Fundamental of Gas Turbine

Introduction to Gas Turbine Theory

Klaus Brun
Rainer Kurz
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Introduction to Gas Turbine Theory, 3rd Edition, 2019

© 2019 Solar Turbines Incorporated - All rights reserved.
Printed in the U.S.A.
ISBN: 978-0-578-48386-3
CONTENTS
Introduction 12
Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics 18
Thermodynamics 19
Chapter 2: Turbomachinery Component Basics 46
Compressor 47
Combustor 61
Turbine 71
Chapter 3: Modern Analysis Methods 82
Chapter 4: Rotordynamics & Vibrations 90
Chapter 5: Ancillary & Auxiliary Systems 106
Chapter 6: Gas Turbine Components 118
How Does a Gas Turbine Work? 119
Aerodynamics 119
Compressor 132
Turbine 136
Combustor 139
Cooling 144
Chapter 7: The Gas Turbine as a System 148
Component Interaction 149
Single Shaft 156
Two Shaft 158
Performance Characteristics 164
Appendix A: Gas Turbine Cycle Calculation 180
Chapter 8: Combustion & Emissions 184
Chapter 9: Fuel & Fuel Treatment 198
Chapter 10: Air Filtration & Air Inlet Systems 218
Chapter 11: Degradation In Gas Turbine Systems 226
Chapter 12: Advanced Cycles & Performance Augmentation 236
References 250
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Klaus Brun – Dr. Brun is the Director of the Machinery Program at Southwest Research
Institute. His experience includes positions in engineering, project management, and
management at Solar Turbines, General Electric, and Alstom. He holds seven patents,
authored over 150 papers, and published two textbooks on gas turbines. Dr. Brun won
an R&D 100 award in 2007 for his Semi-Active Valve invention and ASME Oil & Gas
Committee Best Paper/Tutorial awards in 1998, 2000, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2014.
He was chosen to the “40 under 40” by the San Antonio Business Journal. He is the past
chair of the ASME-IGTI Board of Directors and the past Chairman of the ASME Oil & Gas
Applications Committee. He is also a member of the API 616 and 692 Task Forces, the
Middle East and Far East Turbomachinery Symposiums, the Fan Conference Advisory
Committee, and the Supercritical CO2 Conference Advisory Committee. Dr. Brun is the
Executive Correspondent of Turbomachinery International Magazine and an Associate
Editor of the ASME Journal of Gas Turbines for Power.
Rainer Kurz – Dr. Kurz is Manager of Systems Analysis and Field Testing for Solar Turbines
Incorporated in San Diego, California. His organization is responsible for predicting gas
compressor and gas turbine performance, as well as conducting application studies and
field performance tests on gas compressor and generator packages. Dr. Kurz attended
the University of the Federal Armed Forces in Hamburg, Germany where he received
the degree of a Dipl.-Ing. and, in 1991, the degree of a Dr.-Ing. He has authored over 100
publications in the field of turbomachinery and fluid dynamics, holds two patents, and
was named an ASME Fellow in 2003. He is a member and former chair of the ASME Oil
and Gas Applications Committee, a member of the Turbomachinery Symposium Advisory
Committee, the Gas Machinery Conference Organizing Committee, the GMRC Project
Supervisory Committee, and the SDSU Aerospace Engineering Advisory Committee. Many
of his publications are recognized as being of archival quality, and he received numerous
Best Paper awards, as well as the ASME Industrial Gas Turbine Award in 2013.
DEDICATION AND
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We dedicate this book to our loving and supportive wives.
Marisol & Renee

This text would not have been possible without the
contributions of many people. First of all, we would like
to thank our colleagues at Solar Turbines and Southwest
Research Institute for their editorial, as well as technical
suggestions. Finally, the completion of this work stands on the
shoulders of many colleagues and friends:
To you, a simple thanks is offered!

PREFACE
This textbook was developed directly from a series of Solar Turbines Incorporated
internal short courses that were presented to an audience with a wide range of technical
backgrounds, not necessarily related to turbomachinery. Thus, functional principles
and physical understanding are emphasized, rather than the derivation of complicated
mathematical equations. The aim of this short course on gas turbine theory is not to
provide an in-depth knowledge of gas turbine aerodynamics or thermodynamics, nor is it
intended to make the reader an expert in the field of turbomachinery.
The course is, however, intended as a summary and brief overview of the many different
topics and theories that pertain to the subject matter. Throughout the text, the reader
is provided with simplified explanations of complex physical theories and is then, if
interested, encouraged to further investigate a topic by studying more specific literature
about the subject matter. Also, by following this text, the reader will hopefully develop
an appreciation of the many disciplines of engineering that are involved in the design and
analysis of gas turbines.
The adjacent nomenclature reference shows symbols, acronyms and subscripts commonly
used in discussing gas turbine thermodynamics.
NOMENCLATURE
A throughflow area v specific volume
a mechanical acceleration W weight
a speed of sound W mass flow rate
c mechanical damping w velocity vector in rotating frame
c velocity vector in stationary frame X work
cp specific heat [X] unbalanced response vector
E Young’s modulus x displacement
E energy Z force response
e eccentricity  velocity vector angle in stationary frame
[F] unbalanced force vector  velocity vector angle in rotating frame
f force  referenced pressure = p/pref
H head  specific heat ratio = cp/cv
h enthalpy  difference
I moment of inertia  efficiency
k mechanical stiffness  Temperature Ratio = T/Tref
L length  viscosity
M Mach number  kinematic viscosity
Mn machine Mach number  damping factor
m mass  pressure ratio
N rotational speed in rpm  density
n number of stages  torque
P power  phase angle
p stagnation pressure  rotational speed in rad/sec = 2N/60
Q volumetric flow rate N natural frequency
[Q] influence coefficient matrix  frequency of vibration
q heat flow
qR lower heating value Subscripts
R specific gas constant 0 ambient
Re Reynolds number 1 at engine inlet
Rm universal gas constant 2 at engine compressor exit
RMU rotor mass unbalance 3 at turbine inlet
r blade radius 5 at power turbine inlet
SM separation margin 7 at engine exit
s blade span a axial
s entropy c compressor
T temperature f fuel
U blade velocity M mechanical
u tangential direction t turbine
v velocity u circumferential
12 | Introduction
INTRODUCTION
This book is divided into two sections. Chapters 1 through 5 are intended to provide the
reader with a very basic introduction to the analysis, behavior and design of industrial gas
turbines. Chapters 6-12 cover a selected list of significantly more complex subjects on gas
turbine performance and are intended for readers with a more advanced knowledge of
turbomachinery systems.
INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE THEORY
The basic introduction is divided into five chapters: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics
and Aerodynamics, Turbomachinery Component Basics, Modern Analysis Methods,
Rotordynamics and Vibrations, and Ancillary and Auxiliary Systems.
Gas Turbine Thermodynamics introduces some of the basic thermodynamics of the simple
gas turbine open cycle, also referred to as the Brayton cycle. Studying the Brayton cycle
thermodynamics provides you with an overall picture of gas turbine performance and an
understanding of the function and principal design of each individual gas turbine mechanical
component, including: the inlet system, compressor, combustor or burner, gas producer
turbine, power turbine, and exhaust. Some thermodynamic concepts such as conservation
of energy, entropy, enthalpy, T-s/P-v diagrams, isentropic and isobaric processes and
adiabatic efficiencies will be introduced. The basics of Aerodynamics are discussed in this
section, as well.
Once thermodynamic design and function are established, more detailed explanations
are provided for each gas turbine component, and the internal flow aerodynamics,
combustion chemistries and mechanical/operational limitations will be studied. Some
classic mathematical methods, such as Euler’s momentum equation, velocity polygons
and combustion stoichiometry will be described. These methods are often used in the
conceptual gas turbine design process, and some simplified examples are provided. Gas
turbine rotordynamics and vibrations are also discussed.
After understanding the challenges of gas turbine component design and performance,
some of the modern technologies that are being employed to improve overall gas turbine
performance will be briefly discussed. The focus of this introductory chapter is the
application of computational fluid dynamics analysis to turbomachinery flows.
This is followed by a brief overview of the fundamental concepts of rotordynamics.
The packaged systems for an industrial gas turbine are designed to provide the installation
with its utility requirements (air, fuel, oil, and water), control the operation of the unit and
process, and ensure safety.
Introduction | 13
ADVANCED TOPICS OF GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE
While chapters 1 to 5 provide the foundation of gas turbine physics; chapters 6-12 describe in
more detail, methods and equations that are employed to determine the actual performance of
gas turbines under varying operating conditions. Also, gas turbine performance maps, design
characteristics and combustion emissions are discussed in significant detail. Some important
issues involving the operation of gas turbines — such as air filtration, fuel capability, and
performance degradation — are also discussed in greater detail.
Finally, an outlook on advanced gas turbine cycles is provided.
GAS TURBINES – A BRIEF HISTORY
The invention and early development of gas turbines were clearly driven by airplane
aeronautics, jet engine propulsion research and the development of industrial power
machinery. Employing a jet engine as a prime mover for compressors, pumps and generators
was initially a secondary application
to the development of the jet
engine for flight. Therefore, when
looking at the history of the gas
turbine, we must also study the
history of the jet engine.
In 200 B.C., the Egyptian

philosopher Hero of Alexandria
invented a device that
demonstrated the physical
principles of a simple turbine.
Leonardo Da Vinci, the multi-
talented medieval Italian
philosopher, sketched a “smoke
stack” gas turbine in 1550. The
first actual patent for a type of gas
turbine engine design was given to
John Barber of England in 1791. It
contained all elements of a modern
gas turbine including a reciprocating
compressor, combustor, and
turbine (Figure 0-1). Figure 0-1. John Barber’s patent for a gas turbine
engine from 1791.
The Brayton or gas turbine
cycle involves compression of
air (or another working gas), the subsequent heating of this gas (either by injecting and
burning a fuel or by indirectly heating the gas) without a change in pressure, followed by
the expansion of the hot, pressurized gas. The compression process consumes power,
while the expansion process extracts power from the gas. Some of the power from the
expansion process can be used to drive the compression process. If the compression
and expansion process is performed efficiently enough, the process will produce useable
14 | Introduction
power output. This principle is used for any gas turbine, from early concepts by Bresson
(1837); F. J. Stolze (in 1899); C.G. Curtiss (in 1895); S. Moss (in 1900); Lemale and
Armengaud (in 1901); to today’s jet engines and industrial gas turbines:
In 1837 M. Bresson patented a machine that essentially resembles the layout of modern
gas turbines. Similarly, Franz Stolze of Germany designed, but failed to build, a gas turbine
in 1872. At that time, neither the technology, manufacturing capability, nor materials were
available to actually build a functioning jet engine. In the first decade of the 20th century
Franz Stolze in Germany and R. Armengaud and C. Lemane in France built industrial gas
turbines based on design technologies developed for steam turbines. Although both
machines ran, neither was capable of producing net positive output power.
Several significant technology improvements for combustion and axial compressors

followed until the 1930s. For example, in 1913, Rene Lorin designed a jet engine that
closely resembles today’s RAM-jet. Lorin also failed to construct a functioning prototype.
During that time, other significant designs and patents for industrial gas turbines came
from Charles Parsons (1884); Charles Curtiss (1895); Sanford Moss (1900); Charles Lemal
(1901); and Tom R. Sawyer. Clearly, the idea of a gas turbine is not a new concept, but
development had to wait until satisfactory materials could be obtained and manufacturing
techniques developed.
The first truly functioning industrial gas turbine power plant was built in 1936 by
Brown Boveri Company in Switzerland and then installed at Markus Hook refinery near
Philadelphia to drive a process gas compressor. It utilized many technologies from steam
turbines, but its essential layout is that of a modern industrial gas turbine with both axial
compressor and turbine chapters. The first power plant to utilize a gas turbine was built and
tested by Brown Boveri in 1939 and later installed near Neuchatel, Switzerland. It produced
net 4,000 kW of electric output power at an efficiency of 18 percent.
The real technology thrust that made today’s gas turbines possible came from jet engine
development during the Second World War. Sir Frank Whittle of England and Dr. Hans
von Ohain of Germany are both credited with the real invention of the jet engine in the
1930s. While Whittle patented the first feasible jet engine design in January 1930 and built
a working model in 1935, it was von Ohain who, independently and completely without
the knowledge of Whittle’s work, built a similar engine and employed it for actual aircraft
propulsion on the Heinkel 178 jet airplane in August 1939 (Figure 0-2).
Figure 0-2. Heinkel 178 Airplane
Introduction | 15
Whittle’s and Ohain’s developments were primarily driven by the need for faster flight of
military aircraft during World War II. America’s first jet engine was also developed during
the war in 1942 and was a relatively small engine with only 1300 lb. thrust. After World War
II, the aerospace industry continued to lead the research and development of jet engines;
however, a secondary industry — employing the jet engine as a gas turbine prime mover —
arose quickly. Since then, jet engine and gas turbine research have continued in parallel.
The first prime mover gas turbines were what are commonly called “aeroderivatives.”
These engines were developed from existing jet engines, but with slightly modified
designs. It is difficult to determine which company manufactured the first prime mover gas
turbine, but early aeroderivative and industrial gas turbines were commercially available in
the 1950s from several engine manufacturers. Soon thereafter in the 1960s, Solar Turbines
Incorporated began building gas turbines that were not derived from a jet engine, but
were a completely new design dedicated solely to prime mover applications (Figure 0-3).
This was found to be an inherently better approach, since jet engines are designed
for lightweight and short life span while industrial gas turbine prime movers require
ruggedness and a long life. Since then, Solar has continued to lead in the development of
small to mid-size industrial gas turbines.
Figure 0-3. Saturn Gas Turbine
16 | Introduction
Introduction | 17
18 | Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics
CHAPTER 1
GAS TURBINE THERMODYNAMICS
WHAT IS A GAS TURBINE?
Before providing detailed information about turbomachinery thermodynamics, it is

necessary to develop a basic definition of a gas turbine. Figure 1-1 presents an illustration
from a 1945 textbook about gas and steam turbines. Essentially, the illustration shows an
electric fan blowing air; the fan’s air passes through a firebox (combustor) and the exhaust
air from the firebox is driving another fan (turbine). The author’s intent was to demonstrate
a “gas turbine” process that is supposed to be conceptually easy to understand.
Unfortunately, what is actually shown in the illustration is over simplistic, incorrect and does
not demonstrate an actual gas turbine process.
To design a gas turbine, it is not enough to simply drive a turbine by blowing hot air on it.
By definition, the thermodynamic process that has to take place to make the above simple
aerodynamic process into a real
thermodynamic gas turbine cycle is a Driving Motor Generator
density change of the working fluid,
i.e., compression and expansion of
the air. Let us analyze this statement
in more detail.
A gas turbine’s function is to provide

mechanical shaft output power to
Driving Motor Generator
drive a pump, compressor or an
electric generator. Within the gas
turbine, chemical energy (fuel) is
converted to heat energy, which
in turn is converted to rotational
shaft (mechanical) energy. The
working fluid that is employed for
the conversion of heat energy to Air Starting Motor Turbine
mechanical output energy is simply Compressor then Generator
the air that flows through the gas
turbine. Air is ingested into the gas
turbine by a compressor, heated
in the combustor and expanded to
drive a turbine. If this air maintains
a constant density throughout the
process, as well as a constant
volume, then the maximum energy
a turbine can extract from the air is
exactly the same energy that was Firebox
added by the compressor, regardless
of how much the air is heated. Thus, Figure 1-1. Early Demonstration of Gas Turbine Operation
no additional shaft output energy can (R. Tom Sawyer, “The Modern Gas Turbine” 1945)
Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics | 19

be gained and, effectively, this would just be a very inefficient air-heater design.
On the other hand, if there is a density change of the air in the gas turbine process, the
volume of air that drives the turbine can be greater than the volume that was compressed
by the compressor; therefore, more energy can be extracted from the air in the turbine
than was introduced by the compressor. Intuitively, we expect the increase in energy of
the air between the compressor and turbine to be somehow related to the combustor heat
addition. This concept will be discussed in more detail, but it is important to understand the
following:
A gas turbine process must, by definition, involve density changes (compression

and expansion) of the working fluid (typically air).
SIMPLE GAS TURBINE SYSTEM
Keeping in mind what was said

previously about compression and
Fuel Combustor Exhaust
expansion, let us take a quick look Air
at a functional schematic of the Inlet Gearbox
(Optional)
most commonly employed gas
turbine process (Figure 1-2). This
thermodynamic process is called Load
the simple, open gas turbine cycle,
often referred to as the Brayton Driven
cycle. In this part, we will focus Equipment
Turbine Power
only on the Brayton cycle. More Compressor Turbine
advanced thermodynamic process
cycles beyond the simple Brayton Figure 1-2. Simple Brayton Cycle
cycle are only briefly discussed in
later chapters. One should note
that more than 95% of all small to mid-size gas turbines deployed in industrial applications
are based on a simple open Brayton cycle design. The study of non-Brayton advanced
cycles is discussed in Chapter 12.
The Brayton gas turbine cycle consists of three principal processes: fluid compression, heat
addition (combustion) and expansion.
In a typical industrial Brayton cycle, gas turbine application ambient air, approximately
300°K, enters into an axial compressor and is compressed (density increase) by a pressure
ratio (Pout /Pin) typically between 5 and 30. This compression of the air also increases the
air’s temperature to between 500°K and 900°K. (The temperature and pressure of air are
related via the isentropic relationship, P1/P 2=(T1/T2)/-1, which will be briefly covered later in
this text.)
The compressed and hotter air then enters into the axial combustion chamber or burner.
In the combustion chamber, chemically stored fuel energy is converted to thermal energy
(heat), which is used to further increase the air temperature to around 1,300°K to 1,800°K.
In most gas turbine combustors, natural gas (a mix of methane, propane, butane, pentane,

carbon dioxide or nitrogen) or a liquid hydrocarbon fuel such as diesel or kerosene is
burned with the process air. The very hot and compressed air exits the combustor and then
expands (density decrease) to drive the axial turbine. Thus, the energy that was added to
the air in the compressor and combustor is taken out in the turbine.
As can be seen in Figure 1-2, the turbine and compressor are mounted on the same shaft.
Some of the energy that the turbine extracts from the expanding process air is being used
to drive the compressor. The remaining energy the turbine extracts from the expanding air
is effectively the gas turbine shaft output power. One would expect that since the turbine
and compressor are on the same shaft, by a simple balance of power, the output shaft
power must be proportional to the temperature increase of the air in the combustor; i.e.,
the combustor heat addition.
Figure 1-3 demonstrates how the individual components are incorporated in an actual gas
turbine. Principal gas turbine functional components i.e., the multi-stage axial compressor,
annular-axial combustor and multi-stage axial turbines are easily identifiable. The term
“axial” indicates that the airflow enters and exits the compressor, combustor and turbine
primarily along the axial (gas turbine shaft) direction.
Several gas turbine designs employ centrifugal compressors rather than axial compressors,
and radial in-flow turbines rather than an axial turbine. Some of these component design
variations will be discussed and compared later; however, regardless of the component
design, the basic gas turbine Brayton simple-cycle physics remain the same.
Air Compression - Heat Addition - Air Expansion
Air Exhaust
Inlet Gas Generator
Turbine
Power
Out
Compressor Combustor Power

Turbine
Figure 1-3. Simple Brayton Cycle Axial Flow Gas Turbine

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Before analyzing gas turbine component mechanical intricacies and aerodynamic details, let
us return to basic thermodynamics and treat the gas turbine as a very simple black box. We
will apply the first law of thermodynamics (energy is conserved) to this black box, and see
if we can develop a useful and hopefully simple expression for gas turbine performance.
The first law of thermodynamics for open systems under steady-state conditions simply
states that the energy flowing into a system equals the energy flowing out of the system.
While the energy is thus conserved, it may show up in different forms. Such forms are
chemical energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, mechanical work, or heat.
Another way of writing this is by introducing enthalpy h, velocity w, and elevation z, heat q
and mechanical work Wt:
w 22 w 12
h2 + + gz2 - h1 + + gz1 = q12 + Wt,12
2 2
For many systems, we can neglect elevation, and introduce the total (or stagnation)
enthalpy. Stagnation value means that the pressure or temperature measurement is
assumed to have been taken after the flow has been decelerated to zero velocity. On the
other hand, static value means that the measurement has been taken as if the measuring
probe is following the flow. Throughout this text, stagnation temperatures and static
temperatures are assumed to be equal. Due to the low, relative flow velocities, this is a fair
assumption for most turbomachinery:
w2
ht = h +
2
and get:
ht,12 = q12 + Wt,12
Unless noted, we will not specifically distinguish total enthalpy and enthalpy in this text,
because in many instances, the velocities are relatively low.
Writing this equation in terms of power, we simply multiply the equation above by the mass
flow W, to get:
Wh12 = W · q12 + Pt,12
We do not try to give a thermodynamic explanation of what enthalpy is. Most textbooks
about thermodynamics provide adequate, detailed derivations. Rather, we note that
enthalpy is a convenient concept to express thermodynamic relationships, and that under
certain, idealized circumstances, enthalpy and temperature of a gas are related by:
h = cpT

Lastly, we want to introduce the concept of an adiabatic process. An adiabatic process
does not exchange heat with the environment. In an adiabatic process, the first law of
thermodynamics then becomes:
ht,12 = Wt,12
In other words, in an adiabatic system (a gas compressor without intercooling, for example),
the mechanical work a system is subjected to will be observed by an increase in enthalpy.
If enthalpy (J/kg) is multiplied by the mass of a fixed quantity of gas (kg) one obtains its
total energy (Joule). Furthermore, if enthalpy is multiplied by mass flow (kg/s), one obtains
power (J/s=W) or work per time. From an engineering analysis perspective, enthalpy is
simply the useable energy per unit mass of the working fluid (air). Later, we will show
that enthalpy is a quantity that is very convenient for the analysis of flow processes in
turbomachinery.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy that goes into a domain has to
equal the energy that comes out; i.e., a simple energy balance (Figure 1-4). Therefore,
let us first take a look at all the energy that enters into the gas turbine: fuel flow and cold
air that are drawn in. The power of the fuel flow can be expressed mathematically as the
mass flow of the fuel, multiplied by its heating value multiplied by some burner efficiency.
Similarly, the power of the cold air going into the gas turbine can be expressed as the mass
flow of the air multiplied by its enthalpy, where enthalpy is defined as the air temperature
multiplied by its specific heat.
Now let us analyze the energy or power that exits the gas turbine: hot exhaust fuel/air
mixture and shaft power. The hot exhaust gas is essentially a loss (unused energy) and
can be expressed as the mass flow out multiplied by its enthalpy. The outgoing mass flow
can be simplified further as the mass flow of the fuel plus the mass flow of the cold air
in (mass must also be conserved). Finally, shaft output power is the usable end product
of the thermodynamic process, which can also be expressed as the shaft torque (angular
momentum) multiplied by the angular (rotational) speed of the shaft.
To keep things simple, we do not count the energy flows from radiated heat, and heat
removed with the lube oil. We also neglect the fact that the fuel gas not only enters
chemical energy, but also heat energy due to the fact that it has an enthalpy different from
the ambient air. We further (for now) also neglect the complication that chemical reactions
may not be complete, thus not all chemical energy is converted into heat. We therefore do
not look at the fuel flow, but simply the heat that burning the fuel adds to the system.
Let us apply the first law of thermodynamics and sum up all of the above terms. What we
are plainly looking for is some type of expression for the gas turbine shaft output power as
a function of measurable variables, such as mass flows (volume flow multiplied by density),
temperatures and gas properties (Figure 1-4).

Hence,
PShaft Ideal = P4 = P1 + P2 - P3
Thus,
PShaft Ideal = Wair cp,in (Tin - Tref ) + Wfuel qR - (Wair + Wfuel ) cp,out (Tout - Tref )
The above expression is a simplified and neglects heat radiation and mechanical (bearing,
seal, accessory and gear friction) losses. To account for mechanical losses, mechanical
efficiency is defined and introduced into the energy equation:
P2 = q fuel ≈ Wfuel qr,fuel
Gas Turbine
P1 = Wair cp,in (Tin –Tref ) P3 = (Wair+Wfuel ) cp,out (Tout-Tref )
P4
Figure 1-4. First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy In = Energy Out
PShaft Actual
M =
PShaft Ideal
As a result, we get:
PShaft = M [Wair cp,in (Tin –Tref ) + Wfuel qR -(Wair + Wfuel ) cp,out (Tout –Tref )]
This simple equation still neglects some heat radiation losses, but is otherwise an accurate
representation of the thermodynamic performance of a gas turbine and, typically, does
not deviate more than 1% to 2% from reality. Thus, by applying energy conservation, we
managed to derive an equation that can be used to assess the shaft output power of a gas
turbine without having even studied the gas turbine components in any detail.
CARNOT EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of any heat engine, such as a gas turbine, is limited by its ability to convert
heat into mechanical output shaft work. Any heat that is not converted into mechanical

work will exhaust the heat engine and is generally considered a loss. The ideal limit of this
heat to mechanical work efficiency is called Carnot Efficiency, based on the ideal cycle
proposed by Nicolas Carnot in 1821. A simplified approach to determine this efficiency limit
can be determined by again looking at a heat engine—or gas turbine— as a black box as
shown in Figure 1-5:
It shows the energy flow into a generic heat engine. Here the Work In is the fuel flow
energy that is converted into heat via combustion, the Work Out is the net shaft output
work, and the Work Lost is the exhaust heat. If a basic efficiency is defined as the ratio of
shaft output work divided by fuel flow energy, we get:
Work in = cp,(T hot-Tref )
Heat Engine
Work out = cp,(T hot-Tcold )
Work lost = cp,(Tcold-Tref )
Figure 1-5. Energy Balance of a General Heat Engine
Work Out cpTHot - cpTCold TCold

Efficiency = = =1-
Work In cpTHot THot
This equation provides a basic definition of the maximum achievable efficiency of any
heat engine, the aforementioned Carnot Efficiency. No heat engine, such as a gas turbine,
can ever exceed this efficiency and in reality most heat engines do not reach efficiencies
anywhere near the ideal Carnot Efficiency. Nonetheless, the definition of Carnot Efficiency
provides us with valuable information regarding gas turbine behavior. For a simple heat
engine the THot is the combustion peak firing temperature and the TCold is the ambient air
temperature. Thus, from the equation we can easily see:
• The engine efficiency must always be less than 100% (2nd law of thermodynamics).
• The engine efficiency can be improved by either increasing its combustion firing
temperature (THot) or reducing its inlet air temperature (TCold).
• If there is no difference between THot and TCold, i.e., there is no firing or heat input, then
the efficiency is zero and no output power is produced.
• TCold cannot be zero (3rd law of thermodynamics) or THot cannot be infinite.

GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS
In our previous review the gas turbine was viewed as a black box and the first law of
thermodynamics applied. We will continue to use energy concepts; however, now we will
begin analyzing the individual gas turbine components (compressor, combustor, turbine),
rather than the system as a whole.
We start by dividing the gas turbine process into individual steps or states as shown in
Figure 1-6. State 1 is the air at ambient conditions before it enters the gas turbine; State 2
is the compressed air exiting the compressor; State 3 is heated air exiting the combustor;
and State 7 is air exhausted back into the atmosphere after driving the turbine. By following
the condition of the air, pressure, temperature and gas properties, as it flows from State
1 through States 2, 3 and 7 and then back to State 1, the entire simple gas turbine cycle
can be modeled. This method is called a one-dimensional (1-D) cycle analysis and will be
studied in more detail in the upcoming sections. For now, we will only look at the energy
enthalpy (energy per unit mass) of the air as it flows through the gas turbine and see if we
can develop a physical understanding of the process.
The enthalpy of the air at State 1 (h1) is cp1T1 and the enthalpy of the air at State 2 (h2) is
cp2T2. Thus, the energy per unit mass that is added to the air as it passes through the
compressor is the enthalpy difference h2-h1 or cp(T2-T1), assuming for now that the specific
heat remains constant; i.e., cp1=cp2. This enthalpy difference is also often referred to as
“head.”
1 C 2 B 3 T T 7
Compressor Burner Turbine

COMPRESSOR
Work in = h - h BURNER
Work in = h3 - h2 WorkTURBINE
out = h7 - h3
2 1
= cp (T2 - T1 ) = cp (T3 - T2 ) = cp (T7 - T3 )
Work In = h2 -h1 Work In = h3 -h2 Work Out = h4 -h3
= Cp (T2 - T1) = Cp (T3 - T2) = Cp (T4 - T3)
Figure 1-6. Gas Turbine Components

Similarly, the energy added by the combustor and the energy extracted by the turbine can
be expressed as enthalpy differences h3 - h2 and h7 - h3, respectively. Thus, by observing
gas turbine temperatures, we can model how energy is added to the airflow in the
compressor and combustor and taken out of the airflow in the turbine. In multiplying the
enthalpy difference (head) with the gas turbine mass flow, the total work done by the
compressor, combustor or turbine can be determined. For example, the total work done by
the compressor on the air is W· (h2-h1).
This means, that the work output of the gas turbine will be the difference between the
power the turbine extracts from the gas, and the compressor consumes to compress the
gas:
Work Output = Work Turbine-Work Compressor = cp(T3 -T 7) - cp(T2-T1)
Assuming cp doesn’t change (in the real gas turbine, it will to some degree, because cp is a
function of temperature and gas composition), we get:
Work Output = cp(T3 –T 7-T2+T1), or, after rearranging:
Work Output = cp(T3 -T2)+(T1-T 7)= cp(T1-T 7) + work combustor
In other words, the total output depends on the amount of work addition in the combustor
(i.e., the firing temperature T3), but the less of this work addition that can be recovered
(i.e., the higher T 7 gets), the lower the output becomes. The recovery is a function of the
pressure ratio available. Therefore, the work output (or the power density) increases with
pressure ratio and firing temperature.
BRAYTON EFFICIENCY
Next, let us define a gas turbine efficiency based on energies (or work); i.e., gas turbine
efficiency equals energy-out (shaft output) divided by energy-in (fuel flow):
Work Output
=
Work Input
This efficiency usually is referred to as thermal efficiency and, for this specific
thermodynamic cycle, it is also called the Brayton Efficiency. The Brayton Efficiency will tell
us the ideal, maximum theoretically possible, efficiency of this simple gas turbine cycle.
ENERGY-IN: The chemical energy put into the gas turbine by the fuel/air combustion
process, which is the enthalpy difference across the combustor: (h3 -h2).
ENERGY-OUT: Since the compressor and the turbine are on a single shaft, the total gas
turbine output energy is simply the turbine energy minus the compressor energy: (h3 -h7)-
(h2-h1).
Hence, we obtain:
Work Output Cp(T3 - T7 ) - Cp(T2 - T1 ) T7 - T1

= = =1-
Work Input Cp(T3 - T2 ) T3 - T2

This general expression for Brayton Efficiency is more specific than the previously
discussed Carnot Efficiency, but demonstrates similar physical trends. The cold
temperature (TCold) in a gas turbine is effectively the difference between the ambient
and the exhaust temperature (T 7-T1, the heat not utilized in the cycle). Similarly, the hot
temperature (THot) is the heat added in the cycle, which is the temperature rise across the
combustor (T3 -T2).
By introducing the isentropic relationship between pressure and temperature for an ideal
gas, T2 /T1=(P 2 /P1)y-1/y, a simple expression for the maximum theoretically possible Carnot
efficiency of a simple open cycle gas turbine is obtained:
1-
T2 T3 P2 
maximum = 1 - =1- =1-
T1 T7 P1
NOTE: Isentropic means that the entropy (s) remains constant; i.e., an ideal process with
no thermodynamic losses. Entropy will be discussed in further detail in later sections;
however, it is beyond the scope of this text to derive the isentropic relationships, which can
be found in most thermodynamics textbooks.
This expression shows that a thermodynamic cycle efficiency is either limited by its
pressure ratio or by its temperature ratio. But since in all real machines, such as a gas
turbine, there is unused thermal energy in the form of exhaust heat, the real limit of
efficiency is always the pressure ratio, rather than the temperature ratio. Thus, it is
important to recognize, based on this simple relationship, the ideal efficiency of a gas
turbine depends only on the compression ratio (P 2 /P1) of the axial compressor. Later in
this text, we will discuss how the actual gas turbine efficiency deviates from the ideal
efficiency, but for now, two conclusions should be emphasized:
• Simple-cycle gas turbine efficiency strongly depends on the compression ratio of the
gas turbine.
• Simple-cycle gas turbine actual efficiency must always be lower than its ideal Brayton
Efficiency; i.e., Actual ≤ Ideal
MAXIMUM THEORETICAL EFFICIENCY
Now let us apply some real numbers to the relationship between ideal efficiency and
compression ratio and learn about actual gas turbine performance. In Figure 1-7, the
general trend of ideal efficiency versus gas turbine compression ratio is plotted. The
trend indicates that gas turbine efficiency is a strong function of pressure ratio; i.e.,
increasing the pressure ratio across the axial compressor of the gas turbine will increase
the overall efficiency of the gas turbine. Table 1-1 compares maximum theoretical
efficiency as calculated from the above equation versus actual efficiency. The reasons for
this difference are mechanical losses (bearings, seals and gearbox friction), aerodynamic

losses (air boundary layer friction,
inlet/exhaust pressure drops, 0.8
aerodynamic stall and blockage)

0.6
Brayton Efficiency
and heat losses (casing heat
losses and bearing losses).
0.4
0.2
0 20 40 60
Pressure Ratio
Figure 1-7. Simple Brayton Cycle Maximum Theoretical

Efficiency
Saturn 20 Centaur 40 Taurus 60 Taurus 70 Mars 100 Titan 130 Titan 250
ηTheoretical, % 41 48 51 56 56 56 60
ηActual, % 24.5 28 32 35. 34.5 36 40
Power, hp 1,600 4,700 7,800 10,800 16,000 20,500 30,000
Table 1-1. Comparison of Maximum Theoretical versus Actual Efficiency
Hence, we have established that a gas turbine using the simple open Brayton cycle is
limited in thermodynamic efficiency and can never reach a 100% thermal efficiency. For
realistic design purposes, the simple-cycle gas turbine thermal efficiency in actuality
can never exceed 55%. It will be shown later that the primary reason for this efficiency
limitation is that the air exhausting from the gas turbine is always significantly hotter than
the ambient air. That is, the gas turbine cannot recover all the energy that was put into the
air by the combustor.
Smaller gas turbines have a lower airflow, volume-to-wall surface ratio and larger
boundary layer pressure losses; i.e., they are less efficient. Especially the blades in the last
compressor stages become very small.
Also, Table 1-1 indicates a direct correlation between power and efficiency. Why would gas
turbine efficiency increase with output power? There is no intuitively obvious reason from
thermodynamics. Nonetheless, this apparent trend can be explained as follows:

he last compressor stages become very small.
hese correlations for another assessment (Dubbel D20):

power is, We
neglecting mechanical
can also use losses,
these correlations forassuming negligible contributions of
another assessment:
overall mass flow, and assuming constant heat capacity
Since the turbine power is, neglecting mechanical losses, assuming negligible contributions
Tref) + Wfuelof qthe fuel c
R -W flow tooutthe
p, (T –Toverall
ref) = mass flow, and assuming
Wcp(Tin-Tout)+ Qin constant heat capacity:
(with Q23=PqShaft = Wcp (TQ

rW fuel, and
–Tref ) + Wfuel
in 70=Wcp(T
q - W cp (Tout –Tref ) = Wcp(Tin-Tout ) + Qin
out-TRin)
or, in other words (with Q23 = qrWfuel and Q71 =Wcp(Tout-Tin )
Pshaft = Q23-Q71
introduced to the process via the combustion process, and Q70 the exhaust
With Q 23 the heat introduced to the process via the combustion process, and Q71 the
exhaust heat lost, we get:
T7-T1)/(T3-T2))
P = Wcp(T3-T2 )(1-(T7-T1 )/(T3-T2 ))
sentropic compressor, and isentropic turbine, we get
For the assumed isentropic compressor, and isentropic turbine, we get:
-1
) (γ-1)/γ) T1 T7 P1 
= =
cussed above,T2 thermal P2
T3 efficiency is a function of the cycle pressure ratio p2/p1,
nt to build a gas turbine with a very high pressure ratio.
In this case, as discussed above, thermal efficiency is a function of the cycle pressure ratio
p2 /p1, thus one might want to build a gas turbine with a very high pressure ratio.
ng the pressure ratio leads to an increase in absorbed compressor power, but
, the moreHowever,
power isincreasing
produced. We find the available power
the pressure ratio leads to an increase in absorbed compressor power,
but the higher T3 gets, the more power is produced. We find the available power:
 
    
 =    −    1 −   
  
We can now, by differentiating, find the optimum pressure ratio that gives the best power
density
fferentiating, findforthe
a given achievable
optimum firing temperature
pressure T 3:
ratio that gives the best power density

able firing temperature T3 :
  
   =  
 

If, for a given achievable firing temperature T3 and a given mass flow W, the pressure ratio
is higher or
ring temperature T3lower
andthan
a 13the optimum
given mass calculated
flow W, the above, the available
pressure ratiogasisturbine output is
reduced. This means that a gas turbine with the best
timum calculated above, the available gas turbine output is reduced. power density will require different
cycle parameters than a gas turbine with the best possible
ine with the best power density will require different cycle parameters efficiency.
best possible efficiency.
stablished that a gas turbine that operates using the simple open
namically limited in efficiency and can never reach a 100% thermal
sign purposes, the simple-cycle gas turbine thermal efficiency in
55%. It will be shown later that the primary reason for this efficiency
hausting from the gas turbine is always significantly hotter than the
s turbine cannot recover all the energy that was put into the air by the
cates a correlation
30 between
| Chapter power
1: Gas and
Turbine efficiency. Why would gas
Thermodynamics
with output power and size? There is no intuitively obvious reason
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The term entropy was mentioned previously without providing a definition. The textbook
thermodynamics definition of heat transfer entropy is:
ds≥dQ/T = entropy flux is greater or equal than heat flux divided by temperature
This also is called the Second Law of Thermodynamics. While the expression may be
useful to the thermodynamicist, within the context of this basic text on fundamental
principles, it is not. However, it should at least be mentioned that this very simple
statement, when properly analyzed, is an extremely powerful engineering tool. Another,
more physically intuitive definition is:
Entropy indicates losses in the fluid (air) due to molecular disorder.
Entropy is created whenever heat transfer or fluid friction occurs.
Thus, entropy is essentially a quantitative measurement of a non-recoverable energy loss.

Any real thermodynamic process involves an increase in entropy. However, if we assume
that a thermodynamic process is ideal (no losses), then the entropy will be maintained
constant (s=constant); i.e., we have an isentropic process. In this case, a set of equations
called the Isentropic Relationships for Ideal Gasses can be employed:
γ γ
γ
P1  ρ 1   v2   T 1 γ -1
= =   =  
P 2  ρ 2   v1   T 2 
γ γ
γ
 v   T  γ -1
=  2  =  1 
 v1   T 2  The derivation of the isentropic relationships is beyond the scope of this text, but can be
The
foundderivation of the isentropic
in most thermodynamics textbooks.relationships
Nonetheless, the is beyond
above isentropicthis text but can be f
relationships
thermodynamics
are extremelytextbooks. Nonetheless,
important equations since they allowtheus toabove
relate theisentropic
gas turbine air relationships
pressure, a
tion of the isentropic relationships
temperature, density and
is beyond
volume to each
this text
other
but
throughout
canthe
be found
thermodynamic
important equations since they allow us to relate the gas turbine air pressure, temper in most
cycle. Later,
textbooks. Nonetheless,
we will the above isentropic relationships
the process hasare extremely
and volume tosee that
each we can
other relax the
throughoutassumptionthethat
thermodynamic to be ideal and
cycle. still use
Later, we will see
ns since they allow theus to relate
isentropic the gas
relationships byturbine
introducingair pressure,
multiplication temperature,
factors or efficienciesdensity
into the
relax the assumption that the process has to be ideal and still use the isentropic rel
ch other throughout the thermodynamic cycle. Later, we will see that we can
equations.
introducing multiplication factors or efficiencies into the equations.
ion that the process has to be ideal and still use the isentropic relationships by
One particular resultresult
One particular of these
of theserelationships
relationships is theisexpression
the expression
for isentropicforwork
isentropic
as a work:
lication factors orfunction
efficiencies into the equations. ()/
of compression ratio: 
ult of these relationships is the expression∆ℎ =    work:
for isentropic  − 1
 ()/ 
∆ℎ =     − 1

PROCESS DIAGRAMS (PRESSURE-VOLUME)
Previously, the simple Brayton gas turbine cycle was studied by following the gas
GRAMSthrough
(PRESSURE-VOLUME)
the individual gas turbine components (Figure 1-8). Let us repeat this approa
mple Brayton gas turbine cycle was studied by following the gas as it passes
this time the simple gas turbine thermodynamic cycle will be presented graphically
ual gas turbine components (Figure 1-8). Let us repeat this approach; however,
the relevant process variables such as pressure, specific volume, temperature,
le gas turbine thermodynamic cycle will be presented graphically. We will plot
entropy as the air passes from State 1 - ambient to State 2 - compressor exit
ess variables such exit
combustor as pressure,
to State 4specific volume,
- turbine temperature,
exit through the gasenthalpy
turbine. and
This type of ma
r passes from State 1 - ambient to State 2 - compressor exit to State 3 -
process diagram. The two most common process diagrams are pressure-volum
State 4 - turbine exit through the gas turbine. This type of map is called a
enthalpy-entropy (h-s). (The h-s diagram is also often presented as a temperature-
The two most common process diagrams are pressure-volume (P-v) and
diagram.) For now we will assume no losses; i.e., an ideal thermodynamic process.
(h-s). (The h-s diagram is also often presentedChapter
as a 1:
temperature-entropy
Gas Turbine specific (T-s)
Thermodynamics | 31 diagra
We will begin by plotting the pressure versus volume (P-v
w we willpasses
assumethrough
no losses; i.e., an ideal thermodynamic process.
a simple Brayton cycle gas turbine. The specific volume (v) is d
PROCESS DIAGRAMS (PRESSURE-VOLUME)
Previously, the simple Brayton gas turbine cycle was studied by following the gas as it
passes through the individual gas turbine components (Figure 1-8). Let us repeat this
approach; however, this time the simple gas turbine thermodynamic cycle will be presented
graphically. We will plot the relevant process variables such as pressure, specific volume,
temperature, enthalpy and entropy as the air passes from State 1 - ambient to State 2 -
compressor exit to State 3 - combustor exit to State 7 - turbine exit through the gas turbine
(Figure 1-9). This type of map is called a process diagram. The two most common process
diagrams are pressure-volume (P-v) and enthalpy-entropy (h-s). (The h-s diagram is also
often presented as a temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram.) For now, we will assume no
losses; i.e., an ideal thermodynamic process.
We will begin by plotting the pressure versus specific volume (P-v diagram) as the air
passes through a simple Brayton cycle gas turbine. The specific volume (v) is defined as
the reciprocal of the density ().
1 C 2 B 3 T 7
Figure 1-8. Simple Open Brayton Cycle Process Components
State 1 - Ambient air has not entered gas turbine and is at atmospheric condition:
P = 1.0×10 5 Pa, v = 0.82 m3/kg
Process 1 to 2: Air is being compressed as it passes through the axial compressor. Since
the assumption is an ideal process, this compression is considered to be isentropic,
constant entropy; i.e., no losses. As the air is compressed, its pressure (P) increases,
density () increases and specific volume (v) decreases.
State 2 - Air between compressor exit and combustor inlet:
P = 15.0×10 5 Pa, v = 0.13 m3/kg
Process 2 to 3: Air passes through the combustor and is heated. Since the assumption is
an ideal process, the air pressure remains constant, no pressure drop isobaric process,
and only the temperature and specific volume increase. From the equation of state, the
gas density decreases almost linearly with temperature; i.e., the gas expands, density ()
decreases and specific volume (v) increases.
State 3 - Air between combustor exit and turbine inlet:
P = 15.0×10 5 Pa, v = 0.75 m3/kg

Process 3 to 4: Air is being expanded as it passes through the axial turbine. Since the
assumption is an ideal process, this expansion is again considered to be isentropic. As the
air is expanded, its pressure (p) decreases, density () decreases and specific volume (v)
increases.
State 7 - Air exiting the turbine into ambient:
P = 1.0×10 5 Pa, v = 1.5 m3/kg
Figure 1-9 shows the actual p-v diagram for the process just described. There are many
direct conclusions one can draw from this diagram, but the most important is the following
realization:
WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE = PRESSURE x VOLUME
The area under the curve in the P-v diagram represents the work output of the gas turbine.
This type of diagram is very important for the gas turbine designer, since based on simple
graphics, the gas turbine output power can be assessed as a function of the process
parameters.
For example, if the firing temperature of the gas turbine is increased, the line from State
2 to State 3 becomes longer; thus, the area under the P-v curve becomes proportionally
larger. This is consistent with our earlier conclusion that gas turbine output power is directly
proportional to combustor firing temperature. Also, if the pressure ratio increases, State 1
to 2 and 3 to 7 become longer and the area under the curve increases, more output work
is obtained without adding more work input (temperature increase), which means that the
process efficiency must be increasing.
This confirms another earlier observation that gas turbine efficiency improves with pressure
ratio. Finally, if the ambient temperature decreases, the line from State 7 to 1 is lowered,
which increases the area inside the curve; i.e., the gas turbine produces more power at
lower ambient temperatures.
Isobaric Expansion
2 3
Area = P • = Work
Isentropic
Expansion
Pressure, P
Isentropic
Compression 7
Volume + 1/
Figure 1-9. Pressure-Volume Process Diagram

PROCESS DIAGRAMS (TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY)
Let us again analyze the ideal simple Brayton cycle graphically, this time plotting
temperature versus entropy (Figure 1-10). Note that the temperature (T) on this diagram can
be exchanged with enthalpy (h) since they are related by:
h = cp · T
The specific heat, cp, is assumed to stay constant throughout the process. The
temperature versus entropy (T-s) diagram allows us to quantitatively assess the efficiency
of a thermodynamic process, since an entropy increase indicates thermodynamic non-
recoverable energy losses. Thus, following the air as it passes through the previously
defined states of a simple Brayton cycle:
State 1 - Ambient air has not entered gas turbine and is at atmospheric condition:
T = 300°K, s = 0 J/mol · K
Process 1 to 2: Air is being compressed as it passes through the axial compressor. Since
the assumption is an ideal process, this compression is considered to be isentropic. As
the air is compressed, its pressure (P) increases and temperature (T) and enthalpy (h) also
increase.
State 2 - Air between compressor exit and combustor inlet:
T = 700°K, s = 0 J/mol · K
Process 2 to 3: Air passes through the combustor and is heated. Based on the definition
of entropy (ds≥dQ/T), we know that for any heat transfer the entropy has to increase.
Therefore, temperature (T), enthalpy (h) and entropy(s) increase.
State 3 - Air between combustor exit and turbine inlet:
T1 = 1,400°K, s = 800 J/mol · K
Process 3 to 7: Air is being expanded as it passes through the axial turbine. Since the
assumption is an ideal process, this expansion is considered to be isentropic. As the air
expands, its pressure (P) decreases and temperature (T) and enthalpy (h) also decrease. As
shown in (Figure 1-10).
State 7 - Air exiting the turbine into ambient:
T1=500°K, s = 800 J/mol · K

Temperature T, Enthalpy h
3
t
o ns
p =c
P ambient
7
1
Entropy s
Figure 1-10. Temperature vs Entropy Process Diagram

IDEAL SIMPLE-CYCLE ANALYSIS
Let us formalize some of the concepts we have employed for the simple Brayton cycle
over the previous pages and try to make them into useful engineering tools for gas turbine
performance analysis. For now, we will continue to assume that the gas turbine cycle is an
ideal process with no component losses, but we will model a more realistic gas turbine by
including inlet and exhaust systems and separating the gas producer and power turbines.
Figure 1-11 shows the resulting subdivision of the gas turbine into States: 0=ambient,
1=compressor inlet, 2=combustor inlet, 3=turbine inlet, 5=power turbine inlet, 7=exhaust
inlet, and 0=exhaust outlet.
0 1 2 3 5 7 0
Inlet Compressor Burner

Inlet Compressor Burner Turbine
Turbine Turbine Exhaust
Turbine Exhaust
Figure 1-11. Components
For the simple-cycle analysis, we will follow the air as it passes through each of the gas
turbine components and determine temperature, pressure, and density at each of the
7 States. Later, we will show that, based on the resulting information, total gas turbine
power, efficiency, fuel flow, and exhaust gas temperature can be determined; i.e., we can
model and predict gas turbine performance. We will begin by summarizing the primary
assumptions for the ideal cycle analysis:
1. The physical properties of the gas are constant:

- specific heat ratio:  = constant
- specific heat: cp = constant
2. No losses due to fluid friction, therefore, isentropic compression and expansion.
3. Air velocities are very low, so that stagnation and static pressures and temperatures can
be considered to be identical.
The above assumptions essentially state that each of the gas turbine components has
a thermal efficiency of 100% (Energy Out/Energy In = 1.0). However, we previously
showed that even for an ideal simple Brayton cycle the total gas turbine thermal efficiency
is significantly lower than 100%, typically between 28 and 40%. How can a gas turbine
where each component has 100% efficiency have a thermal efficiency of around 30%?
Each gas turbine component may have 100% efficiency, but the exhaust air exiting the gas
turbine is significantly hotter than the inlet air; i.e., hot exhaust air (energy) is blown into

the atmosphere and lost. Thus, the usable output shaft energy of the gas turbine must be
lower than the input fuel energy: Energy Out/Energy In < 1.0. Intuitively it is expected that
the energy lost by a gas turbine due to hot exhaust gas is to be approximately as follows,
assuming for example a 30% thermal efficiency:
(Shaft Output Energy + Hot Exhaust Energy)/Fuel Inflow Energy = 1.0,
or
Shaft Output Energy/Fuel Inflow Energy = 0.3,
thus,
Hot Exhaust Energy = 0.7 Fuel Inflow Energy.
Later in this text, the actual amount of energy that is lost due to unused hot exhaust air will
be calculated. Also, some technologies that are employed to capture this lost energy such
as combined or advanced cycles will be briefly discussed.
IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS METHOD
The step-by-step method to determine the performance of an ideal simple Brayton cycle is
presented below:
State 0 to 1 - Inlet System
Assuming no losses, the entropy through the inlet system remains constant:
h0 = h1
cp0 T0 = cp1T1
Assuming that the specific heat, cp, remains constant:
T0 = T2
from the isentropic relationship, p1/p2 = (T1/T2)/-1 , thus:
P0 = P1 = Patmosphere
and from the equation of state, we can derive the air density:
0= P0 /RT0 = P1 /RT1 = 1

State 1 to 2 - Axial Compressor
Assuming isentropic compression (s=0) and for a given compressor pressure ratio (πc), we
can determine the compressor exhaust temperature (T3) and pressure (P 3) from:
P2 /P1 = πc

T2 /T1 = πc  - 1
and from the equation of state, we determine the air density:
2= P2 (R · T2 )
State 2 to 3 - Combustor
Assuming no pressure drop in the combustor:
P2 = P3
The firing temperature (T4) of the gas turbine is known and depends typically only on
blade material limitations. If the gas turbine air volume flow Q is known, which is usually a
compressor/turbine design specification, the air mass flow Wair can be determined:
Wair = 2 · Q
Furthermore, assuming no energy losses, for the temperature increase from burning the
fuel, we know that:
Work Out heat = Work In fuel
thus,
Wair·(h3-h2 ) = Wair·cp ·(T3-T2 ) = Wfuel qR
Where qR is the heating value (J/kg) of the fuel. The above equation allows us to determine
the fuel flow Wfuel into the gas turbine to achieve a certain firing temperature T4. From the
equation of state, we can then get the air density:
3= P3 /(R · T3 )
State 3 to 5 - Gas Producer Turbine
The gas producer turbine and axial compressor are mounted on the same shaft; i.e., their
powers have to be identical:
Workcompressor = Workgas producer turbine
Thus,
Wair·(h2-h1 ) = [Wair + Wfuel ]·(h5-h3 )

or
Wair · cp · (T2-T1 ) = [Wair + Wfuel ] · cp · (T5-T3 )
This expression can be solved to obtain the gas producer turbine exhaust temperature (T5).
Assuming isentropic expansion (s=0), the gas producer turbine exhaust pressure (P5) is
then determined from:

P5 /P3 = (T5 /T3 )  - 1
Density is again obtained directly from the equation of state:
5= P3 /(R · T3 )
State 5 to 7 - Power Turbine
Assuming isentropic expansion (s=0) and knowing the power turbine exhaust pressure
(P7) from the subsequent State 7 to 0, the power turbine exhaust temperature (T 7) is
determined from:

T7 /T5 = (P7 /P5 )  - 1
Air density is obtained from:
7= P7 /(R · T7 )
State 7 to 01 - Exhaust System
Assuming no losses, the entropy through the exhaust system remains constant:
h7 = h01
cp7T7 = cp01 T01
Assuming that specific heat (cp) remains constant:
T7 = T01
And therefore:
P6 = P01 = Patmosphere
Air density is finally obtained from:
01= P01 / RT01 )
The gas turbine shaft output power equals the work absorbed by the power turbine and
can therefore be obtained from:
Poutput = [Wair + Wfuel ] · (h7-h5 )

or
Poutput = [Wair + Wfuel] · cp · (T7-T5 )
Also, the gas turbine thermal efficiency is determined from:
 = Power Ouput / Power Input = Poutput / [Wfuel · qR ]
or
 = Poutput / [Wair · cp · (T3-T2 )]
Using the above equations, ideal gas turbine performance can be determined. This
simplified mathematical model can be used to perform parametric and optimization studies,
which are required early on in the design process of a new gas turbine. However, to predict
real gas turbine performance, the model needs to be refined to include actual component
losses and efficiencies. This more advanced type of model is called the non-ideal or real
simple Brayton cycle analysis and is described in the following section.
NON-IDEAL SIMPLE-CYCLE ANALYSIS
The non-ideal or real simple-cycle analysis is based on the equations of the previously
described ideal analysis; however, component efficiencies and pressure losses are
introduced to model the non-ideal nature of the actual gas turbine cycle. For example,
instead of assuming that the pressure is constant throughout the inlet/exhaust system and
combustor, we assume a small pressure drop expressed in the form of a pressure ratio
smaller than unity. Also, instead of assuming that compression and expansion are isentropic
processes, the isentropic efficiency, based on the work ratio, is introduced to account
for energy losses. Finally, the previous assumptions that physical gas properties are
constant and that stagnation and static pressures/temperatures are identical are relaxed. In
summary:
1. The physical properties of the gas vary with temperature and pressure:
- specific heat ratio:
 = (T,P)
- specific heat:
cp = cp(T,P)
2. Fluid friction losses are expressed in the form of:

- pressure drops or pressure ratios:
π = Pout/Pin (<1.0)
- isentropic component efficiencies:
 = Work In/Work Out = Ideal (Isentropic) Work/Actual Work <1.0

-- pressure
pressure drops drops or or pressure
pressure ratios:
ratios:
ππ == PPout
out/P
/Pinin (<1.0)
(<1.0)
-- isentropic
isentropic component
component efficiencies:
efficiencies:
ηη == Work
Work In / Work Out == Ideal
In / Work Out Ideal (Isentropic)
(Isentropic) Work
Work // Actual
Actual Work
Work (<1.0)
(<1.0)
3. Static
3. 3.Static pressure
pressure and
and temperature
temperature values
values are
are corrected
corrected using
using the
the actual
actual flow
flow
Static pressure and temperature values are corrected using the actual flow
Mach
Mach number
number to
to determine
determine stagnation
stagnation values:
values:
Mach number to determine stagnation values:
 γγ --11 22
TTt t==TT⋅⋅11++ ⋅⋅M 
 22 M 
γγ--11
 γγ --11 22 γγ
PPt t== PP⋅⋅11++ ⋅⋅M 
 22 M 

The The derivation of these pressure/temperature Mach numbercorrections

corrections can bebe
found in in most
The derivation
derivation of
of these
these pressure/temperature
pressure/temperature Mach Mach number
number corrections can can be found
found in most
most
aerodynamics aerodynamics textbooks.
aerodynamics textbooks.
textbooks.
NON-IDEAL
NON-IDEAL CYCLE
CYCLE ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS METHOD
METHOD
Based
Based on
on the above
above definitions,
NON-IDEAL
the we
we can
CYCLE ANALYSIS
definitions, formulate
formulate the
METHOD
can the following
following terms
terms for
for the
the gas
gas turbine
turbine
component efficiencies and pressure ratios:
component efficiencies and pressure ratios:
Based on the above definitions, we can formulate the following terms for the gas turbine
State
State 11 to component
to 22 -- Inlet efficiencies and pressure ratios:
Inlet System
System
State 0 to 1 - Inlet System
Pressure
Pressure ratio
ratio across
across the
the inlet
inlet system
system (inlet
(inlet filter,
filter, silencer,
silencer, ducting,
ducting, diffuser):
diffuser):
Pressure ratio across the inlet system (inlet filter, silencer, ducting, diffuser):
ππi i== pp22/p
/p11
π 0 = P1 /P2
State
State 22 to
to 33 -- Compressor
Compressor
State 1 to 2 - Compressor
Isentropic
Isentropic efficiency
efficiency of
of the
3
3
the
3
3
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor

Ideal (Isentropic) Work h**- h cbased ** on:
*
T *- c T 2 compressor
compressor based
based on:
ηηcc== Ideal (Isentropic) Work == h33 - h22== cpp T - cp2p2 T 2 on:
Actual
Actual Work
Work hh33--hh22 ccpp33TT3h3--*cc-p2p2hTT22
Ideal (Isentropic) Work 2 1
c = =
Actual Work h2 - h1
23
23
State 2 to 3 - Combustor
Pressure ratio across the combustor and combustion efficiency:
πb = P3 /P2
Energy Out Wair ⋅ cp ⋅ (h3-h2 )

b = =
Fuel Energy WFuel ⋅ qR
where qR is the heating value (J/kg) of the gas turbine fuel.

State 3 to 5 - Gas Producer Turbine
Isentropic efficiency of the gas producer turbine based on:
Actual Work h5 - h3
t = =
Ideal (Isentropic) Work h5* - h3
State 5 to 7 - Power Turbine
Isentropic efficiency of the power turbine based on:
Actual Work h7 - h5
t = =
Ideal (Isentropic) Work h7* - h5
State 7 to 0 - Exhaust System
Pressure ratio across the exhaust system (exhaust silencer, ducting, expander):
πe = P7 /P0
Thus, there is a system of equations that consists of the equations presented earlier for
the ideal analysis, the efficiency and pressure ratio expression, the gas property equations,
and the Mach number corrections. By solving this system of equations, the actual (real)
performance (power and efficiency) at any operating condition of the gas turbine can be
determined.
The somewhat difficult numerical solution for this system of equations must be obtained
using an iterative or a matrix solver approach, such as a Gauss-Seidel matrix inversion
method. It is beyond the scope of this text to present a detailed numerical analysis, which
can be found in most turbomachinery textbooks. However, a T-s diagram for a typical
20,000-hp gas turbine example is shown in Figure 1-12. The non-ideal nature of the process
can be seen in the form of entropy increases from State 1 to 3 and from State 4 to 7.
Turbomachinery manufacturers frequently employ this very powerful mathematical analysis

method for the design of new turbines and to predict performance for actual gas turbine
applications. Nonetheless, the non-ideal cycle analysis still requires prior knowledge of
compressor and turbine isentropic efficiencies, the inlet, exhaust, and combustor pressure
ratios, and combustion efficiency. These values are usually obtained from experimental test
stand data and/or computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. We will briefly discuss the
CFD analysis approach later in this text.

