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CERAMICS
INTERNATIONAL
Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
www.elsevier.com/locate/ceramint

Review paper

Processing and properties of advanced porous ceramics: An application

based review
E.C. Hammel, O.L.-R. Ighodaro, O.I. Okolin
High-Performance Materials Institute, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, 2525 Pottsdamer Street, Tallahassee, FL 32310, United States

Received 29 April 2014; received in revised form 18 June 2014; accepted 18 June 2014
Available online 9 July 2014

Abstract

Ceramics with engineered porosity are promising materials for a number of functional and structural applications including thermal insulation,
filters, bio-scaffolds for tissue engineering, and preforms for composite fabrication. In this application based review of advanced porous ceramics,
the microstructure of porous components is discussed in terms of the necessary features required to achieve the ideal properties for the intended
application. The processing methods that are capable of producing the required microstructure are addressed. Those methods which allow the
pore structure to be tailored or controlled are considered the most favorable processing techniques.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.

Keywords: B. Porosity; B. Microstructure – final; E. Functional applications; E. Structural applications

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15352
1.1. Overview of processing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15352
2. Porous ceramics for thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15353
2.1. Microstructure – processing relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15353
2.2. Freeze casting process for thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15354
3. Porous ceramics for filtration purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15354
3.1. Water filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15354
3.2. Hot gas filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15355
3.3. Molten metal filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15356
3.4. Filter operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15356
3.5. Processing of ceramic filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15357
3.5.1. Freeze casting process for filter fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15357
4. Porous ceramics for bio-scaffolds in tissue engineering applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15358
4.1. Processing of ceramic bio-scaffolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15360
4.1.1. Direct AM fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15361
4.1.2. Indirect AM fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15361
5. Porous ceramic preforms for fabrication of ceramic–metal composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15363

Abbreviations: AM, additive manufacturing; CAD, computer aided design; CFFs, ceramic foam filters; DPFs, diesel particulate filters; IPCs, interpenetrating
composite; POU, point-of-use; SEM, scanning electron microscope; TBA, tert-butyl-alcohol
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 850 410 6352; fax: þ 1 850 410 6342.
E-mail address: ookoli@fsu.edu (O.I. Okoli).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2014.06.095
0272-8842/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.
15352 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

5.1.Processing of ceramic preforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15364

5.1.1. Additive manufacturing of porous ceramic preforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15366
6. Summary and concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15367
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15368

1. Introduction polymers, metals, and ceramics. While several variations exist

Advanced porous ceramics (also called ceramic foams) are
being utilized in a broad range of applications in order to
mitigate several environmental, biological, and transportation
related issues facing society [1]. Ceramic materials offer many
distinct advantages over other materials such as polymers or
metals; the properties of hardness, chemical inertness, thermal
shock resistance, corrosion and wear resistance, and low density
are the qualities that are essential to many applications [2,3].
The fabrication processes for porous ceramics have been
subject to much consideration in order to accommodate and
satisfy the wide range of property demands for specific
applications. Parameters relating to the pore structure, such
as pore size, shape, distribution, and connectivity all play into
the resulting functionality of the porous ceramic material. For
instance, the pores may offer insulating properties at high
temperature, capture impurities in a filter, facilitate tissue
growth in a bio-scaffold, or provide the architecture for
reinforcement in a ceramic–metal composite. These materials
may be designed to possess the required properties for a
particular application through the modification and optimiza-
tion of processing techniques, and they can be tailored to
possess the desired properties through the control of the
microstructure [3].
in terms of additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, the basic
principle is the same. A three-dimensional object is modeled in
a computer aided design (CAD) program, the model is sliced
and built layer-by-layer by a particular AM machine, stacking
one layer on top of the previous. In this way, a 3D object can
be built in almost any geometry, including porous structures.
In recent years, several researchers have reviewed the topic
of porous materials. Guzman highlights the principles of
formation of porous ceramics [4], Luyten et al. expand on
the synthesis and applications of inorganic porous materials
[1], Studart et al. [3] and Colombo [2] review processing
methods, Okada et al. focus on porous ceramics that mimic
natural structures [5], and Colombo et al. concentrate on
ceramics containing hierarchical porosity [6]. In this review,
applications of porous ceramics will be covered with respect to
the required microstructure that conveys the functional and
mechanical properties required for the application in question.
Also, because not all methods are suitable or capable of
generating the microstructure befitting all applications, a
discussion on the processing methods capable of producing
optimal microstructure for specific applications will be provided.

1.1. Overview of processing techniques

Pores can be incorporated into the structure of a ceramic

through many processing techniques. One technique is to
simply sinter coarse powders or partially sinter a green ceramic
to hinder full densification. Other traditional methods of
fabricating porous ceramics can be divided into three basic
processing techniques: replica; sacrificial template; and direct
foaming as seen in Fig. 1 [3]. The replica technique employs a
synthetic or natural template that is infiltrated with a ceramic
suspension. After drying, the template is removed thus creating
a replica of the original template structure. The sacrificial
template method incorporates some sort of pore former or
sacrificial material to act as a place holder within the ceramic
powder or slurry. Once the green body is formed, the pore
former is removed to leave behind empty pores. One particular
method, freeze casting, utilizes growing ice crystals in a
ceramic slurry to form the pores in a ceramic body. Direct
foaming is a process where gas bubbles are incorporated into a
ceramic suspension and once the slurry is set and dried, the
ceramic retains the resulting spherical pores. Fig. 1. Typical processing methods for the production of macroporous
ceramics: (a) replica technique; (b) sacrificial template technique and (c) direct
Rapid prototyping techniques are fast evolving and gaining foaming technique [3].
attention as they are being utilized for the fabrication of From Studart et al. [3]. Copyright © 2006, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted
intricate structures of a variety of materials including with permission of John Wiley and Sons.
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370 15353

