:
o When people experience amphetamine
psychosis it resembles certain types of
schizophrenia. This is caused by an excess of
dopamine.
o Drug treatment (e.g. prescribing phenothiazines)
does help to treat some of the symptoms of
schizophrenia but the drugs can bring about
symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease which
is cause by low levels of dopamine.
• Linstroem et al (1999) used a PET scan to test
out the dopamine hypothesis. Ten schizophrenics
and ten healthy controls were injected with a
radioactively labelled chemical called L-DOPA. This
is used in the production of dopamine. The PET
scan could trace its usage in all participants. The
L-DOPA was taken up significantly faster in the
schizophrenics, pointing towards them producing
more dopamine.
• Arakawa et al (2010) noted that a drug called
perospirone which has a high affinity to D2
dopamine receptors has an average 75 per
cent usage rate which then blocked the further
production of dopamine in schizophrenics.
• Seeman (2011) reviewed the field and noted
that animal models of schizophrenia pointed
towards elevation in levels of D2 receptors and
that antipsychotics do reverse the elevation in D2
receptors but should only be used in the short
term to stop other side effects.
Cognitive
• The idea here is that schizophrenia is caused by
faulty information processing.
• Frith (1992) noted that schizophrenics might have
a deficient "metarepresentation" system.
• This would deal with being able to reflect on
thoughts, emotions and behaviours.
• It could also be linked to theory of mind (see Core
study 3.3 for AS level on page 11) as it controls
self-awareness and how we interpret the actions
of others. These are characteristics lacking in
some schizophrenics.
• Also, those showing more negative symptoms
might have a dysfunctional supervisory attention
system. This is a system that is responsible for
generating self-initiated actions.
• Frith & Done (1986) reported that when
participants were asked. to do things such as
name as many different fruits as possible, or
generate as many designs for something as
possible, those with schizophrenia (negative
symptom predominant) had great difficulty.
• Frith (1992) also examined a central monitoring
system. This system allows us to be able to
understand and label actions that we do as being
controlled by ourselves.
• Frith had noticed that in some schizophrenics,
inner speech may not be recognised as being self-
generated. When these patients hear "voices" it
is their own voice but they are unaware that it is
themselves producing inner speech and believe it
is someone else.
Evaluation extra
• These studies are scientific and objective . As
they are following the biological approach they
use scientific equipment and measure data
objectively so it is easier to establish cause
and effect.
• However, the ideas may be reductionist as
they do not take into account that social and
psychological factors may play a role in the
development of schizophrenia.
Treatments for
schizophrenia
Blochemlcal
• This treatment centres on using drugs to alleviate
the symptoms of schizophrenia.
• Davison & Neale (1997) noted that, from the
1950s onwards, drugs classed as phenothiazines
were commonly used to treat schizophrenia. They
were effective as they block dopamine receptors
in the brain.
• However, many had "extrapyramidal side effects"
which resemble symptoms of neurological
diseases such as Parkinsonian-type tremors,
dystonia (muscular rigidity), dyskinesia (e.g.
chewing movements) and akasthesia (inability to
keep still).
• Second-generation antipsychotics were developed
to also block dopamine receptors but produce
fewer side effects. There are now third-generation
antipsychotics that reportedly produce even fewer
side effects.
• Sarkar & Grover (2013) conducted a meta-
analysis on 15 randomised controlled studies
testing the effectiveness of antipsychotics
on children and adolescents diagnosed with
schizophrenia. It was seen that both first- and
second-.generation antipsychotic drugs were
superior to placebo in alleviating symptoms.
Second-generation drugs were superior overall
with chlozapine being the most effective of all
drugs. Extrapyramidal side effects were seen
more in first-generation antipsychotics while side
effects that affected metabolism were seen more
often in second-generation drugs.
• Ehret, Sopko & Lemieux (2010) noted that a third-
generation drug called lurasidone had been shown
to be effective in four separate clinical trials,
reducing both positive and negative symptoms.
Noted side effects had only been nausea.
vomiting and dizziness (they noted that drugs
like clozapine were now showing more metabolic
dysfunction s.ide effects plus bone marrow toxicity
so newer drugs needed to be developed ).
• Keating (2013) noted that a first-generation drug
called loxapine was now being used again as an
effective treatment for agitation in schizophrenic
patients by getting them to inhale it as a powder.
This meant a rapid onset of effect (usually around
ten minutes) by using a non-invasive method that
was currently showing few side effects.
Electro-convulsive therapy ( ECT)
• ECT is basically a procedure where a person
receives a brief application of electricity to induce
a seizure.
1.23
 • Early attem,p ts at this were not pleasant but
nowadays patients are anaesthetised and given
muscle relaxants.
• Electrodes are fitted to specific areas of the head
and a small electrical current is passed through
them for no longer than one second.
• The seizure may last up to 1 minute and the
patient regains consciousness in around
15 minutes.
• There will always be debate about whether ECT
should be used for any mental health issue as
clinicians and psychologists are divided on the
severity of the therapy itself and t he longer-term
side effects .
• ECT is now mainly used for depression (we
will come back to its effectiveness with this
on page 128), but there has been research
conducted on the use of ECT with schizophrenics.
• Zervas, Theleritis & Soldatos (2012) conducted
a review of the use of ECT in schizophrenia.
They looked at four issues: symptom response,
technical application, continuation/ maintenance
ECT and its combination with medication. It
would appear that ECT can be quite effective with
catatonic schizophrenics and in reducing paranoid
delusions. There was also evidence that it may
improve a person's responsivity to medication.
Lengthier courses worked well with catatonic
schizophrenics. When combined with medication,
ECT worked better compare·d to just using ECT.
• Phutane et al (2011) also noted that in a sample
of 202 schizophrenics who had undergone ECT,
the common reason why they had the ECT was to
"augment pharmachotherapy" and that the main
target was catatonia.
• Thirthalli et al (2009) reported that in a sample
of schizophrenics (split into catatonic and non-
catatonic), those who were catatonic required
fewer ECT sessions to help control their
symptoms .
• Finally, Flamarique et al (2012) reported that
adolescents who received ECT in conjunction
with clozapine had a lower rehospitalisation rate
(7 .1 per cent) compared to a group who received
ECT and a different antipsychotic (58.3 per cent).
Token economy
• Token economies are based on the idea of
operant conditioning (rewards and learning by
consequence ).
• Behaviour is shaped towards something desired
by giving out tokens (e.g. plastic chips or a
stamp) every time a relevant behaviour is shown.
• Patients can accrue these tokens and exchange
them for something they would like (e.g. money,
food vouchers).
• Patients continue to show desired behaviours as
they want to earn tokens to exchange for primary
reinforcers that fulfil a direct biological need (e.g.
satisfying hunger or giving enjoyment).
124
• Ayllon & Azrin (1968) introduced a token economy
to a psychiatric hospital in a ward for long-stay
female patients. Patients were rewarded for
behaviours such as brushing their hair, making
their bed and having a neat appearance. Their
behaviour rapidly improved and it also had a
benefit for staff morale as staff were seeing more
positive behaviours.
• Ghol ipour et al (2012) tested out the
effectiveness of a token economy versus an
exercise programme in helping people with
schizophrenia. A total of 45 patients were
randomly split into three groups (two treatments
and a control ). All participants were male, had
been diagnosed for at least t hree years, were
between 20 and 50 years old and had no other
mental health illness. Negative symptoms of
schizophrenia were measured pre- and post-
treatment. The average symptom scores pre- and
post-treatment are shown in Table 11.2.2.
Group Pre-treatment Post-treatment
score score
Exercise 7 1 .07 50 .47
Token economy 76.73 41.20
Control 84.6 7 84.87
.& Table U . 2.2 Average symptom scores pre-- and
post-treatment
Source: Gholipour et al (2012)
• Prior to this study, Dickerson, Tenhula & Green-
Paden (2005) conducted a review of the field.
They found 13 studies and it appeared that there
was evidence for the effectiveness of a token
economy in increasing the adaptive behaviours of
patients with schizophrenia. They noted that many
studies had methodological issues that could
cast doubt on findings and long-term follow-ups
were rare.
CBT
• This type of therapy aims to change or modify
people's thoughts and beliefs and also change
the way that they process information.
• A therapist will challenge irrational and faulty
thoughts as well as behaviours that are not
helping.
• Patients may be set tasks outside of the face-
to-face therapy to help challenge faulty thoughts
and beliefs.
• .For schizophrenia, the intention of CBT would be
to help patients make sense of the psychotic
experiences and reduce the negative effects of the
condition plus any distress they may be feeling.
• Bechdolf et al (2005) assessed the effectiveness
of CST versus group psychoeducation on re-
hospitalisation and medication compliance up to
24 months after treatment. A total of 88 patients
were randomly assigned to either group and they
received 8 weeks of therapy. At a six-month follow-
up, those in the CST group were less likely to be
 hospitalised and be taking their medication. At
24-months post-treatment, the CBT group had had
71 days fewer in hospital.
• Ng, Hui & Pau (2008) assessed the introduction
of a CBT programme in a hostel for people who
had become treatment-resistant to schizophrenia
(drug therapy) in Hong Kong. Measures of
schizophrenic symptoms, mood, insight and self-
esteem were taken pre- and post-treatment. Six
months after treatment there was a significant
reduction in the symptoms of schizophrenia
alongside an increase in self-esteem. Mood a11d
insight remained unchanged.
• Finally, Sarin, Wallin & Widerlov (2011)
conducted a meta-analysis on the use of CBT
with schizophrenics. They concluded that there
was strong evidence for CBT affecting positive,
negative and general symptoms of schizophrenia
compared to all other therapies. They a lso stated
that the effects of CBT can be delayed and having
20 sessions or more is better than shorter
programmes that are available.
125

11.3 Abnormal affect
Types, characteristics,
examples and sex
differences
Types
• Unipolar - this is sometimes called a major
depressive episode. Symptoms for this type
include having a depressed mood for most of
the day, diminished pleasure in most activities
undertaken, some weight loss, insomnia or
hypersomnia , some psychomotor agitation,
fatigue, feelings of worthlessness and a reduced
ability to concentrate on tasks.
• Bipolar - this used to be referred to as manic
depression. Symptoms for this type include
having episodes of manic behaviour that cannot
be accounted for by a physical condition,
having some episode that is similar to unipolar
depression (although this is not necessary for a
diagnosis) and having some change in polarity of
behaviour between mania and depression.
Causes of and treatments for manic depression
• Causes of manic depression tend to be all
biological. Here are some examples:
o Genetic causes were investigated in a study
by Edgunlu, Duvarci & Cetin (2013). The
researchers noted that bipolar disorder may
be caused by a defect on the X-chromosome
after examining a case study of a 35-year-0ld
male who had muscular dystrophy and bipolar
disorder wh·ose mother also had bipolar
disorder. Muscular dystrophy is transmitted by
the X-chromosome 1 hence the link to bipolar
disorder. Also, Chang et al (2013) reported
on initial work on a BDgene project to try and
pinpoint the genetic cause of bipolar disorder.
Currently there are 43 BO core genes that
require further investigation.
o Brain structure was investigated in a study by
Nery, Monkul & Lafer (2013). The researchers
reviewed the field and reported on isolated
cases where people with bipolar disorder had
decreased grey matter in the left thalamus and
left hippocampal regions of the brain . However,
findings are currently inconsistent.
• In terms of treating bipolar disorder, drug therapy
appears to be the main treatment used.
• In a recent review, Malhi et al (2013) noted that
lithium has been used for over 50 years as an
effective treatment. It works well at stabilising
manic moods but does not affect depression
much . It also possesses anti-suicidal properties
that no other drug has managed to achieve yet.
• Joshi et al (2013) noted that a drug called
paliperidone was effective in treating acute bipolar
disorder in children and adolescents after an
126
eight-week randomised trial where all participants
took the drug. The only side effect seen was
significant weight gain (average 4.1 lbs).
• Katagiri et al (2013} conducted a study to test the
efficacy and safety of using olanzapine for bipolar
disorder. There were 156 patients of which 104
were allocated to the olanzapine group and 52 to
a placebo (it was a double-blind study) . Patients
in the drug group showed greater improvement
in symptoms across a range of questionnaire
measures but also showed greater weight gain
and cholesterol levels compared to the placebo.
Sex differences in depression
Nolen-Hoeksema (1987) conducted a review of sex
differences in depression in terms of prevalence and
potential explanations:
• Virtually all studies reported a gender bias.
• Females were up to 4.6 times more likely to be
diagnosed with depression compared to males
and this was seen across many nationalities and
cultures.
• These figures were across a range of different
types of depression.
• There were three possible explanations for the
gender differences:
o It is about income not gender. However, two
studies in the review did look at income
differences and found no significant effect.
o Reporting bias might exist. There had been
an idea that females are more likely to reveal
symptoms and therefore more likely to be
diagnosed . Studies did not appear to support
this idea.
o The kinds of symptoms shown may provide
an explanation. Depression in men usually
takes a form of acting out behaviours such
as sadness and crying. Males act in ways to
dampen their mood when depressed whereas
women are much more likely to amplify their
mood by "thinking things over too much" .
Explanations of depression
Biological: genetJc and neurochemical
• The genetic argument follows the idea that
depression may well run in famil ies and be
encoded in genetics .
• One way of testing this is by conducting studies
of twins using monozygotic (MZ: identical) and
dizygotic (DZ: non-identical) twins.
• McGuffin et al (1996) examined 214 pairs of
twins where at least one was being treated for
depression. They reported that 46 per cent of MZ
and 20 per cent of DZ twins of the patients also
had a diagnosis of depression.
• Silberg et al (1999) wanted to assess whether it
was genetics, the environment or a combination
of the two that could be causing depression. A
total of 902 pairs of twins completed psychiatric
 interviews to assess levels of depression alongside
data about life events and from parents. In
general, fema les were diagnosed more often with
depression than males. This was more marked
when life events were negative. However, there were
individual differences seen among the females and
those who were diagnosed with depression after a
negative life event were more likely to have a twin
who was also diagnosed with depression.
• Earlier studies had also shown a part-genetic
component of depression .
• As shown in Table 11.3.1, Bertelsen Harvald &
Hauge (1977) reported that the genetic component
varied depending on the type of depression.
Type of depression Percentage Percentage
chance for chance for
MZ twins DZ twins
Bipolar disorder 80 16
Severe depression 59 30
(three or more episodes
of depression)
Depression (fewer than 36 17
three episodes
of depression)
A Table 11.3.1 Genetic component and type of depression
• In terms of a neurochemical cause, there
are two neurotransmitters that have been
investigated: norepinephrine and serotonin. Low
levels of both of these may well be a cause of
depression. Davison & Neale (1998) highlighted
how certain drugs block the reuptake of these
neurotransmitters so that more of them can be
used in the postsynaptic neuron .
Cognitive: Beck
Beck (1976) was interested in examining the
irrational thought processes involved in depression:
• He believed that there were three factors which
make people cognitively vulnerable to depression.
• These are called the cognitive triad and are:
o negative view of self
o negative view of the world
o negative view of the future .
• These three can interact with each other to make
a person depressed.
• They will also "change '' the way information is
processed as they become an "automatic" way
of thinking.
• When information Is being processed it is
affected by all three so the information will be
processed in a "negative way".
• People may simply overestimate the negative
aspects of a situation, meaning they will conclude
that whatever happens, something bad will come
of it.
• Depressives may also have negative self-schemas
(packets of information about themselves)
that have developed since childhood by having
negative experiences and/ or overly critical
parents, peers or teachers . All new information
that is processed will become negative as
the mechanisms are all negative . As a result,
depression develops.
Learned helplessness or attributional style
• Learned helplessness is about individuals
becoming passive because they feel they are not
in control of their own life.
• This is caused by unpleasant experiences
that people have tried to control in the past
(unsuccessfully) .
• This gives people a sense of helplessness which
in turn leads to depression .
• The idea was based on Sellgman's (1974 )
research on dogs.
• They received electric shocks that they could not
escape from (lack of control) and it did not take
long for the dogs to stop trying to escape.
• They all became passive and appeared to accept
the painful situation they were in.
• When in future trials there was an opportunity to
escape, the dogs still did not try to do this.
• This is the sense of helplessness that
depressives will fee l if they cannot escape
situations that are negative and out of their
control.
• Weiner et al (1971) noted three levels of
attribution that can affect people 's views of their
own behaviour:
o internal (personal) or external (environmental}
o stable or unstable
o global or specific .
Table 11.3.2 highlights an example of how the
different attributional schemata can be used to
explain why someone failed a psychology exam.

Internal External
Stable Unstable Stable Unstable
Global "I lack general "I am really, really tired "Exams are an unfair way "It's an unlucky day."
intelligence for exams." today." to test my ability."
Specific "I lack the ability ''I am fed up with !he psychology exam "My psychology exam had
to pass psychology studying psychology." was really unfair as rt had 13 questions, wh ich is
exams." questions I did not know unlucky."
the answers to."

