and Research Methods in Bebavioural Sciences . Measurements 1. Postulates relating to equalities or identities. 2. Postulates relating to rank order 3. Postulates relating to additivity » three variations in postulates relating to equalities or Edens, ie ng to rank order and four variations in postulates relating to postulates of measurement exist. Ordinarily, there variations in postulates relat ddditivity. Thus a total of nin = 7 he three variations in postulates relating to identities or equalities are as oan Pee 1, Either a= 6 or a#b, This means numbers are either equal (a= b) or they ar Hua (a # 6) but not both. This postulate is more essential for classification. 2. lf a=bthenb=a This means that the relation of equality among numbers is symmetrical, and therefore, we can interchange a for b or b for a. as 3. Ifa=b,b =c then a=c. This means that the objects which are equal to the same object are also equal to one another. The two postulates relating to rank are: : 4. Ifa>b then b $a. This means that the relation between a and bis asymmetrical, that is, we cannot reverse the relationship a> b or a< b interchanging a and b. 3 5. Ifa>b,b>c thena>c. This isa transitivity postulate and indicates a definite order in the ranking, Itis an important postulate upon which most measurements in psychology, sociology and education are dependent. The four postulates relating to additivity are as follows: 6. If a= pand b >0 then a+b > p. This postulate indicates the summation process and also demonstrates that when a zero is added, it produces no variability in the result. 7. a+b=b +a This postulate denotes that in the process of addition, the order of the numbers is not important because if a= 4, b =2 then 4 + 2is equal to 6, and 2 +. 4 is also equal to 6. 8. If a= pandb =q thena+b= addition identical numbers or ‘obje any change in the result, . (a+ b)+ ¢=a+(b +c) This Postulate indicates that in of combinations of objects or numbers makes no difference. ‘As we know, measurement is the Process of assigning umerals to the attributes of objects according to some rules. Following Stevens (1951), ‘there are t least four different ways of assigning numerals ta the attributes of the objects, oni ee a different levels of measurement (or scales). The fits five post fore ie ae four following four levels of measurement, ; a Nominal or Classificatory Scale of Measurement. Nominal measurement (or scale) is the lowest Numbers are used to name, identify or cl really not scales and their only purpose i being studied may be classified as (a) Hi classified on the basis of sex, - classifications would be clinical groups such as scl nominal measurement. Inn amin equivalent but all members +q. This postulate indicates that in the process of jects may be substituted for one another without making the process of addition the order relationship is reflexive, transitive astatistical operations are « ney. Addition, subtraction, multiplic identifying numerals themselve ‘ounting or frequency, percentage, proportion conting ion and divisior are not pc s cannot be legitimn surement is that it is rm ly added, subtracted, multip The drawback of nominal me t elementary and simple. 6 characteristics, some expert are of the view that nominal mea Ordinal Scale of Measurement This is the second level of measurement in which there is the property of magnitude by equal intervals or an absolute zero. In ordinal measurement, numbers denote the rank order oF objects or the individuals. Here numbers are arranged from highest to lowest or from lo highest. Ordinal measures reflect which person or object is larger or smaller, heavier or lighter brighter or duller, harder or softer, etc., than others. Persons may be grouped accord physical or psychological traits to convey a relationship like ‘greater than’ or ‘lesser than Socio-economic status is a good example of ordinal measurement because every member of the upper class is higher in social prestige than every member of the middle and lower class. Likewise, every member of the middie class is higher in social prestige than every member of the lower class. Students may be ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd in terms of their academic achievement to constitute the example of ordinal measurement. Thus, in ordinal measurement, besides the relationship of equivalence, a relationship of ‘greater than’ or ‘lesser than’ exists becaus¢ all members of any particular subclass are equivalent to each other and at the same time greater or lesser than the members of other subclasses. The relationship of greater than is usually irreflexive, transitive and asymmetrical. The persmissible statistical