Specifically, the review will focus on processing of ceramic sintering of ceramics does not appear to be the best method for
foams suitable for thermal insulation, filters, scaffolds for tissue producing ceramic foams for insulation purposes.
engineering, and preforms for ceramic–metal composites. Replica method is evidently not an effective processing
route for insulating foams even though very high porosities up
to 95% [3] can be achieved. This is because these foams are
2. Porous ceramics for thermal insulation
reticulate (open pores) and often posses very weak stengths
due to cracked walls or interconnections [10–12]. High
The need for thermal insulation is not only very critical for
porosity foams produced by the sacrificial template method
technological development, but many industrial processes
usually result in open pores, and the maximum attainable
would not be possible without adequate thermal insulation.
porosity is usually around 60–70% [13]. These features work
Thermal insulation helps to reduce power consumption during
against thermal insulation. For high porosity ceramic foams,
thermal processing of materials and also protects the surround-
direct foaming techniques also result in reticulate structure,
ing space from the heat in the processing environment.
which is not effective for thermal insulation.
Generally, ceramic materials posses high temperature stability
Among the established processing routes for ceramic foams
and low thermal conductivity, and these are key requirements
the freeze casting method appears to be the most effective
for thermal insulators. Moreover, ceramics are not only struc-
method for processing foams intended for thermal insulation
turally stable at high temperature but they are also chemically
applications. For highly porous foams, the relatively high
stable, thus they can also be applied in high temperature
mechanical strength attainable by this method and relatively
chemical processes.
well established control over microstucture [14,15] enables this
In order to append the advantages of light weight and further
processing method to meet the functional requirements for
lower the thermal conductivity of ceramic materials, porous
enhanced effective insulation as illustrated below. Effective-
ceramics come into play. Although thermal conductivity of the
ness of an insulator is enhanced by its capacity to resist heat
solid monolithic material is an intrinsic property, the porosity
flow by all forms of thermal transport (conduction, convection
(percentage of pores) and microstructure (pore size, wall
and radiation). The illustration below (Fig. 2a and b) shows
thickness, etc.) of the porous material significantly affect the
two hypothetical ceramic foams. Fig. 2a shows a random
thermal conductivity [7]. In order to engineer porous ceramics
interconnected-pore microstucture, while Fig. 2b shows an
to give the desired thermal conductivity, the processing
aligned closed-pore microstructure (both foams have their
method needs to be considered. It must also be noted that,
surfaces close to the heat source).
other factors being the same, higher porosity results in higher
Due to the possibility of cross-flow convection currents
insulating capability. However, the porous fraction must be
through the foam in Fig. 2a, convection heat loss becomes
viewed in relation to the resultant mechanical strength, since
significant, reducing the effectiveness of thermal insulation of
these properties are generally inversely related.
the foam. But for Fig. 2b, cross-flow convection current is not
permitted because the pores are aligned orthogonal to the
2.1. Microstructure – processing relationship heated surface. This reduces heat loss by convection thereby
enhancing the thermal insulating capacity of the material.
Having gone through the principal methods of processing
ceramic foams in the introductory section, an assessment of
how their resulting microstructures and properties align with
the required functions will be discussed. Ceramic foams
processed by a partial sintering method usually possess
random microstructure, and the pores are usually closed when
the porosity is low. Closed porosity is an exellent property for Heat Environment
Source
thermal insulation since it prevents the convective component [Ta]
[To]
of heat transfer. But because of the high mass fraction (solid
component of the foam), thermal conductivity is not signifi-
cantly reduced. Increasing the porosity (which may be
achieved by reducing the green density or reducing the
sintering temperature or time) would significantly reduce foam
strength and other mechanical properties. Furthermore, at high
Heat
porosities, most of the pores become interconnected, though Source Environment
some pores may still be closed. This causes convective transfer [To] [Tb]
and reduces the insulating capacity of the foam. Moreover,
foams processed by partial sintering tend to shrink after
prolonged use as insulators, especially at temperatures close
to or higher than the initial sintering temperature. It should Fig. 2. Schematic representation of (a) random porous microstructure and (b)
also be noted that porosities associated with partially sintered an idealize porous microstructure with aligned and closed channels. The white
foams are normally below 50% [8,9]. For these reasons, partial and gray portions represent pores and solid matter, respectively. To 4Ta 4Tb.
15354 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
Fig. 3. SEM images of (a) the channel structure and (b) vertical section of monolithic silica gel microhoneycombs formed by unidirectional freeze-gelation method.
Adapted from Ref. [16] with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Other conventional methods produce microstructures similar to
Fig. 2a, but the freeze casting process produces foams closest
to Fig. 2b. Fig. 3 is a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
image of a freeze cast ceramic structure [16]. The closeness of
this microstructure to the idealized concept of Fig. 2b can be
appreciated.
2.2. Freeze casting process for thermal insulation
It is worthy to note that not all freeze cast foams result in
aligned pores. Adequate control of the ice-templating process
during freezing must be considered in order to generate the
required pore structure. Generally, the microstructure of freeze-
dried foams depends on the foam material and the processing
parameters, and it has been observed that pore channels
usually align along the freezing direction/temperature gradient
[7,14,17,18]. Zhang and Cooper [15], in their review,
described various works in the development of directional
freezing techniques aimed at generating defined pore structure
and orientation.
A common feature of the microstructure of some freeze dried
foams is the dendritic stucture. The presence of dendrites promote
interconnectivity between the pore channels, promoting cross-
flow convection current between the channels. Thus dendritic
structures could lower the insulation effectiveness of foams.
Therefore foams intended for thermal insulation should be free of
dendrites, or the primary dendrite arm spacing should be wide
enough to avoid overlapping of dendrite arms, to prevent
convection currents. Cadirli et al. [19] investigated the depen-
dency of microstructure on solidification parameters (temperature
gradient, growth rate and cooling rate) of camphene and found
that microstructural parameters, including the primary dendrite
arm spacing and secondary dendrite arm spacing (defined in
Fig. 4) can be controlled by changing the values of solidification
parameters. The values of microstructural parameters decrease as
the values of solidification parameters increase. Dendritic features
are normally associated with the microstructure when water or
camphene (without organic gelation agent) is used as the freezing
vehicle. Therefore it is also possible to create pore channels
without dendritic microstucture if a polymeric gelation agent is
included. In the work of Fukushima et al. [14], gelatin was
employed as a gelation agent in the fabrication of SiC foam and it
was observed that dendritic structure was absent. They suggested
that gelatin in the slurry strongly prevented the growth of
dendritic ice crystal during ice formation. Li and Li [7] also
fabricated ceramic foam without dendritic morphology, using a
framework of Y2SiO5 and tert-butyl-alcohol (TBA) as the
solvent. They also observed that the porous channels in their
foam were vertically straight and parallel to one another. This
type of microstructure would be effective for insulation purposes.
Aside from the microstructure, which is principally dependent
on the processing methodology and components of the slurry, the
material for the framework of the foam must be taken into
consideration. The overall effectiveness of the insulator would be
determined by the framework material, porosity and microstruc-
ture. Freeze casting technique seems to have the potential to
generate the most effective microstructure for insulation. How-
ever, further investigations need to be carried out to determine the
applicability of freeze casting methodology for fabricating not
only laboratory specimens but also foams meeting industry size
requirements and specifications.
3. Porous ceramics for filtration purposes
Porous ceramics are useful filtration components in a
number of applications, and they are designed to remove
contaminants having sizes of several micrometers down to the
nanometer range from various fluids. While many other
applications for porous filters exist, this review section will
focus specifically on the applications of porous ceramic filters
for water, hot gas, and molten metal filtration. The processing
techniques capable of producing an effective filter for the
application in question will then be discussed in terms of the
desired microstructure and corresponding properties.
3.1. Water filters
Filtration of potable water reduces the threat of disease
caused by bacteria, protozoans, and viruses. Additionally,
filtration of waste water produced by many industries reduces
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370 15355