.A Table 11.3.2 Using attributional schemata to explain exam failure

127
 Treatments for depression
Biological: chemical or drugs
• Here are two examples of antidepressants that
are commonly used:
o Selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitors
(SSRls) - the possible side effects of these
drugs are fatigue, headaches and insomnia.
o Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOls) -
these work by inhibiting monamine oxidase
(this breaks down neurotransmitters such as
norepineprhine and serotonin) which means
more serotonin and norepinephrine is available
in the synapse. Possible side effects include
hypertension (which is potentially fatal),
dizziness and nausea.
• Rucci et al (2011) tested out the effectiveness
of SSRls versus interpersonal psychotherapy on
suicidal thoughts in a group of 291 outpatients
with major depression. Participants were
randomly assigned to either treatment regime
and suicidal ideation was measured using a
questionnaire. The 231 patients who had shown
no suicidal ideation pre-study were analysed and
32 of these did exhibit suicidal Ideation during
the treatment. For those on SSRls, the time taken
for these thoughts to emerge was much longer
than in the psychotherapy group. Therefore SSRls
may reduce suicidal thoughts in people with major
depression.
• Nakagawa et al (2008) conducted a meta-
analysis on the efficacy and effectiveness of
a drug called milnacipran (a serotonin and
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor} in comparison
to other antidepressants. The studies selected
for the analysis had to be randomised controlled
trials with milnacipran compared to at least one
other antidepressant. While there tended to be
no differences in clinical improvement across all
antidepressants, people taking antidepressants
called tricyclics tended to withdraw from
treatment sooner.
Blologlcal: electro-convulsive therapy ( ECT)
See page 124 for a description of the procedure
used to administer ECT.
• Nordenskjold et al (2013) tested the
effectiveness of using ECT with drug therapy
compared to using drug therapy alone. A total of
56 patients were randomly assigned to either 29
treatments of ECT alongside drug therapy or just
drug therapy. The researchers measured relapse
of depression within one year of completing
treatment. In the group of patients on drug
therapy alone, 61 per cent of patients relapsed
within the year compared to just 32 per cent of
patients who had ECT and drug therapy.
• Dierckx et al (2012) reviewed the field in terms
of whether response to ECT differs in bipolar
disorder patients versus unipolar depressed
patients. A total of six studies formed their
128
analysis. The overall remission rate was nearly
51 per cent for unipolar depression and over
53 per cent for bipolar disorder. The data covered
over 1 000 patients. Overall, the data was
encouraging as it showed similar efficacy rates
for the two types of depression.
• Dunne & Mcloughlin (2012) reviewed the
effectiveness and side effects of three types of
ECT: bifrontal (BF}, bilateral (BL} and unilateral
(UL). Eight studies were used in the analysis.
It covered data on 617 patients. There was no
difference in the effectiveness of the three types
in terms of efficacy - all appeared to have some
level of effectiveness. UL ECT impaired complex
figure recall more than BF ECT. However, BF ECT
impaired word recall more than UL ECT.
• Jelovac, Kolshus & Mcloughlin (2013) reviewed
relapse rates following successful ECT for major
depression. Thirty-two studies were used in the
analysis and all had at least a two-year follow
up. Compared to relapse rates for drug therapy
(51.1 per cent 12 months following successful
initial treatment with 37. 7 per cent relapsing in the
first six months), ECT did not fare any better with a
37 .2 per cent relapse rate in the first six months.
Those who took antidepressants post-ECT had a
risk of relapse half of those who took a placebo.
Cognitive restructuring
• The idea of this therapy follows Beck's cognitive
triad approach to the potential causes of
depression.
1. The therapist explains the rationale behind the
therapy and what its purpose is.
2. Clients are taught how to monitor automatic
negative thoughts and negative self-schemata.
3. Clients are taught to use behavioural techniques
to challenge negative thoughts and information
processing.
4 . Therapist and client explore how negative
thoughts are responded to by the client.
5 . Dysfunctional beliefs are identified and
challenged.
6. The therapy ends with clients having the
necessary "cognitive tools " to repeat the process
by themselves.
• Hans & Hiller (2013) conducted a meta-analysis
on the effectiveness of CST on adults with
unipolar depression. A total of 34 studies
formed the analysis and they had to assess the
effectiveness of individual or group CST, as well
as drop-out rates. The studies also had to have
at least a six-month follow up. It would appear
that outpatient CST was effective in reducing
depressive symptoms and these were maintained
at least six months after the CST ended.
• Cuijpers et al (2013) also conducted a review
examining CST in relation to depression and
comparing it to other treatments. A total of
115 studies were used and each had to be a
 CST study that either had a control group or a
comparison "other" treatment (e.g. psychotherapy
or drug therapy). CST was effective at reducing
depression in adults but the effect size was lower
when the study was classed as high quality.
Therefore, the positive effects of CST may well
have been overestimated and more high-quality
studies are needed.
• Burns et al (2013) conducted a pilot study to
assess the effectiveness of CBT for females
with antenatal depression. Thirty-six women
who met the diagnostic criteria for depression
were randomly assigned to either a CST
treatment programme or usual care. Of those
who completed nine or more sessions of CBT
or completed their usual care, 68.7 per cent of
women in the CST group had recovered from their
depression (15 weeks after treatment) compared
to 38.5 per cent fn the usual care group.
Rational emotive behaviour therapy ( REBT)
• Ellis (1962) stated that rationality consists of
thinking In ways that allow us to reach our goats;
irrationality consists of thinking in ways that
prevent us from reaching our goals.
• The idea behind the therapy follows an ABC
model:
o Activating event: this is a fact, behaviour,
attitude or an event.
o Beliefs: the person holds beliefs about the
activating event.
o Cognitive: this is the person's cognitive
response to the activating event as well as
emotions.
• Using the example from Table 11.3.2 on page 127
about failfng a psychology exam , this failure would
be the A. The B that might follow could be "I am a
failure" or "I hate it when I do not pass an exam"
and then the C becomes depression.
• Szentagotai et al (2008) examined the
effectiveness of REBT, CBT and drug therapy for
the treatment of a major depressive episode.
A range of outcome measures were taken
based on a questionnaire that tested three
main depressive thoughts: automatic negative
thoughts, dysfunctional attitudes and irrational
beliefs . There were 170 participants who were
randomly assigned to either the REST (n = 5 7),
CST (n = 56) or drug therapy (n = 57) groups.
In terms of depressive symptoms, there were
no significant differences between the three
groups but the REST group had an average score
significantly lower than the drug therapy group.
Jn terms of the three main depressive thoughts,
all three treatments appeared to decrease these
immediately post-treatment and then at follow-up.
• Sava et al (2008) compared REST, CBT and the
use of prozac in a sample of depressives. The
participants were split into the three treatment
groups and all had 14 weeks ' worth of therapy.
All participants completed the Beck Depression
Inventory prior to the therapy and then at 7 and
14 weeks post-therapy. There were no significant
differences between the three groups in terms of
scores on the inventory but REBT and CBT cost
less for the same outcomes so are a preferred
treatment.
129
 11.4 Addiction and
impulse control
disorders
Definitions, types and
characteristics
Definitions
According to Griffiths (2005), there are six components
to any addiction disorder:
• Salience - when the addiction becomes the
single most important activity in the person's life.
It dominates the person's behaviour, thoughts and
feelings.
• Euphoria - the subjective experience that is felt
while engaging in the addictive behaviour like a
"rush" or a "buzz".
• Tolerance - when the person has to do more
of the addictive behaviour to get the same
effect.
• Withdrawal - this refers to the unpleasant
thoughts and physica I effects felt when the
person tries to stop the addictive behaviour.
• Conflict - when the person with the addiction
begins to have conflicts with work colleagues,
friends and family.
• Relapse - the chances of the person "going
back" to the addictive behaviour are high.
Types
• Pyromania - when people deliberately start a fire
because they are attracted to fires or seeing the
fire service "in action". They may feel a sense
of arousal and satisfaction once the fire has
started .
• Kleptomania - when people have the urge to
collect and hoard items in their homes. They may
go out and steal objects even if the items have
little monetary value or they could afford to buy
them. The more difficult the challenge of gaining
the objects, the more thrilling and addictive it
becomes.
• Compulsive gambling - when people feel the need
to gamble to get a sense of euphoria especially
if they win. They will continue to gamble whether
they win or lose.
Physical and psychological dependence
• Physical dependence refers to times when the
body becomes used to functioning with the
drug in its system and so " requires" the drug to
maintain normal functioning.
• Psychological dependence is when the drug
or activity becomes of great importance
to the person's life to maintain a "stable"
mental state .
130
Causes of addiction and
impulse control disorders
Genetic: alcohol
• Edenberg & Foroud (2006) reported on findings
from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of
Alcoholism. Early research suggested that there
are three potential candidate genes that had been
found in families with multiple alcoholic members:
GABRA2, CHRM2 and ADH4. A further five genes
were noted that needed further investigation.
• Edenberg (2013) also noted some evidence
relating to two variants in genes that encode two
enzymes that are involved in the metabolism
of alcohol: (alcohol dehydrogenase ADH1B and
aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2).
• Agrawal & Bierut (2013) had also noted that the
same two genes (ADH1B and ALDH2) appear to
play a key role in alcoholism. They added that
GABRA2 could also play a role as it encodes
information about receptor sites in neurons linked
to alcohol-related processing.
• Biernacka et al (2013) analysed 43 single
nucleotide polymorphisms in 808 alcoholics and
1 248 control participants. One in particular
(rs1614972) in the ADH1C gene was found to
be a key difference between the two groups. This
was also irrespective of the sex of the participant.
Biochemical: dopamine
• Dopamine has been linked to addiction and
impulse control disorders as when it is released
in the body it gives us feelings of pleasure and
satisfaction.
• Once these feelings become a desire, we then
repeat behaviours that cause the release of
dopamine and the cycle continues with repetitive
behaviours.
• Yoon et al (2010) reported that when participants
were given a dopamine agonist (which activates
dopamine receptors), impulsive choice increased,
reaction times became faster and participants
showed fewer decision conflicts compared to a
control group.
• One drawback is that the participants had
Parkinson's disease so whether this can be
related to people with impulse control disorder
needs investigating.
Behavioural: positive reinforcement
• This follows the idea of rewards. When an action
is followed by a pleasurable outcome, the person
is more likely to engage in that behaviour again.
Therefore, if an addictive behaviour or impulse
control behaviour is followed by a positive
outcome, the person is likely to repeat that
behaviour (e.g. setting fire to a house or winning
on a fruit machine).
Cognitive or personality
• Gannon et al (2013) examined 68 pyromaniacs and
68 control participants. Participants were given a
range of questionnaires to complete that measured
a range of personality traits. The characteristics
more common in the pyromaniacs were:
o higher anger-related cognitions
o interest in serious fires
o lower levels of perceived fire safety awareness
o lower general self-€steem
o external locus of control.
• Kennedy et al (2006) reviewed the literature
(six studies) and reported the following about
adolescent pyromaniacs who set fires again
after being convicted (compared to those who
did not got back to fire-setting). The adolescents
repeating the behaviour:
o had a great interest in fire-setting and showed
higher levels of covert antisocial behaviours
o were more likely to be male and older
o had poorer social skills with a high level of
family dysfunction.
• Cunningham et al (2011) researched nine women
who were pyromaniacs. They were interviewed
and the qualitative analysis revealed that they
had distressing experiences and lack of support
pre-pyroma niac behaviour. They conducted the
fire-setting to influence others, gain help and feel
a sense of achievement and control.
• Wedekind et al (2013) studied the personality
and attachment profiles of 59 alcoholics
(43 male and 16 female). They completed a
battery of questionnaires as well as taking part
in a structured interview. Only one-third of the
sample were securely attached and the sample
had high levels of trait-anxiety and showed
higher levels of cognitive avoidance as well
as higher scores on a number of pathological
measures.
Coping with and reducing
addiction and impulse
control disorders
Behavioural
• One technique that has been used with alcoholics
is establishing a token economy (see page 124
for a description of a token economy).
• Petry et al (2000) researched 42 alcohol-
dependent older adults in an outpatient setting.
They were randomly assigned to a standard
treatment-only group or a standard treatment
plus token economy group (the TE group).
The latter had the chance to earn tokens that
could go towards prizes for submitting negative
breathalyser tests and completing set steps
towards desired behaviours.
• The treatment lasted eight weeks and the first
measure was the percentage of participants
who completed the full treatment: 84 per cent
in the TE group and 22 per cent in the group
receiving standard treatment only. By the end of
the treatment phase, 69 per cent of those in the
TE group were still abstinent compared to just
29 per cent in the other group. Participants in the
TE group earned, on average, about $200 worth
of prizes.
Aversion therapy
• Aversion therapy is based on classical
conditioning.
• The idea is that an undesirable behaviour
(e.g. when an alcoholic drinks alcohol) is paired
with an aversive stimulus (something unpleasant).
• This decreases the frequency of the behaviour
as the two elements are associated and so the
behaviour is no longer enjoyable.
• For alcoholics this could be that whenever they
smell or taste alcohol they are given an emetic
drug (a drug that makes them vomit). They should
begin to associate being sick with drinking alcohol
and then avoid drinking alcohol or redu.ce the
amount they drink, so their behaviour will be
changed.
• Howard (2001 ) examined the effectiveness of
aversion therapy using 82 hospitalised patients.
They all went through a pharmacological aversion
treatment and the results were as follows:
o The strength of "positive outcomes for drinking
alcohol" were significantly reduced.
o Participants' confidence that they could avoid
drinking alcohol in "high-risk situations" was
sign·ificantly increased.
o Those who had a greater experience of
alcohol-related nausea pre-treatment or were
involved in antisocial conduct showed reduced
effectiveness for the treatment.
• Smith, Frawley & Polissar (1997) assessed the
effectiveness of aversion therapy compared
to counselling with alcoholics. A total of 249
patients went through the aversion therapy and
were matched with participants who had the
counselling. The group who rece ived aversion
therapy had significantly higher rates of alcohol
abstinence at 6 and 12 months post-treatment.
CBT for kleptomania
• Hodgins & Peden (2008} reviewed the current
field at the time in relation to CST usage for
kleptomania (see page 124 for a description
of CST}.
• The first thing the researchers noted was that
there was little systematic research in the area.
• Covert sensitisation is when patients have to
visualise a negative (aversive) image with the
kleptomania behaviours. The idea is to make them
associate the two so the behaviour decreases.
131
 11 Models of abnorn1ality
• lmaginal desensitisation is when patients are
taught relaxation techniques. They have to
visualise themselves engaging in the in1pulsive
behaviour while also engaging in relaxation.
Impulsion and relaxation cannot happen at
the same time and the idea is that relaxation
takes over when people have the urge to involve
themselves in kleptomania .
• Kohn & Antonuccio (2002) noted that CBT is
very successful with kleptomaniacs especially
if kleptomania-related consequences are used
132
(e.g. getting arrested and going to jail) instead
of just general aversive imagery (e.g. nausea
and vomiting). It is also effective when the
kleptomaniac describes the scenarios out loud,
in as much detail as possible, so that the anxiety
continues to increase with the imaginings.
This repeated pairing of aversive stimuli with
kleptomania thoughts and ideas does decrease
behaviour especially if patients are then
reinforced for not engaging in kleptomania-related
behaviours.

11.5 Anxiety disorders
(phobias)
Definition, types and
examples (case studies)
Deflnltion
• A phobia is defined as an irrational fear of
something, someone or some object.
• By irrational we mean unreasonable and illogical.
There may be no reason why we fear the object or
situation.
Types and examples
• Agoraphobia is the intense fear of open spaces
and/ or public areas. For example, a person may
fear leaving the house.
• Social phobia is the intense fear of being in
social situations. People with this phobia actively
avoid social situations as they dislike social
interaction. They may also feel that other people
are judging them.
• Clinophobia is a fear of going to bed .
• a fear of horses.
Hippophobia Is
• Pteronophobla is a fear of being tickled by
feathers!
Explanations of phobias
Behavioural: classical conditioning
• Classical conditioning involves learning
through association: it is a form of conditioning
where the organism (be it human or animal)
associates an unconditional stimulus (UCS) with
a neutral stimulus (NS).
• After repeated associations, the organism then
responds to the NS, now ca lled a conditioned
stimulus (CS), without having the unconditional
stimulus (UCS) present anymore.
Case study
Re-read Little Hans on page 26.
The case of Little Albert
Watson & Rayner (1920) were interested in two
aims. The following is taken directly from the paper
they wrote about the case of Little Albert:
"1 . Can we condition fear in an animal, e.g. a white
rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously
striking a steel bar?
2 . If such a conditioned emotional response can be
established , will there be a transfer to other animals
or other objects?" (Watson & Rayner, 1920).
• At approximately nine months of age, Little Albert
was presented with a range of stimuli (e.g. a
white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey). Albert
showed no fear towards any of the objects.
• When Albert reached 11 months and three days,
the experimental procedure began to test out the
•
first aim.
Albert was presented with a white rat again and
as before he showed no fear.
• However, as Albert reached out to touch the rat,
Watson struck an iron bar immediately behind the
Albert's head. Of course, Albert "jumped violently
and fell forward, burying his face in the mattress"
(1920: 4).
• In total , Albert experienced the loud hoise and
white rat occurring together on seven occasions.
Finally, the rat was presented by itself and Albert
began to cry and crawled away rapidly.
• This was the first time he had cried during the
study in response to the rat.
• Over the next month Albert's reactions to a range
of objects were observed.
• He was still fearful of the white rat. He showed
negative reactions to a rabbit being placed in
front of him and a fur coat (made from seal skin).
He did not really like cotton wool but the shock
was not the same as it was with the rabbit or fur
coat. He even began to fear a Santa Claus mask.
• Albert's experiences can be explained with
reference to classical conditioning, as shown in
Figure 11.5.1 .
Before conditioning
Loud noise Fear
White rat No response
During conditioning
Loud noise .
Fear
+white rat
After conditioning
White rat Fear
.A Figure 11.5.1 Classical conditioning of Little Albert
Psychoanalytic (Freud)
Refer back to Core study 5.2 for AS level on page 26
that Investigated Little Hans .
Biomedical or genetic
• Could it be that we are pre-programmed to fear
certain objects that may be potentjally harmful?
That is, there are certain objects or things that
we are expected to be frightened of so we are
biologically prepared to fear them.
• This theory could help us to explain fears that are
not totally irrational (e.g. fear of snakes - they
can be dangerous).
133
 • Seligman (1971) had proposed the idea that
we had evolved to be frightened of fear-relevant
stimuli.
• So, we fear objects and things that might be a
survival threat in evolutionary terms (Mineka &
Ohman, 2002).
• We have fear-relevant stimuli (e.g. snakes) that
we may be "prepared" to fear. We also have fear-
irrelevant stimuli (e.g. flowers) that we are not
" prepared'' to fear.
• Cook & Mineka (1989) conducted a study
with rhesus monkeys as the participants.
The researchers wanted to see whether the
monkeys could become phobic of objects such
as a crocodile, a flower, a snake or a rabbit even
though they had never seen them before.
• The monkeys were split into four separate groups
so they only saw one of the objects. Cook &
Mineka controlled what the monkeys saw as they
watched a video.
• Using the technique of splicing the video, each
monkey saw the same rhesus monkey being scared
of the object that a group had been assigned. So,
for example, one monkey saw another monkey on
the video being scared of the crocodile. The next
monkey saw the same monkey on the video but
this time it was being scared by the flower.
• Each monkey was then tested on its fear towards
the object.
• The monkeys in the crocodile and snake groups
showed fear of a toy crocodile and toy snake.
• However, when the other two groups were shown
their "feared object" (the flower or the rabbit),
they did not show any fear.
• Ost et al (1991) examined people who were
needle-phobic within the same family. This study
reported that 64 per cent of patients with a blood
and/ or injection phobia had at least one first-
degree relative (immediate family) with the same
phobia. In the general population, between 3 per
cent and 4 per cent of people are phobic of blood
and/ or needles.
• Fredrikson, Annas & Wik (1997) examined 158
phobic females who were scared of snakes or
spiders. Participants had to report on their family
history of their phobia. Fredrikson discovered that
37 per cent of mothers and 7 per cent of fathers
also had the same phobia. This looked as if it
supported th.e idea that th.e phobic women had
inherited their phobia.
• However, Fredrikson asked participants another
question: whether participants had experienced
direct exposure to the phobic stimulus (they had·
been frightened by the phobic object directly) or
had experienced indirect exposure to the phobic
stimulus {they had seen someone else being
phobic towards the object). Indirect exposure was
more common for snakes (45 per cent) than for
spiders (27 per cent}. So, even though it looked
134
as if the phobia was caused by genetics, nearly
half of the snake-phobic participants could have
their phobia explained via social learning.
Cognitive
• The view of cognitive psychologists is that
phobias being caused by the anxiety is linked to
the phobic being more likely to attend to negative
stimuli and to believe that negative events are
much more likely to happen in the future.
• DiNardo et al (1988) reported that in a group of
dog phobics, only 50 per cent could report having
a previous traumatic experience. However, in a
group of people with no phobia of dogs, 50 per
cent could also report a previously traumatic
experience involving a dog.
• The key difference was that those who developed
a phobia of dogs tended to focus on and become
anxious about the possibility of having a similar
experience in the future and this obviously affected
the way they processed information about dogs.
• Kindt & Brosschot (1997) conducted a study
to test out cognitive biases In people with
arachnophobia.
• They created a Stroop-type test where the
participants had to the read out the colour of the
ink of spider-related words or pictures.
• Those who claimed to be arachnophobic took
significantly longer to name the ink colour of the
spider-related words compared to a control group.
• This hints at phobics having an automatic
cognitive process of attending to phobia stimuli
for longer than usual.
Treating phobias
Systematic desensitisation (Wolpe)
• First, patients are taught relaxation skills so that
they understand what it feels like to have relaxed
muscles.
• This should enable patients to recreate this
feeling in a variety of situations including when
confronted with their phobic stimulus.
• Second, patients produce an anxiety or fear
hierarchy to work through with the therapist. A
simple hierarchy, for someone fearful of snakes,
would be as follows:
1. This the least anxious situation - looking at a
cartoon snake in a children's book.
2. The person looks at a picture of a real snake in
a book.
3. The person watches a snake on a wildlife
programme.
4. The person sees a real snake in the same room
but in a cage.
5. The person sees a real snake in the same room
out of the cage.
6. The person is within three feet of the snake.
7. The person touches the snake.
8 . This is the most anxious situation - the person
lets the snake go around his or her neck.
• Patients can only work up the hierarchy of
fear once each stage has been successfully
completed; that is, they are showing signs of
relaxation in the presence of the specific thing on
the hierarchy (e.g. for stage 2 above, looking at
book; for stage 7, when touching the snake).
• Figure 11.5.2 shows the principles of classical
conditioning linked to systematic desensitisation
in a three-stage process.
Stage 1
Spider Fear
. that there is now nothing to be fearful of.
(CS) (CR)
Relaxation
Calmness
technique
(UCR)
CUCS}
Stage 2
Relaxation
Spider Calmness
(CS) + technique
(UCR)
<UCS)
Stage 3
Spider Calmness
-
(CS) (CR)
.A Figure 11.S.2 Principles of classical conditioning linked
to systematic desensitisation
• Capafons, Sosa & Avera (1998) reported that
their 20 patients with a fear of flying who had
several sessions progressing up their anxiety
hierarchy became much less fearful of flying after
the study ended. However, like most studies in
this area, there was no follow-up session to see
whether the fear reduction had lasted.
• Zettle (2003) showed that systematic
desensitisation can be applied to people who
fear mathematics. Twenty-four college students
underwent treatment for six weeks (split between
systematic desensitisation and a different
therapy) and had to rate their anxieties towards
mathematics before, during and after the
treatment. Anxiety decreased markedly for those
who completed their systematic desensitisation
even though their mathematics ability never
changed. Zettle did not follow up participants
after the study ended.
• Ventjs, Higbee & Murdock (2001) found that both
relaxation techniques and simply laughing at the
phobic stimulus were effective in reducing the
fear in arachnophobics. All participants had been
matched on fear: some progressed through their
hierarchy with relaxation and others by laughing.
Again , the researchers did not conduct follow-up
sessions.
Flooding
• In this technique the patient is exposed to the
largest anxiety-provoking stimuli straight away
(usually direct contact with the stimuli - this is
called in vivo).
• Obviously, the patient is going to feel extreme
levels of fear and anxiety when confronted with
the phobic stimulus.
• However, this dies off qutte rapidly as the body
cannot sustain such a high level of arousal for a
long time.
• Therefore, the fear and anxiety will diminish.
• As a resu lt of the phobic stimulus not causing any
more fear or anxiety, the patient quickly learns
• The association between phobic stimulus and
fear has been broken to form a new relationship
of phobia stimulus producing calm.
Applied tension {Ost)
•
-Ost developed the technique of applied tension
to help people with blood and injury phobias.
Participants had to repeatedly contract the major
muscle groups of the arms and legs to decrease
vagovasal (fainting) reactions when highly
anxious.
• This technique has been reported to increase
cerebral blood flow.
• Ditto et al (2003) tested out the effectiveness
of applied tension with people who were phobic
of giving blood (having fear of needles, etc.).
A total of 605 donors were randomly assigned
to one of three groups: applied tension, a
no-treatment control or a placebo control.
Those in the applied tension group watched
an instructional video that taught them how to
contract and relax the main muscle groups in
the arms and legs. The placebo control simply
watched the video but they were not told to use
the technique. Those in the applied tension
group reported significantly fewer phobic
symptoms related to being blood donors and
actually produced more full quotas of blood than
the other two groups.
• Holly, Balegh & Ditto (2011) examined the role of
applied tension on anxiety in people giving blood.
Seventy participants were randomly assigned
either to a control group or the experimental
group who were taught applied tension before
watching a video that showed someone giving
blood. The females in the applied tension
group showed significant reduction in vasovagal
symptoms (especially in those who reported high
fear of needles).
135
 11 Models of abnorn1ality
CBT
• Lilliecreutz, Josefsson and Sydsjo (2010) tested
the effectiveness of CST for blood and inject ion
phobias in pregnant women. A total of 30 women
took part in the study. They had been diagnosed
with the phobias. The comparison groups were
46 pregnant women who received no CBT and
70 healthy pregnant women. Women in the CST
group showed significant reductions in their
anxiety levels (measured by the Injection Phobia
Scale-Anxiety) after each CBT session. This
continued after the birth of their child.
• Melfsen et al (2011) examined the
effectiveness of using CBT for socially phobic
children. A total of 44 children who were
diagnosed with social phobia were randomly
assigned to a CBT condition or a "waiting-list"
136
condition. The main outcome measure was
clinical improvement but other aspects were
measured such as coping ability, dysfunctfonal
cognitions and frequency of interactions.
There were significant differences between the
groups post-therapy with those in the CBT group
being more likely to be free from their previous
diagnosis of social phobia.
• Galvao-de Almeida et al (2013) reviewed the
impact that CBT had on people with phobias.
However. all studies in the review had to have
functional neuroimaging measures as part of
them; A total of six studies met this inclusion
criteria for the review. It would appear that
people who underwent CBT had significant
"deactivations" in the amygdala, thalamus and
hippocampal regions of their brain.