Some typical values for component efficiencies and pressure ratios of modern gas turbines
are as follows:
Inlet System: πi > 0.99

Axial Compressor: c ≈ 0.90
Combustor: b > 0.98 and 0.80< πb <0.95 (strongly depending on basic design)
Gas Producer Turbine: gt ≈ 0.90
Power Turbine: pt ≈ 0.90
Exhaust System: πe > 0.99
In reality, these efficiencies are not constants, but functions of many variables such as
ambient temperature, ambient pressure, humidity, shaft rotational speed and many more.
Temperature T, Enthalpy h
t
o ns
p =c
2 P ambient
7
Entropy s
Figure 1-12. Non-Ideal Simple Cycle Temperature vs Entropy Process Diagram
SUMMARY
The following is a summary of what has been learned thus far from thermodynamics about
the function and design objective of each of the relevant gas turbine components:
Inlet System. Collects and directs air into the gas turbine. Often, an air cleaner and
silencer are part of the inlet system. It is designed for a minimum pressure drop, while
maximizing clean airflow into the gas turbine.
Compressor. Provides compression and, thus, increases the air density for the combustion
process. The higher the compression ratio, the higher the total gas turbine efficiency. Low
compressor efficiencies result in high compressor discharge temperatures, therefore, lower
gas turbine output power.

Combustor (Burner). Adds heat energy to the airflow. The output power of the gas
turbine is directly related to the combustor firing temperature; i.e., the combustor is
designed to increase the air temperature up to the material limits of the gas turbine, while
maintaining a reasonable pressure drop.
Gas Producer Turbine. Expands the air and absorbs just enough energy from the flow to
drive the compressor. The higher the gas producer discharge temperature and pressure,
the more energy is available to drive the power turbine, therefore, creating shaft work.
Power Turbine. Converts the remaining flow energy from the gas producer into useful
shaft output work. The higher the temperature difference across the power turbine, the
more shaft output power is available.
Exhaust System. Directs exhaust flow away from the gas turbine inlet. Often a silencer is
part of the exhaust system. Similar to the inlet system, the exhaust system is designed for
minimum pressure losses.

46 | Chapter 2: Turbomachinery Component Basics
CHAPTER 2
TURBOMACHINERY COMPONENT BASICS
In Chapter 1, simple gas turbine cycle thermodynamics were discussed, focusing on gas
turbine component design objectives. In this chapter, the actual function and internal
aero/combustion dynamics of the compressor, combustor and turbine will be discussed.
Some engineering concepts such as Euler’s formula, velocity polygons, and combustion
stoichiometry, all necessary for designing these gas turbine components will also be
examined. We will begin by looking at the components in the order as the airflow passes
through a gas turbine (Figure 2-1).
COMPRESSOR
As seen previously, the gas turbine air compressor function is to increase pressure
and density of the airflow. Based on isentropic relations, as the air pressure increases,
the air temperature also increases. On all simple-cycle gas turbines, we know that this
compression process is accomplished using either an axial or centrifugal compressor. Other
machine designs employed to compress gas include the piston, reciprocating and rotary-
screw compressors. These compressor designs are commonly referred to as positive-
displacement compressors. The authors are not aware of any simple-cycle gas turbines
that employ a positive displacement air compressor.
Figure 2-2 shows a typical axial compressor. In an axial compressor, the airflow follows
primarily along the direction of the gas turbine axis, while in a centrifugal compressor the
airflow is turned and directed radially outward. Later, we will discuss in more detail the design
advantages and disadvantages of the two designs.
For starters, the focus will be placed
EXHAUST COLLECTOR
on understanding the compression ASSEMBLY THROUGH-DRIVE
ASSEMBLY
process by asking a simple, but
immensely important question:
POWER TURBINE
ASSEMBLY
GAS PRODUCER
TURBINE ASSEMBLY
ACCESSORY DRIVE
ASSEMBLY
COMBUSTOR
ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSOR
ASSEMBLY
AIR INLET
ASSEMBLY
Figure 2-1. Gas Turbine Components
Chapter 2: Turbomachinery Component Basics | 47

Rotor Compressor
Zero Stage Assembly Case
Figure 2-2. Axial Compressor Rotor and Stator
How is energy imparted to the airflow by a compressor?
The aerodynamic flow path of the compressor consists essentially of rotating blades and
stationary blades (or diffuser vanes). Rotating (rotor) blades do not, at least directly, change
the temperature or pressure of the airflow. Physically, then, the only function a rotating
compressor blade can perform is to increase the tangential velocity (or angular momentum)
of the airflow; i.e., change the air’s kinetic energy. Thus:
A rotating compressor blade passage (stage) imparts energy to the fluid (air) by
increasing the fluid’s angular momentum (torque) (Figure 2-3).
On the other hand, stationary (stator) blades cannot impart energy to the flow. The
only function stationary blades can perform is to redirect and/or decelerate the airflow.
However, by decelerating the tangential velocity of the airflow, angular momentum is
converted to pressure; i.e., kinetic angular energy is converted to potential pressure energy:
A stationary blade compresses the fluid (air) by decelerating it (Figure 2-3).
Hence, a simplified explanation of how a gas turbine compressor works is as follows:
1. Air passes through the compressor rotating blades and is accelerated in the tangential
direction; energy is added.

2. Airflow with a high tangential velocity component exits the rotating blade passage and
enters the stationary blade passage. Both the kinetic energy and the static pressure have
increased.
3. The stationary blades decelerate the tangential velocity component and the air’s angular
momentum is converted to pressure; i.e., kinetic energy is converted to potential energy.
In a multi-stage compressor, this three-step compression process is repeated until a

desired compression ratio is achieved (Figure 2-3). Multi-stage compressors will be
discussed in more detail later in this section.
Stator
cz2
a b
U2
2 3
1
β2
h = cu2 • u2 - cu1 • u1
Rotor β1 w2
U1
U c2
w1
α3 α2 cu2
c3
a b α1 cu1
c1
1 2 3 cz1
Figure 2-3. Velocities in a Typical Compressor Stage. Mechanical work h transferred to the air is
determined by the change in circumferential momentum of the air
EULER’S ANGULAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
We just claimed that we can relate the tangential air velocity (cu), also called swirl, in the
compressor blade passage to the air pressure increase. This is significant since it means
that if blade geometry and compressor rotational speed are known, we should be able to
estimate the blade passage compression ratio. Let’s restate what we already know: “a
rotating compressor blade passage (stage) imparts energy to the fluid (air) by increasing the
fluid’s angular momentum (torque).” We can express this statement in mathematical terms:
The increase in the tangential velocity component of the air is simply:
cu2 = cu2 - cu1
The mathematical expression for angular momentum (torque) from basic physics is:
 = W · r · cu

Since the blade imparts or extracts torque from the working fluid, the torque must equal
the change of angular momentum of the working fluid. Thus, the change of angular
momentum of the fluid can be written as:
 = W · (r · cu ) = W ·(r2 · cu,2 -r1 cu,1 )
Power (work/time) is defined as torque multiplied by the angular speed:
P =  ·  =  · W · (r · cu ) =  · W ·(r2 cu,2 - r1 cu,1 )
This equation is called Euler’s Angular Momentum equation and it is very important. The
expression explains that we can determine the power required to drive a compressor
from the tangential velocities of the flow in the compressor blade passages. Later, we will
demonstrate how the tangential velocities can be calculated directly from the geometry of
the compressor blades. From Euler’s equation, we can also determine the head (enthalpy
difference) per stage as follows:
P
P = ω ⋅W ⋅(r c - r c )
P
H
H=
H =
= hhh222 --- hhh111=
=
= P==ωω ⋅W
⋅W⋅⋅(r
(r222ccuuu,,,222 -- rr111ccuuu,,1,11 ))
H = h 2 - h1 = W W = ω ⋅W ⋅(r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 )
W
W
Since
Since
Since h=c
Sincehh=c
h=c T,
T,
pppT,
= c T, wewe
we
we can
can
can
can estimate
estimate
estimate
estimate the
the temperature
the temperature
temperature
the temperature increase
increase
increaseincrease across
across
across the across the compressor
thestage:
the
compressor stage:
compressor stage:
compressor stage:
Since h=cp pT, we can estimate the temperature increase across the compressor stage:
ω
ω
ω
= ω ⋅⋅⋅ω
=
TT222 =
T ωω ⋅⋅WW⋅⋅⋅(r
⋅W (r
(r222cccuuu,,,222 --- rrr111cccuuu,,1,11 )))+
+
+TTT111
T 2 = cccppp ⋅ ω ⋅W ⋅(r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 ) + T 1
cp
Because this is a compressor, we are really more interested in the pressure increase
Because this is
Because this
Because this isis aaa compressor,
compressor,
compressor, we we are
we are really
are really more
really more interested
more interested
interested inin the
in the pressure
the pressure increase
pressure increase than
increase than
than
than the temperature
Because this increase
is a compressor, per stage. The isentropic relationships provide a function
the temperature
the temperature
the temperature increase
increase
increase per stage. we
stage.
per stage.
per The
The
The are really more
isentropic
isentropic
isentropic interested
relationships
relationships
relationships in the
provide
provide
provide pressure increase
aaa function
function
function than
between
between
between
the
pressure between
temperature
and pressure
temperature and
increase per temperature
ratio;stage. ratio;
however, however,
The when when
isentropic
when employing the
relationships
employing the isentropic
provide relationships
isentropic a function between
relationships in this
pressure
pressure and temperature
and temperature ratio;
ratio; however,
however, when employing
employing the isentropic
the isentropic relationships in this
in this
pressure relationships
and in this
temperature context they
ratio; applythermodynamic
however,for ideal (no losses)
when thermodynamic
employing the processes.
isentropic In processin
relationships
context
context they
context they apply
they apply
apply forfor ideal
for ideal
ideal (no(no losses)
(no losses)
losses) thermodynamic processes.
thermodynamic processes.
processes. In In this
In this case,
this case, the
case, thethe process is this
is
process is not
not
not
context
ideal; this
they
thus, case,
a the for
apply process
compressor ideal is(no
not ideal;
losses)
efficiency thus,
has a compressor
thermodynamic
to be efficiency
introduced: has to In
processes. be this
introduced:
case, the process is not
ideal; thus,
ideal; thus, aa compressor
compressor efficiency
efficiency has has to to be
be introduced:
introduced:
ideal; thus, a compressor efficiency has to be introduced:
Ideal (Isentropic) Head *** - *** -
ηηccc = Ideal (Isentropi
Ideal (Isentropic) Head = hhh22*2 -- hhh111 = T
c) Head T 22*2 --T
TT111
η =
= Ideal (Isentropic) Head == h 2 - h1 = =T T 2 -- T 1
ηc = Actual Head
Actual Head
Actual Head -
= hhh222 -- hhh111 = TTT222 --TTT111
Actual Head h 2 - h1 T2 -T1
When combining
When combining
When combining the the above
the above efficiency
above efficiency with
efficiency with
with thethe expression
the expression
expression for for temperature
for temperature
temperature and and the
and the
the
γ/γ-1)
isentropicWhen
When combining
combining
relationship the
for the
above above
temperature efficiency
efficiency with
and the with
expression
pressure the
(T for
/T expression
temperature
= (P /P ) (((γ/γ-1)
for
and
γ/γ-1) temperature
the
), we obtain and
after the
some
isentropic relationship
isentropic relationship forfor temperature
temperature and and pressure
pressure (T (T22/T
2 /T11 == (P
1 (P22/P
2 /P55))(γ/γ-1)),), we
5 we obtain
obtain after
after some
some
algebra:isentropic
isentropic relationship
relationship for for temperature and
temperature andpressure (T2 /T
pressure (T1 =
2/T(P12=/P1(P
) 2/P ), 5we
) obtain ), weafter
obtain after some
(/-1)
algebra:
algebra:
algebra:some algebra:
γγγ
P222 = 1 + ηω
ηω ⋅ ω ⋅W ⋅(r c - r c )γγγ-γ--111
ηω γ -1
P
P
P2  c T
=
= 1
1 +
+ ηω ⋅⋅ωω ⋅⋅
WW⋅⋅(r
(r c
c -
- r
r11 uu,1,1 
c
c )
) 

P111 =  1 + ccpppTT111 ⋅ ω ⋅W ⋅(r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 )
2 u ,
22 uu,,222 1 u ,1
P
P
P1  cpT1 
This expression
This expression
This gives
expression gives us
gives us the
us the pressure
the pressure ratio
pressure ratio per
ratio per stage
per stage
stage asas
as aaa function
function
function of of the
of the tangential
the tangential air
tangential air
air
This
velocity. Using
This
velocity. expression
the
expression
velocity. Using
Using the gives
expression
gives us
the expression theus
expression forforthe pressure
head,
pressure
for head, we
ratio
head, we can
per
we can ratio
stage
can also per
also
as a stage
rewrite
function
also rewrite as
this
of
rewrite this a
the
this as function
as follows
tangential
as follows of
air
follows (to the
(to tangential
relate
(to relate head air
head
relate head to
to
to
velocity.
pressure Using
ratio):
velocity.
pressure ratio):
pressure ratio): the
Using expression
the expressionfor
for head,
head, wewecancan
alsoalso rewrite
rewrite this as this as
follows follows
(to relate (to
head relate head to
pressure ratio):
to pressure ratio):
γγγ
PP
P222 = 1 + η ηη
⋅ γγγγ-γ---1111
P12 == 11+ + η ⋅⋅ H H 
H
P11 =  |1 Chapter
P + cccppp⋅⋅⋅T
TT1112:⋅ Turbomachinery
H 
c p⋅T 1 
50P Component Basics
P1 
This expression gives us the pressure ratio per stage as a function of the tangentia
velocity. Using the expression for head, we can also rewrite this as follows (to relate head
pressure ratio):
P 2 =  1 + η ⋅ H  γ -1
P 1  c p⋅T 1 

The
Theabove
above equations are extremely
equations powerfulpowerful
are extremely engineering tools. From basic
engineering tools.knowledge
From basic knowledg
of the tangential
the tangential flow velocities
flow velocities insideinside the compressor
the compressor rotating blade
rotating blade passage,
passage, we we
can can determine
determine the head, required power, temperature ratio and pressure ratio
head, required power, temperature ratio and pressure ratio across a compressor stage.across a
obviouscompressor
next questionstage.then
The obvious
is: How next
doquestion then is: How
we determine the do we determine
tangential the tangential
velocity components?
velocity components?
Velocity Vector Polygons
To determine the tangential velocity component or swirl of the airflow in the compressor, so
simple VELOCITY
rules fromVECTOR
basic geometry
POLYGONSand trigonometry are employed. Let us demonstrate using
axial compressor rotor/stator blade passage (stage) example presented below.
To determine the tangential velocity component or swirl of the airflow in the compressor,
some simple rules
Axial Compressor from basic geometry and trigonometry are employed. Let us
Example
First, a demonstrate using the blade
typical rotor/stator axial compressor
stage of rotor/stator blade passageis(stage)
an axial compressor example
separated into three states: f
before presented
it enters below.
the rotor cascade; flow exiting the rotor cascade and before entering the st
cascade; and flow exiting the stator cascade (Figure 2-2). Next, the flow vector (direction
Axial is
magnitude) Compressor
analyzed Example
at each state, assuming that the flow follows the blades perfectly; i.e.
slip or a slip factor of unity. (NOTE: The slip factor is defined as a parameter describing how m
First, a typical rotor/stator blade stage of an axial compressor is separated into three
states: flow before it enters the rotor cascade; flow exiting the rotor cascade and before
entering the stator cascade; and flow exiting the 6 stator cascade (Figure 2-4). Next, the
flow vector (direction and magnitude) is analyzed at each state, assuming that the flow
follows the blades perfectly; i.e., no slip or a slip factor of unity. (NOTE: The slip factor is
defined as a parameter describing how much the rotor exit flow angle deviates from the
actual blade angle).
1 ROTOR 2 STATOR 3
U
α1
c1
α3
w1 α2
U1 c3
U2
β1 c2
w2
β2
Figure 2-4. Velocity Vector Polygons for Rotor-Stator Blade Passage

State 1 - Flow Entering Rotor Cascade
Typically, the known information or boundary conditions are the inlet velocity vector, the
blade rotating speed and the geometry of the blades:
Given: Inlet flow magnitude - c1
Inlet flow angle - 1
Blade radius - r1
Blade angular speed - 
The inlet flow into the compressor either enters with none or only a very small tangential
velocity component (pre-swirl); hence, a1 is very small. The blade speed (U) is determined
from:
U = r1 · 
We can determine what the velocity vector from the stationary frame (c1,1) looks like
when translated into the relative rotating frame (relative to the rotating blade) by using
simple vector addition (U is a vector pointing in the tangential direction). A velocity vector
triangle is obtained as shown above where the velocity vector in the rotating frame (w1,1)
is calculated using basic trigonometry. This method is called Velocity Vector Polygons.
Note that velocity vectors relative to the stationary frame are denoted using symbols
c, (magnitude, direction), while velocity vectors relative to the rotating blade frame are
denoted by w, (magnitude, direction). For now, we are only interested in the tangential
component of the through-flow velocity relative to the stationary frame, which is simply
determined from:
V1 = c1 · sin(1 )
State 2 - Flow Exiting the Rotor Cascade before Entering the Stator Cascade
Since we assumed there is no slip, the flow exiting the rotor blades must be perfectly
aligned with the blades; i.e., the exit flow angle (2) is the rotor blade angle in the rotating
frame. Also, the magnitude of the through flow vector (w2) can be determined by applying
the conservation of mass (continuity) equation:
W = VA = constant
Thus, to determine the tangential component of the through flow exiting the rotor blades,
the known rotating vector (w2,2) has to be translated to the stationary frame to obtain the
vector (c2,2). As previously mentioned, this is done using vector addition and trigonometry.
Once the vector (c2,2) is known, the tangential component relative to the stationary frame
is again obtained from:
cu,2 = c2 · sin(2 )

vector (c2,α2) is known, the tangential component relative to the stationary frame is again
(c2,α2). Asfrom:
obtained previously mentioned, this is done using vector addition and trigonometry. Once th
vector (c2,α2) is known, the tangential component relative to the stationary frame is again
obtained from:
cu , 2 = c2 ⋅ sin( α 2 )
State ⋅ sin(Exiting
cu , 2 =3c-2Flow α 2 ) the Stator Cascade
State 3 The flow Exiting
- Flow exiting thethe
stator cascade
Stator is assumed to follow the blades; therefore, the stator
Cascade
blade angle is the flow exit angle (2). The vector magnitude (c 3) is again obtained from the
Stateflow
The 3 continuity
- exiting
Flow Exiting
equation.
the statorthe Stator
However,
cascade Cascade
since
is the stator cascade
assumed to follow does thenotblades;
add energy to the flow,
therefore, the stator blad
angle isthere is no need
the flow to evaluate
exit angle (α2).the
Thetangential
vector through-flow
magnitude velocity component.
(c3) is again The stator
obtained from the continui
The flowexit
equation. exiting
However, the stator
flow vector since cascade
is determined
the onlyis
stator toassumed
obtain the
cascade to follow
inlet
does flowadd
not theenergy
vector blades; totherefore,
into the next
the rotor the stator
flow,blade
there is noblad
nee
angle is
to evaluatethe flow
the
cascade.
exit angle
tangential (α2).
through Theflowvector magnitude
velocity component. (c3 ) is again
The obtained
stator exit from
flow the
vector continui
is
equation.
determined However, since the
only to obtain the inlet
statorflowcascade
vectordoes not next
into the add energy
rotor bladeto the flow, there is no nee
cascade.
to evaluate
Since the tangential velocity components of the flow inside the axialflow
Since the
the tangential
tangential through
velocity flow
components velocity
of thecomponent.
flow inside the The
axial stator exit
compressor have vector
been is have
compressor
determined only
calculated, to obtain
Euler’s the
Angular inlet
Momentumflow vector
equationinto
canthe
be next
used rotor
to
been calculated, Euler’s Angular Momentum equation can be used to determine the pressure blade
determine cascade.
the pressure
Since
ratio, temperature the tangential
ratio, temperature
increase, velocity
increase,
headhead components
and
and energy per
energy ofstage
perstagethe asflow insideshown.
previously
as previously the shown.
axial compressor
For example,
For example, have
th
been calculated,
equation the equation
for pressureEuler’s Angular
for pressure
ratio perratio Momentum
per stage
stage equation
becomes:
becomes: can be used to determine the pressure
ratio, temperature increase, head and energy per stage γ as previously shown. For example, th

equationpfor pressure ηω ratio per stage becomes:  γ -1
=  1 +
2
⋅ ( r 2 c 2 sin( α 2 ) - r 1 c1 sin( α 1 )  γ
p 2 
p 1 ηω
c p T 1  γ -1
=  1 + ⋅ ( r 2 c 2 sin( α 2 ) - r 1 c1 sin( α 1 ) 
p1  cpT1 
Multi-Stage Axial Compressor
MULTI-STAGE
In a multi-stage AXIAL COMPRESSOR
compressor, the air passes through a number of rotor/stator cascades or stag
Multi-Stage
each of whichAxial Compressor
increases the overall air pressure to achieve a desired total compression ratio.
Figure In a shows
2-4 multi-stage
In a multi-stage compressor,
compressor,
a typical gasthe the
airairpasses
turbine passes
axial through
through a number
compressor a number
withof all
rotor/stator
ofrelevant cascades
rotor/stator
flowcascades
elements.orUsua
stag
each of
there areor between
stages, each
which 10oftowhich
increases the increases
overall
17 stages inthe
air overall
pressure
a gas air pressure
turbineto axial to
achieve achieve a desired
a desired
compressor with total
total compression ratio.
each stage achievin
Figure 2-4 shows
compression a typical
ratio. gas
Figure 2-5turbine
shows aaxial
typicalcompressor
gas turbine with
axial
a pressure ratio of 1.2 to 1.5. The total compression ratio is calculated by simply all relevant
compressor flow
with all elements. Usua
multiplying th
there are between
relevant flow 10 to 17
elements.
individual stage compression ratios: stages
Usually, in
therea gas
are turbine
between axial
10 to 17compressor
stages in a with
gas each
turbine stage
axial achievin
a pressure ratio ofwith
compressor 1.2each
to 1.5. The
stage total compression
achieving a pressure ratioratio
of 1.1istocalculated
1.4. The totalby simply multiplying th
compression
individual stage
ratio compression
is calculated by simplyratios:
multiplying the individual stage compression ratios:
P n = P 2 ⋅ P 3 ⋅ P 4 ... P n
Pn1 P
P P1 P 2 P 3 P n -1
= 2 ⋅ P 3 ⋅ P 4 ... P n
P1 subscript
where the P1 P 2 indexP 3 isPthe
n -1
stage number and n is the total number of stages.
The
wheremore stages index
the subscript a compressor
is the stage has,
numbertheand
higher the total achievable
of stages.pressure ratio. We
where the
previously subscript
determined index
thatisthe
the stage
gas number
turbine andnefficiency
thermal nis is
the total
the number
total number
is directly of stages.
related to the pressure
The
ratio: asThe more
themore stages
pressure a compressor has, the higher the total achievable pressure
stages a compressor has, the higher the total achievable pressure ratio. We not just
ratio increases, so does the gas turbine efficiency. So why ratio.add
We
previously
more and determined
more
previously stages that
determined
thethe
to the gas turbine thermal
thatcompressor
gas turbinetothermal
improveefficiency is directly related to the pressure
the efficiency?
efficiency is directly related to the
ratio: aspressure
the pressure ratio increases, so does the gas turbine efficiency. So why not just add
ratio: as the pressure ratio increases, so does the gas turbine efficiency. So why
more and more stages to the compressor to improve the efficiency?
not just add more and more stages to the compressor to improve its efficiency?
9
9
Figure 2-5. Multi-Stage Axial Compressor
There are a number of good answers; however, the primary reason is that gas turbine
efficiency increases with pressure ratio, but not necessarily the total output power. As the
compression ratio increases, the gas producer turbine must absorb more energy from the
combustor exhaust flow, and less energy remains to drive the power turbine and create
useful shaft output power. Consequently, for every gas turbine design there must be an
optimum design with an optimum number of compressor stages. It is the design engineer’s
difficult job to evaluate the multitude of variables that affect gas turbine performance and
obtain an optimal compressor stage combination for a particular gas turbine design.
MULTI-STAGE AXIAL COMPRESSOR FLOW
To reinforce the understanding of some of the above concepts, pressure and velocity of
the air as it passes through an actual axial compressor is plotted. A cross-sectional view
of the axial compressor with the corresponding pressure/velocity trend plot is shown in
Figure 2-6. Within the inlet section (inlet guide vanes), the air pressure decreases slightly
while the velocity increases; namely, the flow is redirected to match the rotor blade angle
and is slightly accelerated.
As the flow passes through the rotor blade passage, both the velocity and pressure
increase, adding energy to the flow. In the subsequent stator blade passage, the air velocity
is converted to pressure: air is decelerated and pressure increases. This process is repeated
by each rotor/stator stage such that at the compressor exit the desired pressure is reached,
while the total velocity remains low.
Note that the compressor blade span (its radial length) decreases along the axial direction
of the compressor; thus, the compressor blades get shorter and the through-flow area
smaller, the further the air passes through the compressor. The reason this occurs is that
as the air is compressed by the rotor/stator stages and it requires less volume and less

through-flow area, the blade span must decrease. This is another factor that can limit
the pressure ratio, since the rear stages eventually become so short that efficiency (and
pressure ratio pre stage) are impacted.
It is important to clarify and emphasize this cause/effect relationship. The flow is not being
compressed because the through-flow area decreases. On the contrary, the through-flow
area must be designed to decrease because the flow is being compressed by the rotor/
stator blade cascades and thus requires less volume.
MULTI-STAGE AXIAL COMPRESSOR EXAMPLE
Since the concept of head and pressure ratio in multi-stage compressors is very important,
we will further demonstrate it using a simple mathematical example. Previously in this
text, we defined head as simply an enthalpy (energy) difference: H = h = cpT. We also
mentioned earlier that each stage in a multi-stage compressor increases the air pressure
by a certain pressure ratio; i.e., each stage increases the air’s enthalpy and thus, produces
head. The total head (H) of the air exiting the multi-stage compressor is obtained by
adding all individual stage heads (H = H1 + H2 + H3 ... + Hn). Let us employ Euler’s Angular
Momentum equation to determine total head and pressure ratio for a simplified multi-stage
compressor example.
Multi-Stage Axial Compressor Example
We will assume that all rotor and stator blades are perfectly axial and the flow again follows
the blades perfectly (no slip). A simplified schematic of the compressor blades and the
rotor/stator blade rows divided into states is shown in Figure 2-7. Now we can analyze the
flow and total head at each state.
SHAFT
GUIDE VANE ROTOR BLADE STATOR VANE
Pressure
Inlet Outlet
Velocity
Figure 2-6. Pressure and Velocity in a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor

State 1: The flow enters the compressor axially and thus, has no tangential velocity
component; i.e.:
Cu1 = 0
therefore, the head is also zero, H1 = 0
State 2: Since the flow follows the rotor blades perfectly, the tangential velocity
component of the flow exiting the rotor must be equal to the rotor blade velocity (U); i.e.,
cu2 = U ≈ ω·r
therefore, the new head is calculated from Euler’s Angular Momentum equation:
H2 = ω · (r2 cu2 - r1cu1) = ω · (r2 cu2 - 0 ) ≈ ω2r2
The total head is the previous head plus the new head:
H = H1 + H2 ≈ ω2r2
State 3: The flow’s tangential velocity component is decelerated to zero in the stator
blades such that:
cu3 = 0, thus, H3 = 0
The new, total head is determined by adding the previous heads:
H = H1 + H2 + H3 ≈ ω2r2
State 4: The flow exits the second rotor/stator stage, thus (identical to state 2):
cu4 = U = ω · r, H4 = ω2 r2
The total head is the previous head plus the new head:
H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 = 2ω2r2
State 5: cu5 = 0, thus, H5 = 0
H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + H5 = 2ω2r2
State 6: cu6 = U = ωr,
H6 = ω2r2
H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + H5 + H6 = 3ω2r2
State 7: cu7 = 0, thus, H7 = 0
H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + H5 + H6 + H7 = 3ω2r2
This calculation is repeated until the total number of the axial compressor stages has been
reached. The above expressions for total head can also be simplified by rewriting them as:
H = H2 + H4 + H6 + ... Hn = n × ω2r2

reached. The above expressions for total head can also be simplified by rewriting them as:
H = H2 + H4 + H6 + ... Hn = n ⋅ ω2r2
The total pressure ratio can be determined from:
AIR
U U U
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1st Rotor 1st Stator 2nd Rotor 2nd Stator 3rd Rotor 3rd Stator
Figure 2-6. Simplified Multi-Stage Axial Compressor Example
Figure 2-7. Simplified Multi-Stage Axial Compressor Example
The total pressure ratio can be determined from:
γ γ
P n =  1 + η ⋅ H  γ -1 =  1 + η ⋅ n ω r  γ -1
2 2
P 1  c p⋅T 1 