emissions that are harmful to the environment. In a study by
Sobsey et al. [20], a comparison between several household
water treatment techniques was conducted based on several
factors affecting sustainability. It was concluded that ceramic
and biosand filters were potential options for a sustainable
water treatment technique [20]. Ren also evaluated the
sustainability of point-of-use (POU) filters for clean drinking
water [21]. The idea behind POU ceramic filters is that they are
capable of being produced fairly inexpensively near the area
where they are most needed. This local production process
usually utilizes materials such as clay and an organic pore
former such as sawdust, rice hulls, or starch. The clay/pore
former mixture is then fired and the organic material is burned
away leaving behind a porous material. Many filters used
for drinking water are coated in a colloidal silver solution or
nano-particle silver so that the bacteria going into the filter are
trapped and killed. Other research has been dedicated to
increase the efficiency of filters for capturing viruses which
are as small as 20 nm in diameter since the pores in unmodified
microfilters are not nearly small enough to capture them based
on size exclusion [22]. Materials such as magnesium oxyhydr-
oxide have been incorporated into the filter to enable it to
capture negatively charged viruses via adsorption [22].
3.2. Hot gas filters
Filtration of hot gases occurs in many industrial processes in
order to remove impurities that may harm the environment or
downstream equipment. Some specific processes that require
the filtration of hot gases are listed in Table 1. Filtration may

Fig. 4. Schematics and photographs to define the (a and b) primary dendrite arm spacing, (c and d) secondary dendrite arm spacing, (e and f) dendrite tip radius, and
(g and h) mushy zone depth of the dendrite structure [19].
Reprinted from Cadirli et al. [19]. Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier.
15356 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

