BIO 1130 Photosynthesis

I. Definition and equation and other basic concepts

Define, requirements and equation

Photosynthesis
 Process that uses light energy to synthesize something
 Combination of carbon dioxide with water to form carbohydrate
 Abundant and cheap - metabolism is based on abundant compounds & obtain
without expending much energy
 Diffuse into the plants automatically from soil, water, air
 Stable and contain little chemical energy – carbohydrates they form stores
energy leading to carbohydrate breakdown that has high energy of activation
barriers
 Nontoxic – safe to absorb large quantities of CO2 and H20 to store high
concentrations of carbohydrates
 Carbon of CO2 is reduced and energy is supplied to it, converting it to carbohydrate
 +4 – oxidation state & +0 – general state
 Source of electron – water & source of energy – light
 Do not act on CO2 directly, intermediates ATP and NADPH – light dependent reaction
or thylakoid reaction
 Stroma reaction or dark reactions – ATP and NADPH interact with CO2 and produce
carbohydrate
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate by means of energy captured by several
pigments (chlorophyll a & b) accompanied by the release of oxygen
Grana

 All thylakoids in one region form vesicles at the same spot

Frets

 Thylakoids that lie between grana

 Stroma
liquid surrounding the thylakoid system
Thylakoid lumen

 Enzymes and electron carriers of photosystems are embedded in the membrane layer
facing the lumen, other enzymes are in the membrane layer facing the stroma

MAGCULIA
 Solar energy is used to form carbohydrates and oxygen (release from the atmosphere)
from carbon dioxide and water
 WATER DOES NOT COMBINE WITH CARBON DIOXIDE TO PRODUCE
CARBOHYDRATES
 Use water on the first stage of photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide is used on the second stage
 Oxidation (electron donor) and reduction (molecule receives electron)
 CO2 + H20 LIGHTCHLOROPHYLL→ (CH2O)n +O2 – simplified equation
Equation:
6CO2 + 6H20 + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Where does it occur? What organelle is essential for photosynthesis?

Chloroplasts
 Actual formation of carbohydrate in the chloroplast liquid (stroma)
 ATP-ADP and NADP+ - NADPH diffuse between the two regions

What are the 2 stages of photosynthesis? Where do these stages occur in the
chloroplast?

1st stage - Light dependent reactions – photo; Photochemical reaction

2ND stage – Calvin cycle– synthesis; Biochemical reaction
 CO2 is assimilated
 Sugar is produced
 Glucose is not the product of photosynthesis, the product is G3P
(Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate) – kind of sugar that will be used to produce
glucose and other carbohydrates (sucrose etc.)


Chloroplast
- Thylakoid membrane (1ST stage or part a)
- Stroma (2ND stage or part b)

What reactions occur during photosynthesis?

How is photosynthesis important in the continuity of life?

Number one source of oxygen in the atmosphere

Food from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere – primary source of energy

Is photosynthesis exclusive to plants? What other living organisms are capable of

photosynthesis?
Photoautotrophs
 Organisms capable of photosynthesis – self-feeders using light
Algae – photosynthesis takes place in their chloroplasts
Cyanobacteria – contain double outer membrane system and a separate internal thylakoid
membrane system for photosynthesis

Photosynthetic autotrophs
 Plants – land
 Photosynthetic protists – aquatic
 Photosynthetic bacteria – aquatic

II. Light and Chloroplasts

II.A. Light
Light as wave
  Small segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum
Wavelength
 (λ)
 Distance between the two wave crests

Short wave lengths – cosmic rays, gamma rays, and UV light have large
amounts of energy in each quantum

Long wave lengths – infrared, microwaves, radar, and radio waves have little
amounts
 Little energy per quantum that they cannot appreciably boost an
electron’s energy
Frequency
 (V)
 Number of wave crest that passes through a given distance at a speed of light
Speed of light
 3x108 m s -1
 Commonly used speed of wave (c )

Light as a particle
Photon and quantum

Quanta – amount of energy in contain in each photon (S:quantum)

Photons – tiniest possible particle of light

Plank’s law
 Spectral-energy distribution of radiation emitted by a blackbody (a hypothetical
body that completely absorbs all radiant energy as quickly as it absorbs it)
 E = hv , h – plank’s constant (6.626 x 10 – 34 Js ), v, frequency = c/ λ

What is the relationship of energy and frequency?