11.6 Anxiety disorder
(obsessions and
conipulsions)
Definitions, measures and
examples
Defining obsessions and compulsions
• Obsessions are recurring and persistent thoughts
(even images and thoughts) that are intrusive and
inappropriate but they cause high levels of anxiety.
• These thoughts are not just excessive worries
about life problems.
• Compulsions are repetitive behaviours (e.g. hand
washing or checking the order of something) or
mental acts (e.g. counting or repeating words).
• The people affected feel driven to perform these
behaviours in response to an obsession.
• They also perform the behaviours to reduce
anxiety or, as they believe, to prevent some
devastating event or situation from occurring.
• For a diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD), a person must recognise that the
obsessions and/or compulsions are excessive
and unreasonable. Also, they may consume time
(more than one hour per day) and interfere with
aspects of the person's life such as his or her job
and relationships.
Case studies and examples
Rapoport (1989) reported on Charles in his book
The Boy who Couldn 't Stop Washing. At the age of
12 he began to wash obsessively. For some time
he managed to keep it under control but then spent
more and more of his school day washing. Eventually,
he did it so often he had to leave school. The ritual
was always the same: he would hold the soap in
his right hand and out it under a running tap for one
minute. He would then transfer the soap to his left
hand away from the tap for another minute. He wou ld
repeat this for about one hour. He would than wash
for about another two hours before getting dressed.
His mother did discourage him to begin with but
seeing how upset Charles got began to clean items
in the house with alcohol and then stopped people
from visiting as they have 'germs' and it would upset
Charles. Rapoport wanted Charles to have an EEG
but he refused as Charles found stickiness to be
'terrible' like a 'disease '. Charles had drug therapy
and his symptoms disappeared for about a year.
However, he developed a tolerance for the drug
but only then engaged in this OCD behaviour in the
evening so not to disrupt his day.
Measures
• The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (OCI) (Foa
et al, 1998) is a 42-item questionnaire that
patients complete. They answer each statement
from O (not at all) to 4 (extremely) based on the
previous month in their lives. There are seven
sub-scores that are added together to make a
total OCI score:
o Washing: " I wash and clean obsessivelyn is
a statement on the OCI that measures this.
Other examples of statements on the OCI are
given below.
o Checking: "I ask people to repeat things
several times, even though I understood them
the first time."
o Doubting: " Even when I do something very
carefully I feel that it is not quite right."
o Ordering: '' I feel obliged to follow a particular
order in dressing, undressing and washing
myself.n
o Obsessions: "Unpleasant thoughts come into
my mind against my will and I cannot get rid
of them."
o Hoarding: " I collect things I don't need."
o Neutralising: " I feel that I must repeat certain
words or phrases in my mind in order to wipe
out bad thoughts, feelings and actions "
(Foa et al, 1998).
• If the person scores 42 or more on the OCI then
it suggests the presence of OCD.
• The Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive
Inventory (VOCI) (Thordarson et al, 2004) is
another validated measure of OCD. Th is scale
has 55 items that patients complete and they
rate each statement on a scale of O (not at all) to
4 (very much). There are six sub-scales that are
added together to give a total score:
o Contamination: "I feel dirty after touching
money" is a statement on the VOCI that
measures this. Other examples of statements
on the VOCI are given below.
o Checking: "One of my major problems is
repeating checking."
o Obsessions: " I am often upset by my
unwanted thoughts of using a sharp weapon."
o Hoarding: " I become very tense or upset when
I think about throwing anything away."
o Just right: " I feel compelled to be absolutely
perfect."
o Indecisiveness; "I find it difficult to make even
trivial decisions."
• The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive ScaJe
(please see page 233 of the Student Book)
(Y-BOCS) is another validated measure of OCD.
There are two parts to the measurement and it is
used as a semi-structured interview technique:
137
 o The symptom checklist gives 67 symptoms
for OCD. The interviewer notes whether
each. symptom is current, past or absent (in
which case it is not recorded). This helps
the interviewer determine whether there
are groups of clustered symptoms (the list
is divided into groups such as aggressive
obsessions, sexual obsessions, contamination
obsessions, checking compulsions, ordering
compu lsions.)
o The Y-BOCS itself consists of 19 items that
the interviewee completes during the interview
based on responses and observations. An
example question is included in Figure 11.6 .1
(please see page 233 of the Student Book).
• As you can see, there is a part-script for
this question alongside how to score it. The
scores are transferred to a grid that measures
obsessions, compulsions and other aspects of
the condition. A person is given an obsessions
score out of 20 and a compulsion score out of
20 and then nine other items are noted on the
1-4 scale for severity. There is also a children 's
version of the scale.
Explanations of OCD
Biomedical
• Ozomaro et al (2013) noted that the SLITRK1 gene
appears to be linked to some aspects of OCD. The
researchers examined 381 individuals with OCO
and 356 control participants. They discovered
three novel variants on this gene present in seven
of the OCD individuals and concluded that the
SLITRK1 and variants need more research but
currently they appear linked to OCD.
• Taj et al (2013) researched another candidate
gene called DRD4 (dopamine 0 4 receptor). A total
of 173 individuals with OCD were compared to
201 healthy controls. They completed a range of
questionnaires that measured OCD and mental
health and all were genotyped for the DRD4 gene
and variants. It was revealed that the 7R allele
frequency was higher in the OCD group (especially
so for females), suggesting another potential
genetic cause for OCD.
• Humble et al (2011) wanted to test whether the
neuropeptide oxytocin wa.s correlated with OCD
symptoms as previous studies had hinted at this.
Even though the researchers were testing whether
SSRls affect oxytocin, the main result they
reported was that, at baseline, levels of oxytocin
positively correlated with OCD symptoms as
measured by the Y-BOCS. Those with early onset
OCD had the highest levels of oxytocln.
Cognitive-behavioural aspect
• The behavioural aspect of this is linked to the
compu lsions that people perform during OCD.
138
• Psychologists consider performing compulsions
to be a learned behaviour that is being reinforced
by the consequences of performing them.
For example, if a compulsive behaviour ends in
a favourable outcome (e.g. with hand washing,
reduction of anxiety or hands are now free of
germs) this is positive reinforcement.
• Behaviours can have two reinforcement
mechanisms working - for example, with placing
clothes in a precise order, negative (removal of
anxiety) and positive (clothes are now in arranged
in the desired order).
• The cognitive aspect of this is linked to the
obsessive thoughts that OCD individuals have.
• It would appear that these thoughts increase with
levels of stress.
• Jn an everyday situation, most people can learn to
control these thoughts but people with OCD tend
to have thoughts that are more vivid and elicit
greater concern.
• Psychologists believe that this could be due to
chi ldhood experiences that have taught them that
some thoughts are dangerous and unacceptable
and this has affected their information-processing
networks.
• Therefore, when new information is being
processed, it is affected by these processing
networks and generates anxiety and stress that
can only be alleviated with compulsive behaviours.
Psychodynamic
• OCD is caused by instinctual forces (driven by
the id in the unconscious) that are not under full
control due to traumatic experiences In the anal
stage of psychosexual development.
• This person is therefore fixated in the anal stage.
• It is the battle between the id's desires and the
superego's morals that can cause OCD as the ego
(and its defence mechanisms) fail to control either.
• Obsessive thoughts may be generated by the id (e.g.
to be messy and out of control) but the ego uses
defence mechanisms to counteract this by making
the person behave in a way that is completely
opposite to that (e.g. being neat and tidy).
• If a child has a traumatic experience while potty
training (e.g. the child is harshly treated for being
messy) then the obsessive thoughts of being neat
and tidy re-emerge in adolescence and adulthood
and the person develops OCD as a result.
Treatments for OCD
Drug therapy
• Selvi et al (2011) studied the effects that two
"extra" drugs had on OCD patients who had not
responded successfully to just taking SSRls. A
total of 41 patients were chosen from this part of
the study and were randomly assigned to either
 the risperidone (n = 21) or apripiprazole (n = 20)
group. They were then given these drugs as well
as SSRls for eight further weeks. The researchers
measured success by a patient having a 35 per
cent or more reduction in scores on the Y-BOCS.
Of those in the aripiprazole group 50 per cent did
reduce their scores by at least this, as did 72.2
per cent of participants in the risperidone group.
• Askari et al (2012) examined the effectiveness of
using granisetron in conjunction with fluvoxamine
(an SSRI). Participants were people aged 18-60
years who were diagnosed with OCD via DSM-
/V-TR. They were randomly assigned to either a
granisetron or placebo group. They received 1mg
of their "drug" every 12 hours for 8 weeks. All
patients were assessed using the Y-BOCS at
baseline then at weeks two, four, six and eight.
The researchers measured outcomes in the
following ways:
o A partial response was a minimum 25 per cent
reduction in Y~BOCS scores.
o A complete response was a minimum 35 per
cent reduction in Y-BOCS scores.
o Remission was scoring 16 or less on the
Y-BOCS.
• By week 8, 100 per cent of the granisetron group
had scored a complete response and 90 per cent
had met the remission criterion. Only 35 per cent of
patients in the placebo group managed the same.
CBT
• Olatunji et al (2013) tested the effectiveness
of CBT and behavioural therapy (BT) with OCD
patients. Participants were 62 adults diagnosed
with OCD who were randomly allocated to the
CBT or BT group. The ma in therapy lasted
for 4 weeks (16 hours) with 12 weeks of
maintenance therapy thereafter (4 hours). OCD
symptoms were measured using the Y-BOCS and
measures were taken at baseline, weeks 4, 16,
26 and 52. The participants in the BT group had
lower scores at the final assessment compared to
participants in the CBT group. Therefore, it would
appear that BT is superior to CBT for reducing
OCD symptoms in this sample.
• Storch et al (2013) examined whether CST used
in conjunction with a drug (sertraline) was more
effective with OCD patients than CBT alone.
Participants were 4 7 children and adolescents
with OCD (a.ged 7-17 years) who were randomly
assigned to one of three groups: CBT plus
standard sertraline; CBT plus slow-release
sertraline; CBT plus placebo. The treatments
lasted 18 weeks. Assessments of OCD severity
were measured at baseline then weeks 1-9, 13
and 17 then post-treatment using the Y-BOCS. All
groups showed a significant decreased in OCD
symptoms.
• Bolton et al (2011) examined the effectiveness
of full and brief CBT for children with OCD.
Participants were 96 children diagnosed with
OCD who were randomly assigned to one of
three groups: full CBT (12 sessions), brief CBT
(5 sessions) or a waiting-list group. The measure
for OCD severity was the child version of the
Y-BOCS. For both types of CST there was a
significant improvement in OCD symptoms
compared to the waiting-list group, showing that
brief CBT is useful and cost-effective.
Psychoanalytic therapy
• Ftee association - the patient lies back on a
couch and is allowed to continually talk. The
therapist then has to interpret the monologue
to see ·w hat could be troubling the patient. The
idea is that at some point the core problem
will be exposed by the patient, especial ly a
problem linked to the anal stage of psychosexual
development.
• Dream analysis - the patient tells the therapist
about a dream (manifest content) and the
therapist has to analyse it for symbols to uncover
the underlying meaning (latent content).
• Hypnosis - this can be used to help access the
unconscious mind too.
• Chlebowski & Gregory (2009) noted that
psychoanalysis can be particularly effective with
OCD patients whose condition is labelled as " late
onset that coincides with st ressors in the patients'
lives" or those who have a borderline personality
disorder too. This allows the therapist to delve into
the unconscious mechanisms causing the OCD.
• Leichsenring et at (2008) examined the long-term
effectiveness of using psychoanalytic therapy
with OCD patients. They reported that long-term
psychoanalysis was associated with a significant
reduction in the OCD symptoms reported by
patients and this was still seen one year after
treatment had ended.
139
 Psychology and
organisations
12.1 The selection of
people for work
Selecting people for work
Selection procedures: applications
• Many organisations use "in house" application
forms to collect all of the relevant demographic,
occupatio11al and biographical data.
• A standard application form may ask for personal
details, employment records, educational records ,
training, any skills or employment training and
referees.
• Personnel staff can look at all of tl1e application
forms and produce a sl1ortlist of ideal candidates.
Weighted application blank or form (WAB)
• This is a standard applicatio11 form but certain
aspects of the form have bee11 .. pre-scored n.
• This means that a certain area of, say, education
or previous experience carries more weight in the
application.
• Each applicant can be given a score depending on
the weightings and those with the highest scores
go through to the next selection stage.
Selection Interviews
As we have covered for AS level, structured and
unstructured interviews are used. In terms of the
psychology of organisations, they can be used in the
following ways:
• In structured interviews, members of the interview
panel will have a pre-determined list of questions that
must be asked at each interview. Each candidate
gets the same questions in the same order.
• In unstructured interviews, members of the
interview panel wi ll have certain "bits of
infor111ation" that they need to get the candidate
to talk about and therefore can u.s e any question
they think of to get it. Each candidate has a
different interview "pathway".
Evaluation extra
• A structured interview is preferred and has
more validity as all the necessary information is
covered. There is a set time for tl1e interview so
the selection day can run smoothly.
• There appear to be other issues with any type of
interview including the prejudices of the panel,
the gender ratio of the panel and any bias an
interviewer may have.
140
• Reliability 111ay be questioned: if all of those
on the panel do not agree on who is the best
•
candidate the interview will have low reliability.
Organisational psychologists point out that people
can be chosen on erroneous first impressions
ba·s ed on limited information . This can obviously
l1ave a huge impact on post-recruitment working
if the candidate does not "live up to" what he or
she presented at interview.
Decision making In personnel selection
• The interview panel scores the candidate on
certain dimensions that were agreed
pre-interview.
• All members of the panel can have a record sheet
of the interview so they can write down comments
and then generate a score for each criterion that
they want to assess the candidate on.
• They can then simply sum up the values and the
highest score is the strongest candidate.
Interview Record Sheet
Date: Interviewers: KT, PL, AC
Job title of vacancy: Interviewee's name:
Project Coordinator, UK
(Grade 3)
Score for evidence on the criteria listed below.
Use a scale of 1 - 10 where 1 = weak or no evidence and
10 = very strong evidence.
Criteria Score
Verbal communication skills 1
Teamwork skills 1
Relevant experience in project planning and 5
n1anagement
Accurate data input and record keeplng (p
Willingness to undertake part-time college training s
Experience in managing external contractors 3
Ability to coordinate projects with other ')
departments
Ability to work in an environment of change 5
Familiarity with relevant software ~
A Figure 12.1.1 Example of a record sheet used in
an interview
Use of psychometric tests
• Cognitive ability tests include the Comprehensive
Ability Battery (CAB). This comprises 20 tests
with each designed to test a very specific
cognitive ability. This gives companies an overall
assessment of individuals but also how well they
perform on all 20 tests.
• Mechanical ability tests include the Bennett • Various pred ictors of potential job performance
Mechanical Comprehension Test. This is a are "added together" to generate a final score. A
68-itern questionnaire that assesses the person's high score means that the candidate correlates
ability to understand physical and 1nechanical well with the job on offer.
principles across a range of situations. • Beforehand, different criteria can .be "weighted"
• Motor and sensory ability tests include the based on previous appointments (e .g. better
O'Connor Finger Dexterity Test. This measures the predictors have more weighting).
ability to use fine motor skills with small objects. • In the multiple cutoff model there are many
It is timed to see how the candidate copes with different predictors of the job that the applicants
pressure. are trying to obtain, but there is a rninimum score
• Job skills and knowledge can be tested, set for each of the predictors or tasks.
for example, using the Minnesota Clerical • As soon as applicants fail to reach the minimum
Assessment Battery. This is a computer- score on any one predictor or task they are
administered test that assesses abilities such eliminated from the recruitment process.
as proofreading, filing and clerical knowledge.
• The multiple hurdle model is when there is an
• Personality tests include the Sixteen Personality ordered sequence of tasks that an applicant has
Factor Questionnaire . This measures 16 to go through.
basic personality elements and is used quite
• At each stage (called a "hurdle" here), there ls a
extensively in personnel selection procedures.
decision whether the applicant has passed or failed.
• If applicants pass they continue with the next
Evaluation extra task but if they fail then they have "fallen at that
• Predictive validity is an issue. Does the hurdle" and they are eliminated from the process.
performance on a paper and pen task predict how • The applicant who is left after the "final hurdle " is
well a candidate will cope with the actual job or given the job.
whether the person performs well at the tasks
The relative strengths and weaknesses of each
that have been measured?
approach are highlighted in Table 12 .1.1.
• Riggio (1 999) noted that some standardised
tests for managerial jobs have been quite Technique Strength Weakness
successful in predicting who is then the best Multiple This method If a score is very
manager or who then performs well in a particular regression may glve a more low on one criterion
managerial role. "'rounded" overview it cou ld prevent
• Riggio (1999) noted an example of this whereby of a candidate. For a person being
a company can assess how much it will gain example, a lack of employed who
•
from performing such tests on applicants. A previous expenence scores well on other
of a similar job criteria that are also
computer programming company reportedly
can easily be relevant to the job.
tested a lot of people to find ''the best people
compensated for by
for the job" and it cost the company $10 per a strong skill needed
applicant. The estimated monetary gain for finding for the job.
which programmers performed the best on a
Multiple Thi s method does Some of the cutoff
psychometric test was nearly $100 million. cutoff ensure that all points may be
• Collection of quantitative data means direct eligible applicants subjective and
comparisons betwee·n candidates can be made. have the minimum discriminate against
amount of abil ity certain applicants
• However, candidates cannot expand on their
across the different unfairly. How do we
answers to explain why they have answered
criteria for the job. calculate what the
questions in a particular way.
cutoff points are?
• All of the tests described above can be useful Multiple This method a llows This technique can be
in reducing a large amount of candidates down hurdle for the elimination very t ime consuming
to a shortlist of the ones who best fit the job of candidates early and expensive for
description. on in the process businesses as many
who are unqualified - hurdle criteria could