 T
 1 c p 
Here the subscript index is the stage number and n is the total number of stages.
Here the subscript index is the stage number and n is the total number of stages. Some
real numbers should be applied to the above equation to evaluate how accurate this
expression is. For example, a typical 15,000-hp gas turbine has approximately the following
operational and design parameters:
Some real numbers should be applied 12to the above equation to evaluate how accur
Compressor
this expression Efficiency:
is. For  = 0.85
example, a typical 15,000-hp gas turbine has approximately the follow
operational and design parameters:
Inlet Temperature: T1 = 100 F = 311 K
NumberCompressor
of Stages: n =Efficiency:
15 η = 0.85
Inlet Temperature: T1 = 100 F = 311 K
Speed:  of
Angular Number = 600 1/s
Stages: n = 15
Angular Speed: ω = 600 1/s
Average Blade Radius: r = 0.4 m
Average Blade Radius: r = 0.4 m
Specific Specific
Heat: cp =Heat:
1007 J/ kg · K cp = 1007 J/ kg⋅K
Specific Heat Ratio: γ = 1.4
Specific Heat Ratio:  = 1.4
Plugging these numbers into the above equation:
Plugging these numbers into the above equation:
1.4
P 15 =  1 + 0.85 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 600 ⋅ 0.4  0.4

2 2
  = 16.9
P1  311 1007 
The actual compression ratio of this 15,000-hp gas turbine compressor is P15 /P1 = 17.1,
compared to 16.9 calculated above. Clearly, the simple equation derived in the above
The actual compression ratio of this 15,000-hp gas turbine compressor is P15/P1=17
example is adequate for rough estimates of gas turbine compressor performance.
compared to 16.9 calculated above. Clearly, the simple equation derived in the above exampl
adequate for rough estimates of gas turbine compressor performance.
Compressor Blade Span
= 16.9
P
P 11  311
311 1007
1007 
The actual compression ratio of this 15,000-hp gas turbine compressor is P15/P1=17.1,
compared to 16.9 calculated above. Clearly, the simple equation derived in the above example is
adequateThe
The foractual
roughcompression
actual estimates of ratio
compression ratio of
of this
gas turbine 15,000-hp
15,000-hp gas
this compressor gas turbine
turbine compressor
performance. compressor is is PP15/P1=17.1,
15/P1 =17.1,
compared
compared to
to 16.9
16.9 calculated
calculated above.
above. Clearly,
Clearly, the
the simple
simple equation
equation derived
derived in
in the
the above
above example
example is
is
COMPRESSOR BLADE SPAN
adequate
adequate for
for rough
rough estimates
estimates of
of gas
gas turbine
turbine compressor
compressor performance.
performance.
Compressor Blade Span
As mentioned
As mentioned previously,
previously, thethespanspan ofof the
thecompressor
compressor blades decreases
blades in the axialin the axial direction
decreases
Compressor
Compressor Blade
(Figure direction (Figure
Blade
2-7). The
Span
2-8). The
Span
reason reason
for this is for
thatthisas
is, the
that air
as the air is being
is being compressedititrequires
compressed requires less volume,
As
thus less through flow area and the blade span must decrease. Based in
As mentioned
less
mentioned previously,
volume, thus
previously,less the
the span
through-flow
span of
of the
area,
the andcompressor
the blade
compressor spanblades
must
blades decreases
decrease.
decreases Based inon the
on
the axial
axial direction
equation direction
for the
(Figure
(Figure 2-7).
the
2-7). The
equation
The reason
for the
reason for
pressure
for this
this is
ratio
is that
per
that as
stage
as the
from
the air
the
air is
is being
previous
being compressed
simplified
compressed
pressure ratio per stage from the previous simplified example, an expression can be developed it
example,
it requires
an
requires less
less volume,
volume,
thus
thus less
less
that defines through
expression
how can
through flow
flow
much area
be developed
area
the blade and
andthatthe
the
span blade
defines
blade
and how span
span
through must
much flow
the blade
must decrease.
span Based
Based on
anddecrease
decrease.
area must through-flow equation
stage. for
perarea
on equation for the
the
pressure
pressure ratio
must
ratio per
decrease
per stage
per
stage from
stage.
from the
the previous
previous
Remember that the pressure ratio per stage is: simplified
simplified example,
example, an
an expression
expression can
can be
be developed
developed
that
that defines
defines how
how much
much the the blade
bladeγ span
span and and through
through flow flow area
area must
must decrease
decrease per per stage.
stage.
Remember
Remember  that the
that pressure
the 
pressure ratio per stage
ratio per is:
stage is:
Remember
PN ηthatω rthe
2 2 γ
pressure
- 1 ratio per stage is:
=  1 + ⋅  γγ
 γγ --11
P
P 1 

 η
T
η 1 ω
ωc2
2
r
p 2
2 
P NN =
=  1 + ⋅⋅
1+ r 
P 11  T
P T 11 cc pp 
We also know from the isentropic expressions that pressure ratio and density ratio is
related We
by: also know from the isentropic expressions that pressure ratio and density ratio are
We
We also
also know from
from the
the isentropic
isentropic expressions
expressions thatthat pressure
pressure ratio
ratio and
and density
density ratio
ratio is
related by: know
γ is
related by:  ρ
P2 =  2 
related by: 
 γγ
P
P  ρ
ρ 12 
=  2 
1
P2 =
2
P11  ρ
P ρ 11 
Combining the two equations, the result is:
Combining the two equations, the result is:
Combining
Combining the the two
two equations,
equations,
1 the
the result
result is:
is:
ρ 2 Figure  η 2-7. 2 2  γ -1
ω rBlade Span: Compressor Decreasing, Turbine Increasing
1 + ⋅2-7.
=  Figure  11 Span: Compressor Decreasing, Turbine Increasing

Blade
ρρ 122 =  1in
2  γγ -- 1
ρ
Finally,
Tη
the ω  1 compressor, mass is conserved (continuity equation):
ωc2 prr turbine
η1 ⋅ gas
2 2
= + ⋅
 in Tthe gas
1 + 
ρ 1 in the
ρ
Finally,
Finally,
1  1 Tgas
p  1 turbine  compressor,
cc p turbine compressor, mass is conserved
mass is conserved (continuity equation):
(continuity equation):
W = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V = constant
W = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V = constant
which can beberewritten
It can as:
rewritten as:
which can be rewritten as:
ρ 2 W 2 A1V 1
⋅ AV
ρρ12 = AW
=
2V 2 ⋅ W 1
2 1 1
ρ 1 A2 V 2 W 1 13
We already established that the through
13
13 flow velocity in the compressor remains
We already
approximately constant, V2≈V1, and
established that
the the through
mass flow velocity
flow is constant, W 1 =in
W 2the compressor remains
, thus:
COMPRESSION
approximately constant, EXPANSION
V2≈V1, and the mass flow is constant, W 1 = W 2 , thus:
ρ 2 A1
≈
ρρ12 ≈ AA21
ρ 1 A2
The through flow area (A) is related to the blade span (s) using simple geometry by A%Βs2.
Thethe
Combining through
aboveflow area (A) the
equations, is related to the
following blade span
is obtained for(s)
theusing simple
through flowgeometry by A%Βs2.
area ratio:
Combining the above equations, the following is obtained for the through flow area ratio:
γ -1
COMBUSTION
A2INTAKE
 EXHAUST
2 2
η
1 + η ⋅ ω 2r 2 γ -1
≈
A12 ≈  1 + T 1 ⋅ ωc pr 
A  
A1  T 1 c p 
Figure 2-8. Blade Span: Compressor Decreasing, Turbine Increasing
or for the blade span ratio:
58 | Chapter 2: Turbomachinery
2 ⋅( γ - 1) Component Basics
s 2 ≈  1 + η ⋅ ω 2r 2  2⋅( γ -1)
2 2
ρρ 2 AW2 V2 AW1V 1
ρ 12 = W 2 2 ⋅ A1V1 1
ρ 1 = A2 V 2 ⋅ W 1
ρ 1 A2 V 2 W 1
We already established that the through flow velocity in the compressor rema
We already
approximately constant, V2≈V1, and
established that
thethe
massthrough flow velocity
flow is constant, W 1 =inW 2the compressor rema
, thus:
We already
approximately established
constant, V2≈V that the through flow velocity in the compressor rema
We already established that1,the
and the massvelocity
through-flow flow isinconstant, W 1 =remains
the compressor W 2 , thus:
approximately constant, V2≈V 1, and the mass flow is constant, W 1 = W 2 , thus:
ρ 2 A1 constant, V2»V1, and the mass flow is constant, W1 = W2 , thus:
approximately
ρρ 2 ≈ A12
ρ 12 ≈ A
A1
ρ1 ≈ A2
ρ1 A2
The through flow area (A) is related to the blade span (s) using simple geometry by A%Β
The the
Combining through
aboveflow area (A) is
equations, therelated to the
following is blade
obtainedspan for(s)
theusing simple
through flowgeometry
area& ratio:by A%Β
The
Thethrough-flow
Combining through
the above area
flow (A) is(A)
area
equations, related
is
the to the blade
related to the
following isspan (s) using
blade
obtainedspan simple
for(s)
the geometry
using by 𝐴𝐴
simple
through flow A∝ s
𝜋𝜋𝑠𝑠2. ratio:
geometry
area by A%Β
Combining the above
Combining equations,
the above equations,
γ -1 the
thefollowing
following isisobtained
obtained for for
the the through
through flowratio:
flow area area ratio:
A2 ≈  1 + η ⋅ ω 2 r γ -1
2 2
 η c2 r 22 γ -1
A212 ≈  1 + Tη1 ⋅ ω
A
ω pr 
A1 ≈  1 + T 1 ⋅ c p 
A
A1  T 1 c p 
or for the blade span ratio: 2⋅( γ -1)
s 2 ≈  1 + η ⋅ ω r  2⋅( γ -1)
2 2
 η ωc22 r 22  2⋅( γ -1)

ss 21 ≈ 
s 2 ≈  1 + η1 ⋅⋅ ω pr 
 1 + T
s 1  T 1 c p 
The  Texpression
s 1 previous 1 c p  tells us how much the through-flow area and blade span must
decrease per stage in an axial compressor. This expression is a higher order polynomial,
which means that the ideal flow path would be curved; i.e., non-linear in the functional form
The previous expression tells us how much the through flow area and blade span must decrea
of s = c2·(-1). However, to simplify manufacturing, in all actual gas turbines the flow path is
per stage in an axial compressor. This expression is a higher order polynomial, which means t
shaped as one or multiple straight-line segments as shown in Figure 2-8. 2·((-1)
the ideal flow path would be curved; i.e., non-linear in the functional form of s=c . However
simplify manufacturing, in all actual gas turbines the flow path is shaped as one or multiple strai
line segments as shown in Figure 2-7.
AXIAL VERSUS CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Axial Versus Centrifugal Compressors
Most modern
Most modern gas turbines
gas turbines use use axial
axial compressors;14 however,
compressors; however, ononsome smaller
some gas turbine
smaller gas turbine desig
designs,
centrifugal centrifugal compressors
compressors are employed. 14
are employed. The applicability,
The applicability, advantages
advantages andand
disadvantages of ea
disadvantages of each design will be
14
discussed briefly.
design will be discussed briefly.
While an axial compressor can be recognized by rows of airfoil-like blades, the centrifu
While an axial compressor can be recognized by rows of airfoil‑like blades, the centrifugal
compressor has wheels that have an axial inlet and, more or less, radial exit (Figure 2-8)
compressor has wheels that have an axial inlet and, more or less, radial exit (Figure 2-9). In
analyzing Euler’s Angular Momentum equation:
analyzing Euler’s Angular Momentum equation:
H = ω ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 )
We realize that there are two different methods to augment airflow head passing through
we realize that thererotor:
a compressor areby two slightlythe
increasing different methods
tangential component to of
augment airflow
the velocity (swirl head
- cu2); passing throu
a compressor rotor: by increasing the tangential component of the velocity
or increasing the radius (r 2) of the rotor (impeller) exit. The outcome is principally the (swirl - cu2)
increasing the radius
same—the tangential (r 2 momentum of the airflow is increased between the inlet and exit of the same;
) of the rotor (impeller) exit. The outcome is principally
tangential momentum of the airflow is increased between the inlet and exit of the rotor. Howev
the rotor. However, while the axial compressor is only able to alter the swirl, a centrifugal
while the axial compressor is only able to alter the swirl, a centrifugal compressor, which has in
compressor, which has inlet and outlet at different radii, takes advantage of both effects
and outlet at different
(Figure 2-10).
radii, takes advantage of both effects (Figure 2-9).
Thus:
Thus:
Per stage, a centrifugal

Per compressor creates more
stage, a centrifugal head than ancreates
compressor axial compressor.
more head than an axial compressor.
On the other hand, the flow channels through which the flow has to be compressed
much narrower in a centrifugalCaterpillar:
compressorConfidential
Chapter Green in an Component
than
2: Turbomachinery axial compressor.
Basics | Thus,
59 the a
compressor has a larger through flow area and can compress a larger flow volume for a giv
On the other hand, the flow channels, through which the flow has to be compressed, are
much narrower in a centrifugal compressor than in an axial compressor. Thus, the axial
compressor has a larger through-flow area and can compress a larger flow volume for a
given frontal area than a centrifugal compressor. For the same reason, an axial compressor
incurs less friction losses than a centrifugal compressor. Thus:
An axial compressor allows higher through flow than a centrifugal compressor.
AXIAL CENTRIFUGAL
Figure 2-9. Axial vs Centrifugal Compressor
The previous two statements indicate the applicability of each compressor design.
Centrifugal compressors are typically found in low-flow and high-pressure ratio
applications, such as in gas pipelines, gas storage, oil and gas well service, chemical
processing and gas refrigeration. Axial compressors are typically found in high-flow and
low-stage pressure ratio applications where there is also a greater emphasis on efficiency.
On virtually all industrial gas turbines, with the exception of some very small engines, axial
compressors are employed.
U2
U1
Figure 2-10. Function of Axial and Centrifugal Compressors

COMBUSTOR
The next principal aerodynamic component the airflow encounters after exiting the
compressor is the combustor, sometimes referred to as the burner. The function of the
combustor is to add heat energy to the flow, thus, increasing the temperature of the air
passing through the combustor.
A typical, annular combustor design with its internal airflow patterns is shown in
Figure 2-11. In this section, combustor aerodynamics, combustion chemistry, stoichiometry
and design will be discussed in some detail.
DILUTION AIR
PRIMARY SECONDARY DILUTION

ZONE ZONE ZONE
Figure 2-11. Vortex-Flame Combustor
COMBUSTION REACTION
Gas turbine combustion is a steady-state flow process in which a hydrocarbon fuel is

burned with air to achieve a desired combustor firing temperature. Hydrocarbon fuels
typically employed in this process are either a natural gas or liquid fuel such as diesel or
kerosene.
Most hydrocarbons burn in the form of an exothermic chemical reaction: heat is released
during the combustion reaction. The airflow through the combustor provides the required
oxygen for this reaction (air consists of approximately 23% oxygen and 76% nitrogen by
weight). Let us briefly discuss the reaction chemistry of natural gas, the most commonly
employed gas turbine fuel for industrial applications.
Natural gas consists of a combination of hydrocarbon gases and occurs as a natural

underground deposit in differing compositions throughout the world. Natural gas usually
contains the following primary combustibles: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C 3H8),
butane (C 4H10), pentane (C5H12); basically gases made up of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) in
the chemical form of CnH(2+2n). Natural gas also often contains some nitrogen (N2), carbon

dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In most
cases, the CH4, C2H6, and C 3H8 content of natural gas is above 75%, making it an excellent
combustible gas.
and contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In most cases, the CH4, C2H6, and C3H8
content of natural gas is above 75%, making it an excellent combustible gas.
H HH HHH
| | | | | |
H-C-H H-C-C-H
and contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In most cases, the CH4, C2H6, H-C-C-C-H
|
content of natural gas is above | | 75%, making it an excellent | | | combustible gas.
H HH HHH
H HH HHH
Methane | Ethane | | Propane | | |
H-C-H H-C-C-H H-C-C-C-H
NOTE: Theoretically, most | hydrocarbon gases could | | be converted into liquid| fuel | | by binding OH
molecules, changing
NOTE: Theoretically, most them into alcohols. For
H hydrocarbon gases could beHconverted example, H methane (CH ) becomes
into liquid fuel4 by binding H H Hliquid methanol
(CHOH3OH) whichchanging
molecules, also isthem called methyl For
into alcohols. alcohol
example, when adding
methane (CH4)OH. becomesSimilarly,
liquid ethane (C2H6) is
converted to ethanol
Methane (C H OH) also called ethyl
Ethane alcohol.
methanol (CH3OH), which also is called methyl alcohol when adding OH. Similarly, ethane
2 5 Both methanol Propane and ethanol are
sometimes employed as liquid fuels for gas turbines;
(C2H6) is converted to ethanol (C2H5OH) also called ethyl alcohol. Both methanol and however, the conversion of natural gas to
alcohols requires
NOTE: a forced
Theoretically, chemical mostreaction that
hydrocarbon is complicated
gases
ethanol are sometimes employed as liquid fuels for gas turbines; however, the conversion could and
be rather
converted costly.
into liquid fuel by b
molecules,
of natural gas to alcoholschanging them chemical
requires a forced into alcohols.
reactionForthatexample,
is complicated methane
and rather (CH4) becomes liquid
The
costly. combustion
(CH 3OH) which process also is
isa chemical
called oxidation
methyl alcohol reaction
when involving
adding natural
OH. gas (or ethane
Similarly, liquid
fuel) and air. However,totoethanol
converted correctly(Cdesign 2H5OH)the combustor,
also called ethyl the actual
alcohol. proportion of air and
Both methanol and fuelet
required needs
The combustion toprocess
sometimes be known. What
is a chemical
employed isliquid
the air-to-fuel
asoxidation reaction
fuels ratioturbines;
forinvolving
gas required
natural gas to(orobtain
however,liquid the a complete
conversion reaction
of natu
between the
fuel) and air. fuel gasrequires
However,
alcohols and the aairflow?
to correctly design Let
forced the us firstreaction
combustor,
chemical analyze
the actualthisproportion
that isproblem ofusing
complicated a simplified
air andand example
rather costly.
of methane/air combustion; the results will then be generalized
fuel required needs to be known. What is the air-to-fuel ratio required to obtain a complete to apply for any natural gas.
Assuming
reaction between the The
the natural
fuel combustion
gas and gasthefuel is only
process
airflow? made
Letisusafirst up
chemicalof methane
analyze oxidation
this problem(CH 4) and
reaction
using a that it will react
involving naturalonly
gas
withsimplified
the oxygenfuel)
example (O
and ) in the
air. However,
2of methane/air air, we can easily
to correctly
combustion; deduct
design
the results from basic
the be
will then chemistry:
combustor,
generalized the actual proportion of ai
to apply
required
for any natural gas. needs to be known. What is the air-to-fuel ratio required to obtain a complet
Hbetween the fuel gas H and H theOairflow? Let us first analyze this problem using a simplified
Assuming| of themethane/air
natural
O gas O fuel is |made| up only
combustion; | ofresults
the methanewill (CHthen
4
) andbe that it will react only
generalized to apply for any natural
with the oxygen+(O|Assuming
H-C-H 2
) in
+ the
| →air, we
O
the can
+ O easily
natural+ deduct
Cgas + from
ENERGY
fuel is basic
only chemistry:
made up of methane (CH4) and that it will
| with the Ooxygen O | | |
(O2) in the air, we can easily deduct from basic chemistry:
H H H O
H H H O
Methane Oxygen | Water
O O Carbon | |Dioxide |
H-C-H + | + | → O + O + C + ENERGY
or in equation form: | O O | | |
H H H O
CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
Methane Oxygen Water Carbon Dioxide
This is an exothermic reaction since heat is released (heat absorption reactions are called
endothermic). or inThe molecular
equation form: weights of CH4 and O2 are:
or in equation form:
CH4 = 16 CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
CH4 +O22 O=
2
322 H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
"
This is an exothermic reaction since heat is released (heat absorption reactions
Hence, the weight The
endothermic). ratiomolecular
of O2 to CH4 for a
weights oftheorectically ideal and complete combustion
CH4 and O2 are:
reaction, also called stoichiometric combustion, must be:
CH4 = 16
62 |
Oxygen 2 = 322 ⋅ 32 Component Basics
 Chapter 2: Turbomachinery
O
  = = 4.0
 Methane  weight 16
or in equation form:
CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
This
Thisisisanan
exothermic reaction
exothermic since heat
reaction sinceis released (heat absorption
heat is released (heatreactions are called
absorption reactions are ca
endothermic).
endothermic). The molecular
The molecular weightsofofCH
weights CH44 and
andOO2
are:
2 are:
CH
CH4 ==1616
4
O2 = 32
O2 = 32
Hence,the
Hence, the weight
weight ratioratio
of O2 of O24 to
to CH for CH 4 for a theorectically
a theoretically idealcombustion
ideal and complete and complete combus
reaction, also called stoichiometric combustion, must
reaction, also called stoichiometric combustion, must be: be:
 Oxygen  2 ⋅ 32
  = = 4.0
 Methane  weight 16
Since, approximately 23% of air is O , the ideal stoichiometric combustion air-to-fuel ratio
2
by weight becomes:
by by weight becomes:
by weight
weight becomes:
becomes:
 Air approximately
Since, 4.0 23% of air is O2, the ideal stoichiometric combustion air-to-fuel r
 Fuel
Air  = 4.0 = 17.4
 Air weight = 4.0 17.4
0.23
= 0.23 =
= 17.4
 Fuel 
Fuel weight 0.23 18
weight
Thus, for
Thus, forone
onekilogram of CH
kilogram fuel 4flowing
of4 CH into theinto
fuel flowing combustor, a minimumaof
the combustor, 17.4 kilograms
minimum of 17.4 kilogra
of of airflow
Thus, foris required
one to achieve
kilogram of CHstoichiometric
airflow to achieve stoichiometric combustion 4 fuel flowingcombustion.
into the combustor,
is required. a minimum of 17.4 kilogra
Thus, for one kilogram of CH4 fuel flowing into the combustor, a minimum of 17.4 kilogra
of
of airflow
airflow to
to achieve
achieve stoichiometric
stoichiometric combustion
combustion isis required.
required.
Combustion Chemistry
Combustion
Based on the Chemistry
previous
COMBUSTION
Combustion example, a more generalized combustion equation for natural gas and
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry
Based
can
Basedbeon
on the
the previous
assumed. The example,
previous combustion
example, a
a more
equation
more generalized
expresses
generalized combustion equation
equation for
the conservation
combustion natural
naturalingas
of mass
for and
molecu
gas and
can be
terms; assumed.
Based
can benamely, on the
assumed. The
the The
previous
equationcombustion
example,
emulates
combustion equation
a more
equation expresses
thegeneralized
rearrangementcombustion
expresses the
the conservation
equation
of the
conservation of
for natural
molecules that mass
gas
occurs
of mass in molecu
in during
molecu
terms;
terms; namely,
reaction. air canthe
andThus,
namely, be equation
for
the assumed.
any natural
equation emulates
The gas
emulates the
combustion
that rearrangement
equation
theconsists of a CnHof
expresses
rearrangement the
the molecules
moleculesofthat
conservation
of(2+2n)
the composition, mass
thattheoccurs during
inO2 required
occurs during
reaction.
ideal Thus,
molecular
stoichiometric for any
terms; natural
namely,
combustion the gas that
equation
can be consists
emulates
found the
from of a C nH(2+2n) combustion
rearrangement
the general
reaction. Thus, for any natural gas that consists of a CnH(2+2n) composition, the O2 required composition,
of the molecules the
that
equation:O 2 required
ideal
ideal stoichiometric
occurs during the
stoichiometric combustion can
canforbe
reaction. Thus,
combustion beanyfound
natural
found from the
gas that
from general
generalofcombustion
the consists equation:
a CnH(2+2n) composition,
combustion equation:
the
CnHOm2 required
+ (n+m/4) O2 →
for ideal stoichiometric
n CO2 + (m/2)H combustion
2O + can be found from the general
Energy
CnnH
C + (n+m/4)
combustion equation: O2 → n CO2 + (m/2)H2O + Energy
Hm m + (n+m/4) O2 → n CO2 + (m/2)H2O + Energy
Using the above equation, the amount of O2 required for stoichiometric combustion
C H + (u+m/4)
Using the O2natural
for above " uequation,
CO2 gas.
+ (m/2)HtheO amount
+ Energy forOa2 50%
be determined
u m
Using the any
above equation, For
the amount of
2 example,
of O2 required CH4 and
required for
for stoichiometric
50% C2H6 natural
stoichiometric combustion
gas mixtu
combustion
be determined
thedetermined
be following isfor for any
obtained: natural
anyequation, gas.
natural gas. For example,
For example, for a 50%
for afor
50% CH 4 and
CH4 and 50% 50% C 2H 6 natural
C2H6 natural gas mixtu
Using the above the amount of O2 required stoichiometric combustion can be gas mixtu
the following
the following is obtained:
is obtained:
determined for any natural gas. For example, for a 50% CH4 and 50% C2H6 natural gas
Methane/Oxygen Reaction: CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
mixture, the following is obtained:
Methane/Oxygen
Methane/Oxygen Reaction:
Ethane/Oxygen Reaction: CH
Reaction: 2 C442H
CH +
+62
2+OO722 O→
→2 →2
2HH622O
OH2++OCO +
+ ENERGY
+ 422 CO
CO 2 + ENERGY
ENERGY
Ethane/Oxygen Reaction: 2 C H + 7 O → 6 H
H2O + 4 CO22 +
O + 4 CO + ENERGY
2 O2 →
Methane/Oxygen
Ethane/Oxygen Reaction: Reaction: CH4 +22 C O22H
2 "62+H7
6 O + CO2 +6ENERGY
2 2
ENERGY
The molecularReaction:
Ethane/Oxygen weights 2are:C2H6CH+ 7 4O=2
"16,
6 H 2
CO H
2+ 46=30,
CO 2
+ O 2 = 32. Hence, the fuel-oxygen ra
ENERGY
are: The
The molecular
molecular weights
weights are:are: CH
CH44 = = 16,
16, C C22H
H66=30,
=30, O O22 = = 32.
32. Hence,
Hence, the the fuel-oxygen
fuel-oxygen ra ra
are:
are: The molecular weights are: CH4 = 16, C2H6 = 30, O2 = 32. Hence, the fuel-oxygen ratios
are:Oxygen 2 ⋅ 32
 
 Oxygen  = 2 ⋅ 32 = 4.0
 Methane
Oxygen  ⋅ 32 4.0
 Methane  weight
= 216
= 16 = = 4.0
 Methane  weight weight 16
 Oxygen  7 ⋅ 32
 Oxygen  = 7 ⋅ 32 = 3.73
 Oxygen
Ethane  72 ⋅ 32
 Ethane  weight
= 30 3.73
= 2 ⋅ 30 = = 3.73
 Ethane  weight 2 ⋅ 30
weight
The resulting air-to-fuel ratio for a 50% CH4 and 50% C2H6 gas mixture combustion is
The resulting
resulting air-to-fuel
air-to-fuel ratio
ratio for
for a 50%
50% CH4 and 50%Component
C2H6 gasBasics
mixture
| combustion is
12
The Chapter
a 2: Turbomachinery
CH 63
4 and 50% C2H6 gas mixture combustion is
11
 Air  (4.0 + 3.73)

2
 Oxygen  7 ⋅ 32
  = = 3.73
 Ethane  weight 2 ⋅ 30
The resulting
The resulting air-to-fuel
air-to-fuel ratio
ratio for for aCH50%
a 50% 4
and CH4 and
50% C2H6 50% C2H6 combustion
gas mixture gas mixture
is: combustion is:
12
 Air  0.5 (4.0 + 3.73)
  = = 16.8
 Fuel  weight 0.23
Based on this simple method the air-to-fuel ratio for any natural gas stoichiometric
Based
combustion on reaction
this simple method the
can be determined. We air-to-fuel
see that the ratio
50% CHforand
any 50%natural gas stoichiometric
C2H6 mixture
4
combustion reaction can be determined. We see that the 50% CH and 50% C H mixture air-to-
air-to-fuel ratio is lower than the one for pure CH4 fuel gas. Generally, if4the content of 2 6
fuel ratio is lower than the one for pure CH fuel gas. Generally, if the content of higher order
higher order CnH(2+2n) (heavier) components in4the natural gas increases, the required
CnH(2+2n)stoichiometric
(heavier) components in the natural gas increases, the required stoichiometric air-to-fuel
air-to-fuel ratio decreases.
ratio decreases.
Combustion By-Products
COMBUSTION
Since air contains 76% BY-PRODUCTS
nitrogen and 23% oxygen, each kilogram of oxygen must be accompanied
by 76/23=3.3 kilogram of nitrogen, which is ideally considered to be inert and should appear
Since air contains 76% nitrogen and 23% oxygen, each kilogram of oxygen must be
unchanged in the exhaust gas. However, in extremely high temperature regions of the combustor
primaryaccompanied
zone, small by 76/23 = 3.3 kilograms of nitrogen, which is ideally considered to be
amounts of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are considered to be harmful
inert and should appear unchanged in the exhaust gas. However, in extremely high
pollutants, may be formed. Also, in the above stoichiometric combustion equation complete
temperature regions of the combustor primary zone, small amounts of oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), which are considered to be harmful pollutants, may be formed. Also, in the above
19
stoichiometric combustion equation, complete reaction of the carbon (C) to carbon dioxide
(CO ²) is assumed. However, incomplete combustion can result in small amounts of carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) also being present in the exhaust gas.
Depending on the relative humidity, the combustion air also contains a certain amount
of water. Finally, the gas turbine provides a large quantity of excess air, resulting in a
considerable amount of unburned oxygen in the exhaust air.
Consequently, the exhaust gas of any gas turbine consists primarily of CO2, H2O, unburned
O2 and N2. CO2 is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other pollutants like CO and NOx,
CO2 is an unavoidable by-product of the combustion reaction. The only method of reducing
CO2 is by increasing the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine.
Beyond the desired natural gas/oxygen exothermic reaction, a number of undesired sub-
reactions may occur in the combustor. Undesired sub-reactions are reactions that involve
either a heat loss (endothermic reactions) and/or the creation of pollutants such as NOx and
CO. To summarize these undesired sub-reactions:
Endothermic Reactions (heat loss only):