 Amount of energy is directly proportional to the photon’s electromagnetic
frequency; inversely proportional to the wavelength
 The higher the photon’s frequency the higher its energy
 The longer the photons wavelength, the lower its energy
 The amount of energy is inversely related to wavelength = Shorter wavelength,
the greater the energy & longer wavelength, fewer energy

Electromagnetic spectrum
What is the relationship of wavelength and frequency?
 Inversely proportional to each other
 Wave with the greatest frequency has the shortest wavelength
 As the wavelength increases the frequency decreases

What do you call the range of wavelengths our eyes are sensitive to?
Why is this the light used for biological reactions?

Visible light
 Ranges from 700 nanometers down to 400 nanometers
  Not only provide photosynthesis but also involved from many reactions such as
molecular or behavioral in the human world
Sunlight
 4% ultraviolet radiation
 52% infrared radiation – too low to drive biological processes
 44% visible light – right for biological reactions

Light – can be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed

II.B. Chloroplast

Light absorbing pigments in plants (function and structure)

Pigments
Material that absorbs certain wavelengths that has a distinctive color
Useful to the organisms in attracting mates, pollinators, frugivores or in hiding
from predators
Photosynthetic pigments
 Transfer absorbed light energy to electrons then enter chemical reactions
Chlorophyll
 Poor at absorbing light

Chlorophyll a (primary pigment)

 Absorbs only red-orange and blue-violet light letting most of the rest pass
through especially high energy radiation
 Essential photosynthetic pigment in all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria 3 billion
years ago
 No alterations in the structure of chlorophyll a has been selectively advantageous
 CH3
 Has magnesium

Accessory pigments
 Action spectrum of photosynthesis does not perfectly match the absorption spectrum of
chlorophyll a
 Molecules that strongly absorb wavelength not absorbed by chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b (accessory pigment)
 Large, flat molecules with almost identical porphyrin ring structures
 Absorbs energy from wavelengths of green light
 CHO
 Absorb some of the light that the chlorophyll a have missed
 Has magnesium

Resonance
 Allows chlorophyll b to absorb wavelengths that chlorophyll a miss and then
transfer the energy to chlorophyll a for use in chemical reactions

Carotenoid (accessory pigments)

 Poor at this type of resonance and transfer only approximately 10% of their
energy
  Important in absorbing excessive light and thus protecting chlorophylls
 Absorb and dissipate excess energy that may lead to photooxidative destruction
 Photoprotective properties
Two types of carotenoids (light absorbing pigments):
Carotenes – lack oxygen
Lutein (xanthophylls) – oxygen is present

Spectrophotometer
 Equipment that used to measure the ability of the pigment to absorb light

Absorption spectrum vs Action spectrum

 Most useful information about photochemical process 520.
 Light must be first absorbed then the action spectrum of a process must
match the absorption spectrum of the pigments responsible
Absorption spectrum
 Graph that shows which wavelengths are absorbed by a pigment
 Light absorb by the pigment as a function as wavelength
 A graph plotting a pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength
Action spectrum
 Wavelengths are most effective at powering photochemical process
 Profiles of the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths

III. Light Reaction Stage

Water is split, it donates electrons, release oxygen in the atmosphere

Light absorption stage
ATP & NADPH – used for the next stage

1st part of photosynthesis

Photochemical reaction
Product: ATP and NADPH

Excitation of energy by light

Ground state vs excited states

Photon is received by the chlorophyll molecule, it gets excited – electron jumps up from its
excited state from its ground state
If the electron is not absorbed, it goes back down releasing heat and photon
(fluorescence)

Excited state is unstable; stabilize itself by having the electron emit enough energy
(fluorescence) to drop back to its original ground state energy

Excited state - Pigment produced with a higher energy level than the ground state
pigment; short lived

It could be deactivated from its excited state when it releases:

Deactivation of excited state

 Heat/Thermal Emission/Dissipation
 Heat transfer
 Heat of an object (higher temperature than its surroundings) is
transferred to its environment
Photoluminescence
Fluorescence
 Release of light by a pigment
 Excited chlorophyll can re-emit a photon and thereby return to
its ground state
Phosphorescence
 Light emitted by a substance without combustion or perceptible
heat
Inductive resonance
 when light is absorbed, electron get boosted from their ground state to their
excited state
 starts photosynthesis, transfer of energy from one molecule to another – electron
acceptor
Photochemistry
 Energy of the excited state causes chemical reactions to occur
 Leads to the electron transport chain which begins at the reaction center