Personnel selection this means fewer

resources are
be in place and each
applicant needs to be
decisions and job analysis wasted on unsuitable
applicants.
assessed on then1
(and the information
Selection of personnel: decision making may not simply be in
• The multiple regression model takes scores their application)
from a variety of tests or interviews that the _. Table 12.1.1 Strengths and weaknesses of the multiple
applicants have completed and combines them regression , multiple cutoff and multiple hurdle methods
into one final score.

141
 12 Psychology and organisations

Biases in selection. decisions and equal Titles (DOD. This is a reference guide to over
opportunitl.es 40 000 job titles. It contains general descriptions
• Stereotyping can occur. Hayward (1996) noted of these jobs as a st arting point for staff in the
that females can still be stereotyped as "not personnel department to tailor the descriptors to
management material., and are therefore a specific job. The DOT classifies all jobs us.ing
overlooked as they do not have the "masculine a nine-digit code which represents the sector
traits" needed to take on such roles. of work, type of work and how much interaction
with people is necessary for that job. Once the
• Previous similar candidates can be an issue.
nine-digit code has been established for a job, the
Hayward (1996) also notes that some interviewers
personnel department can use the description as
may see applicants as being "similar" to other
part of the recruitment process.
workers (this can be positi·ve or negative) and
therefore make instant judgments based on t his Data People Things
rather than the applicants themselves. (4th digit) (5th digit) (6th dlgit)
• The decision-making models noted above may be a 0 Synthesising 0 Mentoring 0 Setting up
factor. For example, there could be bias introduced 1 Coordinating 1 Negotiating 1 Precision working
when weighting the tasks or setting the standard
2 Analysing 2 Instructing 2 Operating-controlling
for the mu ftiple cutoff and multiple hurdle methods.
Who is to say the person setting them is correct? 3 Compiling 3 Supervising 3 Driving, operating
4 Computing 4 Diverting 4 Manipulating
• Subjectivity in interviews is a factor. Riggio (1999)
notes that there will always be people questioning 5 Copying 5 Persuading 5 Tending
the accuracy of interviews. This is because 6 Comparing 6 Speaking, 6 Feeding,
a lot of informat ion is qualitative rather than signalling Off-bearing
quantitative and therefore subject to interviewer 7 Serving 7 Handling
interpretation bias. Also, if an unstructured 8 Taking
method is chosen then there is reduced reliability instruction,
as not all interviewees will have the same helping
experience.
£.Table 12.1.2 Examples of functions used in FJA
• Snap judgments can be made. Riggio (1999)
Source: Adapted from : US Department of labor. 1991.
also notes that a snap judgment (a similar issue
Dictionary of Occupational Tit/es. Rev. 4th ed. Washington
to snapshot studies) can happen in interviews.
DC, Government Printing Office.
Interviewers can make a very quick instant
decision on someone (e.g. based on what the
• The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PQA) is a
person is wearing or his or her answer to the
structured questionnaire that can be used to
first question) that may bear no re·semblance
analyse a job in terms of 187 "elements" that are
to who the person actually is or the individual 's
split into six different categories:
competencies for the job.
o information input: what the applicant needs in
• The use of psychometrics raises the general
terms of skills
concern of whether a psychometric test really
is measuring the skill it is supposed to be o mental processes: the cognitive skills needed
measuring. This can invalidate people 's scores on for the job
these tests. o work output: what tasks need to be performed
as part of the job
Job descriptions and specifications
o relationships with other people: what
• These are documents that an organisation will interactions Will be necessary in the job and
produce when there is a job vacancy and they will
with whom
contain all the information potential applicants
will need. o job context: physical and social contexts that
are part of the job
• When a person specification is produced, the
organisation must have details that are directly o other job characteristics: anything else that is
relevant to the job. necessary to the specific job being analysed.

• Many UK organisations have "essential" and
"desirable" aspects to person specifications.
• Essential aspects are those that applicants must
have whereas desirable aspects are those that
applicants may have and if they do it will make
their application stronger.
Job analysis techniques
• Functional j ob analysis (FJA) is a technique
developed in the United States. It was developed
to help create the Dictionary of Occupational
142
A series of statements are rated either with an N
(does not a.pply) or from 1 to 5 with 1 being very
infrequent and 5 being very substantial.
Performance appraisal
All jobs require a "review" of progress and these are
called performance appraisals . Usually, a worker is
assessed, aga inst pre-determined standards that
the organisation has, to see how well the worker is
progressing in his or her job.
Performance appraisal: reasons for it and
techniques
• Performance appraisals allow both the company
and the worker, in a supportive environment, to
see how well the worker is doing in his or her job.
• They can be linked to pay increases and potential
promotion opportunities.
• They can provide feedback on strengths and
areas of improvement.
• They can allow communication between workers
and managers which sometimes is logistically not
possible on a day-to-day basis.
An organisation can use a range of techniques to
collect information:
• Objective performance criteria - these are
aspects of the job that can be quantified and
measured objectively (based on factual data).
They could include number of sales, number of
days off sick, etc.
• Subjective performance criteria - these are
aspects of the job that cannot be accurately
measured quantitatively. They include elements
such as how a manager feels workers have been
progressing in their job or asking workers how
happy they are in their current role.
• 360-degree feedback - this is information
about workers gathered from managers, peers,
customers (if applicable) etc. to get an overall
feel of each worker. Workers are also allowed
to give feedback about the performance of their
managers in supporting them in their job.
• Rankings - a manager can rank his or her entire
immediate workforce on different criteria. Then when
an individual is appraised the manager can see how
well the person is progressing in comparison with
other workers who have a similar job.
• Self-rating - workers can assess themselves on
progress by completing a questionnaire. They
assign values to how well they think they are
doing on a range of criteria pre-selected by the
organisation as those that require assessing.
• Behavior Observation Scale (BOS)- the person who
is conducting the appraisal needs to complete a
document highlighting how often certain elements
of the job have been observed in that worker.
Appraisers, problems with appraisal and improving
appraisals
When conducting and analysing an appraisal, a
number of problems and biases can occur, including
the following:
• Errors - these can be leniency errors in which
the appraiser always assess workers positively
or severity errors where the appraiser always
assesses workers negatively. In between these
is the central tendency error where an appraiser
always rates workers near the mid·point of any
rating scale.
• Halo effect - this is a psychological phenomenon
that can be applied here. It is when an overall
appraisal is very positive based on a worker doing
an outstandingjob on one task. The idea is that
If the worker did so well on that task then he or
she must be doing well on all other tasks so any
issues with the worker are overlooked.
• Recency effect - this is another psychological
phenomenon that can be applied here. It is when
the appraiser only uses recent performance
indicators to judge the work examined in the
appraisal. The whole procedure is weighted
towards recent successes and failures rather
than looking at the whole picture.
• Attribution errors - these can take the form of
an appraiser giving more "extreme appraisals"
to workers who are perceived to be working well
(or not) due to effort rather than actual ability at
the job.
So, how can appraisals be improved, given the above
issues? Riggio (1999) noted that there are several
ways in which appraisals can be improved:
• The appraiser can use online systems to record
performance "instantly" rather than waiting
12 months to remember how the worker has
performed in the job. Therefore, the appraisal will
accurately reflect what has happened during the
period. This makes it more valid.
• The appraiser can be descriptive rather than
evaluative while being specific about performance .
• The appraiser can give "constructive feedback"
based on things that a worker can actually do
something about and change.
• Feedback given should always be clear and
honest and understood by everyone.
• Getting both the appraiser and worker actively
involved in performance target setting wil l make
it easier to agree on fi nal performance targets for
the next appraisal.
1.43
 12 Psychology and organisations
12.2 Motivation to
work
Need theories of
motivation
Hierarchy of needs (Maslow)
• Maslow created a hierarchy of needs that starts
at basic needs and moves up to higher level
"meta needs" (see Figure 12.2.1).
• A worker must work up the hierarchy of needs to
achieve self-actualisation - this is realising and
reaching one's full potential.
Self-
actua lisation
needs
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
.A Figure 12.2.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
• The basic needs always 'have to be met
(even if partially) before a human being can
consider working up the hierarchy towards self-
actualisation.
• A worker has to be motivated and fulfilled at a
physiological and safety level before attempting
anything higher.
Greenberg & Baron (2008) set out how this can be
applied to the workplace in the following ways:
• Physiological needs - organisations can make
sure that workers take breaks for coffee or water
and other refreshments. Some companies,
especially those where the W·o rkforce is quite
sedentary in an office environment, provide
exercise facilities for free.
• Safety needs - organisations can ensure that
workers have protective clothing if necessary and
use specifically designed products, for example
to reduce the strain of using computers and
keyboards all day as part of a worker's job.
• Social needs - organisations can organise events,
such as a "family day", that can build a "team
spirit" into the workforce.
• Esteem needs - organisations can create
incentives such as "employee of the month" or
have annual awards ceremonies for the workforce.
They can also award bonuses for suggestions for
improvements within the organisation.
144
• Self-actualisation needs - organisations can
nurture their workers to allow them to reach their
full potential (e.g. via career progression and
appraisals).
ERG theory (Aldefer, 1972)
• ERG theory proposes three levels:
o Existence needs: these are similar to what
Maslow called physiological needs.
o Relatedness needs: these are similar to what
Maslow called social needs.
o Growth needs: these are similar to what
Maslow called self-actualisation needs.
• The main difference between Maslow's idea and
the ERG model is that for the latter there is no
strict hierarchy.
• All of the needs have to be addressed at work in
some form or another.
• The greatest motivator is when all three needs
are being fulfilled at work.
• However, when one need is not totally fulfilled , a
worker may still feel motivated if the other two
a.re. For example, gaining a pay rise because
there is no current chance of being promoted
fulfils the ER but not the G but the worker will still
feel motivated to work.
Achievement motivation (McClelland, 1965)
• People have a need for achievement. This is
about having the drive to succeed in a situation .
• Workers driven by this need will love the challenge
of their job.
• They want to get ahead in their job and be
excellent performers.
• They like to solve immediate problems swiftly and
will go for challenges that offer a moderate level
of difficulty.
• They also desire feedback about their efforts so
will thrive on appraisals.
• People have a need for power. This relates to
having the drive to direct others and be influential
at work.
• These workers are status driven and are more likely
to be motivated by the chance to gain prestige.
• They will want to solve problems individually and
reach appraisal goals.
• The drive for power can be for personal gains or
organisational gains.
• People have a need for affiliation. This involves
having the drive to be liked and accepted by fellow
workers in the organisation.
• People driven by this prefer to work with others
and will be motivated by the need for friendship
and interpersonal relationships .
• Workers can be assessed on these three
key needs and motives by taking a Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) as follows:
o The worker has to look at a series of
ambiguous pictures that tell a story.
 o The person has to tell whatever story he or
she feels is behind the picture and these are
then scored on a standardised scale that
represents the three key needs and motives.
.&. Figure 12.2.2 Example picture used during a TAT
Motivation and goal setting
Goal-setting theory (Latham & Locke, 1984)
• Performance at work is affected by the goals that
a workforce is set.
• The setting of these goals affects people's beliefs
about whether they can perform a task or not.
• Goals need to be specific to an individual or
group. Simply saying "work harder" has very little
effect on a workforce.
• Setting specific and achievable goals allows
workers to direct their attention towards achieving
them while assessing how well they are doing.
• Therefore, an organisation must set challenging
but attainable goats, give workers the necessary
equipment and support to attain the goals and
give them feedback throughout the process as
this will motivate the workforce to attain the goal.
Setting effective goals
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted three main
guidelines for setting effective goals:
• Assign specific goals. Goals have to have clarity,
be measurable and achievable. An organisation
cannot say " do your best" and then hope the
workforce gets motivated.
• Assign difficult, but acceptable, performance
goals. Goals that are perceived as unachievable
will demotivate the workforce, as will those that
are seen as being "too easy" . Therefore, a goal
must be difficult to get workers motivated but not
impossible to attain.
• Provide effective feedback on goal attainment.
Feedback throughout the process allows workers
to know how far they are progressing and what
is left to attain a goal. This keeps motivation at
an optimal level. If feedback is used wisely, then
workers believe even more that they can attain
the goal and will be more motivated to achieve it .
VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964)
VIE theory can be outlined as follows:
• Valence refers to the value that workers place on
any reward they believe they will receive from the
organisation . The overall reward must be one that
reflects the efforts put into attaining a goal and
therefore be desired.
• Instrumentality refers to any perceived
relationship between effort and outcome that
may affect motivation. This can be based around
rewards as well. If any performance or motivation
is not perceived as being instrumental in bringing
about a suitable reward , t hen it is less likely to
happen - motivation will be low.
• Expectancy - this refers to any perceived
relationship between effort and performance that
may affect motivation. If workers do not expect
their efforts to make any difference to attaining a
goal then their motivation will be low. If they do feel
effort brings about reward then their performance
will increase as they will be motivated.
This can be expressed as an equation:
M = V x l x E
Managerial applications of expectancy theory
• Managers need to define any goal-based work
outcome very clearly to all workers . Clarity is
the key to success. All rewards and costs of
performance based around these rewards must
be known and be transparent.
• Managers should get workers involved in the
setting of any goals and listen to their suggestions
about ways to change jobs and roles to help attain
goals. This should help to increase VIE levels.
• For the valence element, managers need to
ensure that the rewards are ones that employees
desire and see in a positive light. These may
need to be individually specific as not all workers
are motivated by the same things .
• The link between rewards and performance
is important. Any performance-related goal
(especially if workers have some performance-
related pay) has to be attainable for all. Workers
who have a portion of their wage based on
performance need goals that are attainable but
where motivation is the key to reaching them.
1.45
 12 Psychology and organisations
Motivators at work
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic motivation is a desire to perform
a task or behaviour because it gives positive
reinforcement (e.g. a reward) or it avoids some
kind of punishment.
• In terms of the workplace, this might n1ean
workers gain extra pay or a day off for their
efforts.
• Intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task
or behaviour because it gives internal pleasure or
helps to develop a skill.
• In terms of the workplacet workers will attribute
success to their own desires (autonomy) and may
be interested in simply mastering a task rather
than focusing, for example, on extra pay.
Types of reward system
• Pay - having some pay linked to a certain task
or goal can increase workers ' motivation as they
want to earn more money.
• Bonus - offering a bonus is quite widespread
in organisations linked to sales and finance. At
the end of each year (maybe after an appraisal),
workers will be given a bonus payment based on
their performance and that of the company as
a whole.
• Profit-sharing - a certain percentage of any profit
a company makes can be "ring fenced" to be
shared by all workers. Therefore, everyone may
be more motivated to attain goals and reach
performance criteria so that there is a monetary
reward at the end of the year.
Non-monetary rewards
• Praise - simply gaining praise from a superior at
work can motivate a worker to continue to work
hard and meet targets and goa.ls. It is a form of
positive reinforcement.
146
• Respect - gaining respect ·from superiors and
fellow colleagues is also important within an
organisation. This internal feeling of "good" can
motivate workers to continue to try hard at a task.
• Recognition - simply being recognised for any
"over and above" effort can motivate a worker
to continue to work hard. Something like an
"employee of the month" scheme or being
mentioned in a work newsletter can motivate
people greatly.
• Empowerment - when workers succeed at a
difficult task or achieve a difficult goal they may
have a sense of empowerment. This may make
them believe that the next task is attainable even
if it looks difficult. It equips them to continually try
hard at a task.
• Sense of belonging - making workers feel "part
of the team " and that their individual efforts are
appreciated can motivate them to keep trying
hard and reaching even difficult goals.
Career structure and promotion prospects
• Career structure - having a set career structure
when a worker begins employment can keep the
worker motivated.
• If the worker's career is "mapped out'' showing a
career development within the company then the
worker can be motivated by both extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators.
• Promotion prospects - as part of the career
structure, a manager could also "map out"
potential promotion prospects with the worker.
• The worker would then have clearer ideas
about what he or she needs to achieve to
gain promotion. The motivation for this is
both extrinsic (more money) and intrinsic (the
satisfaction of being promoted).