O2 + Energy " 2 O
N2 + Energy " 2 N
Pollution and Endothermic Reaction (NOx creation):

N2 + O2 + Energy " 2 NO
N2 + 2 O2 + Energy " 2 NO2
N2 + 4 O2 + Energy " 2 NO4
Pollution and Endothermic Reaction (CO creation):

2 CO2 + Energy " 2 CO + O2

These sub-reactions only occur in very high temperature regions of the combustor. Thus, to
limit these undesirable reactions, a uniformly distributed temperature combustion process
is desired. Over the next couple of pages, we will discuss how this and other combustion
requirements are achieved.
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES
We previously described how to determine the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio (by weight)
using concepts from basic chemistry. In a real gas turbine, significant amounts of excess
air are available from the axial compressor. While the stoichiometric combustion air-to-fuel
ratio is usually below 20 for natural gas, a real gas turbine has approximately three to six
times more compressed air available than the stoichiometric requirements; i.e., the air-to-
fuel ratio based on the total airflow through the combustor (also called total air-to-fuel ratio)
is typically between 50 and 100. This excess air is not employed in the primary combustion
process but is ducted into the combustion chamber to cool the hot combustion product
gases and/or is bypassed directly into the turbine section.
There are two different definitions related to combustor temperatures:
Firing Temperature (Turbine Inlet Temperature, Combustor Exit Temperature):

The firing temperature is the average temperature of all the gas leaving the combustion
Flame Temperature:
chamber
The flame
Flame and enteringisthe
temperature
Temperature: theturbine
peaksection. Knowledge
temperature in ofthe
theactual
firing temperature is critical for zone. T
primary combustion
the analysis
temperature
The flame of gas turbine
is required
temperature theperformance
toisevaluatepeak and turbine
thetemperature
chemical blade
thedesign.
disassociation
in actualreactions
primary that occur in the
combustion primT
zone.
combustion zone.
temperature is required to evaluate the chemical disassociation reactions that occur in the prim
Flame Temperature: The flame temperature is the peak temperature in the actual primary
combustion zone.
combustion zone. This temperature is required to evaluate the chemical disassociation
Both the flame and firing temperatures can be estimated from air-to-fuel ratios. T
reactions that occur in the primary combustion zone.
stoichiometric
Both the air-to-fuel
flame and ratiofiring
is employed to estimate
temperatures can be theestimated
flame temperature, while ratios.
from air-to-fuel total airT
fuel ratio can
stoichiometric be employed
Both the air-to-fuel
flame and firing to evaluate
ratiotemperatures
is employedthe firing
can to temperature.
be estimate Let
the flame
estimated from us demonstrate:
temperature,
air-to-fuel ratios. The while total air
fuel ratio can be employed
stoichiometric air-to-fuelto evaluate
ratio the firing
is employed temperature.
to estimate Let us demonstrate:
the flame temperature, while total
Firing Temperature
air-to-fuel ratio can be employed to evaluate the firing temperature. Let us demonstrate:
From the
Firing previous thermodynamics discussion, we know that the energy across the combus
Temperature
must balance,
From Firing
the namely:
Temperature
previous thermodynamics discussion, we know that the energy across the combus
From thenamely:
must balance, previous thermodynamics discussion, we know that the energy across the
(
= Wairbalance,
Wfuel ⋅ qR must
combustor )
h3 η B )
⋅ h 4 −namely:
Wfuel ⋅ qR = Wair ⋅ (h4 − h3)η B )
W · qR= Wair · (h3-h2 )B
Wfuel
air/W fuel is the air-to-fuel ratio (by weight). We can re-write this equation to:
W /W fuel isisthe
Wairair/Wfuel theair-to-fuel
air-to-fuel
ratioratio (by weight).
(by weight). We canWe can this
re-write re-write thisto:equation to:
equation
qR
h 4 = c p 3 ⋅ T3 = qR) weight ⋅ ηB + c p 2 ⋅ T2
h 4 = c p 3 ⋅ T3 = ( Air / Fuel + c p 2 ⋅ T2
( Air / Fuel ) weight ⋅ ηB
And further simplifying this expression by assuming that ηB=1.0 and cp3=cp4, we get:
And further
And furthersimplifying this this
simplifying expression by assuming
expression that B = 1.0
by assuming andη c=1.0
that = cp4and
, we cget:=c , we get:
B p3 p3 p4
qR
T3 = qR) weight⋅ c + T3
T3 = ( Air / Fuel p + T3
( Air / Fuel) weight⋅ c p
where T is the compressor exit air temperature.
where T3 is the3 compressor exit air temperature.
where TThis simple
3 is the expression
compressor exitallows the estimation of the combustor firing temperature (T4).
air temperature.
example, assuming a total air-to-fuel
This simple expression allows Chapter ratio
the of 65 andofpure
2: Turbomachinery
estimation methane combustion
Component
the combustor Basics | (lower(T
65
firing temperature hea
4).
value of methane is q =48,000 kJ/kg, specific heat of the exhaust gas 1.3
example, assuming a Rtotal air-to-fuel ratio of 65 and pure methane combustion (lower heakJ/kgK), the ab
qR) weight⋅ c p
( Air / Fuel
T3 = + T3
( Air / Fuel) weight⋅ c p
where T3 is the compressor exit air temperature.
This simple expression allows the estimation of the combustor firing temperature (T4). For
where T3 is the compressor exit air temperature.
example, assuming a total air-to-fuel ratio of 65 and pure methane combustion (lower heating
Thissimple
simple expression allows the estimation of the combustor firing temperature (T4). For
value ofThis
methaneexpression allows kJ/kg,
is qR=48,000 the estimation
specificof the
heatcombustor firing temperature
of the exhaust ).
gas 1.3(T4kJ/kgK), the above
example, assuming a total
For example, assuming
air-to-fuel
a total
ratio
air-to-fuel
of 65 and pure methane combustion (lower heating
simple expression results for a typical gasratio of 65 and
turbine in apure methane
firing combustion
temperature of: (lower
value ofheating
methane is q R=48,000 kJ/kg, specific heat of the exhaust gas 1.3 kJ/kgK), the above
value of methane is qR = 48,000 kJ/kg, specific heat of the exhaust gas 1.3 kJ/kgK),
simple expression results for a typical gas turbine in a firing temperature of:
the above
48,simple
000 kJexpression
/ kg results for a typical gas turbine in a firing temperature of:
T3 ≈ + 700 K ≈ 1270 K
48⋅,1000
65 .3 kJkJ/ /kgk
kg
T3 ≈ + 700 K ≈ 1270 K
65 ⋅ 1.3 kJ / kgk
Hence, for this example the air/gas mixture that is exiting the combustor and entering the
turbine Hence,
has anfor this example
average the air/gas of
temperature mixture
1270that is exiting
K (1830° F).the combustor and entering the
Hence, foranthis
turbine has example
average the air/gas
temperature of 1270mixture that is exiting the combustor and entering the
K (1830°F).
turbine has an average temperature of 1270 K (1830°F).
Flame Temperature
Flame Temperature
If we employ the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio in the above equation, the approximate flame
Flame Temperature
If we employ the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio in the above equation, the approximate
temperature is determined. Let us assume pure methane combustion, which we previously
If we employ the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio pure
in the above equation,which
the we
approximate flame
showedflame temperature
to have is determined.
a stoichiometric Let us assume
air-to-fuel ratio of methane
17.6 : combustion,
temperature is determined.
previously showed to haveLet us assume
a stoichiometric pure methane
air-to-fuel ratio of 17.6:combustion, which we previously
showed to have a stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio of 17.6 :
48,000 kJ / kg
T3 ≈ + 700 K ≈ 2700 K
17.486 ⋅,1000
.34 kJ
kJ //kg
kgk
T3 ≈ + 700 K ≈ 2700 K
17 . 6 ⋅ 1 . 34 kJ / kgk
The peak flame temperature in the primary combustion zone is thus approximately 2700 K.
The peak flame temperature in the primary combustion zone is thus approximately 2700
This temperature is very close to the flame temperatures seen in conventional combustion
K. This temperature is very close to the flame temperatures seen in conventional combustion
systems
The peakwith diffusion
flame flames, where
temperature the flame
in the temperature
primary combustionis about at 2200-2500
zone is thus approximately 2700
systems with diffusion flames, where the flame temperature is about at 2200-2500 K (3500-
K. This Ktemperature
(3500-4000°F).isClearly,
very close to temperature
this flame the flame temperatures seen
is significantly hotter inthe
than conventional
firing combustion
4000°F). Clearly, this flame temperature is significantly hotter than the firing temperature. The
systemstemperature.
with diffusion flames, where the flame temperature is about
The temperature obtained by the previous expression assumes an adiabatic at 2200-2500 K (3500-
temperature obtained by the previous expression assumes an adiabatic flame and does not take
4000°F). Clearly, this flame temperature is significantly hotter than the firing
flame and does not take the effects of dissociation and heat transfer into account. Note that temperature. The
the effects of dissociation and heat transfer into account. Note that the specific heat (cp=1.34
temperature obtained
the specific by
heat (c p
=the
1.34previous
kJ/kgK) isexpression
greater than inassumes
the example anfor
adiabatic
the firing flame
temperatureand does not take
the effects of dissociation
because the specific heat and
is aheat transfer
function into account.
of the temperature Note
and the gasthat the specific
composition. It heat (cp=1.34
21
is very important to design the combustion chamber in such a way that this extremely
hot flame does not come into direct contact with
21 any part of the combustor; the flame
touching the combustor liner would create a hot spot that can rapidly cause combustor liner
degradation and subsequent material failure.
NOTE: For dry low NOx combustors, the flame temperature is typically limited to
below 1900 K (using higher primary zone air-to-fuel ratios) to reduce the formation of
nitrous oxides (NOx pollution). This is achieved by burning a mixture with a lower than
stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio. However, the firing temperature in dry low NOx combustors
is approximately the same as in conventional combustors. This will be discussed later in
this book.
Flame Speed and Auto-ignition Delay Time

For complete combustion to occur, the mixture of air and fuel must stay in the combustion
chamber at high temperatures long enough, so that all fuel can react with the available
oxygen in the air. The combustion transient time must be sufficient, so that all fuel is
completely burned out. Otherwise combustion and heat release may occur downstream
in the turbine section, causing damage to the turbine nozzles and blades. Also, if
the temperature of the reaction is dropped too quickly by the cooling air entering the
combustion chamber in the secondary or dilution zones, the reaction may be quenched
and the results would be unburned hydrocarbons and CO gases in the gas turbines exhaust
mixture. On the other hand, if the fuel and air mixture reacts too quickly, then heat may

be released near the combustor inlet, which could result in damage to the injector, air-
premixer, or combustor liner. Thus, proper placement of the flame in the center of the
combustor is critical for a durable burner design.
The air-fuel mixture’s properties that primarily determine the combustor flame placement
are the mixture’s flame speed and the auto-ignition delay time. Flame speed is simply the
velocity at which a flame front travels inside a combustible mixture and is a function of
local temperature, pressure, and gas mixture composition. In the gas turbine’s combustor,
the flame front will be stable at a place where the mixture’s bulk flow velocity coincides
with its flame speed. Auto-ignition delay time defines the time that it takes a combustible
mixture to start to react once it is exposed to ignition temperatures. Auto-ignition delay is
also a function of pressure, temperature and mixture composition, but tends to be short
for light combustible gases, such as hydrogen, and high for liquids fuels in droplet form.
The combustor design must take both flame speed and auto-ignition delay time into
consideration, so that the flame front is stable and placed at a location in the middle of the
combustor, away from any walls, fuel injectors, or nozzles.
REQUIREMENTS FOR COMBUSTION
As previously mentioned, a uniform temperature distribution is desirable for complete

stoichiometric combustion and to minimize pollutant formation. The following are additional
requirements for complete combustion:
To ensure that hydrocarbon fuels in the combustor are completely burned, all regions of
the flame have to be saturated with excess oxygen. This is achieved by injecting large
quantities of air into the combustion chamber and providing proper fuel/air mixing.
Complete combustion requires time. Hence, the fuel/air mixture must have sufficient
transient time passing through the combustor to completely react. To achieve this, the
airflow through the combustor is slowed down by expanding (widening) the through-flow
area. In a typical industrial gas turbine, the combustor through-flow (cross-sectional) area is
approximately twice as large as that of its turbine or compressor.
The above can be summarized into the three principal gas turbine combustion
requirements:
1. Proper fuel/air mixing with excess available air.
2. Uniform temperature distribution.
3. Sufficient transient chemical reaction time.
Some other requirements for proper combustor design include:
• Prevention of heat damage to the turbine blades. The temperature of the gases
exiting the combustor must be considerably lower than the actual combustor flame
temperature.

• Maintaining a stable flame. The airstream velocity around the combustor nozzles must
be maintained steady with no significant flow fluctuations.
• Preventing damage to the combustor lining. The core of the flame must be directed
away from the walls toward the center of the combustor.
• Achieving a high overall gas turbine efficiency. The airflow pressure drop across the
combustor has to be kept low; the pressure ratio (Bb) should be close to unity.
The gas turbine combustion engineer must integrate design requirements that are
sometimes contrary in nature. For example, achieving a uniform temperature distribution
in the combustor is nearly impossible, if the airflow is non-uniform. However, by actively
mixing the fuel/air flows, a non-uniform flow is created. Similarly, the aerodynamic mixing
of the fuel/air flows results in a pressure drop across the combustor, as previously noted
was undesirable. Consequently, the design of a gas turbine combustion system is a
difficult challenge, which often requires engineering compromises between many design
objectives. In the following pages, one commonly employed gas turbine combustion
design, the vortex-flame annular combustor, will be described.
VORTEX-FLAME ANNULAR COMBUSTOR
The principal idea behind the vortex-flame annular combustor is that a large airflow
vortex is maintained in the combustor core, which results in a stable flame, good mixing
of the airflow with the fuel and an increased transient time of the air in the combustor
(Figure 2-12).
SPLASH FUEL
PLATE
FUEL
INJECTOR
SECONDARY DILUTION
ZONE ZONE
DOME PRIMARY COMBUSTOR

ZONE
Figure 2-12. Vortex-Flame Annular Combustor

Primary air is the combustion air introduced through the dome, head plate or injector and
through the first row of liner air holes. This air mixes with the incoming fuel and is ignited.
Intermediate air is introduced through a second row of liner holes to complete the reaction
in the secondary zone. Finally, in a downstream set of holes, dilution air is added to lower
the combustor exhaust temperature.
The key feature of the primary zone is the flow recirculation or vortex region. Air entering
the combustor moves an order of magnitude faster than the theoretical flame speed, thus,
no stable combustion is possible. However, by using a recirculating-flow vortex, which
redirects some of the burning mixture back towards the incoming fuel-air flow, the total
flow moves slower, slow enough to allow for a stable combustion process. Obviously, the
recirculation vortex also enhances the fuel-air mixing and increases the mixture’s transient
time in the combustor. A recirculation vortex can be created either by introducing the
combustion air with a pre-swirl using swirl vanes, which cause a region of low pressure
along the axis of the resulting vortex, or by radially injecting air through holes downstream
of the flame (Figure 2-13).
AIR
INLET
FUEL SWIRLER
Figure 2-13. Vortex Flow Pattern in Gas Turbine Combustor
Most of the chemical combustion reactions take place in the primary zone. In a gas turbine
combustor, the temperature of the hot gases in this zone can reach to above 2200°C
(4000°F), depending upon the compressor discharge air temperature, pressure, fuel type
and fuel/air ratio. The hot gases from the combustor primary zone enter a secondary
zone where the temperature is reduced to approximately 1550°C (2822°F) by the gradual
addition of compressor discharge air. This zone serves primarily to enhance lower
temperature combustion sub-reactions that were not completed in the primary zone. Some
chemical reactions require temperatures lower than those found in the primary zone. For
example, the chemical re-association of CO to CO2 (2 CO + O2 " 2 CO2 + Energy) can only
occur in lower temperature combustion regions. In some combustors with lower primary
zone temperatures, this secondary zone is entirely omitted. Also, UHCs are significantly
reduced in the secondary combustion zone.

air. This zone serves primarily to enhance lower temperature combustion sub-reactions that were
air.
not This zone serves
completed in the primarily
primary to enhance
zone. Somelower temperature
chemical reactions combustion sub-reactionslower
require temperatures that were
than
not completed in the primary zone. Some chemical reactions require
those found in the primary zone. For example, the chemical re-association of CO to CO2 (2 CO temperatures lower than+
those found in the primary zone. For example, the chemical re-association
O2 → 2 CO2 + Energy) can only occur in lower temperature combustion regions. In some of CO to CO 2 (2 CO +
O2 → 2 COwith
combustors 2 + lower
Energy) can only
primary zone occur in lower this
temperatures, temperature
secondarycombustion
zone is entirelyregions. In some
omitted. Also,
combustors
UHCs are with lower
significantly
Downstream primary
of thereduced zone
secondaryinzone, temperatures,
the the
secondary this
hot gasescombustion secondary
zone.
enter the dilution zone is entirely
zone where they mix omitted. Also,
UHCs are with significantly
Downstream
the remaining reduced
of compressor in
the secondary the secondary
zone,
discharge air.the combustion
Thishot gases
zone’s zone.
enter
function the
is to dilution
control zone where they mix
the turbine
Downstream
with theinlet
remaining
temperature
ofrequirements:
the secondary
compressor zone,air.
discharge
average and
the hot
This
local
gases
gas zone’s
enter the dilution
function
temperatures have is to to
zonethe
control
be lowered
where theyinlet
turbine mix
with the
temperatureremaining compressor
requirements:
to acceptable
discharge
average
levels. Significant and
heat
air.
localcan
damage
This zone’s
gasresult
temperatures function
in the turbine have is
if theto
to control the turbine
be lowered to acceptable
combustor
inlet
temperature
levels. exhaust requirements:
Significant heat average
damage can and local
result in gasturbine
the temperatures
if the have to beexhaust
combustor loweredtemperature
to acceptable is
temperature is not properly controlled.
levels.
not Significant
properly heat damage can result in the turbine if the combustor exhaust temperature is
controlled.
not properly controlled.
Combustor Efficiency
COMBUSTOR
Combustor EFFICIENCY
Efficiency
The overall performance of a combustor is gauged by the combustion efficiency (0b) and the
The overallpressure
combustor performanceratio (Β ofb).a While
combustor
the is is gaugedpressure
combustor by the combustion
ratioefficiency efficiency
is calculated (0b) and the
The overall performance of a combustor gauged by the combustion (b) andfrom the exhaust
combustor pressure
over thetheinlet pressure ratio (Β
(pe/pratio). While
i), the
the combustor pressure ratio is calculated from the exhaust
(bcombustion efficiency is a slightly more complicated expression
b
combustor pressure ). While the combustor pressure ratio is calculated from
over the inlet
that describes pressure
the (p /p
completeness ), the combustion
of(pthe efficiency is a slightly more complicated expression
/p ), conversion ofefficiency
chemical is afuel energy
more into heat energy
e i
the exhaust over the inlet pressure e i
the combustion slightly
that describes
((dm/dt) ≅ q the
): completeness of the conversion of chemical fuel energy into heat energy
complicated
fuel R expression that describes the completeness of the conversion of chemical fuel
((dm/dt)fuel≅ qR ):
energy into heat energy ((dm/dt)fuel · qR ):
Combustor Pressure Ratio:
Combustor
Combustor Pressure
Pressure Ratio:Ratio:
πb=Pe/Pi
πb=Pe/Pi
Combustion Efficiency:
Energy Out W air ⋅ c p ⋅ ( T e - T i )
η b = Energy Out = W air ⋅ c p ⋅ ( T e - T i )
η b = Fuel Energy = W fuel ⋅ q R
Fuel Energy W fuel ⋅ q R
The combustor pressure ratio (Bb) is indicative of the pressure loss of the flow passing
through the combustor.
The combustor Ideally, ratio
pressure this pressure
(Βb) isratio should beofunity
indicative the (no pressureloss
pressure losses).
of the flow passing
through the combustor. Ideally, this pressure ratio should be unity (no pressureofand
However,
The to achieve
combustor complete
pressure stoichiometric
ratio (Β b) is combustion
indicative requires
of the expanding,
pressure mixing
loss the flowHowever,
losses). passing
through recirculating
the the
combustor. flow, all of
Ideally, which
this will create
pressure significant
ratio pressure
should be losses.
unity (no
to achieve complete stoichiometric combustion requires expanding, mixing and recirculating theTypically,
pressure the losses). However,
to achieve
flow, complete
allpressure
of whichratio
will stoichiometric
forcreate
a vortex-flame combustion
annular
significant combustor
pressure requires expanding,
is between
losses. 0.90 and
Typically, mixing
0.95.
the andratio
However,
pressure recirculating the
for a vortex-
flow, all of
otherwhich will
designs, create
such as thesignificant
multiple-can pressure
combustor, losses.
can Typically,
have pressure the
ratios
flame annular combustor is between 0.90 and 0.95. However, other designs, such as the multiple- pressure
as low as ratio for a vortex-
flame annular
0.80.
can combustor, combustor
can haveispressurebetweenratios
0.90 and 0.95.
as low as However,
0.80. other designs, such as the multiple-
can combustor,
Combustion can efficiency
have pressure ratios as low
(ηb) expresses the as 0.80.
ability of the combustor to convert chemical fuel
Combustion
Combustion efficiency (b) expresses
efficiency (η the ability of ability
the combustor to convert chemical fuel chemical fuel
energy into heat. Most modern gas turbine combustorsofhave
b) expresses the the combustor
combustiontoefficiencies
convert of 0.99 or
energy energyheat.
into heat. Most modern gas turbine
turbine combustors havehave
combustion efficiencies of
above; into
i.e., more Most than modern
99% of gas combustors
the fuel’s chemical energy is combustion
converted into efficiencies of 0.99the
heat. Clearly, or
above; 0.99
i.e.,ormore
above;than
i.e., more
99% than
of 99%
the of the fuel’s
fuel’s chemical
chemical energy is
energy is converted
converted intointo
heat.heat. Clearly, the
combustion efficiency must be a function of many parameters, including aerodynamics, gas
Clearly,efficiency
the combustionmustefficiency must be a of
function
combustion
composition, mixing, fuel/air be aand
ratio function
geometry. It isofbeyond
many many parameters,
parameters,
the scope including aerodynamics, gas
including
of this text to discuss all
aerodynamics,
composition, mixing, gas composition, mixing, fuel/air ratio and geometry. It is beyond ofthe scope
the factors that canfuel/air
affectratio theand geometry. It
combustion is beyondhowever,
efficiency; the scope the this text to discuss
following all
important
the of this
factors text
that to discuss
can
observations can be made. all
affectthe factors
the that can
combustionaffect the combustion
efficiency; efficiency;
however, however,
the the
following important
following
observations important
can be made. observations can be made:
• Because of the contrary nature of combustion efficiency and pressure ratio, typically the
higher the combustion efficiency the lower the pressure ratio.
• Space and weight limitations often force designers to accept higher combustor pressure
losses.
Clearly, designing a combustor is often a trade-off

25 between high combustion efficiency and
25
space/weight limitations versus high-pressure ratio.

GAS PRODUCER TURBINE
The gas mixture exiting the combustor contains potential energy mainly in two forms:
heat and pressure. The function of the gas turbine is to convert these fluid energies into
mechanical shaft energy.
As discussed previously, a gas turbine always contains a gas producer turbine and power
turbine. The function of the gas producer is to absorb only enough energy from the flow to
drive the compressor, while the power turbine is supposed to convert the remaining flow
energy into shaft rotational output energy.
AXIAL-FLOW TURBINES
Except for some very small gas turbines that employ radial in-flow turbines, almost all
modern gas turbines incorporate axial-flow turbines (flow enters and exits in the axial
direction). Thus, only the axial flow turbine design will be discussed. The function of a
turbine is almost exactly opposite to that of an axial compressor. Instead of adding energy
to the flow, the axial flow turbine absorbs flow energy and converts it to shaft rotation and
torque (P = ·). Consequently, all flow parameters that increased in the compressor (head,
density, temperature and pressure) decrease in the axial turbine.
Similar to the axial compressor, the gas producer axial-flow turbine consists of a number
of stator and rotor blade passages or stages. While the axial compressor usually has more
than 10 stages, a typical gas producer turbine will have less than three rotor/stator stages.
Thus, the pressure ratio per stage must be much greater for an axial-flow turbine than for
an axial compressor. Below is a brief functional description of an axial-flow turbine.
Flow entering the gas producer turbine first passes through a row of inlet guide vanes
(nozzles), where the flow expands and is tangentially redirected, converting pressure and
temperature into tangential flow velocity. The gas flow exits the nozzle and impinges
on the rotor blades, accelerating the turbine; i.e., converting flow kinetic energy into
mechanical shaft rotation (Figure 2-14). In the rotor stage, the gas flow further expands and
is tangentially redirected by the converging blade passages. The accelerating gas mixture
passing through the blade passage adds further tangential reaction acceleration to the
turbine blades (Figure 2-15).
GUIDE VANE Direction

of rotation
TURBINE
BLADE
Figure 2-14. Gas Flow of Inlet Guide Vanes and Figure 2-15. Flow-through Axial Turbine
Turbine Blade

The previous process repeats in the subsequent downstream rotor/stator stages. Thus,
each gas producer turbine rotor/stator stage converts pressure and temperature into shaft
rotational energy until enough rotational energy is created to drive the axial compressor.
IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES
There are two important types of axial turbine designs: impulse and reaction type turbines
(Figure 2-16). Although their basic designs are similar, they function based on somewhat
different physical principles.
NOZZLE TURBINE NOZZLE TURBINE
Turbine driven by the impulse of the Turbine driven by the impulse of the
gas flow only. gas flow and its subsequent reaction
as it accelerates through the
converging blade passage.
Figure 2-16. Impulse versus Reaction Turbine
Impulse Turbine
The turbine is driven by the impulse of the gas flow impinging on the rotating blades. All
conversion of pressure to velocity occurs in the stator. The rotor blades only redirect the
flow. In this case, the turbine blades are “bucket” shaped to absorb the optimum amount
of tangential kinetic flow energy.
Reaction Turbine
The turbine is driven by the impulse of the impinging gas flow, as well as, its subsequent
reaction as the gas is expanded through the converging turbine blade passage. For the
reaction turbine design, the blade passages are converging, i.e., passages which expand
the gas mixture. In a reaction turbine, the pressure reduction is split between rotor and
stator. A reaction turbine is generally more efficient than an impulse turbine.
Some turbines found in older industrial gas turbine applications are hybrid designs,
incorporating a mix of both impulse and reaction turbines. The initial stages in such gas

turbines employ the impulse blade design, while the subsequent stages are closer to a
reaction blade design.
AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE PERFORMANCE
Since the gas producer turbine and axial air compressor are mounted on the same shaft,

their rotational speed () and torque ( ) have to be identical (assuming no mechanical
losses):
 compressor
= 
turbine
ωcompressor = ωturbine
And since power equals torque multiplied by rotational speed (P = ·), the following is
obtained:
Pcompressor = Pturbine
Hence, the power of the gas producer must always equal the axial compressor’s power.
It is important to remember that in functional principle, the axial-flow turbine is not much
more than a reversed axial compressor. The mathematical tools previously developed for
the axial compressor, such as Euler’s equation, velocity vector polygons and the multi-
stage total head estimate method, are similarly applicable to an axial-flow turbine. For
example, Euler’s equation for the turbine becomes (Figure 2-17):
NOZZLE ROTOR
U ΔVΘ
1 2 3
Figure 2-17. Axial Flow Turbine Performance

Turbine output power per2-14.
Figure stage:Axial Flow Turbine Performance
Figure
Turbine output power per2-14.
stage:Axial Flow Turbine Performance
P = ω ⋅ ∆output
Turbine τ = ω power
⋅W ⋅∆(rper ) = ω ⋅W ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 )
⋅ cu stage:
P = ω ⋅output
Turbine
Turbine τ =power
ω power
∆output ⋅W ⋅per
∆(rstage:) = ω ⋅W ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 )
⋅ cu stage:
per
P
P= =ω
This ω ∆ττ =
⋅⋅ ∆
expression=ωω ⋅⋅W
W ⋅⋅∆
can ∆(r = ω ⋅Wassuming
(rbe⋅⋅ ccsimplified ⋅⋅ (r
u ) = ω ⋅Wassuming
u ) (r2 ccu , 2 -- rr1that
ccu ,1 ))the mean blade radius remains
This
constant, r1=rexpression
2, and that can there no flow slip:2 u , 2 1that
beissimplified u ,1 the mean blade radius remains
constant, r1=r
This 2, and that
expression can there is no flow
be simplified slip:that the mean blade radius
assuming
This
This expression
expression can
can be be simplified
simplified assuming
assuming that that the the mean
mean blade
blade radius
radius remains
remains
P
constant, =
r U
=r ⋅
,W ⋅
and∆cthat
u there is no flow slip:
remains
constant,
P= 1 2 constant, r = r , and that there is no flow slip:
U2,⋅W
r1=r ⋅∆cthat
and 1 there
2 is no flow slip:
u
P==U U ⋅⋅W
W ⋅⋅the
Similarly,
P
Similarly,
∆ccupreviously derived axial compressor equations can be applied to determine
∆
the upreviously derived axial compressor equations can be applied to determine
head, pressure ratio and temperature for the axial flow turbine:
Similarly, the previously derived axial for
head, pressure ratio and temperature compressor
the axialequations can be applied to determine
flow turbine:
Similarly, the
head, pressure
Similarly, previously
the ratio derived
and temperature
previously derived axial
for compressor
the axial
axial equations
equations can
flow turbine:
compressor can be
be applied
applied to
to determine
determine
head, Turbine
pressure head
ratio decrease
and per
temperaturestage:
for the axial flow turbine:
head, pressure ratio and
Turbine head temperature
decrease for the axial flow turbine:
per stage:
Turbine head decrease per stage:
P
P = ω ⋅ (r2per
Turbine
H = h2 -head
Turbine h1 = decrease
head decrease per
cu , 2 stage:
- r1 cu ,1 )
stage:
H = h2 - h1 = W = ω ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1 cu ,1 )
Turbine pressure W P ratio per stage:
H = - = P = ω ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1 cu ,1 )
h
Turbine
2 h
H = h2 -temperature
Turbine h1 = W =decrease
1
pressure ω ⋅decrease
(rper
2 cu , stage:
2 - r1 cper
u ,1 )stage:
Turbine temperature
Turbine W ratiodecrease
temperature per stage:γ
per stage:
P2 ω  ηω  γ -1
Turbine 1⋅temperature
pressure ratio per
(r2 cu , 2 -⋅ (r - rT1c1stage:  γ stage:
T 2 == ω
Turbine
Turbine +
 temperature r12ccuu,1decrease
, 2) +
decrease u ,1 ) per
per
γ -1 stage:
TP221= cp ⋅ (rc2ηω
= 1+ cp uT, 21 - r1cu ,1 ) + T 1 
⋅ (r2 cu , 2 per
- r1cstage:
u ,1 ) 
γ
cωp pressure ratio
Turbine
P21= ω
Turbine
P pressure
⋅ (rcηω
cp T ratio
1
- rr1ccper
γ -1
u ,1 )
stage:
+ 
T 22 == cp1⋅+(r22 cuu ,, 22 -⋅ (r
T
12 c T1c11u ,1 )  γ
- rT
u u,1, 2) +
P1 orcp c p T 1  γ -1
P2  ηω
=
or 1 + ⋅ (r2 cu , 2 - r1cu ,1 ) 
P1  cpT1 γ