also be required due to more stringent environmental legisla- that enter the melt during processing or are present in the raw
tion or may be beneficial by improving process efficiency [23]. materials. Small solid inclusions o 50 μm in size need to be
Filtration in the temperature range of 260–900 1C is removed [25]. Dissolved gases, nonmetallic and intermetallic
considered hot gas filtration, and these filters may experience inclusions, and alkali and alkaline-earth elements are common
pressures up to 8 MPa [23]. Since filtration occurs under these contaminants [26]. The required pore size for the ceramic
conditions, it is imperative that the ceramic filter possess filters varies depending upon the material being filtered. The pore
adequate thermal shock resistance and mechanical strength size also varies depending on the end applications of the metal
[23]. Porous ceramics are used as diesel particulate filters and the corresponding purity desired [27]. Surface functionaliza-
(DPFs) to capture the soot particles present in the exhaust of tion of filter materials is an additional method to increase the ease
diesel engines. Table 2 (Sundaram et al. [24]) displays the with which inclusions are removed. Active and reactive coatings
typical requirements of DPFs and the means of achieving those are used to interact with the inclusions and dissolved gases in the
requirements. Note that the requirements are met through the metal melt in order to increase the amount deposited on the filter
use of the proper materials and associated properties and the [28,29]. Coatings may also be used to improve the mechanical
design of the pore structure. performance of the foam filter [30].
A filter must possess the thermal, mechanical, and chemical
3.3. Molten metal filters properties necessary for it to function sustainably. In the case
of molten metal and hot gas filtration, the temperature
Molten metals, such as aluminum, need to go through a fluctuation during the process will leave the filter material
purification/filtration process to remove or lower the potential susceptible to thermal shock. The mechanical properties of the
for defects in the final part, prior to casting, in order to produce filter must be high enough to withstand the pressures experi-
a high quality and reliable cast. It is important to obtain a high enced during service, and the properties of the filter must not
purity metal melt because the properties of the finished part, degrade with increasing temperature. Also, the filter must not
such as strength and toughness, are influenced negatively by corrode over time or react with the liquid or gas that is passing
impurities. Ceramic foam filters (CFFs) are used in the casting through it. Ceramic materials such as cordierite, mullite,
industry to purify molten metals by removing contaminants alumina, and silicon carbide, demonstrate the required thermal,
mechanical, and chemical properties that are desirable for high
temperature filtration.
Table 1
Typical applications that require hot gas filtration [23]. 3.4. Filter operation
Adapted from Heidenreich [23], Copyright (2012), with permission from
Elsevier.
The filtration mode could be surface filtration, cake filtration
Coal gasification Smelting processes (which is actually surface filtration in fouling mode) or depth
Coal combustion Metal production filtration as illustrated in Fig. 5. Depth filtration (Fig. 5c)
Biomass gasification Metal recycling (e.g. aluminium allows a larger surface area to be available for filtration, and
recycling)
Biomass pyrolysis Glass industry
more service is obtained from this filter before cleaning is
Biomass combustion Cement industry necessary, since it is not easily fouled.
Refineries Steel industry Some filters are produced by extrusion to form a porous
Low-level radioactive waste Chemical industry (e.g. production and honeycomb structure. This structure is of the wall-flow type
incineration and pyrolysis recovery of catalysts) where channel openings are alternately blocked thus forcing
Waste incineration and pyrolysis Production of metal oxide powders,
the fluid to travel through the walls of the filter. These
pigments and nanoparticles
honeycomb filters operate under depth and then cake-
filtration mode [31]. Foam filters described in this review
Table 2 operate in the depth filtration (also called deep bed filtration)
Typical requirements for diesel particulate filters and the means of achieving mode. Besides the thermal, mechanical, and chemical proper-
those requirements [24]. ties required of the filter material, the parameters correspond-
From Sundaram et al. [24]. Copyright © 2013 The American Ceramic Society. ing to the architecture and microstructure of the filter will have
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons. a large impact on the functionality. The flow rate, permeability,
Requirement Means of achieving pressure drop, etc. are related to the overall porosity, tortuosity,
pore size, pore shape, and pore distribution.
Low pressure drop High porosity The ability to control porosity parameters through various
High filtration Narrow pore distribution
techniques has enabled researchers to fabricate components
efficiency
Easy handling and High strength with multimodal pore size distributions. Components posses-
canning sing hierarchical porosity contain pores on multiple length
Resistance to ash Chemically inert material scales [6]. Incorporating a combination of macro-, micro-, and/
Thermal resistance High melting temperature or meso-pores increases the functionality of the component
Resistance to Low CTE, strength/modulus, high thermal conductivity
as the pores perform different functions based upon their size.
thermal shock and heat capacity, control of microcrack population
For instance, size/shape selectivity or reduction of transport
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
limitations may simultaneously be gained in components with
hierarchical pores [32]. The mechanical strength and perme-
ability of fluids may be influenced by the macroporous
framework, whereas the meso/micro-pores may increase the
specific surface area and thus influence the functionality [33].
Multifunctional materials may improve the performance of
components in many application areas. In particular, hierarchi-
cally porous ceramic components have been utilized in
catalysis and absorptive applications. The high specific surface
area associated with these ceramics allows for higher interac-
tion with reactants [9]. As described in the review by Colombo
et al. [6], there are two major methods for the creation of
components with hierarchical pores. Micro/mesoporous mate-
rials can be assembled into macroporous components or micro/
mesoporosity can be added to macroporous monoliths. Filters
may also benefit from containing hierarchical porosity. The
next section describes some of the processing methods of
ceramic filters.
3.5. Processing of ceramic filters
High flow-rate and high permeability are indicators of
effectiveness and efficiency of a filter and these are determined
by the microstructure of the foam. Not all methods of
producing ceramic foams are suitable for generating the
microstructure required for high permeability and high flow-