12.3 Leadership and
management
Theories of leadership
Great person theory
• "Great leaders are born, not made."
• You are either a "natural " leader or not.
• People's natural abilities allow them to "rise to
the top" of any organisation because of the skills
they were born with.
• These leaders have special traits that allow
them to progress up the managerial levels of
an organisation and then lead the company
effectively over time.
• These traits are stable and effective when they
are used in a position of authority.
Charismatic and transformational leaders
• These leaders have the necessary charisma to
become leaders.
• They possess first-class interpersonal skills.
• They tend to have very good public speaking
skills - they exude confidence, inspire people and
captivate their audiences every time.
• As a result, the workforce is motivated to follow
them and attain the goals set by them .
• Greenberg & Baron (2008) reviewed the field
and produced a list of five "agreed" traits that
charismatic lea.ders have:
o Self-confidence: they show high confidence
about their own ability and the ability of their
workforce to attain a goal.
o A vision: this usually takes the form of
"making working conditions or life better".
o Extraordinary behaviour: they show some
unusual or unconventional behaviours.
o Recognition as change agents: in other
words, they make things happen.
o Environmental sensitivity: they show realism
about what can be achieved given the
resources they have available.
Transformational leaders, according to Riggio (1999),
involve a leader changing how workers think, reason
and behave. They inspire workers using six different
behaviours:
• Identifying and articulating a vision - they excite
workers with their vision for the company.
• Providing an appropriate model - the leader
"practises what he or she preaches".
• Fostering the acceptance of group goals -
cooperation between all workers is promoted and
a common goal is set.
• Maintaining high performance expectations -
excellence is encouraged and work quality is
improved.
• Providing individualised support - the leader will
show care and concern for all individuals.
• Providing intellectual stimulation - the leader
will challenge workers to rethink how they
do things.
Ohio State studies
Researchers from Ohio State University collected
data from self-reports and observations of leaders
and their workers:
• They listed over 100 different behaviours shown
by leaders.
• They found that there are just two broad
categories of leaders:
o Leaders who Initiate structure, which includes
assigning specific tasks to peo.ple, defining
groups of workers, creating and meeting
deadlines and ensuring that workers are
working to a set standard.
o Leaders who show consideration. They show
that they have a genuine concern for the
feelings of workers and their attitudes. They
establish rapport with workers while showing
them trust and respect. They will listen to
workers more often and try to boost the
self-confidence of their workforce.
University of Michigan studies
Researchers from the University of Michigan also
examined many leaders of large organisations.
They found two main types of behaviour in t hese
leaders:
o Task-oriented behaviours were behaviours
that had a focus on the actual work task
being conducted. These leaders are more
concerned with setting up structures within
an organisation such as targets, standards,
supervising workers and achieving goals.
o Relationship-oriented behaviours were
behaviours that had a focus on the wellbeing
of the workforce. These leaders would look at
interpersonal relationships between worker
and worker plus worker and manager. They
would also take the time to understand the
feelings of their workforce.
Evaluation extra
• All of the above ideas are useful in helping
organisations choose the correct leader to help
increase their staff motivation and productivity.
• There is a natur~nurture debate here: is a leader
born or made?
• An issue here is individual versus situational
explanation. Some theories say it is the individual
that makes a good leader whereas others believe
it is the situation a person is placed in that
makes him or her a good leader.
1.47
 12 Psychology and organisations
Leadership style and
effectiveness
Contingency theory (Fiedler, 1976)
• This theory looks at the interaction between the
style of leadership that leaders adopt and the
situation that they find themselves in.
• For a leader to be effective in the workplace,
the leader's style must fit with the amount of
authority, power and control the leader is given in
the organisation.
• There are various ways of assessing whether a
leader will be effective in a workplace:
o Completion of the least preferred co-worker
(LPC) questionnaire involves leaders
completing a questionnaire about the person
with whom they can work least well. Leaders
rate co-workers on bipolar adjectives such
as boring/interesting and helpful/frustrating.
From t his, cert ain leaders can be seen as
being either task-oriented (so they give harsh
ratings to fellow workers) or relationshlp-
oriented (so they give favourable ratings even
though t he person ls the least preferred).
o Leader-members relations is measured by
getting the workforce to assess the leader on
how well liked the person is, etc.
o Task structure measures how well a
particular work task is structured with well-
defined goals.
o Position power looks at company policy and
examines how the leader can hire and fire,
discipline and reward workers .
• Riggio (1999) notes that a task-oriented leader
is most effective when the situation is at the
extremes: either highly favourable or highly
unfavourable. Relationship-oriented leaders appear
more effect ive in t he middle-ground projects t hat
need more support and coaching than goal setting.
Situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1988)
• This is based around the task and relationship
behaviour.
• There are four different types of situation in the
workplace, as shown in Table 12.3.1.
Path-goal theory (House, 1979)
This theory identifies four behaviours seen in leaders
that can help workers to attain a goal:
High relationship
High These are situations where workers need both
task structure and emotional support. They need help
improving a skill with set guidelines and need the
emotional support to do it. The best behaviour for the
leader is sell.fng the idea to the workforce.
Low These are srtuations where workers need very little
task guidance on what to do but need a lot of emotional
support to achieve it. The best behaviour for the leader
is participating with the workforce on the task.
148 A Table 12.3.1 Task and relationship behaviours in workplace situations
• Directive behaviour is focused on "getting the job
done". Leaders can provide specific guidelines for
the task with work ru les and distinct schedules
Which they coordinate and oversee.
• Achievement-oriented behaviour is focused
on "outcomes" and involves leaders setting
challenging goals to achieve but they encourage
improvement in skills and attainment.
• Supportive behaviour is focused on "interpersonal
behaviour" and involves leaders boosting these
relationships by showing concern for each worker's
wellbeing in a friendly environment.
• Participative behaviour is focused on getting "all
involved" . Leaders encourage all workers to have
a say in suggesting ways to achieve the goal, etc.
Permissive versus autocratic
• Permissive means that workers are not told how
to do their jobs.
• Autocratic means that wo rkers are not allowed to
participate in any decision making.
• Four combinations can be found:
o Permissive and autocratic: leaders will make
decisions by themselves and let the workers
"get on with it".
o Permissive but not autocratic: leaders will
make decisions with others involved and will
then let the workers "get on with it" .
o Not permissive but autocratic: leaders will
make decisions by themselves and then closely
monitor how workers are performing on the task.
o Not permissive or autocratic: leaders will make
decisions with others involved and will closely
monitor how workers are performing on the task.
Leadership training and characteristics of effective
leaders
Riggio (1999) noted two main approaches to
leadership training:
• The first is to teach leaders diagnostic skills.
• This will allow them to assess a work situation
and choose which leadership style would work
best in it.
• This skill can be tra ined " into" leaders via role
play and work-based examples.
• The second approach is to teach leaders very
specific skills or behaviours that they appear to
lack. For example, if a leader is task-orient ed
Low relationship
These are situations where workers need structure
and direction from their leader to achieve a set goal
but requ ire very little emotional support to do so. The
best behaviour for the leader is telling the workforce
what to do.
These are situations where workers are already able
to perform the task and are willing to do so. The best
behaviour for the leader ts delegating the workload
across the workforce.
 1, 9 pattem
ueountry club"
managem ent
High ~
9
8
-a. 7
Cl.I
0
Cl.I
...a.0 6
-;;
...Cl.I 5
~ 4
0
(.) 3
2
1
Low
1 2 3 4
1, 1 pattern Low
Concern for production
Impoverished
management
.& Figure 12.3.1 The grid training method
more training on being more relationship-oriented
could be arranged so that the individual becomes
more of a "rounded " leader.
• One way in which such leaders' training can be
assessed is by using the grid training method
(Greenberg & Baron , 2008). Figure 12.3.1
shows the grid used. Leaders complete standard
questionnaires that set out to measure their
concern for production and their concern for people.
In terms of the characteristics of effective leaders,
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted a review of the field
and listed the main features:
• Effective leaders have socialised power motivation.
This means they are motivated to achieve shared
goals and ideas. These leaders will cooperate with
the entire workforce without dominating.
• They show flexlblllty. They can act upon and
adapt to numerous situations instead of having a
" one style fits all" approach.
• They are moralistic. Authentic leaders tend to be
highly moral in their approach to work, meaning
they are confident, hopeful and always optimistic
about goals and their workforce within moral
boundaries.
• They show multiple Intelligences. Effective leaders
tend to show three levels of intelligence: cognitive
intelligence (informational processing), emotional
intelligence (see page 80) and cultural intellfgence
(especially in a multinational orga·nisation).
Leaders and foil owers
Leader-member exchange model (LMX)
• Leaders form different relationships with their
workforce early on in any process.
• Based on very limited information, they classify
workers into two distinct groups:
o The favoured ones (be it because they follow
the same ideals as the leader or are seen as
hard workers, etc. ) form part of the in group.
9 , 9 pattern
Team m anagement-
the ideal style
5, 5 pattern
Middle-of-the-road
management
~
5 6 7 8 9
High 9, 1 pattern
Task m anagem ent
o By default, there is an out group which
consists of workers that do not "fit in " with
what the leader wants .
• Riggio (1999) noted that an LMX can be of low
quality where the leader has a very negative view
of the out group and workers in the out group do
not see the leader as effective.
• An LMX can be of high quality where the leader
has a very positive view of workers in the in
group and those workers see the leader as being
encouraging and motivated.
Normative decision theory
(Vroom & Yetton, 1973)
This theory outlines five potential strategies for
decision making:
• Al (autocratic): leaders will solve a problem or
make a decision by themselves using whatever
information they can find.
• All (autocratic): leaders will solve a problem or
make a decision by themselves but only after they
have obtained the necessary information from
their workforce.
• Cl (consultative): leaders will solve a problem or
111ake a decision by themselves but only after they
have shared it with the workforce individually.
• Cll (consultative): leaders will solve a problem or
make a decision by themselves but only after they
have shared it with the workforce as a group.
• Gii (group decision): leaders will share the
problem or potential decisi.on with the workforce
in a group meeting. A decision is reached by
consensus .
Originally, a leader would have to answer 7 questions
with a yes or no (now expanded to 12). Example
questions are " Is the problem structured?" and " If I
make the decision alone, is it likely to be accepted by
my workforce?" Once all of the questions have been
put into a decision tree, the most effective strategy
from the five above is recommended . 149
 12 Psychology and organisations
12.4 Group behaviour
in organisations
Group dynamics,
cohesiveness and
teamwork
Group development
Tuckman & Jensen (1977) noted a five-stage
formation process:
1. Forming - members of a group get to know each
other and ground rules are established in terms
of conversations and appropriate behaviours.
These ground rules are based around the job
(the reason) that they are working on but also the
social skills side (e.g. hierarchy).
2. Storming - this stage is characterised by group
conflict. Members may want to resist any authority
from whoever becomes the "group leader" and
there may be conflict between equals too (e.g.
personality clash). If nothing can be resolved then
the group dissipates.
3 . Norming - this involves the group becoming
more cohesive. Identification as a group
member becomes stronger and the "unit"
beings to work well on tasks. Group members
will begin to feel more comfortable in sharing
feelings.
4. Performing - the group now works as a cohesive
unit on the task set to attain any goals in place.
The group energy is diverted towards completing
tasks to a high standard. The leader is now fully
accepted.
5. Adjourning - once the goals have been attained,
there may no longer be any need for the group so
it dissipates. This can happen abruptly (e.g. when
a charity event ends) or it takes longer (e.g. new
goals are formed that only some members of the
group want to attain).
A theory called punctuated-equilibrium model has
just two phases that any group in an organisation
goes through:
1. Phase 1 . This is when group members define
who they are and what they want to achieve
(e.g. goals). This phase usually lasts around
50 per cent of the group's entire lifetime so
new ideas tend not to be acted upon and the
group is in a state of "equilibrium" moving
slowly towards its target.
2. Phase 2 . Suddenly the group has a "midlife
crisis " and members realise that they will not
achieve their goal. They recognise that they
must change their outlook and pathway towards
a target so they do take on new ideas and
work harder to attain any goals. They move into
a state of "punctuating" to cope with t .h ese
changes.
150
Group cohesiveness, team building and team
performance
• Cohesiveness, according to Riggio (1999), is
the amount or degree of attraction among group
members.
• This can be used to explain "team spirit" in
organisations and these types of group tend to be
more satisfied at work.
• It would appear that smaller groups, where
everyone is of an equal status, show the most
cohesiveness.
Greenberg & Baron (2008) note that there are some
factors that can greatly increase group cohesiveness:
• Severity - if the initiation to the group is severe
then the group becomes more cohesive (i.e. the
more difficulties people have to overcome to be
part of a group, the more they will want to stick
with that group).
• Competition - groups tend to be more cohesive
if they are competing against other groups
(especially from competitor organisations).
• Time - the more time its members have to spend
together on a task, the more cohesive a group
should become.
• Group size - smaller groups tend to be more
cohesive.
• History - if the group has succeeded many times
in the past then cohesiveness tends to be higher.
According to Greenberg & Baron (2008) there are two
areas that have to be covered in any team building
intervention:
• Being a team member matters. There has to be
harmony and cohesiveness in a team with group
decisions being the norm. Members have to be
able to advocate ideas, enquire about ideas,
share responsibilities and value the diversity of
the group.
• Self-management is important. Members have
to be able to manage themselves for a team to
work. Various skills such as observing, setting
difficult goals, practising new skills and being
constructively critical are key behaviours that
should be shown.
In terms of actual exercises that can be used, these
are the most common:
• Exercises to define roles ·- members of the group
talk about what they think their roles and the
roles of others are to see where disagreements
lie. These can then be resolved.
• Exercises to set goals - clarification may be
needed on what goals the group is trying to
attain.
• Exercises on problem solving - these can be set
up in such a way that all team members have to
work together to succeed.
• Exercises about Interpersonal processes - tasks
that can re-establish trust and cooperation can
be used.
Characteristics of successful teams
Hackman (2000) noted six main mistakes that
happen to make teams not successful:
• Use a tea1n for work that is better done by
individuals
• Call the performing unit a team but really manage
members as individuals
• Fall off the authority 'Balance Beam' by being too
authoritative too often
• Dismantle existing organizational structures
so that teams will be fully "empowered" to
accomplish the work
• Specify challenging team objectives, but skimp on
organizational supports
• Assume that members already have all the skills
they need to work well as a te-0m
Therefore, the main characteristics of a successful
team would be, according to Hackman:
1. The task is one that is fully appropriate for
performance by a team.
2 . The team is an intact performing unit whose
members perceive themselves as a team
3. The team has a clear, authoritative, and engaging
direction for its work.
4. The structure of the team - its task, composition,
and core norms of conduct - promotes rather
than impedes competent teamwork.
5. The organizational context provides support and
reinforcement for excellence through policies and
systems that are specifically tuned to the needs
of work teams.
6. Ample, expert coaching is available to the team at
those times when members most need it and are
ready to receive it.
Decision making
The decision-making process
We covered aspects of the decision-making process
on page 149 when looking at autocratic and
permissive leadership styles.
Decision style and individual differences In decision
making
This was also covered when we looked at leadership
and management (see pages 148-150).
Individual versus group decisions
Riggio (1999) highlights the advantages and
disadvantages of group decisions:
• The advantages are that there is more of a
knowledge base to draw on and the fina l decision
will be accepted by group mem.bers as they
have all helped out. The final decision will be
well critiqued already and different parts of the
decisions can be delegated to different members
of the group who have different specialities.
• The disadvantages are that the process can be very
slow as everyone i'S involved and conflict can be
generated if not everyone agrees. There is potential
for the group simply to break down. Also, leaders
may dominate and make it their own decision.
In addition, Greenberg & Baron (2008) investigated
individual versus group decisions:
• They noted that group decisions are superior
to individual ones when the overall decision is
complex.
• They use an example of deciding whether two
companies should merge.
• A group decision would cover a lot more "bases"
than an individual pondering the issue as group
members will have a wide range of viewpoints
to discuss and consider before making the very
important decision.
• As long as the group is cohesive and respecting
then a group decision here would be much more
favourable.
• When a task requires creativity and 1t is poorly
structured, individuals work better and come up
with more productive ideas than a group would.
Groupthlnk and group polarisation
• Groupthink is what happens when a highly
cohesive group, where all members respect
each others· viewpoints, comes to a consensus
on a decision too quickly without any critical
evaluation.
• The group then makes a very poor decision as
a result.
Riggio (1999) notes eight "symptoms" of groupthink:
• Illusion ot invulnerability - as the group is so
cohesive group members see themselves as
powerfu I and invincible. They then fail to spot
poorly made decisions.
• Illusion of morality - group members see
themselves as the "good guys" and believe that
they can do nothing wrong.
• Shared negative stereotypes - group members
hold common negative beliefs.
• Collective rationalisations - group members
easily dismiss any negative information that goes
a.gainst their decision with no thought.
• Self-censorship - group 1nembers suppress any
desire to be critical.
• Illusion of unanimity - group members can easily
(and mistakenly) believe that the decision was a
consensus.
• Direct conformity pressure - all group members
showing doubts have pressure applied to them to
join the majority view.
• Mindguards - some group members buffer any
negativity away from the group's decision.
Group polarisation is another factor that affects
group decision making:
• Group polarisation refers to when groups make·
"riskier" decisions compared to those made by
individuals.
1.51
 12 Psychology and organisations
• Group polarisation follows the idea that, after
discussion, people begin to hold even stronger
views about a decision. For example, certain
members of the group want to sell part of a
company and after discussing the issue they feel
even more strongly about wanting to sell.
• However, there may be some people who do not
want to sell. After discussion , they feel even more
strongly about not selling.
• Group members "polarise" towards a stronger
position than before discussion. This "shift"
toward.s the polar end of a decision is called a.
"risky shift" as the group will the attempt to take
the riskier option if a consensus can be reached
(or just a majority one).
• Therefore, the majority may win but then take a
more extreme view of the decision.
• However, some psychologists state that
group polarisation can still happen even
with a "cautious risk" - group members may
still polarise after discussion but not in an
extreme way.
Strategies to overcome groupthlnk and training to
avoid poor decisions
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted four different ways
in which groupthink can be avoided:
• Promote open enquiry . A group leader could
question all decisions made in order to get group
members to "think again'' and not go for the first
"easy option".
• Use subgroups. Split the main group up and
set the subgroups exactly the same decision-
making tasks. Get them to present their findings;
differences between the subgroups can be
discussed to form an overall group decision.
• Admit shortcomings. The group leader needs
to get members of the group to be critical and
point out any potential flaws or limitations of the
decisions being made. This should allow the
group as a whole to discuss these to ensure
that members have not simply decided on the
easiest option.
• Hold second-chance meetings. Allow group
members to digest the original decision then
get them back for a second meeting so they can
discuss anything that is worrying them about the
decision. This allows "freshness " to be resumed ;
if a decision task is tiring, group members will go
for the easy option.
Evaluation extra
• These theories are useful for companies as
they may help them to make groups work more
effectively and to increase productivity.
• Individual differences may make generalisation
difficult here. Not everyone will react in the same
way as these theories suggest.
152
• Another issue Is individual versus situational
explanation . Some theories look at how the
individual fits into a group but others look at
how the situation may well form the group in
the workplace.
Group conflict
• Intra-group conflict is when people within the
same group conflict and this interferes with the
pathway towards a goal.
• Inter-group conflict is when there is conflict
between different groups within an organisation.
• Inter-individual conflict is when two individuals
within a group or organisation have a dispute.
Major causes of group conflict: organisational and
interpersonal
There appear to be two broad categories according to
Riggio (1999):
• Organisational factors are things such as status
differences within an organisation that cause
friction. There could be conflict between people
about the best pathway towards a goal. There may
.be a lack of resources such as money, supplies or
staff which can cause conflict too.
• Interpersonal elements are things such as the
personal qualities of two workers "clash ing"
and meaning they do not cooperate on tasks. In
some cases individuals simply cannot get along
with each other, or due to a failed task may never
want to work with each other again. Sometimes,
if the conflict is between two heads of different
departments, this can escalate into conflict
between those departments as a result.
Positive and negative effects of conflict
• There are various negative effects of conflict. Group
cohesiveness may diminish as people do not get
on. Communication can be inhibited as a result
of pe.o ple not talking. Workers may no longer trust
each other due to conflict. Constant "bickering" can
reduce productivity and goal attainment.
• The positive effects of conflict include the
following. Conflict may get members of a group
to rethink what they are doing and this improves
creativity and innovation (and reduces the
problems of groupthink). Workers may become less
complacent with their work if conflict is occurring.
If it means that the whole workforce is listened to
and consulted then productivity may increase as all
workers feel "part of the organisation ··.
Managing group conflict
Thomas (1992) identified five different strategies
that can be used to manage group conflict in an
organjsation:
• Competition - individuals may persist in conflict
until someone wins and someone loses and then
the conflict, apparently, diminishes within the
groups these individuals are from.
• Accommodation - this involves making a
"sacrifice" in order to reduce conflict. This can
help to cut losses and save the relationship
between the two groups in conflict.
• Compromise - each group under conflict must
give up something to help resolve the conflict.
This can only be achievable if both sides can lose
things that are comparable.
• Collaboration - the groups need to work together
to overcome the conflict as long as resources are
not scarce.
• Avoidance - this involves suppressing the conflict
or withdrawing from the conflict completely.
153
 12 Psychology and organisations
12.5 Organisational
work conditions
Pollution and aesthetic factors are covered in
Chapt er 1 0.
Physical and
psychological work
conditions
PhysicaJ work conditions
• In terms of lighting (illumination), workers
require adequate levels in order to perform any
given task.
• Artificial light ing must be provided if there is
not enough natural daylight to complete a task
at work.
• A worker who is performihg a fine motor skill
may need much more Illumination compared to
someon.e on a production line.
• Illumination is necessary for night workers
and many companies provide light that mimics
sunlight so that workers' biological mechanisms
are tricked into believing it is actually daytime.
• In terms of temperature, there must be an optimal
level set depending on the job being undertaken.
• There are rules about minimum temperature
although none about maximum temperature. Air
conditioning can obviously keep temperature at a
set level in offices.
• People who work in refrigerated areas need
protective clothing to stop them from getting
too cold.
• When people become too hot or too cold
they begin to slow down in terms of cognitive
functioning and motor skill coordination so an
optimal temperature needs to be set.
• Noise can be very distracting in t he workplace
especially if it is loud and uncontrollable.
• There are legislations that state workers should
not be exposed to more than 90 decibels (dB) in
a "normal" working environment. Anything above
this and workers wil l lose concentration and t heir
task efficiency will suffer.
• There are jobs where the noise will be over 90dB
constantly (a pneumatic drill is nearly 130dB),
so the worker will need ear protectors to stop
any permanent damage occurring to the worker's
hearing.
• Motion can be an issue for certain types of jobs too.
• Workers who use pneumatic equipment where
the whole body vibrates when It is used may have
longer-term issues. These can include decreasing
fine motor skill ability and maybe developing a
repetitive stain injury in joints or tendons.
154
Psychological work conditions
Density and crowding are covered in the "Psychology
and environment" section on pages 105-107.
• ln terms of social int eract ions, there can be two
extremes t hat workers have to contend with:
excess or absence.
• Excess social interactions can obviously reduce
product ivity in workers, though some of it can be
blamed on people simply chatting.
• The layout of an office can promote or inhibit
communication. If desks face each other
and have an opportunity for face-to-face
communication then there will be an excess of
social interaction.
• Solitary booths will reduce socia I interaction.
• There may be some jobs where there is an
absence of social interaction with other workers
(e.g.. people working in laboratories where only
one person is needed to handle trials).
• A sense of status or importance can enhance
productivity in a workforce.
• If people are given titles for their jobs which show
they have some status within the organisation
(e.g. supervisor) they are more likely to be
motivated to work.
• This psychological sense of being important can
boost self-esteem and self-efficacy and have a
very positive " knock·on'1 effect on productivity and
goal att ainment.
• However, the opposite can happen if people are
not given status for their job (especially if they
feel they do play a vital role in the organisation).
• This can quickly demotivate .people who will then
fail to attain goals or care about the qual ity of
their work.
Temporal conditions of
work environments
• Temporal conditions refer to the "time" conditions
in which people work.
• There are many different work patterns that people
follow around the world f rom the 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
work pattern to shift work, to working "on call " .
Shift work
Rapid rotation theory and slow rotation theory
• Shift work refers to when a worker does not do
the same work pattern each week.
• Workers may need to alternate the times they
work so that an organisation can, say1 operate on
a 24-hour basis.
• Many organisations run a rotation of three shifts
per day: day shift (typically 6 a.m. to 2 p.m.),
afternoon or twilight shift (2 p.m. to 10 p.m.) and
night shift (10 p.m. t o 6 a.m.).
• Therefore, workers need to change their "working
day". There are different options that an
organisation can use for this:
o Rapid rotation refers to frequent shift
changes that workers have to follow. There
are two types:
Metropolitan rota: workers follow two day shifts
then two twilight shifts then two night shifts.
This is then followed by two days off work.
Continental rota: workers follow two day
shifts, two twilight shifts, three night shifts,
two days off work, two day shifts, three twilight
shifts, two nights then three days off work.
After this, the rotation begins again.
o Slow rotation. These are infrequent changes
of shift that workers have to follow. For
example, they may work day shifts for three
weeks or more, have a few days off then work
night shifts for three weeks or more, etc. This
type of shift pattern allows workers ' circadian
rhythm (their daily rhythm of sleep and wake)
to adapt to a particular shift rather then it
being "out of sync" with work patterns which
can happen on a rapid rotation.
• Circadian rhythms need time to adapt to a change
in shift pattern.
Compressed work weeks and flexitime
• Organisations may adopt a compressed working
week. Workers can work three 12-hour shifts per
week leaving them with four days off. They will
still have worked a standard 36 hours. However,
Riggio (1999) notes that completing a series of
longer shifts is tiring and there has to be concern
about the quaLity of work being finished and levels
of productivity.
• Organisations may offer flexitime . Workers still
have a contracted amount of hours that they
have to be engaged in work for the organisation.
They can choose their daily working hours as long
as the total time spent at work is their agreed
contracted hours. A worker may decide to work 9
a.m. to 5 p.m . on Monday but only work from 2
p.m . to 6 p.m. on Tuesday then work extra hours
on days later in the week.
Ergonomics
• Ergonomics refers to the study of attempting
to matc h (or improve on) the design of tools,
gadgets, machines, work systems and work
stations for the workers who will have to use
them.
• Engineers and psychologists will work together
to design, for example, some work stations,
machines and gadgets, with 90 per cent of any
given population's dimensions covered (e .g .
height , weight, knee height when sitting down).
Operator-machine systems: visual and auditory
displays, controls
Visual displays
• Quantitative - these are displays that project
numbers of some form (temperature, time, speed,
etc.). Digital displays have taken over from "clock-
like " displays as they are much easier to read and
fewer errors occur.
• Qualltatlve - these are displays that allow for a
judgment using "words" as the tool. For example,
a piece of machinery may not project temperature
as a number but have sections simply labelled
1
"cold " , " normal ' and "hot" - the worker can then
judge what to do based on this information .
• Check-reading - these are simpler displays where
the information is limited but highly useful. For
example, there may be a simple on-off button
or a light that comes on when something is not
working correctly (or is working co rrectly).
Auditory displays
• Sounds such as buzzers, bells or a constant pitched
sound can alert workers to a potential problem or
that a job is completed in a production line.
• Workers no longer have to be looking at a display
to know what is happening; the sound tells them.
• A really loud blaring horn or repetitive short beeps
are usually perceived as "danger" so workers will
be alerted to something that is occurring.
Riggio (1999) noted when it was better to use either
visual displays or auditory displays:
• It is better to use visual displays when a
message is complex, a permanent message is
needed, the work area is noisy to hear an auditory
message, the worker's job involves reading
information from displays, etc.
• It is better to use auditory displays when a
message is simple, the work area is too dark
to see a visual display, workers need to move
about as part of their job, the message is urgent,
information is continually changing, etc.
Errors and accidents in operator-machine systems
• Error of omission refers to a failure to do
something (e.g. a worker may fail to switch
something on or off).
• Error of commission refers to performing a task
incorrectly (e .g. worker may simply not follow an
instruction).
• Error of sequence refers to not following a set
procedure for a task (e.g. a worker may work "out
of sequence" causing an error).
• Error of timing refers to performing a task too
slowly or too quickly (e.g. a worker may press a
button too quickly on a machine or not press it
quickly enough to turn the machine off).
1.55
 12 Psychology and organisations
There are other factors which may well affect workers
and cause them to perform a task incorrectly:
• There may be lack of training on a piece of
equipment or the manual may be too complicated
to understand.
• Some workers have a personality trait called
accident proneness -the way they coordinate
themselves both physically and psychologically
makes them more likely to have an accident or
make an error.
156
• Another factor is fatigue . Workers who are
having to cover a night shift are more likely to
have accidents or perform an error as they are
working against their natural circadian rhythm -
between 1 a.m. and 4 a.m. the human body is in
a "cognitive dip" as the body is primed for sleep,
not for working machinery.
Reducing errors: theory A and theory B
See the " Psychology and health" section, page 99
for details.