P2 or   η  γ -1
= 1+ ⋅H  γ
or
P21  c pη⋅T 1  γ
γ -1
=  1 + ⋅ H
P21 
or
c pη⋅T 1 γ -1 29
P  29
=  1 + ⋅ H 
P1 or  c p⋅T 1 γ
γ -1 29
P2  η 
29
= 1 + ⋅ H 
P1 
or
or c p⋅T 1  γ
P 2 or   ηω  γ -1
= 1+ ⋅ ( r 2c 2 sin( α 2 ) - r 1 c1 sin( α 1 ) γ
P 12  cηωpT1 γ -1

=
or  1 + ⋅ ( r 2 2 c sin ( α 2 ) - r c
1 1 sin ( α 1  γ
)
P 1
P2   cηωp T 1 γ -1
= 1+ ⋅ ( r 2c 2 sin( α 2 ) - r 1 c1 sin( α 1 )
γ
These
These  axial-flow
P1 axial-flow c p Tturbine
1 turbine equations are identical
equations are identical to the γ equations
-1 to thethatequations that were previously
were previously
ηω
P 2 the axial compressor. The only expression 
derived derived
for =
Thesefor 1 + ⋅ (
the axial compressor.
axial-flow r 2c 2 equations
turbine sin ( α The2 ) - only sin
r 1 c1are ( α 1  thattomust
)
expression
identical
that must
thebe
be different
different for
equations thefor
that
the axial-flow
axial-
were previously
turbine flow
isP1the  axial
definition
turbine
derived for the c
is the
p T 1 of its
definition of its
compressor.
isentropic
The
efficiency,
isentropic which
efficiency,
only expression  which is inversed:
is inversed:
that must be different for the axial-flow
turbine These axial-flowofturbine
is the definition equations
its isentropic are identical
efficiency, whichtoisthe equations that were previously
inversed:
efficiency
derivedefficiency ==actual
for the axial work
actual output
work
compressor. / idealonly
output
The / work
ideal output
work output
expression that must be different for the axial-flow
turbine efficiency
is the definition
These axial-flow
= actualofturbine
its isentropic
work equations
output /efficiency,
arework
ideal which
identical
output toisthe
inversed:
equations that were previously
derived ηfor = Actual Head h
the axial compressor. The=only expression
2 - h1 T 2 - T 1 that must be different for the axial-flow
= *
turbine efficiency =Actual
actual work output /efficiency,
hideal work output
gt *
is the Ideal (Isentropi
definition of Head
its c) Head
isentropic - h T -
which
T is inversed:
η gt =
2
2 1
1 2
2 1
1
= * = *
Ideal (Isentropi
Typical axial =flow turbine
Actual c) Head
isentropic
Head h - h
efficiencies T
are -- T
T 22around 90%, but can be as
2 - efficiencies T 11 are
2 1
efficiency actual work output / hidealh1work output
η
Typical
gt =
high asIdeal
axial flow turbine
94%. (Isentropic) Head
isentropic
= *
= *
around 90%, but can be as high as
94%. h 2 - h1 T 2 - T 1
Typical axial flow turbine
Actual Head isentropic efficiencies are around 90%, but can be as high as
h 2 - h1 T 2 -T1
94%. η gt = = * = *
POWER 74 | axial
TURBINE
IdealChapter 2: Turbomachinery
(Isentropi c) Head Componenth1 TBasics
h2 - efficiencies
Typical flow turbine isentropic 2 - T 1 are around 90%, but can be as high as
The
94%.gas turbine elements upstream of the power turbine are commonly referred to as the “gas
POWER TURBINE
POWER TURBINE
The gas turbine elements upstream of the power turbine are commonly referred to as the
“gas producer.” In principle, the gas producer of a gas turbine and an aircraft jet engine
are very similar: both produce a hot, high-pressure exhaust fuel/air gas mixture (Figures
2-18 and 2-19). However, while in the jet engine these gases are employed to generate
aerodynamic thrust, the gas turbine employs them to drive a power turbine. Thus, it is the
function of the power turbine to recover as much energy as possible from the exhaust
mixture of the gas producer and convert it into mechanical shaft output energy.
Although the gas producer and power turbine each provide for a different function in the
gas turbine, their aerodynamic designs are very similar. The functional description and
mathematical equations that were previously presented for the gas producer turbine are
similarly applicable to the power turbine.
GAS POWER
PRODUCER TURBINE
Figure 2-18. Gas Producer and Power Turbine of an Industrial Gas Turbine
AIR INLET COMPRESSION FUEL COMBUSTION EXHAUST
Figure 2-19. Gas Producer of a jet engine

SHAFT ARRANGEMENT
As previously noted, there are two common types of industrial gas turbine shaft
arrangements: two-shaft and single-shaft (Figures 2-20 and 2-21).
Two-Shaft Gas Turbine
A two-shaft gas turbine has a free power turbine design. In two-shaft gas turbines, the
power turbine is independently supported on its own bearings and allowed to freely rotate.
Thus, two-shaft gas turbines allow for variable shaft speed output power:
ωgp ≠ ωpt
Single-Shaft Gas Turbine
On the other hand, if the power turbine and gas producer turbine are connected to one
integral shaft (rotating at the same speed), as in a single-shaft gas turbine, then the gas
turbine shaft output speed must be more or less fixed. Thus, for a single-shaft gas turbine:
ωgp = ωpt
FUEL EXHAUST
COMBUSTOR
AIR
INLET GEARBOX
(optional)
LOAD
DRIVEN
EQUIPMENT
TURBINE POWER
COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Figure 2-20. Two-Shaft Gas Turbine (Hot-End Drive)
FUEL
COMBUSTOR EXHAUST
AIR
GEARBOX INLET
LOAD
GENERATOR
TURBINE POWER
COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Figure 2-21. Single-Shaft Gas Turbine (Cold-End Drive)

Most compressor, pump and blower applications require two-shaft gas turbines, while
Figure 2-18.
mostSingle-Shaft Gasapplications
electric generator Turbine (Cold-End Drive) gas turbines.
employ single-shaft
st compressor, pump and blower applications require two-shaft gas turbines, while
ic generator applications employ single-shaft gas turbines.
TURBINE LIMITATIONS
imitations We already established that the total power of both gas producer and power turbine can be
y established that the total power
determined from:of both gas producer and power turbine can be
from:
P = W ⋅ H = W ⋅ c p ⋅ ( T combustor - T exit )
The above equation indicates that the power of the turbine is strongly dependent on the
above equation indicates that the power of the turbine is strongly dependent on the
gas turbine firing temperature (PTcombustor), namely:
firing temperature (P∝Tcombustor), namely:
The higher the combustion firing temperature, the more shaft output power the gas
turbine
The higher thewill provide.
combustion firing temperature, the
more shaft output power the gas turbine will provide.
What are the limiting factors of the firing temperature? We obviously would like to fire the
gas turbine
at are the limiting factors as hot
of the as possible
firing to generate
temperature? Wethe maximumwould
obviously output like
power.
to The
fire simple
the answer
as hot as possible istothat combustor/blade
generate materials
the maximum and design
output put The
power. physical limitations
simple answeron the maximum
is that
allowable firing temperature. Namely, the firing temperature is limited by how much heat
the combustor and the first-stage turbine blades can take before melting or degrading
32
severely.
To overcome this limitation, the main focus of modern gas turbine research lies in
the development and testing of blade and combustor materials that tolerate higher
temperatures. Combustor liners and first- or second-stage gas producer turbine stages are
often manufactured from exotic materials that have melting points much higher than those
of more common metals such as stainless steel or titanium.
Another method being employed to allow for higher firing temperatures is the use of active
cooling of the combustor liner and/or the gas producer turbine’s first- or second-stage
blades.
It should be noted, however, that the amount of temperature reduction is limited by

the pressure ratio available. In other words, for a fixed pressure ratio, increasing the
firing temperature would simply increase the exhaust temperature.

TURBINE BLADE COOLING
To cool the turbine blades, a fraction of the axial compressor discharge air is bled and
forced through minute cooling passages within the first- or second-stage gas producer
turbine blades (Figure 2-22). There are several sophisticated schemes that are used for
blade cooling, such as single-pass internal cooling, single-pass internal cooling with
film cooling or multiple-pass internal cooling with extensive film cooling. Blade cooling
techniques will be explained in more detail later
FIRST-STAGE
NOZZLE
CROSS-SECTION
COOLING
AIR
HOT GAS SHOWER

FLOW HEAD HOT GAS
FILM FLOW
HOLES
ENTRY
SLOT
FIRST-STAGE
TURBINE BLADE
CROSS-SECTION
COOLING AIR INLET
Figure 2-22. Various Schemes for Turbine Blade Cooling
Combustor Liner Cooling
Combustor liner cooling was briefly discussed in the previous combustor section. The
cooling of the combustor liner is accomplished by redirecting the flow away from the
liner walls using dilution air and passing cooling air over the outside liner walls. Typically,
between 40% and 60% of the airflow entering the combustion chamber is being employed
for cooling purposes (Figure 2-23).
As a reference, peak firing temperatures for some Solar ® gas turbine models are
provided in Table 2-1. Obviously, more modern gas turbines are designed for higher firing
temperatures than older models.

40%
20% COOLING 20%
8%
80% DILUTION
20% 12%
PRIMARY ZONE DILUTION ZONE
Figure 2-23. Typical Flow Distribution for Combustor Liner Cooling (Diffusion Flame)
Gas Turbine Model (Two-Shaft) Firing Temperature, °C (°F)
Saturn 20 ≈ 900 (1660)
Centaur 40 ≈ 900 (1660)
Taurus 60 ≈1065 (1950)
Mars 100 ≈1140 (2080)
Titan 130 ≈1180 (2150)
Titan 250 ≈1200 (2200)
Table 2-1. Solar Gas Turbine Firing Temperatures
GAS TURBINE EXHAUST
Ideally, one would desire a power turbine that recovers all remaining energy from the
exhaust mixture of the gas producer so that the air exiting the power turbine has a
temperature and pressure equal to ambient temperature:
PGas Turbine Exhaust = PGas Turbine Intake = PAmbient

TGas Turbine Exhaust = TGas Turbine Intake = TAmbient
In an industrial gas turbine, the exhaust flow is always subsonic; therefore, the exhaust air
pressure must be equal to atmospheric pressure:
PExhaust = Pambient.

However, in any gas turbine, the gas mixture exhausts into the atmosphere at a
temperature significantly higher than ambient temperature. This means that the gas
exiting the gas turbine contains residual heat energy that is not being converted to useful
mechanical shaft energy. By being exhausted to the atmosphere, this residual heat energy
is lost. Unfortunately, this is an unavoidable physical fact of all simple-cycle gas turbines.
Most simple-cycle industrial gas turbines have exhaust temperatures between 451 and
534°C (844-994°F) as shown in Table 2-2.
Let us calculate how much heat power is actually exhausted to the atmosphere by a Mars
100 gas turbine. Remember, the energy contained per unit air volume is defined as the
Gas Turbine Model (Two-Shaft) Exhaust Temperature, °C (°F)
Saturn 20 520 (970)
Centaur 40 450 (840)
Taurus 60 510 (950)
Mars 100 480 (900)
Titan 130 480 (895)
Titan 250 455 (850)
Table 2-2. Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperatures
Let us calculate how much heat power is actually exhausted to the atmosphere by a
Mars 100 gas turbine. Remember, the energy contained per unit air volume is defined as the
entropy (h = cpT) and that power can be calculated by multiplying entropy with the mass
entropy flow
(h=c(PpT) and that power can be calculated by multiplying entropy with the mass flow
xhausted to the =atmosphere
W·h). In a Mars
by100
a gas turbine, the mass flow is approximately 36 kg/s and,
(P=W·h). In a Mars 100 gas turbine, the mass flow is approximately 36 kg/s and, assuming an
er unit air assuming
volume is andefined
ambient temperature
as the of 39°C (102°F), the temperature difference between
ambient temperature of 39°C (102°F), the temperature difference between exhaust and ambient
exhaust
plying entropy withandthe
ambient
mass(∆T) is 463°C (865°F). Thus, the total energy that the exhaust air
flow
∆T) is 463°
oximately 36 C (865°
kg/s
contains and,
is:
F).assuming
Thus, thean total energy that the exhaust air contains is:
erence between exhaust and ambient
kg J
P = Wis:⋅ c p ⋅ ( T Exhaust - T Ambient ) = 36
ust air contains ⋅ 1003 ⋅ 463 °C = 16,718kW = 22,350hp
s kg °C
⋅ 463 °C = 16,718kW = 22,350hp
C Interestingly, a Mars 100 gas turbine, rated at 15,000-hp shaft output power, loses
approximately 22,350 hp in hot exhaust air; therefore, more energy is lost in exhaust heat than
Interestingly,
is created a Mars 100
in shaft output gas turbine,
power. ratednot
This does at 15,000-hp
mean thatshaft
theoutput
Marspower,
100 gasproduces
turbine was poorly
00-hp shaft output power,
approximately 22,350loses
hp in hot exhaust air; therefore, more energy is lost in exhaust heat
e energy is lost
than in exhaust
is created heat
in shaft than
output power. This does not mean that the Mars 100 gas turbine
he Mars 100 gas turbine was poorly
was poorly designed, but rather shows the thermodynamic efficiency limitation of the
simple Brayton gas turbine cycle.
Here also lies the explanation for the level of peak efficiencies of any simple Brayton cycle
gas turbine. The simple Brayton cycle gas turbine cannot recover the residual exhaust heat
energy and, which limits its efficiency. The efficiency of the gas turbine can be estimated:

Here also lies the explanation for the level of peak efficiencies of any simple Brayt
cycleofgas
efficiency limitation theturbine. The simple
simple Brayton gasBrayton cycle gas turbine cannot recover the residual exha
heat energy and, which limits its efficiency. The efficiency of the gas turbine can be estim
el of peak efficiencies of any simple Brayton
turbine cannot recoverUseful Outputexhaust
the residual Shaft Output Power 15,000
η =
e efficiency of the gas turbine
= = =4
Total can be estimated:
Output Shaft Output Power + Exhaust Air Power 15,000 + 22,350
t Power 15,000
= The actual peak=efficiency
40% of a Mars 100 gas turbine is 34%. Sometimes the hot e
air can15,000
Exhaust Air Power + 22,350using waste heat recovery and heat exchanger units for heating, dry
be recovered
steam generation applications. In these cases, the overall system efficiency is typically
The actual better
significantly
0 gas turbine is 34%. peak efficiency
Sometimes than
the of aofMars
hotthat
exhaust 100 gasBrayton
a simple turbine iscycle.
34%. Sometimes the hotadvanced
Some of these exhaust cycles wi
air can
discussed be
inrecovered
a later using waste
section.
and heat exchanger units for heating, drying or heat recovery and heat exchanger units for heating, drying
or steam generation
he overall system efficiency applications. In these cases, the overall system efficiency is typically
is typically
cycle. Some of these advanced cyclesthat
significantly better than willofbe
a simple Brayton cycle. Some of these advanced cycles will
be discussed in a later chapter.
36
82 | Chapter 3: Modern Analysis Methods
CHAPTER 3
MODERN ANALYSIS METHODS
COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING
The following is a brief discussion of modern computational fluid dynamic (CFD)

technologies that are being developed to analyze and improve gas turbine performance.
This introduction is intended to give the reader an appreciation of the efforts undertaken by
the gas turbine industry to develop better, higher efficiency and cleaner gas turbines for the
future (Figure 3-1).
The gas turbine engineer’s goal is to be able to completely design a gas turbine, optimize
its performance, and test it without actually building a working prototype; i.e., completely
computer model it. Computer software packages that are being employed in the design
process can be divided into two types: Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE). CAD software packages are used for design drafting, dimensional
layouts, architectural/engineering drawings and solid body modeling. On the other hand,
CAE software is employed for the actual computational solution of engineering problems.
CAE software includes numerical solutions for structural, vibration, rotor dynamic and/or
fluid dynamics behavior predictions. There is often significant overlap between CAE and
CAD software applications and features.
Although CAE software for vibration, rotordynamics and structural analysis are used
extensively in the gas turbine industry, the focus in this section will be only on fluid
dynamics analysis to stay within the general subject matter of this text. Previously
discussed was the non-ideal, simple-cycle analysis application to predict and study gas
turbine performance. The simple-cycle thermodynamic analysis can also be called a
one-dimensional (1-D) fluid dynamics analysis since it describes the behavior of the fluid
(air mixture) passing through the gas turbine as one-dimensional. This analysis assumes
that the gas at any point in the gas turbine is radially and circumferentially uniform in
temperature, pressure, density and velocity. Obviously, this is an oversimplification of
the real three-dimensional (3-D) gas turbine flow field, which is highly non-uniform.
Nonetheless, non-ideal simple-cycle analysis is a first step in gas turbine computational
fluid analysis.
Figure 3-1. Rotor blades for the compressor of a modern industrial gas turbine and sector model
for the turbine section
Chapter 3: Modern Analysis Methods | 83

To expand this type of analysis into three dimensions (axial, radial and circumferential)
requires a significantly more complicated analysis that is very computationally intensive. As
of this date, the technology is still limited to accurately model the 3-D flow in a complete
gas turbine. However, modern computers have reached a level where it is feasible to
model gas turbine components, such as the compressor or turbine, individually and achieve
satisfactory results. This type of analysis can be very useful and will be discussed over the
next few pages.
DESIGN GOALS
As shown earlier, when using the non-ideal, simple-cycle analysis method, gas turbine
performance can be completely modeled and predicted, if the component efficiencies are
known. If we can determine, either experimentally or mathematically:
• Inlet Pressure Ratio
• Axial Compressor Efficiency, Flow and Pressure Ratio
• Combustor Efficiency and Pressure Ratio
• Gas Producer Turbine Efficiency, Flow and Pressure Ratio
• Power Turbine Efficiency, Flow and Pressure Ratio
• Exhaust System Pressure Ratio
Gas turbine output power and efficiency can be calculated at any ambient condition. It is
important to realize that the above efficiencies and pressure ratios are not constants, but
depend upon a number of variables, such as inlet temperature and pressure, shaft speed,
elevation, mass flow, air humidity and others. Further, to predict the life of a gas turbine
and its components, stress levels and temperature levels need to be calculated. Emissions
predictions require the calculations of chemical reactions, and how they interact with local
flow and temperature fields.
Traditionally, the most often employed method to obtain these data relies solely on
experimental test stand data. Component efficiencies are either measured directly in a
dedicated component test stand or derived from overall gas turbine performance. Empirical
functions are developed for each component’s efficiency and pressure ratio from the test
stand data. These empirical efficiency functions can then be integrated into the non-ideal,
simple-cycle analysis program.
Major drawbacks of this method are: that a prototype of the component has to be built and
tested before accurate performance predictions can be run; if the component design is
significantly altered, the empirical functions will no longer be valid; and testing can become
very expensive and time consuming. Thus, a mathematical/theoretical method to determine
these component efficiencies would be preferable.

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Over the last 30 years, computers have become more sophisticated, enabling the
gas turbine designer to perform some limited theoretical performance and efficiency
calculations. Hundreds of different numerical methods have been developed, but in
principle most of them can be separated into two classes:
Streamline balance and Computational fluid dynamics
Streamline balance methods were developed in the early 1960s and employed until the
mid-1970s. These were based on the concept that the streamline locations in an internal
flow field of the gas turbine can be determined from the interactions of the centrifugal,
Coriolis and inertial forces on the fluid (air). However, experience has shown that results
from the streamline balance method are not very accurate. These methods do not allow for
correct performance predictions of new gas turbine component designs.
Since the early 1970s, significant efforts have been made by a large number of researchers
to develop numerical methods to solve theoretical equations that describe the actual
behavior and dynamics of a fluid. These equations are called the Navier-Stokes equations
and, generally, are applicable to any fluid and boundary condition (Figure 3-2). The Navier-
Stokes equation set consists of: continuity equation - conservation of mass; x,y,z equations
of motion - F = m · a (Newton’s Second Law for a fluid); and an energy equation – first law
of thermodynamics (energy is conserved).
The Navier-Stokes equations were originally derived by M. Navier in 1827 and S.D. Poisson
in 1831. Historically, however, useful analysis of the equations is mostly associated with
the work of L. Prandtl, T. v. Karman, H. Blasius, and H. Schlichting of the University of
Gottingen in Germany between 1900 and 1930. Solutions to these equations are difficult
since they are non-linear, non-homogenous and coupled partial differential equations. Only
for a limited number of very simple cases can exact analytic solutions be found. Thus, until
modern computers became available in the 1970s, the Navier-Stokes equations were of
very limited practical use for engineering applications. However, with the advent of high-
speed computers, more complicated mathematical equations became solvable using a
numerical rather than an analytical approach.

∂  1 ∂ 1 ∂  ∂ 
 ) + + =0
 ∂R R ∂θ ∂z
∂  ∂  ∂  ∂  ∂ρ  2 ∂ 
ρ +  + − +  =− +  ∇  − −  + ρ
∂t ∂R R ∂θ R ∂z ∂R R R ∂θ
2 2
∂  ∂  ∂  ∂  1 ∂ρ  2 ∂ 

ρ +  + + +  =− +  ∇  − +  + ρ
∂t ∂R R ∂θ R ∂z  ∂R 2
R R ∂θ
2
∂  ∂   ∂  ∂ ∂ρ
ρ +  + +  =− + ∇ + ρz
∂t ∂R R ∂θ ∂z ∂z
∂T ∂T  ∂ T ∂T
ρ  +  + +  
∂t ∂R R ∂θ ∂z
  1 ∂ 2
 
= κ∇ Τ + 2μ   +  +   +   
  ∂θ 
 1      1 ∂   2

+ μ  + + + + +   
      ∂θ  R
1   1  
∇ =   +   + 
     
Figure 3-2. Navier-Stokes Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates
Figure 3-2. Navier-Stokes Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates

NUMERICAL APPROACH
in Germany between 1900 and 1930. Solutions to these equations are difficult since they are non-
Analytical solutions of
linear, non-homogenous andthecoupled
Navier-Stokes
partialequations cannot
differential be found Only
equations. for complex
for a limited number of
turbomachinery
very simple cases cangeometries and inlet/outlet
exact analytic solutions boundary
be found. conditions. However,
Thus, until modern analytic
computers became
solutions
available in thefor1970s,
simple geometries, such as cubes
the Navier-Stokes or wedges,
equations wereif they have limited
of very simple, uniform
practical use for
engineering applications.
boundary conditions However, with the
can be calculated. advent
Thus, of high speed computers,
a complex-turbomachinery more
geometry is complicated
mathematical
divided into thousands of simple geometries (cubes, bricks, wedges or tetrahedrals) thatapproach.
equations became solvable using a numerical rather than an analytical
are individually solvable (Figure 3-3
Numerical
showsApproach
this for a two-dimensional
Analytical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations cannot be found for complex turbomachinery
airfoil). By matching the boundary
geometries and inlet/outlet boundary conditions. However, analytic solutions for simple
conditions of each geometry in a
geometries, such as cubes or wedges, if they have simple, uniform boundary conditions can be
sophisticated
calculated. Thus, a iterative-stepping
complex turbomachinery geometry is divided into thousands of little simple
process,
geometries (cubes, a solution of the
bricks, complete
wedges or tetrahedrals) which are individually solvable (Figure 3-3
complex-geometry flow field
shows this for a two dimensional airfoil). can be By matching the boundary conditions of each geometry
found.
in a sophisticated iterative stepping process, a solution of the complete complex geometry flow
field can be found.
This isisaacomputationally
This computationally veryvery intensive method that allows us to analyze the internal flow
intensive method that enables
field of many complicated turbomachinery us component geometries.
to analyze the internal flow field of
many complicated turbomachinery
component geometries. 3
We are still several developmental Figure 3-3. Computational Grid for a

years away from accurately modeling Two-Dimensional Flow Problem

the gas turbine as a whole. Nonetheless, once the internal flow field of a turbomachinery
component is known, the component’s efficiency and pressure drop can be calculated,
and the results can be easily integrated into the non-ideal, simple-cycle analysis. Similar
numerical methods exist for the analysis of rotordynamic and vibration applications.
STATE-OF-THE-ART
Let us briefly discuss some of the commonly employed CFD methods, their assumptions,
limitations and applicability. Any type of CFD analysis is an approximation of the real world.
The real flow is approximated by more-or-less accurate mathematical models. These
mathematical models usually do not lend themselves to analytical solutions, but have to be
solved by more-or-less accurate numerical methods.
Potential Flow Method (1930-1965)
Potential flow assumes that the fluid is irrotational, inviscid and incompressible. Turbulence,
boundary layers or flow unsteadiness cannot be directly modeled. This type of method is
limited to large Reynold’s number gas flows, typically external flows such as subsonic flow
around an airplane wing or propeller. Frequently, to account for the boundary layer losses,
the method is coupled with a simple, empirical boundary displacement function. Since the
method assumes incompressible flow, no density changes can be modeled, which makes
it useless for compressor or turbine applications. For internal gas turbine component flow
analysis, this method is not adequate.
Euler Method (1970-1985)
Euler flow solves the Navier-Stokes equations, but neglects the terms that account for
viscosity; i.e., the fluid is inviscid. Since turbulence and boundary layer are both viscosity
functions, the Euler method cannot account for either. However, since the Euler code does
not assume irrotational flow and allows for density changes, it is significantly more accurate
than the Potential Flow Method for compressible flow. Euler codes are often employed to
analyze internal turbomachinery flows, however, because viscosity is not modeled, it can
be inaccurate especially for turbulent flows with fluid separation and recirculation.
Full Navier-Stokes Solvers (1980-Present)
The Navier-Stokes solver evaluates the full set of fluid dynamics equations. Since the
length and time scales of turbulence are too small to be properly modeled, Navier-Stokes
solvers still typically employ simplified methods to account for the effects of turbulence (so
called turbulence models). Navier-Stokes solvers can be very accurate but are extremely
computationally intensive.
In recent years, Navier-Stokes solvers have become a standard tool in the turbomachinery
industry. Nonetheless, because of the many assumptions for boundary conditions and
turbulence modeling that have to be made, even with the full Navier-Stokes solver,
computational results need to be carefully vetted with actual tests.

Today, it is possible to model
entire compressors, and resolving
unsteady flow (Figure 3-4).
Modeling entire turbomachines (for
example, the entire compressor of a
gas turbine, Figure 3-5) creates the
difficulty that some components
rotate, while others are stationary.
For the rotating components,
the flow from the stationary
components appears unsteady, and
for the stationary components, the
flow from the rotating components
appears unsteady. In other
words, the code has to deal with
unsteady flow (Figure 3-4). The
Figure 3-4. Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD)
capability to perform conjugate
Analysis of the unsteady flow through a turbine rotor
heat transfer calculations, that
can be used to calculate the heat
transfer between a body (like an
airfoil) and the gas flow, have great impact in optimizing engine life, cooling air usage, and
engine performance. Other classes of problems are also solvable with great accuracy
including flows where chemical reactions occur, such is in the combustor of a gas turbine
(Figure 3-6), or gas flows with solid or liquid particles.
SUMMARY
Many techniques are available to model the flow inside a gas turbine. In the future, we
expect to be able to completely design gas turbines and optimize them solely on the
CFD Accurately Captures Flow Details Not Available from Test Data
Figure 3-5. 3-D CFD Analysis of complete axial compressor

Figure 3-6. Flow in a gas turbine combustor
computer, without ever having to build a prototype. Currently however, the state-of-the-art
of CFD technology is:
Computational results are often inaccurate and need test validation.
CFD modeling and analysis can be expensive and time intensive, depending on the
number of components that have to be analyzed, and the accuracy of the results required.
Transient, non-steady-state calculations exponentially increase the effort.
Typically, CFD models provide good insights into flow structures, but may encounter
problems supplying accurate predictions for bulk characteristics such as stage mass flow
or stage efficiency. It also must be stressed that in order to achieve correct results, the
user has to be quite experienced in using the code and interpreting the results. Ubiquitous
inaccuracies are caused by modeling errors (i.e., the numerical model is not identical with
the physical reality), numerical errors (the solution of the programmed equations is not
accurate), convergence errors (calculations are stopped after too few iterations to save
time), application uncertainties (inlet or exit conditions, or geometry are not precisely
known), user errors (use of the wrong model, neglect of structures that influence the
flow, etc.), and code errors (“bugs”). Detail problems, such as the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow, are still not entirely resolved. All calculations need, therefore, to be
calibrated against reliable test data.
However, the detailed insight in flow structures has yielded numerous detail improvements,
leading to higher engine efficiencies, increased engine life, and improved reliability.
Thus, a combination of experimental results with CFD is currently the most sensible design
approach for gas turbines. The gas turbine engineer should never base a design decision
solely on CFD results.