operations in ordinal measurement are median, percentiles and rank correlation coefficients, plus all those which are permissible for nominal measurement. The drawback of ordinal measurement is that ordinal measures are not absolute quantities, nor do they convey that the distance between the different rank values is equal. This is because ordinal measurements are not equal-interval measurements, nor do they incorporate absolute zero point. Let us take an example. Suppose an honesty test is given to a sample of 30 students. A and B are given the rank of 3 and 7 respectively, whereas D and Z are given the rank of 11 and 15 respectively. In this example, B ranks four points above A, and similarly Z ranks 4 points above D. But from this we cannot say that the difference between A and B, and that between D and Z is equal because in ordinal measurement, rank values which may be equally spaced do not convey that the underlying properties will also be equal. Likewise, intelligence scores such as 50, 40, 20 of X, Y and Z, respectively may be ranked as 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The difference between 50 and 40 is 10 and the difference between 50 and 20 is 30. But both these differences are equally spaced in terms of ranks. Thus in ordinal measurement from equally-spaced rank values its difficult to infer that the underlyng trait will also be equally spaced. The second demerit of ordinal measurement is that there is no way to ascertain whether a person has any of the characteristics being measured. Interval or Equal-interval Scale of Measurement This is the third level of measurement and includes all the characteristics of the nominal and ordinal scales of measurement. The salient feature of interval measurement is that numerically equal distances on the scale indicate equal distances in the properties of the objects being measured. In other words, here the unit of measurement is constant and equal. This is the reason ; as. ia:intervals can be added, it does not mea rue that the Although it is true t can be carried out in the absolute sense, The process of addit additivity can be © ances on an interval measuremet 0 rue but rather arbitrary. Zero point, here, does not tell the real at vrammrty being measured, It is selected only for some convenience in the measurement. Supp, aoe ne two values on an interval measurement are 5 and 8. Obviously, these two values nd 8 are 5 and 8 points above the arbitrary zero point and, adding these 3, which means that we have a total quantity, that is, 13 points above the arbitrary zero point. Now, suppose for the time being that this arbitrary zero is itself 3 points above the real zero point, then in that case the value 5 should be 5 + 3 = 8 and the value 8 should be 8 + 3 = 11,if the same meaning is to be conveyed. Adding 8 + 11, we get 19 and not 13. Thus the process of additivity on an interval measurement cannot be carried out in the absolute sense of the term Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers, time as shown in our calendar, scores on intelligence tests and aptitude tests are good examples of interval measurements. If a person secures a score of zero ‘on any numerical aptitude test, it does not mean that he has no knowledge of numerical operations. Likewise, if a person secures a score of 80 on the same numerical aptitude test, it does ‘not mean that he has a numerical aptitude which is twice greater than the person who has secured 40 on the same numerical aptitude test. All this happens because the zero point on the numerical aptitude test is not true, rather it is arbitrary. The common statistics used in such measurement are arithmetic mean, standard deviation, Pearson r, and the other statistics based upon them. Statistics like the ttest and F-test which are widely used tests of significance, can also be legitimately applied. The only statistics which cannot be applied in interval measurement is the Coefficent of variation. The reason is that the coefficient of variation is a sort of ratio of standard deviation to the arithmetic mean. Standard deviation is a fixed deviation on the measurement scale because it is not affected by any shift in the zero point. But the mean is likely to vary whenever there occurs a shift in the zero point. When the mean is affected, the coefficient of variation will also be affected. As such, it is advisable not to calculate the coefficient of variation from interval measurements. ‘ Ratio Scale of Measurement ‘ stadt it's the highest level of measurement and has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus an absolute or true zero point. The salient feature of the ratio scale is