Photosystems
Define
 Functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in
photosynthesis that together carry out the primary photochemistry of
photosynthesis:
 The absorption of light
 The transfer of energy and electrons
 Light harvesting unit found in thylakoid membrane

Components

Photosynthetic unit
 All pigments and carriers that work together are packed into a granule
 Thylakoid membranes are filled with millions of granular arrays
 Contains antenna complex and reaction center
 Some photosynthetic units, chlorophyll b is abundant and some are not

Antenna complex (light harvesting complex)

 Entire set of 300 chlorophylls, carotenoids, and proteins
 Several hundred pigment molecules all transfer energy into one reaction center;
acts as if it is absorbing thousands of quanta each second
 formed by hundreds of pigment molecules that capture photons and transfer the
harvested light energy to the second component
 Where you can find the chlorophyll a & b and carotenoids

Reaction center
  Where energy is transferred when light strikes any pigments of an antenna
complex
 A structure that contains a pair of special molecules of chlorophyll a whose
properties differ from those of all other molecules of chlorophyll a in the complex

Photosystem II vs Photosystem I
 Multi-subunit membrane protein complexes differ in absorbing wavelength
1. Electrons passed from water to P680 in photosystem II, their energy is
boosted by light then mover through an electron transport chain – various
electron carriers – to P700 in photosystem I
2. Energy is boosted by light again then they pass through a short second
electron transport chain to NADP+, reducing it to NADPH
3. Protons must be added to NADP+; protons are present in the mixture of H2
O, H+ and OH-)
 Electron transport chain is necessary between P680 and P700 for the production
of ATP

Photosystem I
 Less chlorophyll b
 Absorbs longer wavelength of light (700nm)

P700
Pair of chlorophylls of the photosystem I reaction center
Absorb red light of 700 nm most efficiently
Energy excites in an electron P700 is absorbed by a membrane-bound electron
acceptor known as “Fx”
Transfer of an electron; no bonding orbital is formed
Contains iron and sulfur sometimes designated as Fe4 S4

Ferredoxin
Where reduced Fx is pass immediately from a transferred electron that is still
unstable
Located in the thylakoid membrane
Small protein with an active site consisting of two iron atoms bound to two sulfur
atoms

Ferredoxin-NADPH+ reductase
Enzyme where electrons are passed from ferredoxin
Carries two electrons but can reduced one electron at a time then transfers those
two electrons together to NADP+

AO – specific primary electron flow

Photosystem II
 Chlorophyll is present at levels almost equal to a
 Absorbs shorter wavelength of light (680nm)
 Working backward from photosystem I
 Process begins here

Plastocyanin
  A molecule that contains copper, donates an electron to the chlorophyll a
of the photosystem I reaction center
 As it oxidized – lacking electron
1. It receives a new electron from a complex of cytochrome
molecules - cytochrome b6/f complex
2. In turn gets an electron from a molecule of plastoquinone
3. Receives electron from another carries Q – molecule of quinone
4. In turn receives electron from phaeophytin – chlorophyll a
molecule that does not contain magnesium atom
 It oxidized as it donates an electron to Q, it must obtain
another electron which it does when a chlorophyll a
molecule absorbs light and is activated
P680
Pair of chlorophylls of the photosystem II reaction center
Gets new electrons from water not plastocyanin
1. Water breaks down into protons (H+) which the plant uses and
oxygen (O2) it discards
 Electrons carriers are large which the plant must construct
itself
2. Electrons are stripped off and protons are used, and the oxygen is
discarded through stomata

PHOTOSYSTEMS
Components Photosystem II Photosystem I
Reaction Center P680 P700
Electron acceptor (1st Pheophytin A0
accepts)
LHC ( Chla : Chlb) ratio 1:1 4:1
Location Grana in the thylakoid Stroma in the thylakoid

Linear Electron Flow vs Cyclic Electron Flow

Linear electron flow

 O2 is released
 NADPH is released
 ATP is produced
 Electrons flow smoothly from water to NADPH
 Light is absorbed by the chlorophyll in the light harvesting complex then it is passed
until it reaches the reaction center of PII,
 Once it is reached, electron gets excited and received by pheophytin,
then passes it to plastoquinone, and moves to the cytochrome
complex (b6/f complex), then passes it to plastocyanin, then passed
on PI
 Electrons of PI, it passes to AO, then to Fx – series of acceptor with iron
and sulfur, passed to ferredoxin, then to ferredoxin NADP+ reductase
(Fnr) – produces NADP+ to produce NADPH

 Electron in the chlorophyll a must be replenished, from water – electron donor

Cyclic electron flow
 Alternative pathway seen in some bacteria and plants
 Photoprotective in plants
 No NADPH production
 No O2 release
 To generate excess ATP w/o generating NADPH
 Calvin cycle uses more ATP than it does NADPH
 Chloroplast make extra ATP w/o making extra NADPH
 Simple light-powered proton pump
 NOT REQUIRED WATER
 Instead of ferredoxin passing it to Fnr, it returns the electron to the cytochrome
complex, then passed it on plastocyanin, then return it to PI

Why does this happen?