90 | Chapter 4: Rotordynamics & Vibrations
CHAPTER 4
ROTORDYNAMICS & VIBRATIONS
ROTORDYNAMICS AND VIBRATIONS
The principal mechanical moving components of a gas turbine are the gas producer and
power turbine shafts. On small to mid-size gas turbines, these shafts can weigh between
2,268 and 13,608 kg (5,000 and 30,000 lb) and rotate at angular speeds between 5,000
and 25,000 revolutions per minute. The gas producer shaft is typically supported by three
to five journal bearings to restrict the radial movements and one or two thrust bearings
to limit the axial movement. Similarly, the power turbine shaft typically has two journal
bearings and one thrust bearing. In most modern industrial gas turbines, tilting pad or other
fluid film bearings are employed; older industrial and aero derivative gas turbines often use
rolling element bearings. Fluid film bearings employ petroleum based or synthetic oil to act
as a lubricant and coolant between the moving shaft and the stationary bearing surfaces.
Bearings function to transmit the static loads and dynamic vibration forces.
When the gas turbine shafts rotate at high angular speeds, small imbalances or
eccentricities in the shafts due to manufacturing imperfection or mechanical/thermal
stresses are amplified and can create significant forces on the gas turbine’s bearings and
bending of the shaft. If these forces are not adequately controlled, gas turbine catastrophic
failure may be the consequence. Hence, it is of the utmost importance for the gas turbine
designer to understand and predict the shaft and bearing rotordynamic forces of a gas
turbine. Over the next couple of pages, we will briefly present the basic mechanic and
dynamic theory of gas turbine rotordynamics. The discussion will be confined to lateral
rotordynamics, and torsional behavior will not be covered in this text.
Simple Mass‑Spring‑Damper System

(Single Degree of Freedom)
Let us start by analyzing a significantly

simplified mechanical model. The
c
assumption is that we can simulate
shaft vibrations by modeling the shaft
k
as a single stationary mass (m) with one
fixed support (bearing). Naturally, this
single support bearing would possess a kx cx
certain physical stiffness (k) and damping
(c) characteristic. Figure 4-1 shows a
schematic of this simple mass‑spring‑ x
damper system.
Figure 4-1. Simple Mass-Spring-Damper System
Chapter 4: Rotordynamics & Vibrations | 91

Figure 4-1. Simple Mass-Spring-Damper System
Figure 4-1.
After applying Newton’s Simple
second lawMass-Spring-Damper System equation of motion for
(f=ma), we get the following
After applying Newton’s
this single degree of freedom system: second law (f=ma), we get the following equation of motion for
After
this single applying
degree Figuresystem:
Newton’s
of freedom 4-1. Simple
second lawMass-Spring-Damper System equation of motion for
(f=ma), we get the following
this single
madegree
+ cv + kxof freedom
=f system:
After
ma applying
After+applying Newton’s
cv + kxNewton’s
=f second
second law we
law (f=ma), (f=ma),
get thewe get the
following following
equation equation
of motion for of motion for
this single
ma degree
+ cv + of
kx freedom
= f system:
this single degree of freedom system:
where a is the acceleration, v is velocity, x is the displacement, and f is an external force. The
where ama
is +the
above equation
cvacceleration,
+ kx = f
can easily bevrewritten
is velocity,as xanisordinary
the displacement,
differential and f is an external force. The
equation:
where equation
above awhere
is the acceleration,
can easily be v is velocity,
rewritten as x
an is the displacement,
ordinary differential and f is an external force. The
equation:
a is the acceleration, v is velocity, x is the displacement, and f is an external force.
above equation
2 candxeasily be rewritten as an ordinary differential equation:
The above equation can easily be rewritten as an ordinary differential equation:
where amisddthe
2
x acceleration,
2x
+ c dx + kx = fv is velocity, x is the displacement, and f is an external force. The
d 2x +can + kx =bef rewritten as an ordinary differential equation:
m dt
above equation
2 dteasily
c dx
m dt 2 + c dt + kx = f
Fordt now wedt
2
dnowx we dxwill neglect the damping (c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus, the
For
mdifferential
ordinaryFor now + c will + kxneglect
2 we willequation
neglect=the the damping
fsimplifies
damping (cto:
(c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus, the
= 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus, the
ordinaryFor dtnow wedtequation
differential will neglect the damping
simplifies to: (c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus, the
ordinary differential equation simplifies to:
ordinary differential
2
d x equation simplifies to:
For
m d 2now 2x
+ kx
we=will
0 neglect the damping (c = 0) and the external force (f = 0). Thus, the
2 + kx =equation
dt
ordinarymdifferential 0 simplifies to:
d 2x
m dt 2 + kx = 0
It isisddt
It beyond
2
x thethe
beyond scope
scope of thisoftext
this
to text to demonstrate
demonstrate the solutionthe
for solution for which
this equation, this equation,
can be which can
be foundIt
m is
in
found in most+
beyond kx =the
0 scope
differential of this
equations text to demonstrate
textbook. But the the
generalsolution for
solution this
of
2 most differential equations textbook. But the general solution of this equation is:
equation,
this which
equation is: can
be found indtbeyond
It is the scopeequations
most differential of this text to demonstrate
textbook. the solution
But the general for this
solution equation,
of this which
equation is: can
be found in most differential equations textbook. But the general solution of this equation is:
k scope of kthis text to demonstrate the solution for this equation, which can
= beyond
Itx is A sin kthe t + B cos k t
=A
be foundx in most m t + B cosequations
sin differential
kconstants m
k tare textbook. But the general solution of this equation is:
where
where A
Axand= AB
and are
are m
Bsin t + B costhat
constants m
that tare evaluated
evaluated from
from thethe initial
initial conditions.
conditions. This
This solution
solution is
is also
also
sometimes
where A and
where
sometimes called
B are
called the
m
A and the Eigenvalue
constants
B areEigenvaluethat
m
constants thatanalysis.
are The
evaluated
are evaluated
analysis. above
Thefromfrom
above solution
the initial
the solution shows that
conditions.
initial conditions.
showsThis if the
This
thatsolution system
solution
is
if the system is
is also
is
allowed k Eigenvalue k analysis.
xto
sometimesto=vibrate
allowedalso called
A sin the
vibrate
sometimes freely,
t + Bthe
freely, cosfrequency
the
called thefrequency
Eigenvalue
t at
at which
TheThe
which
analysis. itit would
above would vibrate
abovesolution is:
shows
vibrateshows
solution that
is: that if the
if the system is
system
allowedistoallowed
vibrate m
to freely,
vibrate freely, m
the frequency
the frequencyat which
at whichit itwould
would vibrate
vibrate is:is:
k
ω k
ω NN == m
k
ωN = m
m
Τ
ΤNN is
is called
called the
the natural
natural frequency
frequency or or Eigenvalue
Eigenvalue of of the
the system.
system. TheThe natural
natural frequency
frequency is
is
very  is called
ΤNN is called
important in the natural
rotordynamicsfrequency or
since Eigenvalue
it also of the
corresponds system.
to The
the natural frequency
resonance is
frequency of
very important the natural frequency
in rotordynamics since it also orcorresponds
Eigenvalue of system. The
to the resonance frequency of a
a system;
natural frequency is
system;
namely:very important
very important in rotordynamics
in rotordynamics since
since it alsocorresponds
it also corresponds toto the resonance
the resonancefrequency of a of a system;
frequency
namely:
namely:system; namely:
If
If an
anisexcitation
excitation force is isatapplied to
to a system at
at its
If an excitation force applied to aforce
system applied
its natural a system the
frequency, its
system will
natural
If an
natural frequency,
excitation force
frequency, the
is
the system
applied
system towill
a
will resonate.
system
resonate. at its
resonate.
natural frequency, the system will resonate.
Now
Now
assume
Nowassume
assume that
that
that a
a regular
regular
a regular
periodic
periodic
periodic
(excitation)
(excitation)
(excitation)
force
forcetois
force is applied
applied
isthe
applied to the
mass intothe
the mass
mass
form
in the form of
of a in the form of
a sinusoidal
a sinusoidal function,
Now assume
function,
sinusoidal that a regular periodic (excitation) force is applied to the mass in the form of
function,
a sinusoidal function,
ff ==F sin( ω
F sin( ωtt ))
f = F sin( ωt )
where  is the excitation frequency, and F is the amplitude of the excitation force. To
where Τ is
is the
the excitation
where Τgeneralize excitation frequency, and F is the
the amplitude of
of the excitation force.
force. To
To generalize
further, thefrequency, andnot
damping (c) will F be
is neglected.
amplitude the of
The equation excitation
motion thus generalize
further,Τbecomes:
further,
where the
the damping
is the
damping (c)
excitation will not be
frequency,
(c) will neglected.
and F is the
not be neglected. The equation
Theamplitude of motion
equation of the thus
excitation
motion becomes:
force. To generalize
thus becomes:
further, the damping (c) will not be neglected. The equation of motion thus becomes:
2
dx
dx 22 + c dxdx + kx = F sin( ωt )
m dx22 + c dx
m + kx = F sin( ωt )
m d 2 t + c dt
d t dt + kx = F sin( ωt )
d t dt
The
The steady-state “particular”
steady-state “particular” solution
solution to
to the
the above
above ordinary
ordinary differential
differential equation
equation is:
is:
The steady-state “particular” solution to the above ordinary differential equation is:
xx ==X sin( ω
X sin( ωtt −−ϕ ϕ))
92x = X |
sin(Chapter ϕ
ω t − 4:)Rotordynamics & Vibrations
where
where
dx dx
m dx22 + c dx + kx = F sin( ωt )
d 22t + c dx
m dx dt + kx = F sin( ωt )
m d 2 t + c dt + kx = F sin( ωt )
t dt
Thed steady-state “particular” solution to the above ordinary differential equation is:
The steady-state “particular” solution to the above ordinary differential equation is:
x =steady-state
The
The X sin( ωt −“particular”
steady-stateϕ)“particular” solution
solution to theordinary
to the above abovedifferential
ordinary equation
differential
equation is:
is:
x = X sin( ωt − ϕ)
x = X sin( ωt − ϕ)
where
where where
where F
X = F2
X = ( ) ( )
k − mω F22 2 + cω
2
X = ( ) ( )
k − mω 2 2 + cω
2
(k − mω + cω) ( ) 2
NOTE: NOTE:
ThereThere
is also a “complementary”
is also a “complementary” transient term
transient term of the
of the functional
functional form‑Dtx=Ce-Dt sin(Et+
form x=Ce
NOTE: There is
which issin(Et+), also
part ofwhich a “complementary”
the iscomplete transient term of the functional form x=Ce-Dt sin(Et+
part of the solution to the toabove
complete solution the aboveordinary
ordinarydifferential
differential equation.-Dt
Howev
NOTE:
which isThere
because part
of theisexponential
of also a “complementary”
the complete transient
solution tofactor,
multiplication the aboveterm
this of the term
ordinary
transient functional form
differential
decreases x=Ce
equation.
with timesin(Et+
Howev
and
which isequation.
part ofHowever,
the because of
complete the exponential
solution to the multiplication
above factor, this
ordinary transient term
differential equation. Howev
because
approach of the
zero exponential
for most multiplication
real systems. factor,
Thus, this
for atransient
steady term
state decreases with
rotordynamic time and
analysis
because decreases
of the with time and multiplication
exponential will approach zero for most
factor, real
this systems. term
transient Thus, decreases
for a steady-state
with time and
approach zero term
complementary for most real be
can often systems. Thus, for a steady state rotordynamic analysis
neglected.
approachrotordynamic
zero foranalysis
most the
realcomplementary
systems. term can
Thus, often
for a be neglected.
steady state rotordynamic analysis
complementary term can often be neglected.
complementary term ccan ω often be neglected.
 
ϕ = tan −−11  cω 2 
ϕ = tan −1  k −cmωω 2 
ϕ = tan  k − mω 2 
 k − mω 
The above steady-state solution shows that the system vibrates at the excitation frequency
Xk
Xk 1
lag ().1This
The
()
Z =above
but
=above
Zexperiences
The
=
=
steady-state
experiences a certainsolution
steady-state solution
shows
lag is that
shows
calledthe
that
thesystem
the
vibrates
phase lag
system
or phaseat
vibrates
the of
angle
at the
excitation
the
excitation
freque
freque
(ω) butsystem. a certain lag
FWe can non‑dimensionalize
F (Φ). This lag
2 2 the above equation
2 is called the phase lag
2 and rewrite it as follows:or phase angle of
(ω) butThe
Weabove a certain
 ω
steady-state
experiences  1theshows
 2 (Φ).
solution
lag  lag
This  ω
that
isthe 2 system vibrates at the excitation freque
 and
called therewrite
phaseit lag or phase angle of
system. can
= can = a1 
 −  ω
Xk non-dimensionalize
 
 + 
above
 ζ  ω
equation
 
as follows:
(ω) but Zexperiences −   + 2 ζ  
=   ω
system. We certain
Xk non-dimensionalize
1 lag (Φ).
1the This
above
2 lag
  2   ω   is called
equation the
and phase
rewrite it lag
as or phase angle of
follows:
system.ZWe = can ω
F non-dimensionalize   ω 
  N   2   N  
2 the above equation2 and rewrite it as follows:
1 −  ω 2    ω 2 
N N
F ω
1 −  ω   +  2ζ  ω  
 N   +  2ζ  ω N  
 ω  ω N
ω   
  N 
ω 
2ζζ ω 
2 
 ωN 
tan ϕ
tan ϕ==  ωN 2
2ζ ωω 2
ω
12−
1 − ω N 
ζω
tan ϕ = ω ωNNN 2
tan ϕ =  ω 2
1 −  ω 
1 − ω N
where .
where . is defined as
is defined ω Nthe
as  damping
the damping factor
factor and
and Z
Z is
is called
called the
the force
force response.
response.
where  is defined as the damping factor and Z is called the force response.
where .Damping
Damping
is defined
Damping
Factor:
Factor:
as the damping factor and Z is called the force response.
Factor:
where . is defined as the damping factor and Z is called the force response.
cc Factor:
ζζ =
Damping
=
Damping
2
2mmωω NFactor:
N
c
ζ= c
Force
Force ωN
ζ = 22Response:
Force mResponse:
Response:
22mω N
Xk
Xk
Z
Z =
Force
= Response:
Force2F Response:
2F
Xk
Z = force
The Xk response
F response represents
Z = force
The represents the
the non-dimensional
non-dimensional vibration
vibration amplitude
amplitude of
of the
the syste
syste
Hence, the peak
F vibration amplitude of the system is:
Hence, the peak vibration amplitude of the system is:
The force response represents the non-dimensional vibration amplitude of the syste
Hence, The F
force F
response
F vibration
F represents Chapter
thesystem 4:
is:Rotordynamics
non-dimensional & Vibrations
vibration |
amplitude 93 the syste
of
the
X
X =
=peak =
= amplitude of the
ζ
Hence, the peak
2ζk cω N
2 k cω
vibration amplitude of the system is:
Xk
Z=
F
The force
The force response
response represents
represents the non-dimensional
the non‑dimensional vibration
vibration amplitude amplitude
of the system. of the system.
Hence, Hence,
the peak vibration amplitude of the system is:
the peak vibration amplitude of the system is:
F F
X = =
2ζk cω N
IfIf we
weplotplotZ versus
Z versus /Nω/ω
(non‑dimensional excitation excitation
N (non-dimensional frequency), we get Figure 4-2.
frequency), we This
get Figure 39. This
type of
type of plot, plot,called
also also called a force
a force response plot,
response plot, is
iscommonly
commonly employed
employedfor vibration analysisanalysis since
for vibration
it allowssince
for itthe
allows for the determination
determination of the ofvibration
the vibration
peakpeakamplitude
amplitude for
forany
anyfrequency at
frequency at which the
system which
may be the excited.
system may be force
The excited.response
The force response
plot shows plot shows asymptotic
asymptotic at ω/ωN = 1.0; i.e.,
behavior
behavior
when the at /
forcing
N
= 1.0; i.e., when reaches
frequency the forcingthe frequency
system’s reaches the system’s
natural frequency.natural frequency.
Namely, as the frequency of
Namely, as
the sinusoidal the frequency
force approaches of thethesinusoidal forcenatural
system’s approaches the system’s
frequency, natural
there is a possibility that the
system’s frequency,
resonance theremayis a possibility
become that the system’s
unstable if the resonance
system ismay notbecome unstable
adequately if the
damped.
system is not adequately damped.
c 180° 0.05
0 ζ= cc 0.15
3.0 0.375
0.05
Phase angle φ
90° ζ= 1.0
0.10
0.15
0.25
2.0 0 1 2 3 ω 4 5
0.375 ωη
0.50
1.0
1.0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

ω
ωn
Figure 4-2. Force Response Plot
As can be seen from Figure 4-2, the system’s force response significantly depends on
the level of damping on the system. For example, if the system is damped beyond unity
(>1.0), the plot shows no peak response and the stable system is called overdamped. On
the other hand, if the damping is below unity (<1.0), the system force response (Z) will
exceed unity at the natural frequency and the system is called underdamped. The damping
value at which the system is just in between over and underdamped (=1.0), is called the
critical damping. It is important to realize that even systems that are underdamped (<1.0)
may be considered to be stable and acceptable for a particular application as long as the
force response stays within the allowable engineering design parameters of the system.
Supported Rotor System (Two Degrees-of-Freedom)
So far we have studied a single degree of freedom mass‑spring‑damper system. Let us

now develop a more realistic, but still somewhat simplified, mechanical model of an actual

rotor. Consider a single rotor with a concentrated mass (m), supported on two bearings,
as shown in Figure 4-3. The bearings are considered infinitely stiff; i.e., they do not allow
for any displacement. However, the shaft itself still has certain stiffness and damping
characteristics; if the shaft experiences sufficiently unbalance force at its mass center, it
will bend or vibrate.
Aaron
Figure 4-3. Simple Rotor Model

Figure 4-3. Simple Rotor Model
NOTE: Clearly, a real rotor never has a mass concentrated at one single point. Thus, for a m
NOTE: Figure
Clearly, Simple
4-3. a real Rotor
rotor Model
neverFigure
hasmodal
a4-3.
mass concentrated at one for
single
advanced rotordynamic analysis the Simple
mass, Rotoraccounts
which Model the point.
rotor’sThus,
weight for a m
advanced rotordynamic analysis the modal mass, which accounts for
distribution, rather than the actual mass of the rotor is used. Typically, the modal mass of a ro the rotor’s weight
distribution,
NOTE:
is between
NOTE: rather
Clearly,
50% aand
Clearly,than
reala80% the
rotor
real ofactual
never
rotor never
its mass
has
has aa
actual of the
mass
mass
mass. rotor is used.
concentrated
concentrated Typically,
at
at one one single
single the
point. modal
point.
Thus, massfor
forThus, of aa m
ro
is between
advanced 50% and
rotordynamic 80% of its
analysis actual
the mass.
modal mass, which accounts
a more advanced rotordynamic analysis the modal mass, which accounts for the rotor’s for the rotor’s weight
distribution,
weight rather
An unbalance than
distribution, the
force
ratheractual
occurs
than themass
when of
actualthethe
mass rotor
rotor’s is
of thecenterused.
rotor ofTypically,
gravity
is used. is the
themodal
not
Typically, modal mass
perfectly of a ro
aligned w
is An
between
the axismass unbalance
50%
of rotation and force
80%
of a rotorofisthe ofoccurs
its when
actual
rotor.50%
between Thisand the
mass.
effect
80% is
rotor’s
called
of its
center
actualrotor
mass.
of gravity is not perfectly
mass unbalance (RMU) or shaft bow aligned w
the axis of rotation of the rotor. This effect
The rotordynamic definition of rotor mass unbalance is: is called rotor mass unbalance (RMU) or shaft bow
The rotordynamic
Anunbalance
An unbalance definition
force
force occursofwhen
rotorwhen
occurs mass
the unbalance
the
rotor’s rotor’s
center is: isofnot
of center
gravity gravity is not
perfectly perfectly
aligned with aligned w
the axisthe
of axis
RMU =ofW
rotation
u ⋅ Ru
of the
rotation rotor.
of the This
rotor. Thiseffect
effect is calledrotor
is called rotor massmass unbalance
unbalance (RMU)(RMU)
or shaft or shaft bow
RMU
bow. The= rotordynamic
The rotordynamic ⋅ Ru
Wudefinition of rotorofmass
definition unbalance
rotor mass unbalance is: is:
RMU = W ⋅ R u u
where W u (unbalance weight) is a small weight located a distance Ru (unbalance radius) awa
where W (unbalance
from thewhere
axis W
u weight)
ofu (unbalance
rotation. The is is
a asmall
small weight
eccentricity
weight) located
(e) oflocated
weight a a thus:
rotora is distance
distance Ru (unbalance
Ru (unbalance radius) radius) awa
from theaway
axisfrom
of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
the axis of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
where W u (unbalance
RMU weight) is a small weight located a distance Ru (unbalance radius) awa
= RMU
from thee axis of rotation. The eccentricity (e) of a rotor is thus:
e= W
W
RMU
where W e =is the
where weight
W is of the
the weight rotor.
of the ToTodetermine
rotor. theactual
determine the actual unbalance
unbalance force force magnitude
magnitude on on a
where W multiply
rotor, we is the
W weight of theunbalance
the rotor’s rotor. To determine
mass by itsthecentrifugal
actual unbalance force(f=ma):
acceleration magnitude on a
a rotor, we multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
rotor, we multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
where WF is= the
mu weight
ω 2 = m of
eωthe
2 rotor. To determine the actual unbalance force magnitude on a
= mu ω 2the
rotor, weF multiply = mrotor’s
e ω2 unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
Since the 2rotor is spinning at a fixed angular speed, the unbalance force acts on the
F = mthe
u ω rotor
= m ise spinning
ω2
shaft in Since
the form of a periodic at a fixed
sinusoidal angular speed, the unbalance force acts on the
function:
Chapter 4: Rotordynamics & Vibrations |
shaft in the form of a periodic sinusoidal function: 95
f = F sin (ωt ) = m e ω sin(ω t )
Since the rotor is spinning
2 at a fixed angular speed, the unbalance force acts on the
rotor, we multiply the rotor’s unbalance mass by its centrifugal acceleration (f=ma):
F = mu ω 2 = m e ω2
Sincethe
Since the rotor
rotor is spinning
is spinning at aangular
at a fixed fixed speed,
angular
thespeed, theforce
unbalance unbalance force
acts on the shaftacts
in on the
shaft inthe
theform
form of a periodic sinusoidal
of a periodic sinusoidal function:function:
f u = F sin (ωt ) = m e ω2 sin(ω t )