that the ratio of 2ny two numbers is independent of the unit of measurement and therefore, it can meaningfully be equated. For example, the ratio 16:28 is equal to 4:7. In ratio measurement all the nine postulates of measurement can be applied. Also all statistical ope n variation can be utilized. : Eo aw The common examples of ratio scale are and so on. It is obvious, therefore, that ratio than among social sciences. To be more interval scale and the ratio scale. The fund arbitrary but in the latter the zero point Celsius is an example of interval scale example of the ratio scale. When we meast fong and another 6’ long, we have a clear nt has only a limited value becausesaid that the 1 same in still another way, it ean be j= 4, These : 4 and the interval between € and D = @ desl ceitecy ae 6) 4 (8 = 4) 4 + 4 8 Thus on an interval mes urement i stances (not the quantities or amounts) can be added. Therefore, in at interval ‘ Nerval) between the numbers-on the scale aie tata in ‘ wweves, the ratios of magnitudes are meaningless. N s true ve intervals can be added, it does not mean that the Fi ess of f intervals OF ed out in the absolute sense. The process of addliIviy © * fimited value because in such a me ‘does not tell the real absenc® ence in the measurement/SUpr=Z e two values Mes! these two, we Bt ary stances on an interval measurement has only s not true but rather arbitrary. Zero point, here, convenie eval measurement are 5 and 8, Obviously, thes above the arbitrary zero point and, adding ‘ch means that we have a total quantity, that is, 13 points above the at jor the time being that this arbitrary zero is itself 3 points above the real \d the value 8 should 19 and not 13. Thus thee it in the absolute sense O° 3 lar, scores On intelligence tests gon secures a SCOre of ze knowledge of nul 4. It is selected only for some son an S and 8 are 5 and 8 points Now, suppost at case the value 5 should be 5 + 3 =8an to be conveyed. Adding 8 + 11, we get ‘al measurement cannot be carried ou ait ond Celsius thermometers, time as shown in our calend wade tests are good examples of interval measurements. If pers ae ay numerical aptitude test, it does not mean that he hes He é 7 seeratons. Likewise, if person secures a score of 80 on the same numerical aptitude test, ser amean that he has a numerical aptitude which is twice greater than the person who has soon the same numerical aptitude test. All this happens because the zero point on the numé sstade test isnot true, rather its arbitrary. The common statistics t einmetic mean, standard deviation, Pearson f, and the other statistics Statistics like the ttest and F-test which are widely used tests of significance, legitimately applied. The only statistics which cannot be applied in interval measul aa cent of variation. The reason is thatthe coefficient of variation is a sort of eersson to the arithmetic mean. Standard deviation is a fixed deviation on the Scale because it is not affected by any shift in the zero point: But the mean is lik whenever there occurs a shift in the zero point. ‘When the mean is affected, the vevation will also be affected. As such, itis advisable notto calculate oeffi from interval measurements. th Ratio Scale of Measurement It is the highest level cof measurement and has all the pr scales plus an ‘absolute or true zero point. The salient featur any two numbers is independent of the unit of equated. For example, the ratio 16:28 is equal to 4:7. I ‘of measurement can be applied. Also all st variation can be utilized. The common examples of ratio scale. and so on. It is obvious, therefore, that ratic than among social sciences. To be vity on an interv interval scale and the ratio scale. arbitrary but in the latter the zero Celsius is an example of ‘example of the ratio scale. Jong and another 6’ long,alll Introduction Ty Meawurement AN 6' Wea eNpor eure of sclually 6" from 0, and 4 Means actually ¥ from 0. Bout suppose * NOW, that today iy en Net today is 40°F and Was 20°F last year on the same date @MAWET is No bee MUSE OPE doer areas olen Of the same date last ny oe Fabrenheit Measurement, NOt reflect the Complete absence of temperature (true ZETO POW) in bec = Psychology, Sociology and education we Se MOSt Of the data obtained from me, anequal unit of Meas “urement and arbit of Measurement has been su a use frequently encounter interval Measurement ‘asurement in these sciences are such that we assume ZeTO point, The basic properties of all these four scales mmarized in Table 1,1 Table 14 Basic properties of scales of measurement Property Equal intervals Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Absolute zero Yes Yes Yes