rate. To enhance fluid flow properties, unidirectional pores
aligned parallel to the flow direction are more effective than
pores running perpendicular or otherwise [34,35]. In a work
done by Isobe et al. [35], nylon 66 fibers were used as fugitive
material. By an extrusion shaping process, the fibers were
aligned unidirectionally along the extrusion direction. This
resulted in aligned cylindrical pores in the alumina matrix after
sintering. Fig. 6 shows the scanning electron micrograph
images of some specimens produced by extrusion shaping
process.
They also prepared foams by partial sintering for compar-
ison of properties. For the foams prepared by partial sintering
no permeation was observed at a porosity of 26%; the porosity
Fluid with
impurities
Porous filter
Filtered fluid
Fig. 5. Representation of the three modes of filtration: (a) surface filtration where impurities are captured at the entrance of the filter due to size exclusion, (b) cake
filtration where the built-up impurities act to further filter the fluid, and (c) depth filtration where the impurities are captured in the interior of the filter.
15357
was higher than 34% before permeation was observed. But for
the extruded foam having channels aligned along the fluid flow
direction, permeation was observed at 18% porosity. Gener-
ally, permeability, bending strength and reliability were sig-
nificantly higher for the extruded foams than for the partially
sintered counterparts. These qualities are attributed to the
alignment of the channels and orderliness of the microstruc-
ture. However, some limitations of this extrusion process exist
(as seen from Fig. 6). For instance, all of the channels may not
align, some of the channels may not connect, leading to closed
pores, and some channels may merge, resulting in larger pores
and consequently, weaker and less effective foam. Other
researchers [5,36–38] have successfully made foams with
unidirectionally oriented channels, using natural wood as
sacrificial replica materials. Fig. 7 shows micrographs of foam
specimens produced using natural wood template materials
reported by Rambo et al. [37]. The unidirectional orientation
and orderliness of these channels promote fluid flow properties
and effectiveness of the foams.
A limitation of foams produced from natural templates is the
lack of control over the pore size or porosity since the
microstructure of the foam is significantly well defined by
the architecture of the natural sacrificial material. Furthermore,
processing time is relatively long and cumbersome, and the
mechanical strengths are usually relatively low.
3.5.1. Freeze casting process for filter fabrication
Freeze casting technique has been used by various research-
ers for producing unidirectionally aligned foams, and signifi-
cant control has been exercised over the pore size and porosity.
When camphene or water is used as the freezing vehicle,
dendritic structures are formed along the aligned channels.
These dendrites are very essential features in filtration applica-
tions because they connect the various channels making the
foam reticulate thereby enhancing the fluid flow properties.
Also, due to the tapering (funnel) structure of the channels
brought about by the temperature gradient encountered in the
freeze casting process [18], freeze cast foams have the added
feature of hierarchical foam with the capability of filtering a
15358 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
Fig. 6. SEM micrographs of the cross-sections of porous ceramics prepared by extruding alumina with Nylon 66 fibers (30 vol%) as the pore former. The pores are
oriented parallel to the extrusion direction while the shape of the pores, provided initially by the fiber, is maintained. Fiber diameters are (a) 9.5, (b) 19, (c) 27 and
(d) 43 mm [35].
Reprinted from Isobe et al. [35]. Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier.
wide range of particle sizes. Fig. 8 shows scanning electron
micrographs of sections along the freezing directions for foams
processed at different freezing temperatures [18]. It may be
observed that the channels increase in size away from the
coldest region for all the specimens. This variation in channel
size along the height of the channels would enable the foam to
trap a wide range of particle sizes, thereby enhancing the
effectiveness and efficiency of freeze cast foams.
Foams for filtration applications may require mechanical
strength, material and environmental compatibility, thermal
shock resistance and other properties relevant and peculiar to
specific uses. Nevertheless, fluid flow properties are common
requirements of all filtration applications, and these properties
are determined by the microstructure. The analyses shown in
this section support the understanding that unidirectionally
aligned and interconnected channels enhance flow rate and
permeability of foam filters. It is also supported here that the
freeze casting process is currently a reliable method for
fabricating foams having high mechanical integrity, and a
method with high amenability in microstructural control.
Consequently, both mechanical and fluid flow requirements
are more attainable by freeze cast foams regardless of the
structural framework of the foam filter.
4. Porous ceramics for bio-scaffolds in tissue
engineering applications
Bio-scaffolds may be utilized for bone tissue engineering
applications in order to facilitate the repair of bone that has
been flawed due to illness, injuries or deterioration [39,40].
Scaffolds are used as temporary support materials placed in the
area of the bone structure requiring repair. The porous scaffold
may be seeded with cells and over time, new tissue will grow
into the scaffold as the scaffold itself degrades at a similar rate
to the new bone formation. In order for this process to be
successful, the scaffold must meet certain requirements with
regard to its structure and properties.
The structure must be three-dimensional and facilitate cell
interaction by providing an avenue to transport nutrients and
oxygen and to allow tissues and capillaries to develop [40–42].
For this to occur, the pores in the scaffold must be completely
interconnected, and the structure must also be able to support
structural loads that are commonly experienced in the human
body. The scaffold can be customized to contain the necessary
porosity to achieve the required biological and mechanical
response. Fig. 9 [43] displays a scaffold designed to contain
porosity on multiple length scales. Additionally, the materials
used to fabricate the scaffold must be biocompatible, bioactive,
or biodegradable [40,44]. Ceramic materials possessing the
necessary bioactivity to enable bone regrowth are typically
calcium phosphates such as hydroxyapatite and tri-calcium
phosphate or a bi-phasic combination [44]. However, these
materials do not have adequate mechanical properties to
function safely in many applications [39,45]. Karageorgiou
et al. reviewed the effects of porosity and pore size on
osteogenesis within biomaterial scaffolds for bone regenera-
tion, as well as the effects on mechanical properties [46].
The total porosity incorporated into the scaffold depends upon
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370 15359

Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of microcellular biomorphous Al2O3 manufactured using pine-wood derived biological templates where (a)–(d) are in the axial direction
and (e) and (f) are the radial direction [37].
From Rambo et al. [37]. Copyright © 2008 The American Ceramic Society. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons.

a number of factors including the material properties of the The ultimate goal when designing ceramic scaffolds is to
scaffold such as degradation rate. An upper limit on porosity create a component that mimics the structure and properties of
and pore size is set by the required mechanical properties [46]. natural bone as closely as possible. Human cortical bone has a
15360 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

Fig. 8. Microstructure development of the unidirectionally aligned pore channels in porous yttria-stabilized zirconia ceramics prepared by freeze casting. Variations
due to location from cooled plate are displayed for 15 mm (A1, B1 and C1), 9 mm (A2, B2 and C2), and 3 mm (A3, B3 and C3) and under different freezing
temperatures of 30 1C (A1, A2 and A3), 78 1C (B1, B2 and B3) and 196 1C (C1, C2 and C3). FT: freezing temperature [18].
Reprinted from Hu et al. [18]. Copyright (2010), with permission from Elsevier.

Fig. 9. Ceramic scaffolds may contain pores on multiple length scales to
facilitate bone in-growth such as this hydroxyapatite lattice with three levels of
porosity. The macropores (1), micropores (2), and submicron pores (3) can be
controlled by the processing method [43].
From Cesarano et al. [43]. Copyright © 2005, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted
by permission of John Wiley and Sons.
compressive strength of 100–150 MPa and toughness of 2–
12 MPa m1/2 [44,47], while human trabecular bone has a
compressive strength of 2–12 MPa [47] and toughness of
0.1–0.8 MPa m1/2 [44]. In order to reduce stress shielding, the
modulus of the fabricated scaffold should be comparable to the
surrounding bone [48]. These details call for high accuracy in
the fabrication of an effective and functional scaffold as the
microstructure of the scaffold will influence the mechanical
properties as well as the biocompatibility [49].
4.1. Processing of ceramic bio-scaffolds
The properties of the scaffold are a direct result of the
porous architecture of the component. The overall porosity,
pore size, shape, and orientation, along with the shape of the
necks, and micro-porosity in the solid phase are all factors that
can be tailored through strict control of the processing
technique used to create the scaffold. Several processing
methods have attempted to produce ceramic scaffolds suitable
for tissue engineering applications including the traditional
methods of sacrificial template [50], replication of foams
[51,52], and direct foaming. Porous ceramics produced by
freeze casting have also been extensively studied for use as
tissue engineering scaffolds [53,54]. In some cases it is
difficult to achieve the necessary pore characteristics such as
interconnectivity, pore size, and pore geometry that are
required for tissue growth when traditional processing proce-
dures are employed. The limited amount of control over the
pore characteristics leads to problems with closed pores or lack
of interconnecting pores, low strength, and variability in
properties. The fabrication of porous ceramic scaffolds using
additive manufacturing (AM) techniques has several potential
benefits over other techniques.
The benefits of using rapid prototyping technology are
numerous. For instance, the versatility of modeling software
allows for customized parts to be fabricated without the need
for expensive tooling or molds, and the process is usually done
in only a few steps. Bio-scaffolds could easily be fabricated to
fit the needs of a specific individual. The scaffold can be
designed to match the surrounding bone which may vary from
person to person depending on the age, health, condition of the
surrounding bone or location within the intended recipient.
As seen in Fig. 10, bio-scaffolds can be fabricated specifically
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
Fig. 10. Progression of steps leading to the fabrication of a customized scaffold for implantation into the damaged portion of a patient's mandible: (a) 3D image of
mandible and implant geometry and (b) solid 3D model of the required component [43].
From Cesarano et al. [43]. Copyright © 2005, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons.
to fit an individual's needs through the use of computed
tomography scanning methods to obtain the exact geometry
required for the scaffold [43]. The control over the microstructure
is well advanced compared to traditional pore forming techniques
because the size, shape, and location of internal features can be
placed according to requirements. This precision allows for
unique porous architectures, with differing pore sizes and
orientations, to be placed strategically within the scaffold as
necessary [41]. Various interior geometries that are difficult or
impossible to achieve through alternative methods are able to be
fabricated through the use of AM (Fig. 11) [55]. These methods
may be applied directly by using a ceramic starting material or
indirectly through the use of the lost mold technique.
4.1.1. Direct AM fabrication
Porous ceramics have been fabricated by a number of AM
techniques that build the structure directly using materials such as
ceramic powder, colloidal solution, or paste. As reviewed by
Butscher et al. [56], 3D printing has been used to create scaffolds
for use in bone tissue engineering. One particular benefit of this
method is that the powder bed itself supports each successive
layer; therefore, spanning elements are more easily fabricated.
A drawback of the technique is that the fabrication of complex
and fine architectures results in very fragile parts. Fabrication
parameters have been adjusted in several studies in order to
achieve the desired properties [57–60] and biocompatibility
testing [61] and in vitro-studies [62] have also been conducted.
For example, Vlasea et al. combined 3D printing with a
micro-syringe system in order to form a hybrid deposition
technique [63]. The system was able to simultaneously build a
calcium polyphosphate ceramic component layer-by-layer
while depositing a sacrificial photopolymer network on spe-
cific layers using a micro-syringe. The sacrificial photopolymer
was later removed during a heat treatment cycle to leave
behind micro-channels with diameters of approximately 225–
275 mm [63]. The idea is to create architecture similar to
natural bone as seen in Fig. 12 [63].
15361
Other direct ink writing techniques include fused deposition
modeling of filaments [55], micro-robotic deposition of
colloidal suspensions [64], and other extrusion based methods
[65,66]. Other AM techniques that have been used to produce
porous ceramic bio-scaffolds directly include stereolithography
[40,67] and selective laser sintering/melting [68–70].
While these direct methods are capable of producing the
necessary porosity and pore size required for use as tissue
engineering scaffolds, some manufacturing challenges remain.
The feature size is limited by the resolution of the machine,
and the scaffold material must be compatible with the rapid
prototyping process [41]. In some cases, smooth surfaces are
created which may not provide the best environment for cell
adhesion [41]. Liquid or powder residues may be left behind in
the scaffold [41], and there may be restrictions in the size of
the printed components due to lack of strength. In order to
mitigate a few of these issues, alternative processing by
indirect methods may be employed.
4.1.2. Indirect AM fabrication
Most AM techniques are well established for use with
polymer materials. Issues may arise when transitioning to the
use of ceramic materials, and it may be difficult to achieve the
desired component architecture. Ceramic scaffolds can still be
created utilizing AM technology, albeit indirectly. During the
indirect fabrication of ceramic scaffolds, an AM technique is
used to create a mold usually out of a polymer or wax [71]
material. The mold is designed to be the negative of the desired
ceramic architecture. Ceramic slurry is cast into the mold, and
the mold is removed often through the addition of heat. The
remaining ceramic scaffold is then sintered to the appropriate
density. Stereolithography [72] and fused deposition [73],
among others, have also been used to create molds intended
for casting ceramics for scaffold applications.
Schumacher et al. fabricated wax molds using an ink-jet
printer AM technique which were then used to create hydro-
xyapatite, β-tricalcium phosphate, biphasic calcium phosphate
15362 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

Fig. 11. Additive manufacturing techniques can be used to form 3-D interconnected structures with a wide range of internal architectures. The images demonstrate
the versatility of the fused deposition process in creating these porous polypropylene–tricalcium phosphate composite scaffolds [55].
Reprinted from Kalita et al. [55]. Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier.

Fig. 12. The natural bone morphology may be mimicked by integrating networks of channels and/or macro-pores into the scaffold structure [63].
From Vlasea et al. [63], Fig. 1, © Springer-Verlag, London 2013, with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media. Caption: “Natural bone
morphology and a potential network of channels and/or macro-pores that can be integrated in the implant structure to mimic natural bone architecture”.

scaffolds with a designed pore geometry as seen in Fig. 13 The maximum compressive strength of 27.6 MPa was recorded
[74]. Various geometries were fabricated with a range of for the hydroxyapatite (60 wt%) specimen with 26.0 vol%
porosity (26.0–71.9 vol%) and pore size of about 340 mm. porosity [74].
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370 15363

Fig. 13. (A and C) SEM micrographs of wax molds produced via rapid prototyping where (A) displays the highly textured surface perpendicular to the building
platform. (B and D) Micrographs of the sintered ceramic specimens with a similar surface texture as the wax mold [74].
From Schumacher et al. [74], Fig. 5, © Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC, 2010, with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media. Caption:
“SEM micrographs of R90 wax moulds, representing a highly textured surface perpendicular to the building platform (a,c). Sintered ceramic specimens (b,d) show
the same surface texture, indicating the accuracy of the casting process”.