12.6 Satisfaction at
work
Job design
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted that job design is
about making workers more motivated by making
their job or work more appealing.
Job characteristics
Hackman & Oldham (1980) introduced us to the job
characteristics model. Personnel staff, managers,
leaders, etc. can use it to devise and create jobs
that will appeal to workers and keep them motivated .
The model covers the following:
• Skill variety - does the job requ ire different
activities that utilise a range of the worker's skills
and talents? It should.
• Task identity - does the job require the
completion of a whole piece of work from its
inception to its completion? It should.
• Task significance - does the job have a real
impact on the organisation or even beyond that?
It should .
• Autonomy - does the Job allow the worker some
freedom in terms of planning, scheduling, carry
out tasks and organising teams? It should.
• Feedback - does the job allow for easily
measurable feedback to assess the effectiveness
of the worker? It should.
All of these added together bring about three critical
psychologica I states according to Hackman &
Oldman (1980). Workers:
• experience meaningfulness at work
• experience responsibility In terms of the outcome
of work
• have knowledge of the actual outcome of the job
which can help employee· growth.
Job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement
• Job enrichment gives workers more jobs to do
that involve more tasks to perform that are of a
higher level of skill and responsibility. Workers
can then have greater control over their job
and it makes the job more interesting. Both of
these increase satisfaction and motivation. One
drawback is that this may be difficult to implement
across many jobs within one organisation.
• Job rotation gives workers regular changes to
tasks within their role at work. There may be daily,
weekly or monthly changes to the tasks that they
are required to perform and this should keep them
"fresh " and highly motivated throughout their
working day. This increases workers' skills base too.
• Job enlargement gives workers more tasks to
do but at the same level and usually as part of a
team effort. There is no more " responsibility'' or
they are not required to learn new skills, rather
they perform a wider variety of differing tasks
during their workihg day.
Designing jobs that motivate
Organisations could use the following ideas when
designing jobs:
• Combine tasks - have workers performing a
variety of different tasks rather than just one task
that is part of a "bigger picture".
• Open feedback channels - ensure that workers
get a lot of feedback about each and every task
that is assigned to them. This will Improve task
efficiency, productivity and motivation.
• Establish client relationships - provide
opportunities for workers to meet the clients
who will be buying the f inished product.
Th is allows them all to engage in feedback
discussions.
• Load jobs vertically - give workers more
responsibility for elements of their job. This
gives workers some degree of autonomy which
has been shown to be a core element of job
satisfaction in workers.
Evaluation extra
• These ideas are useful as they allow an
organisation to develop jobs that motivate
workers so that they work to their full potential
and productivity increases.
• There may be a problem with generalisation .
Can the models above be used with all workers?
There are individual differences in a workforce
and to try to find jobs that equally motivate
would be very difficult.
Measuring job
satisfaction
Rating scales and questionnaires
• The Job Descriptive Index is a self-report
questionnaire for workers . It measures
satisfaction on five dimensions: the j ob,
supervision, pay, promotions and co-workers.
Phrases are read and the worker has to write
"Yes", "No" or "?" (if undecided) on the
questJonnaire. See Figure 12.6.1 for an excerpt.
Each answer to each phrase is already assigned
a numerical value based on standardisation
scoring. Therefore, the worker's satisfaction can
be summed for the five different dimensions to
see whether all or just one or two dimensions are
bringing about satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
• The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire is
also a self-report questionnaire for workers. It
measures satisfaction on 20 dimensions such as
supervisors, task variety, responsibility, promotion
potential. See Figure 12.6.2 for some examples.
Each item is read and workers rate how much
they agree with the statement on a five-point
scale from very dissatisfied to very satisfied.
Again, each worker generates a score overall and
for each of the 20 dimensions so satisfaction and
dissatisfaction can easily be identified. 157
 12 Psychology and organisations

Think of your present work. What is
it like most of the time? In the blank
space beside each word write:
y for ''Yes" If it describes your work
N for " No" if It does not describe it
?. if you cannot decide
Think of the pay you get. How well
does each of the following words
describe your present pay? In the
blank space beside each word or
phrase write:
y for " Yes" if it describes your pay
N for "No" if it does not describe it
? if you cannot decide
Think of the opportunities for
promotion that you have now. How
well does each of the following words
describe them? In the blank space
beside each phrase write:
y for '' Yes ~ if it describes your
opportunities for promotion
N for "No" If it does not describe them
? if you cannot decide

Work on present job Present pay Opportunities for promotion

- Routine - Income inadequate for - Dead-end job
- Satisfying normal expenses
- Unfair promotion policy
- Good - Insecure - Regular promotions
- Less than I deserve

A Figure 12.6.1 Excerpt from the Job Descriptive Index

Source: Smith, Kendall & Hulin (quoted in Riggio, 1999)

On my present job, thls is Very Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Very

how I feel about .•. dissatisfied satisfied
1 Being able to keep busy all the time 1 2 3 4 5
2 nie chance to work alone on the job 1 2 3 4 5
3 The chance to do different things from 1 2 3 4 5
time to time
4 The chance to be " somebody" In the 1 2 3 4 5
community
5 The way my boss handles his/her workers 1 2 3 4 5
6 The competence of my supervisor in 1 2 3 4 5
making decisions
7 The way my job provides for steady 1 2 3 4 5
employment
8 My pay and the amount of work I do 1 2 3 4 5
9 The chances for advancement on this job 1 2 3 4 5
10 The working conditions 1 2 3 4 5
11 The way my co-workers get along with 1 2 3 4 5
each other
12 The feeling of accomplishment I get from 1 2 3 4 5
the job

.& Table 12.6.2 Excerpt fron1 the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

Source: Weiss et a/ (quoted in Riggio, 1 999)

Critical incidents Interviews

• Critical incidents technique is a way of collecting
information about workers' job performances.
• This is when workers fill in quest ionnaires about
their progress and are interviewed about it. Their
fellow workers and managers can do the same.
• The interviews or questionnaires will ask people
about any "incidents" at work, both positive and
negative, which have contributed to successful or
unsuccessful progress on tasks.
• There will be hundreds of these. Job analysts in
the personnel department can then analyse all of
them to see which incidents make for a satisfying
job for a worker.
• This is good as the qualitative data can give a 0 Whole
feel" for the job, showing exactly what satisfies a
158 worker across a range of tasks and jobs.
Interviews can be structured or unstructured. Reread
about these types of interview on page 2 and apply
them to organisations.
Attitudes to work
Theories of job satisfaction and dissatisfactl.on
Herzberg (1966) proposed a two-factor theory:
• He believed that job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction are two independent things when
it comes to the workplace.
• Prior to this, many psychologists believed there
was a continuum from being satisfied to being
dissatisfied at work.
• Herzberg surveyed many workers and asked them
what made t hem feel especially bad or good
about their jobs.
• He analysed the contents of these surveys and
concluded that there are two main factors at work
here:
o Motivators are factors related to the content
of the actual job. These include level of
responsibility within the job, how much the
worker has already achieved in the job, what
recognition the worker has received while
doing the job, etc. These have to be present to
achieve job satisfaction.
o Hygienes are factors related to the context of
the job. These include how company policies
and administration affect the job, what level
of supervision workers have in the job, etc.
These have to be absent or negative for job
dissatisfaction to occur.
Job withdrawal , absenteeism and sabotage
• Job withdrawal (or employee turnover) can come
in two forms : voluntary and involuntary.
o Involuntary withdrawal is when an
organisation has to fire people for various
reasons (e.g. the company is not making
enough profit or the worker is not performing
his or her job properly or up to the standards
expected).
o Voluntary withdrawal is when the worker
decides to leave a11d the main reason is that he
or she has found other employment (this could
be linked to job dissatisfaction but not always).
• Research has been rare in this area as it can
be very difficult to dissect what is voluntary
and involuntary job withdrawal and even within
each category there may be sub-categories
of why people may leave their job. Therefore,
it is a low validity method of measuring job
dissatisfaction.
• Job absenteeism can also be categorised as
voluntary and involuntary.
o Voluntary refers to instances where the worker
has chosen to take time off.
o Involuntary refers to times when the worker
does not choose to be off work. The main
example of this is absenteeism due to
illness .
• Organisations have to be prepared for a certain
number of instances of absenteeism occurring
per worker and have policies in place to deal with
it (e.g. use temporary workers or use an agency
to find cover workers ).
• Voluntary absenteeism may well be a measure
of job dissatisfaction but, as with job withdrawal,
the reasons vary so widely that it is another
low validity attempt (people may just take the
odd day off to do other things but really love
their j ob).
Greenberg & Baron (2008), however, noted a study
that had found a relationship, as shown in Figure
12.6.3 .