 ATP not enough, to add more
 Mutant plant, do not grow in intense light
 Photoprotective function

What are the products of each electron flow?

LEF – ATP & NADPH
CEF – ATP

Which photosystem are involved?

LEF – Photosystem I & II
CEF – Photosystem I

Phosphorylation
 Another way to produce ATP
 Proton pump – difference in proton gradient
 Inside the lumen – more hydrogen ions as compared to stroma
 Excrete water, you release hydrogen ions
 Plastoquinone removes hydrogen ions from the stroma and brings it inside
 Hydrogen ions will be used to produce NADPH – less hydrogen ions in the
stroma and more inside
 Difference is it powers the ATP synthase to produce ATP

Light Reaction Summary

Light harvesting
 Entry gate of photosynthesis and determines how much sunlight can be collected
and transferred into the photosynthetic systems
 Absorbs photon then the energy from the electrons until it reaches the reaction
center
Photochemical reaction
 Chemical reaction triggered when light energy is absorbed by a substance’s
molecules
 The response leads the molecules to experience a temporary excited state, thus
altering their physical and chemical properties from the substance’s initial
molecule
  Electrons then transferred to their acceptors – rection center to utilize water;
replace electrons that was passed on then produces O2
 PI – produce NADPH
Electron transport
 Series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from a donor, which becomes
oxidized to a receptor, which becomes reduced
 Linear and cyclic
Photophosphorylation
 Utilizing light energy from photosynthesis to convert ADP to ATP
 Synthesizing energy-rich ATP molecules by transferring the phosphate group into
ADP molecule in the presence of light
 Chemiosmotic phosphorylation – difference in gradient that drives the
synthesis of ATP

How is ATP produced? – CORCOLON

ATP will not split water
 Water is split because of strong oxidant (P680) – oxidized state (kulang ng electrons)
 Water is the source of electrons to bring back the state of P680 (trapped chlorophyll
molecule of PII)
 Role of water is to provide electrons to fuel the electing flow – 2 water molecules to form
1 free molecular oxygen
 ATP produce will go to stroma for the 2nd part of photosynthesis

First electron acceptor – A0 (PI), flow down to ferredoxin etc., then electrons used to reduce
NADP, then eventually producing NADPH

Redox reactions
 Reduction oxidation reactions
 Substance is oxidized another substance will be reduce; always coupled

C6 H12 O6
 Not product of photosynthesis
 Glucose, fructose, galactose – isomers
 Same molecular formula but different structures

IV. Light Independent Reaction Stage

Synthesis stage; carbon assimilation – using the energy from the 1st stage
Inorganic carbon to organic carbon

2nd part of photosynthesis

Biochemical reactions – catalyze by enzymes – speed up chemical reactions
Not all proteins; without biological catalyst the process would be slow

Why is it not appropriate to call this as dark reaction stage?

 Implies incorrectly that the reaction only occurs at night or is independent of light
What are the different pathways that plant utilize during this stage?

C3 cycle/ Calvin-Benson cycle / Reductive pentose pathway

 Conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate which occurs in the stroma and
mediated by enzymes that are not bound to thylakoid membranes
 C3/PCR – Photosynthetic carbon reduction

Examples of species that utilize this pathway.

 Rice, wheat, beans potato temperate crops

What are the 3 phases of the C3 pathway and explain

the cycle.

1. Fixation (1 STEP)
2. Reduction (2 STEPS)
3. Regeneration (SEVERAL) – goes back to the cycle

In each cycle, how many CO2, ATP and NADPH are needed?

 1 CO2 : 3 ATP : 2 NADPH

What is the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction?

 RuBP carboxylase/ oxygenase (RUBISCO) – depending on the

concentration of carbohydrates and oxygen present
 Activated by light
 Occur in the presence or absence of light
 Largest and most complex enzymes known
 30% of the protein leaf
 All photosynthesis that produces oxygen is mediated

What is the CO2 acceptor?