The use of porous ceramic materials for tissue engineering
scaffolds is a viable option for the repair of damaged bone. The
proper mechanical and biological properties are important to
consider in this particular application, as the scaffold should be
able to support loads and function well within the body to
promote cellular growth. Control of the parameters surround-
ing the pore structure will allow the necessary properties to be
achieved. Additive manufacturing techniques offer many
benefits over traditional processing methods such as the ability
to produce highly customized parts with precise placement of
the interior channels or pores. Further experiments on the
fracture toughness, fatigue resistance, and clinical biological
response are required to ensure the reliability of these scaffolds
within the human body.
5. Porous ceramic preforms for fabrication
of ceramic–metal composites
The fracture toughness of most polycrystalline ceramics is at
or below 5 MPa m1/2 [75], which is not favorable for most
industrial applications. This has provoked a vast amount of
research in the area of toughening ceramics via the incorpora-
tion of a secondary phase to reinforce the matrix, thus forming
ceramic matrix composites. In contrast to traditional compo-
sites with discrete reinforcement, an alternative matrix-
reinforcement structure is present in interpenetrating compo-
sites (IPCs) in which both phases are continuous throughout
the composite. The development of IPCs has been of interest
due to the potential display of advanced properties when
compared to more traditional composites [76].
One of the primary methods for processing a co-continuous
ceramic–metal system is to fabricate a porous ceramic preform
and then infiltrate the preform with a metal melt [8,77–81]. The
architecture of the porous preform will dictate the volume
fraction and ligament diameter of the metal phase, which will in
turn affect the overall properties of the composite. It is therefore
imperative to have a well-designed and processed preform. The
preform must contain completely interconnected pores to
facilitate the infiltration of the molten metal. Any closed pores
or blockages will hinder the infiltration and result in undesirable
porosity within the body of the ceramic. As brittle materials,
ceramics are highly susceptible to any flaws or points of stress
15364 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

Fig. 14. SEM micrographs of (a) 20% dense spinel foam, (b) and (c) the resulting IPC after infiltration with Al–10Mg alloy, and (d) IPC fabricated with a 40%
dense mullite foam preform and Al–10Mg. The random nature of the porosity leaves a wide variation in pore size, shape, and window size. This is transferred to the
composite as a variation in reinforcement phase [86].
Reprinted from Liu et al. [86]. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Fig. 15. (a) Porous ceramic preforms fabricated by freeze-casting. Some of the bridges formed between lamellae during this process are circled. (b) A backscattered
electron micrograph of the ceramic structure after infiltration with metal (dark phase is ceramic, lighter phase is metal, bright needle-like regions are silicon
precipitates). λ and d represent the microstructural wavelength and thickness of the Al2O3 lamellae, respectively. Scale bar: 50 mm [88].
From Launey et al. [88], Fig. 2. Copyright © 2009 The Royal Society. Reprinted by permission of Royal Society Publishing.

concentration within the microstructure. Thus, it is very
important to have adequate control over the pore structure.
The distribution of the pores should also be highly controllable
because preforms with regular spacing between pores will have
higher reliability resulting from reduction in local variation of
properties. Therefore, manufacturing techniques that are cap-
able of controlling these factors are deemed more suitable for
the production of ceramic preforms.
5.1. Processing of ceramic preforms
Partial sintering [82], replication of polymeric foam [83,84],
sacrificial pore formers [8,77,79,81], and gel-casting [78,85]
have all been used to fabricate preforms for use in composites.
These fabrication methods often result in a random spatial
distribution of pores and cell windows. Fig. 14 [86] shows
some of the drawbacks associated with these methods.
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370 15365

A random distribution of pores increases the variability in

the strength of the preform because of variations in the
ligament diameter between phases or areas of stress concen-
tration. Additionally, the interconnectivity between the pores is
not always guaranteed. Often in order to achieve interconnec-
tivity with traditional methods, the porosity must be high.
A high porosity may not be desirable because it reduces the
strength of the preform. In addition, a high porosity may defeat
the purpose of using a ceramic material because the beneficial
properties accompanying the ceramic phase are significantly
reduced. In order to preserve the favorable properties of the
ceramic, the preform should maintain a low volume fraction of
pores while still maintaining interconnectivity.
Freeze casting approach has also been employed for
processing ceramic preforms for reinforced composite fabrica-
tion [87,88]. One such instance is the work of Launey et al.
[88], who used an ice-templating technique to create a fine
layered microstructure with 10 mm layer thicknesses. The
laminates contained up to 40 vol% ceramic. The porous
ceramic was infiltrated with an Al–Si alloy and the resulting
composite displayed steady state fracture toughness (KJc) of
40 MPa m1/2 [88]. The structure of the preform and composite
are shown in Fig. 15 [88].
However, looking at Fig. 15a (the freeze cast preform) it is
seen that the total volume of the ceramic phase is not necessary
equal to the volume of effective ceramic reinforcement. It can
be seen that many struts and spikes in between layers are not
connected, thus they do not provide any support to the
composite. Thus significant material wastage is observed in
this preform microstructure. Moreover, the sections (or layers)
also have wide variations in cross-section; this neither supports
optimization of mechanical strength nor structural reliability.
In contrast to the typical random distribution of phases in
IPCs, the fabrication of structures with strategically placed
ductile and brittle phases have the potential to offer increased
properties. The processing methods that should be explored
further are those that are capable of tailoring the phase
architecture of the interpenetrating composite and provide
aligned, uniform or periodic reinforcement. In this way, the
overall volume fraction of reinforcement can be adjusted easily
and spatially distributed in an accurate manner. In a study by
Marchi et al. [89], a robotic deposition technique was used to Fig. 16. Optical micrographs of the cross-section (parallel to loading direction)
construct a 3D Al2O3 structure from a colloidal gel-based ink. of an Al2O3/Al composite after compressive failure displaying (a) the fracture
of spanning elements that occurred near the corners where the spans and
Once the layers were deposited in accordance to the design, the columns meet and (b) a macroscopic crack running 451 to the loading axis [89].
tower was sintered and infiltrated with aluminum to form an Reprinted from Marchi et al. [89]. Copyright (2003), with permission from
IPC which was approximately 70 vol% ceramic. Failure that Elsevier.
occurred during testing likely began at the sharp corners where
the columns and horizontal spans meet, as seen in Fig. 16 [89].
In order to reduce the occurrence of sharp edges (which channels intended for use in ductile reinforced ceramic matrix
serve as initiators of cracks and stress concentration points) it composites (Fig. 17) [91]. The resulting porous specimens
is better to have a cylindrical or rounded pore structure in the possess higher fracture strength (  510 MPa) than the solid
preform. The uniform spatial distribution of pores will ensure a control specimens ( 400 MPa). This was attributed to the fact
more reliable product with reproducible properties. that the specimens containing channels reduced the detrimental
One method that can be utilized to create preforms is the use effects of some of the flaws or cracks usually present in
of cylindrical pore formers to create rounded channels [90–93]. ceramics [91].
Ighodaro et al. used soft metal and carbon fibers for the This method allows for the total porosity to be relatively low
fugitive materials in the quest to fabricate aligned regular 2D and crack free, thus preserving the strength and modulus of the
15366 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370

Fig. 17. Image of fabricated preforms with 2D channels where sample

(a) contains a double layer of channels fabricated using Sn 50% In alloy,
sample (b) contains a single layer of channels fabricated using Sn 50%
In alloy, and sample (c) contains a single layer of channels fabricated using
carbon fibers [91].
From Ighodaro et al. [91]. Copyright 2011 The American Ceramic Society.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons.

ceramic. If infiltrated with a metal, the resulting composite

would maintain a low fraction of reinforcement. The properties
of these materials, however, are anisotropic as the pores are
oriented in only one or two directions.