Many days
present
Absenteeism rose among
(low absenteeism) Absenteeism decreased
workers whose job
satisfaction decreased among workers whose job
satisfaction rose over time

..., ''
c:
cu
(/)
',, Job satisfaction
~ ', increased
c. ''
(/)
:;>, ''
«I
"C ''
..... ''
...cu
0 ''
''
.0
E
''
=s ''
z ''
''
''
' ',. Job satisfaction
decreased

Few days
present
(h igh absenteeism)

Initial Two
measurement years later
Time
A Figure 1.2.6.3 Relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism

159
 12 Psychology and organisations
• Job sabotage is about breaking rules and is
when workers make a conscious effort to stop
themselves and others from working effectively for
an organisation.
• This can be brought about by frustration as
workers begin to feel powerless in their job.
• It can also be brought on as an attempt to make
working conditions better, for Instance to gain
better wages or physical conditions in a factory.
• Finally, it can be brought about in an attempt
to challenge authority as workers feel that their
managers or leaders are not performing in their job.
• This is an extreme form of dissatisfaction so
cannot be used to discover job dissatisfaction on
a daily basis and in the majority of workers.
Organisational commitment
• Continuance commitment is about workers
staying in the job as it is probably too costly for
them to leave it financially. The longer that a
worker has been in the same organisation , the
more difficult it is to leave. Therefore, workers are
not willing to risk leaving the organisation.
160
• Affective commitment refers to workers stayi11g
In the job because they strongly agree with the
organisation's goals and overall beliefs and views.
They fully support what the organisation does and
how it does it. As long as the goals and beliefs of
the worker match those of the organisation, the
worker feels committed to the job.
• Normative commitment is when workers stay in
the job because of pressure fron1 other people.
They may not want to leave a company because
they fear "what people might say" if they do.
They do not want to disappoint their organisation
by leaving and even though they may feel a bit
dissatisfied, they remain committed to the job.
Promoting job satisfaction
All of the units in this section have ideas about
promoting job satisfaction (e.g. the selection
process, why people are motivated to work, what
leaders are present in the organisation, how groups
work in the organisation, the physical surroundings of
the workplace and assessing job satisfaction).
Exam centre Paper 3 A-Level
The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/or comments that appear in this book were written by the
author. In examination, the way marks would be awarded to answers like these may be different
Section A
Q: Explain , in your own words, what is meant by the
term ''giftedness". (2 marks)
A: Children with one or more abilities developed to
a level significantly ahead of their year group, e.g.
in mathematics.
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 2 marks
as it is a clear, accurate and explicit explanation of
the term.
A: It is when someone is really good at a subject in
school.
Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark
as it shows some understanding but it lacks clartty.
Q: Explain , in your own words, what is meant by the
terrn "extrinsic motivation" . (2 marks)
A: It is a desire to perform a task or behaviour
because it gives internal pleasure or helps to
develop a skill when at work. People feel good
inside about themselves.
Comment: This answer would not gain any marks as it
gives an incorrect definitlon. The student has written
about intrinsic motivation by mistake.
Q: Describe two ways of measuring personal space.
(4 marks)
A: One way is to use the stop-distance measure.
For this, a person has to approach you and
you simply say "Stop'' once you begin to feel
uncomfortable. The person can then repeat this
from a different direction a number of times.
Measurements are taken from the person to the
point where he or she says " Stop" so this can be
drawn as a diagram. A second measure is to use
a simulation with dolls so that it represents the
distance you feel uncomfortable at.
Comment: The first measurement is clear and tells
the examiner exactly how personal space could be
measured. The second measure is correct but the
explanation lacks any real detail. This answer would be
likely to receive 3 niarks.
Q: Outline one theory of pain . (4 marks)
A: One theory of pain is phantom limb pain. This
is a condition whereby a patient who is an
amputee still experiences pain in a limb that
is no longer physically there or In a limb that
has no functioning nerves in it. Yet, the pain
is described in the same way as any other
ache or pain that people experience daily. This
type of pain is detected and still picked up by
sensory signals but the spinal cord plays a
key role in the experience of the actual pain.
The spinal cord has a mechanism within it that
acts just I ike a gate: it is either open or closed
in the main.
Comment: At first it looks as if this answer wi ll not gain
any marks as the student begins to write about phantom
limb pain . However, the student then begins to write
about the gate control theory. It would have been better
to name the theory but the information given about it
is correct. Therefore, this answer would be expected
to receive some marks. The detail for the gate control
theory is likely to be enough for this answer to receive
2 marks.
Section B
Q: Describe what psychologists have discovered
about treatments for schizophrenia. (8 marks)
A: Biochemical treatn1ent centres on using drugs
to alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Davison & Neale (1997) noted that from the
1950s onwards drugs classed as phenothiazines
were commonly used to treat schizophrenia.
These drugs were effective as they block
dopamine receptors in the brain and thus reduce
schizophrenic symptoms. Sarkar & Grover (2013)
conducted a meta-analysis on 15 randomised
controlled studies testing the effectiveness
of antipsychotics on children and adolescents
diagnosed with schizophrenia. It was seen that
both first- and second-generation antipsychotic
drugs were superior to placebo in alleviating
symptoms.
Another treatment is etectro-convulsive therapy
(ECT). This is where a person receives a brief
application of electricity to induce a seizure.
Early attempts at this were not pleasant but
nowadays patients are anaesthetised and given
muscle relaxants. Electrodes are fitted to specific
areas of the head and a small electrical current
is passed through them for no longer than one
second. The seizure may last up to one minute.
Zervas, Theleritis & Soldatos (2012) conducted
a review of the use of ECT in schizophrenia. It
would appear that ECT can be quite effective
for catatonic schizophrenics and in reducing
paranoid delusions. There was also evidence
that it may improve a person's responsivity to
medication. Also, Thirthalli et al (2009) reported
that in a sample of schizophrenics (split Into
catatonic and non-catatonic), those who were
catatonic required fewer ECT sessions to help
control their symptoms.
161
 Exam centre - paper 3
Another treatment involves token economies.
Behaviour is shaped towards son1ething
desired by giving out tokens (e.g. plastic chips
or a stamp) every time a relevant behaviour is
shown. Ayllon & Azrin (1968) introduced a token
economy in a psychiatric hospital in a ward for
long-stay female patients. The patients were
reinforced for behaviours such as brushing
their hair, making their bed and having a neat
appearance. Their behaviour rapidly improved and
staff morale improved as staff were seeing more
positive behaviours. Finally, Dickerson, Tenhula
& Green-Paden (2005) conducted a review of
the field. They found 13 studies and it appeared
that there was evidence for the effectiveness
of a token economy in increasing the adaptive
behaviours of patients with schizophrenia.
Comment: This is a very thorough answer that is
accurate and uses psychological terminology throughout.
The answer is well organised into the three different
treatments. Each treatment is described well and then
evidence is presented to show whether it was effective
and/ or appropriate. This answer would be likely to be
receive 7 or 8 marks.
Q: Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about treatments for schizophrenia and include a
discussion on reductionism. (12 marks)
A: Research into the treatment of schizophrenia
has some ethical issues. For example, the use of
ECT involves fitting electrodes to specific areas
of the head and then passing a small electrical
current through them for no longer than one
second. The seizure may last up to one minute.
The patient regains consciousness in around
15 minutes. The argument is whether a person
truly understands what the procedure involves
if the individual has a serious mental health
issue that affects thought processes, such
as schizophrenia. With any long-term memory
problems unknown after using ECT, is it fair to
give it to patients who may not understand this?
However, research has shown that ECT is a
useful treatment for schizophrenia. Thirthalli
et al (2009) reported that in a sample of
schizophrenics (split into catatonic and non-
catatonic), those who were catatonic required
fewer ECT sessions to help control their
symptoms. Therefore, this study found that ECT
may be more useful for those with catatonic
schizophrenia than other types. Also, Flamarique
et al (2012) reported that adolescents who
received ECT in conjunction with clozapine had
a lower rehospitalisation rate (7 .1 per cent)
compared to a group who rece ived ECT and a
different antipsychotic (58.3 per cent).
Some psychologists would say that biological
treatments for schizophrenia are reductionist. They
are based on the idea that we need to treat the
biology of the condition (e.g. excess dopamine)
without tackling the psychological elements of the
162 disorder. It ignores aspects such as schizophrenia
being caused by faulty information processing.
Frith (1992) noted that schizophrenics might have
a deficient " metarepresentation" system. This
would deal with being able to reflect on thoughts,
emotions and behaviours. Therefore, a different
treatment might be more appropriate yet a patient
may have to go through ECT or some form of drug
therapy which may give the person unnecessary
side effects.
Comment: The answer covers three main evaluation
points: ethics , usefulness and reductionism. The
question asked about reductionism so the answer is
able to access more than 6 marks if it fulfils the criteria
for 7 + rnarks. The evaluation is good and the student
uses the information to show how each point is a
strength or a weakness. Another evaluation point, written
In the same way as the other three, would have been
likely to guarantee a top mark so this answer would be
likely to be placed in the 7- 9 mark band.
Q: Describe what psychologists have discovered
about leadership style and effectiveness.
(8 marks)
A: The great person theory follows the idea that
"great leaders are born , not made". Therefore,
a person is either a "natural " leader or not.
People's natural abilities allow them to " rise
to the top" of any organisation because of the
skills they were born with. These leaders have
special traits that allow them to progress up the
managerial levels of an organisation and then
lead the company effectively over time. There are
also leaders who have charisma and this makes
people want to listen to them and follow them.
In terms of leadership style, psychologists know
a great deal. Some leaders can be permissive
and autocratic and others can be not permissive
and not autocratic. These are different styles that
can be seen at work. House highlighted directive
behaviour, achievement-oriented behaviour,
supportive behaviour and one other. Support
is focused on interpersonal behaviour and
involves the leader boosting these relationships
by showing concern for each worker's wellbeing
in a friendly environment. There are also four
situational leaders.
Comment: The first paragraph cannot gain any credit
as it is not answering the question (it focuses on
theories of leadership rather than leadership style ). The
second paragraph can gain credit as it shows some
understanding of leadership style. The student does just
name the different styles without really outlining any of
them , so the answer is brief, but terminology is accurate.
This answer would be expected to receive 3 or 4 marks.
Q: Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about measuring pain and include a discussion
on the use of psychometrics. (12 marks)
A: One way of measuring pain is via questionnaires.
This may improve validity as people may be
more likely to reveal truthful answers in a
questionnaire as it does not involve talking face
 to face with someone. Therefore, a patient using
the McGill questionnaire may give tnore accurate
results about where the pain is located on a
picture (especially if it is in a sensitive part of the
body) rather than in front of a doctor. This could
lead to quicker and more effective treatment.
However, patients tTiay give socially desirable
answers as they want to look good rather than
giving truthful answers. Some people may want
to appear stronger and more resistant to pain
than they actually are so, again on the McGill
questionnaire, people may choose descriptors
that do not truly describe their actual pain
feelings instead choosing descriptors that are
not "as strong". Thi s could have an effect on
getting the most appropriate treatment.
Also, there may be some reliability shown by
people as they can fill in the same self-rating
scale every week to see if their pain is in the
same place, etc.
Comment This student has chosen three evaluation
points to raise. The first two show some understanding in
terms of evaluation questionnaires linked to measuring
pain. The last point on reliability is quite weak. However,
what the student has failed to do Is answer the
second half of the question directly about the use of
psychometrics. Therefore, the maximum this answer would
be likely to receive Is 6 marks. As there is some attempt
to evaluate and all of the information given is brief, thls
answer would be expected to fall into the 4-6 mark band.
Section C
Q: Describe one strategy that can be used to prevent
disruptive behaviou.r in the classroom. (6 marks)
A: One strategy can be based on the work of
Cotton. The entire staff of a school needs to be
committed to any policy in the school. This would
cover appropriate behaviours in the classroom .
There has to be some form of high behavioural
expectations. The policy must have clearly high
standards of behaviour that must be adhered
to. There also needs to be clear rules. The
rules and punishment for disruptive behaviour
must be very clear and some schools get their
students to help produce these so everyone is
involved and knows what is expected of them.
Students are more likely to "stick to rules" if
they are involved in the production of them. Staff
should try to create a "warm'' climate. Staff
must take personal interest in students and their
achievements, goals , etc. and give them support
whenever it is necessary. There also needs to
be a supportive headteacher. The headteacher
needs to be seen around school, caring for
students too and showing some informal
behaviour towards them when necessary.
Comment: This answer shows clear understanding of
the material (preventive rather than corrective discipline)
and includes a ''global " strategy based on the work of
Cotton. This answer would be expected to receive 5 or
6 marks.
Q: Suggest how you might help correct the
disruptive behaviour of a child in your class.
On what psychology is your suggestion based?
(8 marks)
A: I would use the Idea of behaviour modification to
correct the behaviour of a disruptive student. I
would use a series of rewards and a punishment
to make sure that the behaviour I wanted was
seen in the student and that the disruptive
behaviour was eliminated. I could use a sticker
chart to encourage good behaviour so every time
the student showed this behaviour the student
got a sticker. When five stickers had been
awarded they could be exchanged for a treat. If
the student began to show disruptive behaviour
again then stickers could be taken off the chart. I
may even choose to ignore any bad behaviour as
giving the student attention for the bad behaviour
might even encourage the individual to do it
more. The student with the most stickers at the
end of the year could win an even bigger prize
such as money.
Comment: The suggestion here is appropriate and is
clearly based on psychological knowledge although the
answer never mentions operant conditioning or learning
by consequence. The suggestions should work and the
answer is coherent and mainly accurate. Therefore, this
answer would be expected to receive 5 or 6 marks.
Q: Describe one example of behaviours shown
during natural disasters and catastrophes.
(6 marks)
A: One example of behaviours shown during a
disaster can be seen in contagion theory. Le
Bon (1879) suggested that the behaviour of
an individual within a crowd is irrational and
uncritical and so the person becomes "primitive"
and acts strangely as a result. People may feel
more anonymous when in a. crowd and show
behaviours they would never normally show such
as being aggressive to ensure their own safety.
Cornment: There is some good psychology in this answer
but it only covers one of the elements of contagious
behaviour. What the student does write is correct but
it is brief so this answer would be expected to receive
3 or 4 marks.
Q: Suggest how you would help people get prepared
for a natural disaster. On what psychology is your
suggestion based? (8 marks)
A: There are many factors that can affect people's
ability to react to a disaster. I would educate
the community on what a siren actually means
and then what people should do once they hear
it. Balluz et al reported that only 45 per cent of
people knew what to do once a siren had been
sounded. I would get emergency management
officials to plan some form of protection
measure for vulnerable areas as people may
have limited time to respond to the siren. They
could strategically erect shelters to reduce the
163
 Exam centre - paper 3
time taken from people starting to respond to
their reaching a place of safety. This should
allow people to feel prepared if, say, a hurricane
were to hit an area quickly. Also, Sattler, Kaiser
& Hittner (2000) noted that about half of the
participants had petrol for the car, flashlights,
bottled water, candles and matches, and canned
or dried food for use in an emergency. Therefore,
I would produce a leaflet that people can stick
to their fridges telling them what essentials they
would need to help them if a disaster were to
strike. A separate leaflet could also be produced
with known evacuation routes printed on it that
is brief but informative. As Loftus found , these
types of notice work the best, especially if a
disaster is quick to happen so people need
164
to read information in a hurry. Any important
messages (e.g. "Ensure you have some food
with you'' ) should be repeated on the notice and
leaflet. There h1ay have to be some community
meetings so that people are clear about what
to do as people are never really prepared if they
are reading and trying to understand information
while a disaster is happening, according to
Tamima & Chouinard (2012).
Comment: This is a very good answer that has
suggestions that are directly linked to the question.
The ideas are based on psychological research that
has been named and used to show why they have been
suggested. The outlining ls accurate, coherent and
detailed and is shows very good understanding. It is
likely that this answer would gain 7 or 8 marks.
Index
A achieving orientation 69
abnormal affect
cause of and treatments for 126
types 126
abnormality 120
behavioural models of abnormality
121
biological and medical treatments
121
cognitive behavioural therapies 121
cognitive models of abnormality 121
deviation from ideal mental health
120
deviation from social norm 120
effectiveness and appropriateness of
treatments 121
failure to function adequately 120
medical or biological models of
abnormality 12~1.
problems with defining and diagnosing
abnormafity 120
psychodynarnic models of abnormality
121
psychotherapies 121
accidents 99
accident proneness 99
cognitive overload 99
human error and the Illusion of
invulnerability 99
individual and system errors 99
reducing accidents at work with token
econo1nies 100
reorganising shift work 100
shift work patterns 99
accommodators 69
acupuncture 92
acute pain 88
addiction and in1pulse control disorders
aversion therapy 131
behavioural causes 130
behavioural treatments 131
biochemical causes 130
CST for klepto1riania 131
cognitive or personality causes 131
components 130
covert sensitisation 131
genetic causes 130
imaginal desensitisation 132
physical and psychological dependence
130
types 1,30
adherence to medical advice
evaluation extra 87
Im proving adherence 86-7
measuring adherence and non-
adherence 85-6
memory intervention 87
rational non-adherence 85
types and extent of non-adherence 85
alcoholism 130
anti-social behaviour 102
anxiety disorders (obsessions and
compulsions) 137-9
anxiety disorders (phobias) 133-6
appearance 82
application forms 140
weighted app lication blank or form
(WAB) 140
approaches to study inventory (ASI) 69
meaning orientation 69
non-academic orientation 69
reproducing orientation 69
architecture and behaviour 106-7
housing design and urban renewal
114-16
Asperger syndrome 66
asslmilators 69
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) 74
genetic causes 7 4
neurotransmitters 7 4
physiological arousal 7 4
attractiveness study 28-30
aim 28
conclusion 29-30
context 28
method 28-9
results 29
attractiveness and smells study 42--4
arm 42
conclusion 43
context 42
evaluation 43-4
method 42-3
results 43
attribution retraining 72
analysing success 73
changing attributions 72. 73
discussion 72
Dweck way 73