 Ribulose, 1-5 bisphosphate; RuBp

 Contains five carbons and one more is added from carbon dioxide

What is the first stable product of this pathway?

 3 – phosphogylceric acid (PGA) – 3 carbon compounds

What is the product of this cycle?

 3 turns = G3P
 Used to synthesized either sucrose or starch
 If sucrose (cytoplasm) – goes to different parts of the plant and
hydrolyze to form glucose and fructose; transportable form of
carbohydrate that is a disaccharide consisting of glucose and
fructose joined by a glycosidic bond
  If starch (remains in the chloroplast) – hydrolyzing starch which is
a polymer of glucose molecules that has 2 chains, amylose and
amylopectin

STEPS:

1. Carbon dioxide enters the cycle and received by RuBP

2. Catalyze by RUBISCO – forms short lived intermediate that has 6 carbons (unstable),
which breaks away and forms 3 – phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
3. Converted to 1-3 Biphosphoglycerate, then changed to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(G3P)
4. After 3 turns, 6 G3P is produced, however only 1 is the product of photosynthesis
5. 5 G3P goes back to the cycle to regenerate RuBP – CO2 acceptor to proceed the cycle

Photorespiration
 Oxidation of phosopoglycolate produced when RuBP carboxylase adds oxygen,
not carbon dioxide to RuBP
 Present in C3 plant
 Oxygen is consumed in the presence of light
What is the role of Rubisco?
Steps

Rubisco – oxygenation of RuBP – phosphoglycolate (2C compound)

Functions

 Oxygenase

When does it occur?

It favors low levels of CO2 then high irradiance and high temperature

Why is this undesirable?

 It decreases photosynthetic output
 Uses ATP with no sugar output
 Releases CO2 which could have been used for photosynthesis

Then why is there photorespiration?

 Acts as a safety valve in situations that require dissipation of excess
excitation energy
 Protect plant from photooxidative damage – permit continued operation of
the ETC even at high light and low CO2 – dissipate excess ATP and
reducing power
STEPS:
1. RuBP is oxygenated in the chloroplast, produces phosphoglycolate which is then
converted to glycolate (2 carbons)
2. Goes to the peroxisome, glycolate is oxidized and converted to glycine
3. Glycine goes to the mitochondrion; two glycine molecules are metabolized to serine,
releasing ammonia and CO2
 4. Serine goes back to peroxisome and is converted to glycerate
5. Glycerate goes back to chloroplast and is converted to G3P (not the final output) and
reenters the C3 cycle

C4 pathway/ Hatch and Slack pathway

 C4 cycle because of its first stable product which is a four-carbon compound-
oxaloacetic acid
 Does not have photorespiration
 Does not have PS II – cyclic electron flow
What species uses this pathway?

Graminae, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) and cyperaceae

(sedges) – looks grass but the stem is triangular

Corn

What is the advantage of this pathway over the C3 pathway?

2 distinct chloroplast containing cell types

Mesophyll
Bundle sheath cells

Explain what happens during this cycle.

STEPS:
1. CO2 enters in the mesophyll cells that becomes bicarbonate ion which reacts with
phosphoenolpyruvate (PP)
2. During carboxylation, it forms C4 acid – Oxaloacetate (C4), then convert to malate or
aspartate
3. Malate is converted then enter the bundle sheath cells, it will be carboxylated
4. CO2 is released and enter in the Calvin cycle, C3 acid produced (pyruvate or alanine)
goes back to the mesophyll cell to rejuvenate PP

Campbell book research

 PH scientists has been working on genetically modified rice – C3 to carry out C4

photosynthesis
 Funded by Melinda and Bill Gates foundation

CAM pathway/ Crassulacean acid metabolism

Plants adapted to arid environments
Discovered in Crassulaceae (Stonecrop family)
Found in many angiosperm families (Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Bromilliaceae etc.) –
desert plants, pineapples
Plants exhibit maximum water use efficiency (WUE)

What are the features of the plant species that utilize this pathway?
 1. Stomata open at night and closed during the day – night is colder than the day in which
transpiration rate is high
2. Leaves have low surface area to volume ratio
3. Cells have larger vacuoles, deeper stomata, and denser guard cells – needed for
storage
4. Forms malate at night which disappears during daytime
5. Succulent

Explain what happens during this cycle.