5.1.1. Additive manufacturing of porous ceramic preforms

Additive manufacturing techniques may be capable of
producing the required internal architecture of porous preforms
due to the unique benefits associated with these techniques as
discussed in the previous section. The major benefits include
the ability to produce customized parts, as well as, the ability
to precisely control the pore structure in three dimensions. This
would allow for isotropic properties of the preform and
resulting composite. As demonstrated by the examples below,
direct or indirect additive manufacturing may be used to create
preforms for composites.
Direct fused deposition has been utilized to form porous
ceramic preforms (Fig. 18a) [94]. In one case, silica was
formed into the starting material filament. Through pressure-
less reactive metal infiltration with aluminum, a composite
(Fig. 18b) was formed with a compression strength of
689 7 95 MPa [94].
Indirect additive manufacturing by fused deposition has also
been studied. In one case, a mold was built through fused
deposition and a mullite ceramic was cast into the mold [95].
When the mold was removed, a 3D honeycomb pore structure
remained. The preform was then infiltrated with aluminum
metal [96–98]. A preform and resulting composite is displayed
in Fig. 19 [96].
As mentioned previously, indirect additive manufacturing
can be used to first create a negative-mold of the desired
porous structure. As seen in Fig. 20, 3D periodic cylindrical
or square channels can be formed through the lost mold
Fig. 18. (a) Sintered porous silica preforms with controlled porosity fabricated
by fused deposition of ceramics, (b) Al–Al2O3 metal–ceramic composites after
infiltration of the preforms [94].
Adapted from Bandyopadhyay, Rapid Prototyping Journal, vol. 12, issue 3,
pp. 121–128 © Emerald Group Publishing Limited all rights reserved.
technique [74]. While the structures in the image are made of
hydroxyapatite, β-tricalcium phosphate and biphasic calcium
phosphates, a similar structure can be formed out of alternative
materials using the same processing technique.
Porous ceramic preforms are often used to fabricate inter-
penetrating ceramic–metal composites in order to utilize the
properties of both phases. The design and architecture of the
porous preform will determine the resulting composite proper-
ties. In order to fabricate a highly reliable and high strength
preform, the processing method must allow for control over the
interconnectivity, size, shape, and orientation of the pores, as
well as the overall porosity. Cylindrical, aligned and inter-
connected channels uniformly distributed within the volume of
the preform is the ideal structure. Additive manufacturing
techniques seem to be the most effective and repeatable
method for generating ceramic preforms intended for ceramic
matrix reinforced composites. This method allows the inter-
connecting pore structure to be tailored to contain the desired
 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
Fig. 19. (a) Top view of a 3D honeycomb mullite preform fabricated through the lost mold technique and (b) micrograph of ceramic–metal composite formed after
infiltration of Al–metal into mullite preform [96].
From Bandyopadhyay [96]. Copyright © 1999 WILEY-VCH Verlag, GmbH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
and Sons.
Fig. 20. Porous ceramic structures made from an indirect rapid prototyping
method [74].
From Schumacher et al. [74], Fig. 6, © Springer ScienceþBusiness Media,
LLC, 2010, with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media.
Caption: “Photograph of R90 samples manufactured from HA, HA80, HA60,
HA40, HA20 and TCP (left to right)”.
porosity necessary to produce the properties required in the
end application.
6. Summary and concluding remarks
Porous ceramics are utilized in a number of application
sectors in order to mitigate several processing, environmental,
biological, or structural issues. Not only does the class of
ceramic materials possess desirable properties, but the nature
and extent of the porosity in these components allows for the
unique functionality and properties desired for the particular
application. The microstructure is primarily responsible for
these properties and is a result of a particular processing
technique. Not all processing techniques are capable of
producing the necessary microstructure for all applications.
In this review, a discussion on the processing techniques
capable of producing the desired microstructure for the
applications of thermal insulation, filtration, tissue engineering
15367
scaffolds, and preforms for composites is given. It was noted
that the traditional processing methods often lack the control
that is necessary to tailor the porous architecture. The pore
shape, size, distribution, orientation, and overall porosity are
key factors that influence the effectiveness and reliability of
porous ceramic components. The method of freeze casting
offers many benefits including the formation of channels
necessary for thermal insulation and filtration requirements.
This process offers the adaptability required to alter the pore
structure by changing particular processing parameters. In this
way, the desired microstructure can be created befitting the
application in question. Additive manufacturing techniques
also offer benefits over other techniques, particularly for the
creation of bio-scaffolds for tissue engineering. Through the
use of 3D imaging technology and additive manufacturing,
scaffolds can be designed and fabricated to fit a patient's needs.
The unique capability of controlling the exact architecture of
the porous structure is also beneficial in the creation of
preforms for ceramic–metal composite manufacturing.
Through the exact placement of the ceramic phase, unique
structures can be fabricated. These techniques require further
investigation to determine their ability to be scaled from
laboratory specimens to functional components in industry.
The ability to tailor the structure at multiple length scales is
essential. Further optimization of the pore structure will be
possible by continuing to study the processing, structure, and
property relationships. Ideally, the optimized architecture and
geometry of pores will provide improved functionality while
still maintaining the required mechanical properties. Particular
attention to the fracture toughness and reliability of the
component is important. These insights can be utilized in
future application areas of porous ceramics, as well as in the
development of alternative processing techniques.
15368 E.C. Hammel et al. / Ceramics International 40 (2014) 15351–15370
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