role play 73
student modelling 73
teacher modelling 73
attribution theory 72
controllability 72
locus of control 72
stability 72
auditory displays 155-6
autism spectrum disorders 65
impairment of social communication
65-6
impairment of social imagination 66
impairment of social interaction 66
autonomic nervous system 93
avoidant learning 68
B cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT ) 124-5
backwards searching 81
behaviour modification techniques 62
naughty corner or step 62
sticker charts 62
tokens 62
behaviourist applications to learning 61
behaviour modification techniques 62
classical conditioning 61
higher-order conditioning 61
motivation 71, 72
operant conditioning 61
programmed learning 62
benzodiazapines 95
beta-blockers 95
biofeedback 95-6
bipolar disorder 126
body dysmorphic disorder (BOD) study
53-5
aim 53
conclusion 55
context 53
evaluation 55
method 53-4
results 54-5
British Ability Scale (BAS) 78
core scales 78
diagnostic scales 78
intelllgence and educational
performance 78-9
reliability, validity and predictive validfty
78
bullying 74
attachment style 74-5
effects of bullying 75
family functioning 75
parenting styles 75
socio-economic status 75
teaching environment 75
bystander behaviour study 20-1
aim 20
conclusron 21
context 20
evaluation 21
method 20
results 20-1
c
case studies 2
casino environments 116
catastrophes 108-10
Chernobyl 99
child development theory 63
concrete operational stage 63
formal operational stage 63
pre-operational stage 63
sche1nas 63
sensori·motor stage 63
chronic pain 88
classical conditioning 61, 133
cognitive applications to learning 63
adherence to medical advice 87
motivation 71-2
underlying theory 63
cognitive behaviour modification 76
co-working 76
cognitive modelling 76
imitation 76
sub-vocal performance 76
kleptomania 131
obsessive-compulsive disorders 139
cognitive map study 40-1
aim 40
conclusion 41
context 40
evaluation 41
method 40-1
results 41
cognitive psychology
study of false memory 9-10
study of lying behaviour 7-8
study of nature and nurture 13-14
study of reading the mind in the eyes
11-12
cognitive restructuring 128-9
cognltive strategies for pain management
distraction 91
imagery 92
cognitive style study 50-2
aim 50
165
 conclusion 51 electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) 128 128
context 50 genetic and neurochemical emotional intelligence 80
evaluation 52 explanations 126-7 endocrine system 93
method 50-1 learned helplessness or attributional environmental cognition 117
results 51 style 127 cognitive maps in bees 118
collaborative learning 68 rational emotive behaviour therapy cognitive maps in squirrels 117
communities 98 (REST) 129-30 designing better maps 118-19
com1nunity environmental design 115-16 sex differences in depression 126 errors 117
competitive learning 68 designs of study 3 individual differences 117
compulsions 137 matched pairs 3 multidimensional scaling 117
conditioning 61. 133 repeated measures 3 pigeons and 1nagrietite 118
contingency theory 148 destructive obedience study 15-16 sketch maps 117
completion of the least preferred co- aim 15 virtual way-finding 119
worker (LPC) questionnaire 148 conclusion 16 way-finding 119
leader-members relations 148 context 15 ERG theory 144
position power 148 evaluation 16 ergonomics 155
task structure 148 method 15-16 auditory displays 155
control 93 results 16 errors and accidents in operator-
chance heaJth locus of control 93 determinism 6 machine systems 155-6
internal health locus of control 93 developmental psychology visual displays 155
powerful others· control over health attractiveness study 28-30 ethics 4
93 moral behaviour study 31-3 ethnocentric bias 4
convergers 69 observational learning of aggressive exam questions and answers 56
creativity 80 behaviour study 24-5 core studies 1 56-7
Divergent Production Test 80-1 Oedipus complex study 26-7 core studies 2 58-60
problem-solving 81 disasters 108 Paper 3 (A Level) 161-4
unusual uses test 81 behaviours during events 108 expository teaching 63
critical incidents technique 158 evacuation plans 109 advance organisers 64
crowd behaviour Herald of Free Enterprise 109-10 correlative subsumption 63
anonyinlty 108 London bombings, July 2005 110 derivative subsumption 63
contagion 108 preparedness 108-9 discriminability 64
impersonality 108 psychological intervention before and 1naking it meaningful 64
laboratory experiments 108 after events 108-10 extrinsic motivation 71. 146
scripts 108 treating PTSD 109
simulations 108 disclosure of information 83 F
suggestibilfty 108 discovery learning 62 facial expressions 82
crowding 105 correct mode of representation 62 factor-analytic appfoach to intelligence
coping with crowding 107 spiral curriculum 62 79-80
modifying architecture 106-7 disruptive behaviour in school 7 4 false memory study 9-10
visual escape 107 aggression 7 4 aim 9
crystallised intelligence 80 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder conclusion 10
(ADHD) 74 context 9
D attention-see kl ng 7 4 evaluation 10
decision making 151 behaviour modfficatlon 75-6 method 9
evaluation extra 152 bullying 74-5 results 10
groupthink and group polarisation calling out 74 field experiments 1
151- 2 cognitive behaviour modification 76 fluid intelligence 80
individual versus group decisions 151 corrective strategies 75-6 formal teaching style 68
strategies to overcome groupthink distracting other students 74 4-mat study system 70
151- 2 effective classroom management 75 application 70
decision making In personnel selection out-of-seat behaviour 7 4 c-0ncept development 70
140 poor teaching style 7 4 motivation 70
biases in selection decisions and preventive strategies 75 practice 70
equal opportunitJes 142 divergers 69
job analysis techniq.ues 142 dopamine 122-3, 130 G
job descriptions and specifications dreaming and REM sleep study 37-9 GAS model of stress 93
142 ai111 37 alarm reaction 93
multiple cutoff model 141 conclusion 38-9 exhaustion stage 93
n1ultlple hurdle model 141 context 37 resistance stage 93
multiple regression model 141 evaluation 39 gate control theory of pain 88
delay in seeking treatment 83 method 37-8 generalisations 5
appraisal delay 83 results 38 gestures 82
illness delay 83 dyslexia 65 gi~edness 65
utilisation delay 83 causes and effects of dyslexia 66 educational strategies 66-7
density and crowding 105 characteristics of dyslexia 65 goal-setting 145
animal studies 105-6 educational strategies 67 group behaviour in organisations
health 106 decision making 151-2
performance 106 E group cohesiveness, team building and
preventing and coping with the effects ecological validity 4 team performance 150-1
of crowding 106-7 effective teaching style 74 group conflict 152-3
pro-social behaviour 106 "group-alerting" 74 group development 150
dependent learning 68 "overlap" 74
depression 83 ·smoothness and momentum'' 74 H
che1Tiical or drug treatments 128 "stimulating seatwork" 74 Hassles Scale 93-4
cognitive explanations 127 "withitness .. 74 Head Start Program (cycle helmets) 98
166 cognitive restructuring 1.28-9 electro.convulsive therapy (ECT) 123-4, health and safety
 accident proneness and personality
99
accidents 99
reducing accidents and promoting
safety behaviours 100
health promotion
communities 98
fear arousal 97
medical settings 97
protnoting health in a specific area of
concern 98
providing information 97
schools 97-8
worksites 98
Yale model of communication 9·7
Herald of Free Enterprise 99, 109-10
high-initiative teachers 68
higher-order conditioning 61
hun1anistic applications to learning 62
cooperative learning 62
discovery learning 62
expository teaching or reception
learning 63-4
learning circles and the open
classroom 62~3
motivation 71
Summerhill School 62
underlying theory 62
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
64
hypnosis 92, 139
hypochondriasis 83-4
depressive type 83
obsessive-anxious type 83
somatoform type 83
I learned helplessness 72, 127
imagery 92, 96
improving adherence to medical advice
Im prove practitioner style 86
letters 86-7
provide prompts and reminders 86
tailor the regimen 86
use behaviour contracts 86
use of text messaging 86
use self-monitoring 86
in-group and out.group study 22-3
aim 22
conclusion 23
evaluation 23
method 22
results 22-3
independent learning 68
individual versus situational explanations
4-5.147
individual versus situational study 17-19
aim 17
conclusion 19
context 17
evaluation 19
method 17-18
pathological prisoner syndrome 19
pathology of power 19
results 18- 19
inforrllal teaching style 68
intelligence 77
alternatives to intelligence 80-1
British Ability Scale (BAS) 78-9
IQ 77
Stanford-Binet Test 77
theories of intelligence 79-80
Weschler (WAIS and WISC) tests 77-8
Internet 97
interpersonal skills 82
non-verbal comn1unications 82
verbal communications 82
interviews 2 M
Job satisfaction 158 manic depression 126
work selection 140 map design 118-19
intrinsic motivation 71, 146 Mastow's hierarchy of needs 144
means-end analysis 81
J measures of stress
job analysis techniques 142 blood and urine tests 95
job descriptions and specifications 142 blood pressure 95
Job Descriptive Index 157 galvanic skin response 95
job design 157 se Lf·report questionnaires 95
job satisfaction 157-8 measuring adherence and non-adherence
promoting job satisfaction 160 to medical advice
objective methods 85-6
K subjective methods 85
kleptomania 130, 131 measuring pain
behavioural or observational scale 91
L pain measures in children 91
laboratory experiments 1 psychometric measures and visual
leader-member exchange model (LMX) rating scales 89-91
149 self-report measures 88-9
leadership and management media 97
charismatic and transformational medical jargon 82
leaders 147 memory intervention 87
contingency theory 148 develop cues 87
great person theory 147 do it now 87
leaders and followers 149 elaborate the action 87
leadership training and characteristics emphasise routine 87
of effective leaders 148-9 lmplen1entation intentions 87
Ohio State studies 147 teach - ask -\.vait - ask again - wait -
participative behaviour 148 ask again 87
path-goal theory 148 mental health diagnosis study 45-7
permissive versus autocratic aim 45
leadership 148 conclusion 46
sit uational leadership 148 context 45
supportive behaviour 148 evaluation 47
University of Michigan studies 147 method 45. 46
results 46
learning and teaching styles 68 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
accommodators 69 157-8
approaches to study inventory (ASI) misusing health services
69 delay in seeking treatment 83
assimilators 69 hypochondriasis 83-4-
avoidant learning 68 Munchhausen syndrome 84
collaborative learning 68 Munchhausen syndrome by proxy 84
competitive learning 68 modeJs of abnormality
convergers 69 abnorn1al affect 126-9
dependent learning 68 addiction and impulse control
dfvergers 69 disorders 130-2
effective teaching style 74 anxiety disorders (obsessions and
formal teaching style 68 compulsions) 137- 9
high-initiative teachers 68 anxiety disorders (phobias) 133-6
improving learning effectiveness 70 definitions of abnormaflty 120-1
independent learning 68 schizophrenia 122-5
informal teaching style 68 moral behaviour study 31-3
onion model 68 aim 31
participant learning 68 conclusion 33
psychometric measures 69-70 context 31
teacher-centred and student-centred evaluation 33
styles 69 method 31-2
learning circles 62-3 results 32
learning together 63 motivation and education performance
student teams achievement division 71-3
63 attribution theory and learned
life events 94 helplessness 72-3
locus of control 72. 93 definitions. types and theories of
London bombings, July 2005 110 motivation 7.1
longitudinal data 5-6 improving motivation 71-2
lying behaviour study 7-8 motivation to work
aim 7 achievement motivation 144-5
conclusion 8 career structure and promotion
context 7 prospects 146
evaluation 8 ERG theory 144
method 7-8 goal-setting theory 145
results 8 hierarchy of needs 144
managerial applications of expectancy
theory 145 1..6 7
 motivators at work 146 occupational noise 101-2 applications based on cognitive theory
reward systems 146 Oedipus complex study 26-7 63-4
setting effective goals 145 afnis 26 applications based on humanism
VIE (expectancy) theory 145 conclusion 27 62-3
multiple intelligences 80. 149 context 26 applications based on the behaviourist
multiple personality disorder (MPD) evaluation 27 perspective 62
disorder study 48-9 method 26 behaviourist applications to learning
aim 48 results 26 61
conclusion 49 onion model of learning 68 cognitive applications to teaming 63
context 48 operant conditioning 61 humanistic applications to learning 62
evaluation 49 organisational commitment phantom limb pain 88
method 48 affectlve comn1itment 160 phobias 133
results 48-9 continuance corn1nitment 160 applied tension 135-6
Munchhausen syndrome 84 norrnative commitment 160 biomedical or genetic explanations
Munchhausen syndrome by proxy 84 organisational work conditions 1 33-4
music compressed work weeks and flexitime cognitive explanations 134
consumer behaviour 103 155 explanations 133
performance 104 ergonomics 155-6 flooding 135
stress reduction 103-4 physical work conditions 154 Little Albert 133
psychological work conditions 154 psychoanalytic explanations 133
N shift work 154-5 systematic desensitisation 134-5
nature and nurture 5, 147 temporal conditions of work types and examples 133
nature and nurture study 13-14 environments 154-5 physiological psychology
aim 13 attractiveness and smells study 42- 4
conclusion 14 p cognitive map study 40-1
context 13 Pacific Western Airline crash (1978) 99 dreaming and REM sleep study 37-9
evaluation 14 pain two factor theory of emotion study
method 13 acute pain 88 34-6
results 14 alternative techniques 91-2 planning strategies 81
noise 101 analgesics 91 PQRST study method 70
anti-social behaviour 102 chronic pajn 88 preview 70
occupational noise 101-2 cognitive strategies 91-2 question 70
perceived control 102 definitions of pain 88 read 70
performance In children 103 gate control theory of pain 88 self-recitatlon 70
positive uses of sound (music) 103-4 indirectly acting drugs 91 test 70
predlctabil ity 102 local anaesthetics 91 practitioner diagnosis and style
pro-social behaviour 102 managing and controlling pain 91-2 disclosure of information 83
transportation noise 101 measuring pain 88-91 doctor-centred style 83
volume 102 phantom limb pain 88 patient-centred style 83
non-verbal communications psychogenic pain 88 type I and type II errors 83
appearance 82 specificity theory of pain 88 pro-socfal behaviour 102
facial expressions 82 paralanguage 82 problem-solving
gestures 82 participant learning 68 backwards searching 81
paralanguage 82 participants and sampling 3 means-end analysis 81
personal space invasion 82 path.goal theory 148 planning strategies 81
normative decision theory 149 achievement-oriented behaviour 148 programmed learning 62
directive behaviour 148 psychoanalytic therapy
0 participative behaviour 148 dream analysis 139
observational learning of aggressive supportive behaviour 148 free association 139
behaviour study 24-5 patient- practitioner relationship hypnosis 139
aims 24 case studies 84 psychogenic pain 88
conclusion 25 interpersonal skills 82 psychology and education
context 24 misusing health services 83-4 disruptive behaviour in school 7 4-6
evaluation 25 practitioner diagnosis and style 83 intelligence 77-81
method 24-5 Pediatric Pain Questionnaire 91 learning and teaching styles 68-70
results 25 performance appraisal 142-3 motivation and education performance
observations 2 appraisers 143 71-3
obsessions 137 improving appraisals 143 motivation and education performance
obsessive-compulsive disorders 137 problems with appraisal 143 71-3
biomedical explanations 138 performance In children 103 perspectives on learning 61-4
case studies 137 performance In students 104 special educational needs 65-7
CBT 139 permissive versus autocratic leadership psychology and environment
cognitive-behavioural explanations 148 architecture and behaviour 114-16
138 personal space and territory 111- 13 density and crowding 105-7
drug therapy 138-9 alpha space and beta space 111 environmental cognition 117-19
Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory (OCI) defending territory and space 112 natural disaster and technological
137 invading space and territory 112 catastrophe 108-10
psychoanalytic therapy 139 measuring space simulation 111 noise 101-4
psychodynamic explanations 138 space invasions 111 personal space and territory 111-13
Vancouver Obsessive-Compulsory stop.distance 111 psychology and health
Inventory (VOCI) 137 territorial markers 112 adherence to medical advice 85-7
Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsory personal space invasion 82, 111 health and safety 99-100
Inventory (Y-BOCS) 137-8 personality 94 health promotion 97-8
Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory (OC I) accident proneness 99 pain 88-92
137 perspectives on learning patient-practitioner relationship 82-4
168
 stress 93-6 140.141-2 u
psychology and organisations interviews 140 UAB Pain Behavior Scale 91
group behaviour in organisations performance appraisal 142-3 unipolar disorder 126
160-3 use of psychometric tests 140- 1 urban living
leadership and management 147-9 self-efficacy 72 adaptation level 114
motivation to work 144-6 emotional arousal 72 behaviour constraint 114
organisational work conditions 154-6 personal accomplishments 72 effects on health 114
satisfaction at work 157-60 verbal persuasion 72 effects on social behaviour 114
selection of people for work 140-3 vicarious experience 72 environmental stress 114
psychology of individual dtfferences shopping malls 115-16 evaluation extra 115
body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) study situational leadership 148 overload 114
53-5 snapshot data 5-6 urban renewal and housing design 115
cognitive style study 50-2 social density 105 use of animals in psychological research
mental health diagnosis study 45-7 social psychology 6
multiple personality disorder (MPD) bystander behaviour study 20-1 use of children In psychological research
disorder study 48-9 destructive obedience study 15-16 6
psychometric measures 69-70 in-group and out-group study 22-3 usefulness of psychology 4
psycho1Tietric tests 140-1 individual versus situational study
predictive validity 141 17-19 v
psychometrics 5 spatlaldensrry 105 validity 4
PTSD 109-10 special educational needs Vancouver Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory
public places 116 causes and effects of dyslexia 66 (VOCI ) 137
definitions of special educational verbal communications 82
Q needs and giftedness 65 VIE (expectancy) theory 145
quantitative and qualitative data 5 integration versus separation 66 visual displ.ays 155
questionnaires 1-2 strategies for educating children with
special needs 66-7 w
R types of special educational needs way-finding 119
rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) 65-6 Weschler Adult Intelligence Seate (WAIS)
129-30 specificity theory of pain 88 77, 78
reading the mind in the eyes study 11-12 SPELT (strategies for effective learning and Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children
aim 11 thinking) 70 (WISC) 77
conclusion 12 Stanford-Binet Test 77 work 93-4
context 11 stress 93 job withdrawal, absenteeism and
evaluation 12 daily hassles 94-5 sabotage 159-60
method 11 GAS model 93 organisational commitment 160
results 12 lack of control 93 promoting job satisfaction 160
reception learning 63 life events 94 theories of job satisfaction and
reductionism 6 management of stress 95-6 dissatisfaction 158-9
reliability 4 measures of stress 95 worksltes 98
research methods 1 personality 94
case studies 2 preventing stress 96 y
design of study 3 work 93-4 Yale model of communication 97
field experiments 1 stress inoculation therapy 96 acceptance 97
interviews 2 application and follow-through phase attention 97
laboratory experiments 1 96 communicator 97
observations 2 conceptualisation phase 96 comprehension 97
participants and sampling 3 skill acquisition and rehearsal phase content 97
questionnaires 1-2 96 medium 97
reward systems 146 student-<:entred learning styles 69 Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsory
non-monetary rewards 146 study skills 70 Inventory (Y-BOCS) 137-8
4-mat system 70
s PQRST method 70 z
satisfaction at work strategies for effective learning and zone of proximal development (ZPD} 64
attitudes to work 158-60 thinking (SPELT) 70 scaffolding 64
job design 157
measuring Job satlsfaction 15 7-8 T
schizophrenia 122 teacher-centred teaming styles 69
biochemical explanatfons {dopamine teams 150
hypothesis) 122-3 characteristics of successful teams
biochemical treatments 123 151
CBT 124-5 territory 111-13
characteristics 122 Three Mile Island 99
cognitive explanations 123 token economies 100, 124
electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) Titanic, The 99
123-4 transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
evaluation extra 123 {TENS) machines 92
genetic explanations 122 transportation noise 101
token econorTiies 124 triarchic theory of intelligence 80
types 122 two factor theory of emotion study 34-6
schools 97-8 aim 34
selection of people for work conclusion 36
application forms 140 context 34
decision makjng in personnel selection method 34-5
140,141-2 results 35-6
decision making in personnel selection 1..6 9
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
• • •
ev1s1on UI
Craig Roberts
Endorsed by Cambridge and accurately matched to the most recent Cambridge
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and builds essential research skills. The Revision Guide works alongside the
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Oxford and Cambridge are world leaders in international education. Our
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Cambridge International AS & A Level. Thi s Revision Gui de provides:
A fully comprehensive and structured approach to gui de Learners through the
course logically
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ISBN 978-0· 19·830707-5

9 780198 307075