Dark: Stomata opened

1. CO2 enters the stomata then converted to bicarbonate ion which reacts to PEP
carboxylase to form oxaloacetate
2. Then convert into malate, then convert to malic acid that is stored in the vacuole – stays
during night time

Light: Stomata close

1. CO2 cannot enter, malic acid from the vacuole converted into malate
2. Then enters the chloroplast which is decarboxylated – CO2 can now enter the Calvin
cycle
3. Pyruvate can be converted into starch, then converted to triose phosphate which is
regenerated to PEP

CAM plants – separated by time; malate stored during night and in the morning,
it is used for the process of Calvin cycle
 Ecological adaptation
 Obligate (no other type of CO2 fixation)
 Facultative (inducible) – depend on water supply and temperature
 CAM alone
 C3 alone
 Both

CAM idling
 Severe drought
 Stomates closed all the time
 Respiratory CO2 is re-fixed at night
 No net CO2 is fixed – no product of photosynthesis then no growth

Differentiate C4 vs CAM plants

Similar mechanism of concentrating CO2 at site of rubisco – C4 have bundle sheaths, malate is
separated in mesophyll and bundle sheaths, while CAM separated dark and light ???

Differ in two features:

1. Lack specialized leaf anatomy of C4 plants
2. Formation of C4 acids is temporally not spatially

Differentiate C3 vs C4 vs CAM pathway

 Characteristic C3 C4 CAM
Leaf Anatomy Mesophyll with no Mesophyll with Mesophyll with
distinct bundle distinct bundle large vacuoles
sheath sheath
Carboxylating Rubisco PEP case AND PEP case AND
Enzyme Rubisco Rubisco
(separation in (separation in
space) space)
Primary products C3 acid PGA C4 acids OAA, C4 acids OAA,
of CO2 fixation malate, aspartate malate, aspartate
(first stable
product)
Photorespiration High (1/3 of total Very low or absent Very low (able to
PS) minimize)
Transpiration 1:3:2 1:5:2 1:6.5:2
ratio (H2O lost/
CO2 fixed)
Optimum 15-25 25-40 35-45
Temperature for
PS (Celsius)
CO2 30-70 0-10 0-5
compensation
point
Light saturation 1/3 of full sunlight Unsaturated eve at 1/10 of full sunlight
for PS full sunlight
Maximum values 15-30 35-45 1-5
of net
photosynthesis
(Pn) (umol CO2/
m2/ sec)
Maximum growth 0.5 -2.0 4–5 0.012 – 0.020
rate (DM/ 1 dm2
leaf/ area/ day)
Occurrence Temperate Tropics Deserts
Representative Rice, pea, wheat, Corn, sugarcane, Cactus, pineapple,
species tobacco, beets, sorghum most orchids
spinach

V. Factors Affectindg Photosynthesis (Explain how each factor affects photosynthesis)

Light irradiance

Intensity – goes through an area

Irradiance – energy that arrives on the surface; depend on light intensity

What is light saturation point?

 Rate of photosynthesis will no longer increase

Carbon dioxide
 Photosynthetic rate increase if there is higher concentration of CO2

What is CO2 compensation point (CCP)?

 Lower for c4 plants (do not photorespiration) compared to c3 plants – net
photosynthesis is disbalance in the respiratory loss
 Higher amount of CO2 – favors more in C3 plants

Water
 Donor of electron that we need for our process to proceed

 CAM plants – most efficient in usage

Temperature
 If it increases the rate of photosynthesis increases because of the enzymatic
reactions and metabolite transport and diffusion that occurs during the process
Nutrients
Nitrogen
 Structural component of chlorophyll and proteins
 Lack – lesser chlorophyll and protein
Phosphorous
 Component of ATP needed for the process
Manganese, Chlorine, Calcium
 Needed during oxygen evolution and splitting of water (photolysis)
Iron
 Needed for photosystem I because it is pass to several acceptors containing iron
and sulfur
Magnesium
 Lack of magnesium = lesser chlorophyll to absorb the light
Define rate of CO2 assimilation/unit leaf area

 Amount of CO2 that can be taken in inherent characteristic of species – genetic

involvement

Define potential rate of CO2 assimilation

 Affected by the interaction with environment

What is limiting factor?

 Factor affecting a process that is present in the least amount

 CAM plants – desert; water

What is law of minimum?

 Increase of limiting factor it increases rate of process

 If LF is water, then I increase the water supply; it increases the rate of photosynthesis