For example, if a small 1000-hp gas turbine shaft rotates at 20,000 rpm (=2094 rad/sec)
For example, if a small 1000-hp gas turbine shaft rotates at 20,000 rpm (=2094 rad/sec)
and has an unbalance weight of 100 grams located 5 mm away from the shaft center, the
and hasThe
an unbalance
equations weight
of motion of for
100the grams located 5ofmm
two degrees away supported
freedom from the shaft
rotorcenter, the in
(as shown
resulting unbalance
The equations offorce is 2190
motion for Nthe
(approximately
two degrees 100of
lbf).
freedom supported rotor (as shown in
Figure The
resulting
4-3)
The equations
unbalance
are againforce
equations of
of motion
is 2190
derived
motion for
using the
forNewtonstwo
Newton’s
the degrees
secondof
two (approximately
degrees freedom
oflaw. 100 lbsupported
When
freedom ).
fanalyzing
supported rotor (as
(as shown
the model,
rotor we in
shown in
Figure
Figure 4-3)
The
4-3) are
are again
equations
again derived
of motion
derived using
for
using Newton’s
the two
Newton’s second
degrees
second oflaw. When
freedom
law. When analyzing
supported
analyzing the
rotor
the model,
(as we
shown
model, we in
realize
Figure The equations
that
4-3) there
are are
again of two
motion
derived forusing
degrees the two degrees-of-freedom
ofNewton’s
freedom rather
second thansupported
law.one
Whenasrotor
in (as previous
the shown
analyzing in model,
the example;
we
realize 4-3)
Figure
realize that there
that there
are are two
again
are two degrees
derived
degreesusing ofNewton’s
of freedom rather
freedom rather
second than
law.
than one
When
one as in
as in the previous
previous
analyzing
the the example;
model, we
example;
namely,
realize Figure
that 4-3) are
thethere
system areagain
can derived
twovibrate
degrees using
of Newton’s
in the x and ysecond
freedom law.
directions.
rather thanWhen
oneanalyzing
The equations
as in the theprevious
model,
of weexample;
motion for this
namely,
realize
namely, the
that
the system
there arecantwovibrate
degrees in the x and
of freedom y directions.
rather thanThe
one equations of
as in the previousmotion for this
example;
system
namely,
system the system can vibrate in the x and y directions. The equations of motion for
realize
are:
are:
system
that therecan
are vibrate
two in the x and
degrees-of-freedom y directions.
rather than The
one as equations
in the previousof motion
example; for this
this
namely, are: the system can vibrate in the x and y directions. The equations of motion for this for this
the
system namely, system can vibrate in the x and y directions. The equations of motion
system are:
system are: 2
d 2x
system are: dx
2x
22x + c dx + = ee ω 2 cos(ωt )
2
m d kx m
d x + dx + = ω2 cos(ωt )
2
+ dx + = ω cos(ω
m d c kx m
d 22x + c dt + kx = m e ω2222 cos(
2
m dt
m dt 22 c dt
dx kx m e ωtt ))
dt 222 + c dt
m dt dt + kx = m e ω cos(ωt )
dt2 dt
d 2y dy
d2222yy22 + + = ee ω2 s in(ωt )
2
m d
d 2 y dy
cc dy ky m
m +
+ dy +
+ ky =
= m ω
ω2 s in(ωt )
2 s in(ω
m d y2 + c dy
dt c dt + ky = m e ω2
ωtt ))
m dt
dt 2 + c dt
m dt 2 dt + ky = m e ω22 ss in(
dt ky m e
in( ωt )
dt 22 dt
For now we will assume that the damping is very small and can be neglected. The
For now we will assume that the damping is very small and can be neglected. The
stiffnessFor
of now
For we
we will
the shaft
now assume
from
will that
that the
the damping
basic material
assume propertiesis
damping very
very small
isis: small and
and can
can be
be neglected.
neglected. The
The
stiffness
stiffness of
For
For
of the
now
now
the shaft
we
we
shaft from
will from
will basic
assume
assume
basic material
that the
that the
material properties
damping
damping
properties is is:
is very small and can be neglected. Theneglected.
very
is: small and can be stiffness The
stiffness of the shaft from basic material properties is:
stiffnessofof
thethe
shaft from basic material properties is:
shaft
EI from basic material properties is:
=
= −
kk
−48 EI
EI
= −48 EI
= −48 EI
48
kk L33
= −48 L
k L
L3333
L3
where E is Young’s Modulus, I is the area moment of inertia, and L is the rotor length. We can
where
where E
E is
is Young’s
Young’s Modulus,
Modulus, II is
is the
the area
area moment
moment of
of inertia,
inertia, and
and L
L is
is the
the rotor
rotor length.
length. We can
determine
where E is
wheretheE natural
Young’s
is frequencies
Modulus,
Young’s Modulus, I is
I is of
the
thethe
area
areasystem
moment
moment ifofweof neglect
inertia,
inertia, and the
and
L is unbalance
L
theis the
rotor force
rotor
length. andWe
length.
We We can
solve for
can
determine
where E is the
determine the natural
Young’s
natural frequencies
Modulus,
frequenciesI is theof
of the
areasystem
the moment
system ifif we
we neglect
of inertia,
neglect the
and
the unbalance
L is the rotor
unbalance force and
length.
force and solve
We for
can
solve for
the Eigenvalues:
determine the
can the natural
determine frequencies
thefrequencies of
natural frequencies the system
ofsystem if
the system we neglect
if we the
neglectthe unbalance
the unbalance force
unbalance force andand solve for
and solve
the Eigenvalues:
determine
the Eigenvalues: natural of the if we neglect force for
the
the Eigenvalues:
solve for the Eigenvalues:
Eigenvalues:
2
d 2x EI
m d
d 2x
x
ddt22 2x − − 48 EI
EI xx = 0
xx =
2
m 2 2
− 48 EI 3
= 0
m dt 22 − 48 EI
m d x 48 L
L 3 =00
dt 222 − 48 L x=0
3
m dt L3333
dt2 L
d 2y EI
d 2222 22yy − yy =
m d
d 2y
48 EI
EI 0
m −
− 48 EI 3
yy =
= 0
m
m ddt
dt 2 y − 48
48 L
EI
L 3 =00
dt 22 − 48 L
m dt 2 L3333 y=0
Thus,
dt 2 L3
Thus,
Thus, Thus,
Thus,
Thus,
kk EI
ω
ω =
= kk = = 48 EI
EI
EI33
ω = = 48
Nx
ω Nx = m
m k = 48
48 mL
EI3
mL
ω Nx = m = 48 mL3333
Nx
Nx
Nx
Nx
m mL
m mL
kk EI
ω
ω Ny =
= kk =
= 48 EI
EI
EI33
ω Ny =
ω Ny = m
m k =
=
48
48
48 mL
EI
mL
ω Ny
Ny
Ny
Ny
= m = 48 mL3333
m mL
m mL3
In rotordynamics, these natural frequencies are also called the undamped critical
In rotordynamics, these natural frequencies are also called the undamped critical
speeds.InInIf rotordynamics,
the rotor operates
rotordynamics, these natural
at any
these frequencies
undamped
natural frequencies are
critical also
also called
arespeed the
the undamped
or a multiple
called thereof, critical
undamped the system is
critical
speeds.
speeds. InIf
If the
the rotor
rotordynamics,
rotor operates
operates at
these
at any
any undamped
natural frequencies
undamped critical
are
critical speed
also
speed or a
called
or a multiple
the thereof,
undamped
multiple thereof, the system is
critical
the
excited
speeds.
excited
atIf one
at the
one
of itsoperates
rotor
of its
natural frequencies
natural at any
frequencies
and may
undamped
and may
resonate.
critical speed
resonate. or a multiple thereof, the system
system is
is
speeds.
excited If
at the
one
excited Clearly,
at one rotor
of
it
of its
is
its operates
natural
desirable
natural at
to any undamped
frequencies
operate
frequencies and
the
and may
gas
may critical speed
resonate.
turbine or
shafts
resonate. a multiple
away from thereof,
these the
critical system is
speeds.
excited96 at one |ofititChapter
Clearly,
Clearly, is desirable
its
is desirable to operate
operate
4: Rotordynamics
natural frequencies
to the gas
gas
& Vibrations
and
the turbine
mayturbine shafts away
resonate.
shafts away from
from these
these critical
critical speeds.
speeds.
One criteria
Clearly,thatitisisoften employed
desirable to evaluate
to operate the gasa gas turbine’s
turbine shafts rotordynamic adequacy
away from these criticalis the
speeds.
One
One criteria
Clearly,
criteria thatitisisisoften employed
desirable to
to evaluate
to operate the gasa gas
gas turbine’s
a turbine shafts rotordynamic adequacy
away from these criticalis the
isspeeds.
critical speedthat margin, often employed
which evaluate
is the difference between turbine’s
the shaftrotordynamic adequacy
operating speed and the the
nearest
k EI
ω Ny = = 48 3
m mL
In rotordynamics,
In rotordynamics, these
these natural
natural frequencies
frequencies are also
are also called called the
the undamped undamped
critical speeds. critical
speeds.If Ifthe
the rotor
rotor operates
operates at anyat any undamped
undamped critical
critical speed or a speed
multipleor a multiple
thereof, thereof,
the system is the system
excited excited
at oneatofone itsofnatural frequencies
its natural frequencies and mayresonate.
and may resonate.
Clearly, it is desirable to operate the gas turbine shafts away from these critical speed
Clearly,
One criteria it isis
that desirable to operate the
often employed to gas turbine ashafts
evaluate gas away from these
turbine’s critical speeds.
rotordynamic adequacy is the
One criteria
critical speed that iswhich
margin, often employed to evaluatebetween
is the difference a gas turbine’s rotordynamic
the shaft adequacy
operating is the
speed and the near
critical speed margin, which is the difference between the shaft operating speed and the
critical speed:
nearest critical speed:
Critical Speed Margin:
Critical Speed Margin:
ω m arg in = ω operating − ω critical
The
Thecritical
criticalspeed margin
speed is alsoisoften
margin alsoexpressed as the separation
often expressed as themargin:
separation margin:
Separation
Separation
Separation Margin:
Margin:
Margin:
Separation
Separation Margin:
Margin:
Separation Margin:
ω
ω
ω −−ω
critical −
ω
ωoperating
SM
SM
SM ωcritical
=== ω critical − ωoperating
critical
operating
critical − ω operating
operating
= ω
operating
critical
SM =
SM ωωcritical
critical
critical
critical ωcritical
ω critical
For rotordynamic
For
For rotordynamic
rotordynamic design purposes
design
design a, 15% separation
purposes
purposes a,
a, 15%
15% margin, SM margin,
separation
separation =15%,
margin, is desirable
SM
SM =15%,
=15%, and isis desirable
desirable
For
For rotordynamic
rotordynamic design
design purposes
purposes a,
a, 15%
15% separation
separation margin,
margin, SM
SM =15%,
=15%, is
is desirable
desirable
and
and usually
For
usually
usually adequate.
rotordynamic
adequate.
adequate. However,
design
However,
However, in some
purposes
in
in cases
some
some a
a,
cases
casesgas
15% turbine
aa gas
gas shaft
separation
turbine
turbine is required
margin,
shaft
shaft to
is
is pass
SM
required
required a critical
=15%, to
to is desirable
pass
pass aaa criti
criti
and
and usually
usually adequate.
adequate. However,
However, in
in some
some cases
cases a
a gas
gas turbine
turbine shaft
shaft is
is required
required to
to pass
pass crit
a criti
crit
and
speed
speed speedadequate.
usually
during
during during
startup
startup startup
and
and and
However, shutdown.
shutdown.
shutdown. in Inthese
some
In
In these
thesecases cases,a
cases,
cases, the
gas the
therotor
turbinesystem
rotor
rotor must
shaft
system
system is be
must
must sufficiently
required be
be to pass
sufficiently
sufficiently a
speed
speed during
during startup
startup and
and shutdown.
shutdown. In
In these
these cases,
cases, the
the rotor
rotor system
system must
must be
be sufficiently
sufficiently
speed
damped
damped damped
during
to
to to prevent
startup
prevent
prevent and
large
large large vibrationswhile
shutdown.
vibrations
vibrations while
In these
while traversing
cases,
traversing
traversing thethecritical
the
the rotor speeds.
critical
critical If themust
system
speeds.
speeds. vibrations
IfIfIf the
thebevibrations
sufficiently
vibrations
damped to
dampedamplitudes prevent
to prevent
prevent large
large vibrations
vibrations while traversing
while traversing
traversing the critical
the critical
critical speeds.
speeds. If the the
the vibrations
vibrations
damped
amplitudes
amplitudes to exceed
exceed exceed
large
the
the the
design
designdesign
vibrations clearances,
while
clearances,
clearances, rubbing
rubbing
rubbing between
the
between
between the gas
the
the turbine’s
speeds.
gas
gas rotor
If
turbine’s
turbine’s andvibrations
rotor
rotor and
and hous
hous
amplitudes
amplitudes exceed
exceed the
the design
design clearances,
clearances, rubbing
rubbing between
between the
the gas
gas turbine’s
turbine’s rotor
rotor and
and hous
hous
amplitudes
or
or even
even housing
exceedor
catastrophic
catastrophic eventhe catastrophic
gas
gas design
turbine
turbine gas turbine
clearances,
failure
failure failure
may
may rubbing
be
be may
the
the be the
between
result.
result. result.the gas turbine’s rotor and hous
or even
or even
evenThe catastrophic
catastrophic gas
gas turbine
turbine failure
failure may
may be
be the
the result.
result.
or catastrophic
The
The steady-state
steady-state
steady-state gas turbine
“particular”
“particular”
“particular” failure may
solution
solution
solution be
for
for
for the
the
the
the result.
above
above
above shaft
shaft
shaft equations
equations
equations of
of
of motion
motion
motion is
is
is ident
identi
in form The
The
The
to steady-state
the steady-state
steady-state
solution “particular”
for“particular”
the solution
“particular”
previously for the above
solution
solution analyzed for the
for theshaft
above
above
simple equations
shaftofequations
shaft motion is identical
equations
mass-spring-damper of motion
of in is
motion
system, is ident
ident
ident
ident
exce
in
in form
form to
to the
the solution
solution for
for the
the previously
previously analyzed
analyzed simple
simple mass-spring-damper
mass-spring-damper system,
system, excep
exce
in
in form
form form
to to
the
todegrees the
the solutionsolution
solution for
for the
the
for themust previously
previously
previously analyzed
analyzed
analyzed simple mass‑spring‑damper
simple
simple mass-spring-damper
mass-spring-damper system, except
system,
system, exce
excep
that
that
that two
two
two degrees
degrees of
of
of freedom
freedom
freedom must
must now
now
now be
bebe considered
considered
considered and
and
and that
that
that the
the
the excitation
excitation
excitation force
force
force is
is
is F=
F=F= meω
meω
meω
that
that two
two that two
degrees
degrees degrees
of
of of
freedomfreedom
freedom must
must must now
now now be
be be considered
considered
considered and and
and that the
that
that excitation
the
the force
excitation
excitation is F=
force
force is
is F=
F= meω
meω
Thus,
Thus,
Thus, the
the
the solution
solution
solution is
is
is expressed
expressed
expressed in
in
in the
the
the form
form
form of:
of:
of:
Thus, me
the 2
. Thus,
solution the
is solution
expressed is
Thus, the solution is expressed in the form of: expressed
in the in
form the form
of: of:
xxx === XX sin

X sin
sin (ωωω
sin((ω
t −ϕϕ
ωtttt −−− ϕ)))
−ϕϕ
xx == XX sin
−−−−1111 ccccω ω
ω 
ϕϕϕ === tan
tan
tan −  cωω 222 
ϕϕ == tantan−1kkk −−−m ω
1

2
ω
ω 
ω 2
mm
 kk −− m mω 2
(ωωωttt −−−ϕϕϕ))
cos((ω
yyy ===YYY cos
cos
cos
yy == YY cos ωtt −− ϕϕ)
where
where
where
where where:
where m
mm ω
eee ω
ω
2222
X === ω 2
XX m 2e 22ω2
m e
XX == ((( )))
2 + ((ccω )2
ω))2
kkk −−− mωω
ω
222 22 + cω 2222
ω22 2 ++ ω
m
kk −− m
m
mω + (ccω
m
mm ω
eee ω
ω
2222
YYY === ω 2
m 2e 22ω2
m e
YY == ((( )))
2 + ((ccω )2
ω))2
kkk −−−mωω
ω
222 22 + cω 2222
ω22 2 ++ ω
m
m
kk −− m
mω + (ccω
These
These
These equations
equations
equations are
are
are made
made
made non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
These equations
These equations are
are made
made non-dimensional:
non-dimensional:
Xk m ω
m eee ω
ω
2222
Z = Xk
Xk = m
ω22
Y= (k − mmω e) ω+ (cω)
2 2
2 2
(k − mω ) + (cω)
2 2 2
These equations are made non-dimensional:

These equations are made non-dimensional:
These equations
Xk are made arranged
2
m e ωto:
Zx = =
2m 2e ω
2
F
Xk
=   ω     ω  
2
Zx =
F 1−   2 + 2ζ 
  ωωN  2    ωωN  2 
1 −    +  2ζ  
  ω N     ω N  
   
Yk m e ω2
Zy = =
2m 2e ω
2
F
Yk
=   ω     ω  
2
Zy =
F 1−   2 + 2ζ 
  ωωN  2    ωωN  2 
1 −    +  2ζ  
  ω N     ω N  
In rotordynamics the force response  (Z)
 is also called  unbalance response. The peak vibration
In rotordynamics
amplitudes are: the force response (Z) is also called unbalance response. The peak
vibration amplitudes are:
m e ω2 m e ω2
X = =
2ζk c ωN
Using the
Using theabove
aboveresults, we can
results, weplot
can anplot
unbalance response plot
an unbalance (Z versusplot
response /N(Z shown Τ/ΤN) as
) asversus
shown inin Figure
Figure 4-4. AnAn
4-4. unbalance response
unbalance plot is crucial
response forcrucial
plot is gas turbine design
for gas since itdesign
turbine defines since it
defines and
andlimits thethe
limits speed ranges
speed at which
ranges at the
whichgas the
turbine
gasshaft may operate.
turbine shaft may Clearly, the
operate. Clearly, the
unbalance
unbalance response
response magnitude
magnitude atatthe
thecritical
critical speed
speed(/(Τ/ΤN N
=1.0) is
=1.0) again
is seen
again to
seenbe strongly
to be strongly
dependent on the damping factor.
The unbalance response plot (Figure 4-4) also shows that for increased damping ratios,
the peakThe unbalance of
amplitude response plotoccurs
vibration (Figure 4-4) also shows that
at frequencies for increased
slightly abovedamping ratios,
the undamped critical
the peak amplitude of vibration occurs at frequencies slightly above
speed. This small critical speed deviation from the natural frequency can easily the undamped critical
be derived from
the above unbalance response equation. Consequently, the frequency correction for the
undamped critical speed is:
ωN 180° 0.05
ωucr = 0.05 0.50
− 2ζ 2
13.0
Phase angle q
0.05 90° c1.0
0.25 0.05
2.0 0 1 2 3 t 4 5
td
0.375
0.50
1.0
c cc = 1.0
c
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
t
ωn
Figure 4-4. Unbalance Response Plot

unbalance response magnitude at the critical speed (Τ/ΤN=1.0) is again seen to be strongly
The unbalance response plot (Figure 4-4) also shows that for increased damping ratio
the peak amplitude of vibration occurs at frequencies slightly above the undamped critical
speed. This small critical speed deviation from the natural frequency can easily be derived fro
speed.
the above This smallresponse
unbalance critical speed deviationConsequently,
equation. from the natural frequency can easily
the frequency be derivedfor the
correction
from the above unbalance
undamped critical speed is: response equation. Consequently, the frequency correction for
the undamped critical speed is:
ωN
ωucr =
1 − 2ζ 2
The corrected undamped critical speed is usually called the unbalance critical speed.
Although this appears to be only a quantitatively small deviation from the undamped critical
speed, the unbalance critical speed correction is important for the accurate determination
of a rotor’s critical speeds, especially for well damped systems.
In some cases, if a rotor system is not adequately damped, the transient “complementary”
solution to the equations of motion may also affect the rotordynamic performance and
lead to rotor instability. Without going into too much detail, we should state that from the
“complementary” solution, another set of Eigenvalues can be derived, which are called the
damped critical speeds.
A transient
A transient analysis
analysis of the
of the equations of
equations of motion
motion shows
showsthat the the
that damped criticalcritical
damped speeds speeds
are are
relatedrelated
to thetoundamped
the undamped criticalspeeds
critical speeds by:
by:
ω dcr = ω N 1 − 2ζ 2
Theoretically, a rotor system remains stable at the damped critical frequency as long
Theoretically, a rotor system remains stable at the damped critical frequency as long as the
the damping factor (.) is positive. However, in any real rotordynamic application, experience
damping factor () is positive. However, in any real rotordynamic application, experience
shown has
thatshown
the damping factor at the damped critical speeds should exceed 0.1 (.>0.1). C
that the damping factor at the damped critical speeds should exceed 0.1 (>0.1).
must be taken when performing the damped critical speed analysis since bearing damping
Care must be taken when performing the damped critical speed analysis since bearing
significantly affect the overall system
damping will significantly affect
damping.
the4-4.
overall system damping.
Figure Unbalance Response Plot
Multi-Degrees
The of Freedom
Multi‑Degrees
corrected System
ofundamped
Freedom System
critical speed is usually called the unbalance critical spe
So far wethis
Although have analyzed
appears to beaonly
simple rotor by assuming
a quantitatively small that the rotor
deviation fromhas a concentrated
the undamped mass
critical spe
Somovement
far we have analyzed a simple rotor by assuming that the rotor has a concentrated mass
the unbalance critical speed correction is important for the accurate determination of aInroto
bending in only two directions (x,y); i.e., a two degrees of freedom system. re
we knowandthat
bending
this movement
is an in only two directions
over-simplification. (x,y); i.e.,a areal
Namely, two rotor
degrees canof bend
freedomin system.
different shapes
critical speeds, especially for well damped systems.
In realityallow
the bearings we know that thislimited
for ifsome is an over-simplification.
vibration of theNamely, aAreal
shaft.damped, realrotor can thus
rotor bend inhas“complementa
multiple degr
In some cases, a rotor system is not adequately the transient
different shapes and the bearings allow for some limited vibration of the shaft. Awhich
real rotor
solution to the equations of motion may also affect the rotordynamic performancedescriptiv
of freedom. The degrees of freedom can be divided into three categories are and lead
the typesthus(modes)
has multiple degrees of freedom.
of vibrations The degrees of freedom can bemodes,
divided into three bending mod
rotor instability. Without going intothe toorotor
much experiences:
detail, we should rigid body
state that fromlateral
the “complementa
categories
and torsional which are descriptive of the types (modes) of vibrations the rotor experiences:
modes.
solution, another set of Eigenvalues can be derived, which are called the damped critical spee
rigid body modes, lateral bending modes, and torsional modes.
Rigid Body Modes: Rigid body modes are the vibrations the rotor undergoes if it were perfe
Rigid
stiff and notBody Modes:
allowed to Rigid
bend. body
A modes are the
rigid rotor vibrations
can movethein rotor
one undergoes if it were(z) and two ra
axial direction
perfectly stiff and not allowed to bend. A rigid rotor can move in one axial
directions (x,y). Furthermore, a stiff rotor can also tilt along a center point in two direction (z) and
directions (2x
two radial directions (x,y).
Thus, there are a total of five possible rigid body modes of vibration for a single shaft. Really
Lateral Bending Modes: As previously shown, a typical rotor is not infinitely stiff and thus
Lateral Bending Modes: As previously shown, a typical rotor is not infinitely stiff and thus can b
can bend laterally. There are theoretically an infinite number of possible bending shapes;
laterally. There are theoretically an infinite number of possible bending shapes; however, for m
however, for most gas turbine rotordynamic analysis, it is adequate to study the first four
gas turbine rotordynamic analysis, it is adequate to study the first four bending modes only.
actual shape of the bending modes is strongly dependent on the bearing locations, shaft b
and shaft stiffness. Each bending mode has two radial degrees of freedom; thus, there are e
lateral bending modes that should be considered for a rotordynamic analysis. ???
It must be noted that the stiffness of the bearings involved impacts the mode shapes (Fig
bending modes only. The actual shape of the bending modes is strongly dependent on the
bearing locations, shaft bow, bearing and shaft stiffness.
It must be noted that the stiffness of the bearings involved impacts the mode shapes
(Figure 4-5 and 4-6). For example the first mode is a true rigid body mode if the bearings
are not very stiff. Stiff bearings limit the movement of the shaft at the bearings, thus
causing the shaft to bend.
Figure 4-5. Rigid Body (left) and Bending Modes (right)
Figure 4-6. Undamped Critical speed map, showing critical speeds for the first modes of a rotor
depending on the bearing stiffness. For a known bearing stiffness, the chart allows to determine
the undamped critical speed of the rotor system. Depending on the stiffness, the modes can be
rigid body modes (low stiffness), or bending modes (high stiffness)

Figure 4-6: Undamped Critical speed map, showing critical speeds for the first 3 modes of a rotor
depending on the bearing stiffness. For a known bearing stiffness, the chart allows to determine
the undamped critical speed of the rotor system. Depending on the stiffness, the modes can be
rigid body modes (low stiffness), or bending modes (high stiffness)
Torsional Modes: Due to the torque on the shaft, there also can be torsional twisting. On
aTorsional
single shaft, there
Modes: Dueis typically only one
to the torque relevant
on the shaft,torsional mode:
there also simple
can be rotor twisting.
torsional twist. On a single
shaft, there is typically only one relevant torsional mode: simple rotor twist.
The equations of motion for a multi‑degrees of freedom system are still derived from
Newton’s Thesecond law (f=ma).
equations However,
of motion for a one equation ofofmotion
multi-degrees is required
freedom systemfor areeach
still degree
derived from
Newton’s
of freedom.second law (f=ma).
This results However,
in a rather one equation
large system of motion
of equations, evenisforrequired
a simplefor each degree of
shaft
freedom. This results in a rather large system of equations, even for a simple shaft model. To
model. To simplify the mathematical syntax, this system of ordinary differential equations is
simplify the mathematical syntax, this system of ordinary differential equations is usually
usually expressed
expressed in matrixin matrix
form: form:
m11 m12 m13 ... m1n x1” c11 c12 c13 ... c1n x1’ k11 k12 k13 ... k1n x1 f1
. . . . . + . . . . . + . . . . . = .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mn1 mn2 mn3 ... mnn xn” c11 c12 c13 ... cnn xn’ k11 k12 k13 ... knn xn fn
Herex xisi is
Here thethe displacement
displacement variable
variable and n is and n is the
the number numberofoffreedom.
of degrees degrees ofcan
This freedom. This
i
also bealso
written as:
be written as:
[M ]x' '+[C ]x'+[K ]x = [F ]

where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, and F is
where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, and F is the fo
the force vector. For more complicated systems, which may include multiple bearings,
vector. For more complicated systems, which may include multiple bearings, coupled sha
coupled shafts, and/or flexible support structures, the mathematical model may become
and/or flexible support structures, the mathematical model may become very complex,
very complex, with matrices easily reaching fifty or more degrees of freedom. The matrix
matrices easily reaching fifty or more degrees of freedom. The matrix equation can be solved
equation can be solved for the Eigenvalues using a matrix solver, such as a Gauss‑Seidel
the Eigenvalues using a matrix solver, such as a Gauss-Seidel matrix inversion method.
matrix inversion method. It is beyond this text to describe a detailed analysis, which can be
beyond this text to describe a detailed analysis, which can be found in most rotordynam
found in most rotordynamics textbooks. However, it is important to note the following:
textbooks. However, it is important to note the following:
Each degree of freedom can have a distinct undamped and
Each degree of freedom can have a distinct undamped (unbalance) and
damped critical rotor speed. Additional resonances can also occur at any
damped critical rotor speed. Additional critical speeds can also occur at any
multiple of the frequency of the original damped/undamped critical speed.
multiple of the frequency of the original damped/undamped critical speed.
NOTE: Since the equations of motion for the torsional vibrations are not coupled physically
NOTE:and
Since the equations
mathematically of lateral
with the motion for the
bending andtorsional
rigid bodyvibrations
equations ofare not coupled
motion, the physically
mathematically with the lateral bending and rigid body equations of motion, the
torsional critical speeds are typically calculated in a separate and independent Eigenvalue torsional cri
speedsanalysis.
are typically calculated in a separate and independent Eigenvalue analysis.
Rotordynamic
Rotordynamic PlotsPlots
It is often convenient to present a gas turbine’s rotordynamic behavior in graphical form. The m
It is often convenient to present a gas turbine’s rotordynamic behavior in graphical form.
common rotordynamic graph is called the frequency response plot, which is very similar to
The most common rotordynamic graph is called the frequency response plot, which is
unbalance response plot previously presented. The frequency response plot is generated
very similar to the unbalance response plot previously presented. The frequency response
either experimentally or numerically determining the shaft unbalance response for a range of r
runningplot is generated
speeds by eitherthe
and plotting experimentally or numerically
results in the determining
form of vibration the shaft(mils)
amplitude unbalance
versus shaft sp
response for a range of rotor running speeds and plotting
(rpm or Hz). For example, Figure 4-7 shows a typical compressor shaft speedthe results in the form of vibration
response plot f
amplitude
0 to 12,000 (mils)The
rpm. versus shaftsecond,
first, speed (rpm andor Hz). Forcritical
third example,speeds
Figure 4-7areshows a typical
easily identifiable by
compressor
assymptotic shaft speed
response response
behavior plotfrequency
on the from 0 to 12,000 rpm. The
response first, second, and third
plot.
critical speeds are easily identifiable by the asymptotic response behavior on the frequency
response plot.

Unbalance Response Plot
1.2
1.0
Amplitude, mils
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Speed, rpm
Figure 4-7. Response Plot
Figure 4-8 shows typical mode shapes that correspond to critical speeds. It is important
to remember that the critical speed and mode shape are system specific; i.e., they cannot
easily be generalized to any system. Hence, to accurately determine the critical speeds
and mode shapes of a given system, an Eigenvalue analysis must always be performed.
However, in general we can state the following:
Typically, the first two critical speeds (lowest frequencies) corresponds to rigid body mode, the
next higher frequency critical speed is lateral bending mode.
Undamped Mode Shapes
1.0
0.5
Modal Amplitude
mode 1
mode 2
0
0 20 40 60 80 mode 3
Bearing
-0.5
-1
Rotor Length
Figure 4-8. Mode Shapes
Critical speed analysis results are also often plotted in the form of a Campbell diagram as
shown in Figure 4-9. The Campbell diagram presents the individual critical speeds of a rotor
as a function of the rotational speed. Rotor physical characteristics such as damping and

stiffness are not system constants, but can vary with the angular speed and/or operating
conditions of the system. Hence, a plot showing the locations of the critical speeds as a
function of rotor speed is essential for the gas turbine designer to determine allowable
shaft operating ranges.
Campbell Diagram
600
Mode 4
500
Eigen Frequency (Hz)
400 X2
Mode 3
300
X1
200 Mode 2
100
Mode 1
0
0 3000. 6000. 9000. 12000. 15000.
Speed (rpm)
Figure 4-9. Campbell Diagram
Rotordynamics Testing and Instrumentation
To experimentally determine rotordynamic performance such as critical speeds and

unbalance response of a gas turbine, some standard tests can be performed. The two
most common of these tests are the ping (or wrap) and the rundown test. For the ping test
the rotor is vibration isolated and then excited with an extremely short but high amplitude
impulse force. For example, the rotor is hung on a long, thin wire to mechanically isolate it
and then hit with a metal hammer to apply the impulse. This short, high frequency impulse
effectively excites the rotor simultaneously at all possible frequencies. By measuring the
frequencies of the peak amplitudes of the resulting rotor vibrations, the natural frequencies
and forced response of the rotor can be identified. On the other hand, the rundown test
is performed by simply accelerating a gas turbine shaft to its maximum operating speed,
decoupling it and then carefully measuring its vibration amplitudes and frequencies as it
decelerates. Clearly, a rundown test can only performed if the gas turbine’s rotordynamic
stability and safety is already well established.
There are three types of transducers that are commonly employed to measure
rotordynamic vibrations on gas turbines packages. These are:
Proximity Probes: Proximity probes measure the actual rotor displacement (x) relative
to a fixed position. Modern proximity probes are usually either magnetic reluctance, eddy
current, or optical pickups. Most gas turbines employ a set of orthogonal radial eddy
current proximity probes for each radial bearing and two axial eddy current proximity probes
to monitor shaft vibrations relative to the gas turbine casing. These proximity probes can
typically measure vibrations frequencies between 0 and 10 kHz.

Velocity Transducers: Velocity transducers measure the first derivative (dx/dt) of the
displacement (i.e., the actual free movement velocity) using a miniature piezo-electric or
piezo-resistive mass-spring system. These transducers are typically employed to measure
lower frequency free vibrations (100-1000 Hz) such as the gas turbine case, skid and other
subsynchronous vibrations.
Accelerometers: Accelerometers typically employ a miniature piezo-electric or piezo

resistive mass-spring system to measure the second derivative of the displacement (dx 2 /
dt2); i.e., the actual free movement acceleration. Accelerometers are most often used to
measure high frequency vibrations (1-100 kHz) such as the gas turbine gear meshing and
blade interaction frequencies.
Most gas turbines incorporate a combination of these three types of transducers to

accurately monitor and diagnose the shaft’s rotordynamic behavior. For safety reasons, no
gas turbine should ever be operated without properly functioning vibration instrumentation
and associated package alarm/shutdown switches.
Often, a transducer is combined with a spectrum analyzer to examine the rotordynamic

behavior. A spectrum analyzer performs a mathematical transformation of the time/
vibration signal into the frequency domain called a Laplace or Fourier transform (also
sometimes referred to as an FFT or Fast Fourier Transform). The output from the spectrum
analyzer FFT provides a plot of vibration amplitude versus frequency which is very similar to
the previously presented frequency response plot.
Shaft Balancing
To minimize vibrations, a gas turbine’s shaft must be mechanically balanced; i.e.,

eccentricities must be physically eliminated. This is typically achieved by applying
counterweights and/or by removing material from the rotor at strategic radial locations.
Rather than removing material from the rotor, which may permanently damage the shaft,
gas turbines are typically balanced using counterweights. This method is also called trim
balancing. Gas turbines usually have several special access points along the shaft to allow
for easy application/removal of the balancing weights. Balancing weights range from
fractions of one gram up to one hundred grams. Several mathematical procedures have
been derived to determine the correct mass and radial location of the counterweights for
proper trim balancing.
To maintain proper rotor balancing, the above trim balancing procedure has to be repeated
if any gas turbine blade, disk, shaft, seal, and bearing elements are exchanged or repaired.
Also, cyclical/thermal loads and fatigue stress may affect the rotor balance, so periodic trim
balancing is required for some applications. For the above reasons a gas turbine should
always be designed to allow for easy access, removal/installation and site balancing of the
rotor.

SUMMARY
In the preceding chapter, a short analysis of the compressor, combustor, gas producer
turbine and power turbine functions was discussed. Also examined was the application
of some simple engineering concepts, such as Euler’s formula, velocity polygons,
rotordynamics and combustion stoichiometry, to these components.
The authors hope that the reader of this text understands that the preceding chapter
represents just a very brief and simplistic overview; there are many books and research
papers solely dedicated to each of the presented topics. We encourage the reader to study
these topics in more detail.

106 | Chapter 5: Ancillary & Auxiliary Systems
CHAPTER 5
ANCILLARY & AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
The packaging of gas turbine driven compressors and generators, especially for oil and
gas applications, presents some very special challenges, and gas turbine manufacturers
have developed specialized packaging options for these different types of services.
Fundamentally, the package systems are designed to provide the gas turbine with its utility
requirements (air, fuel, oil, and water), control the operation of the unit and process, and
assure safety. The gas turbine, the gas compressor, and, if necessary, the gearbox are
usually mounted on a skid, together with most of the systems described below (Figure 5-1).
Thus, the primary gas turbine package systems are:
Starting
Lube oil
Fuel
Seal gas (if dry gas seals are utilized)
Fire/gas detection and fire fighting
Inlet and exhaust air
Enclosure (Figure 5-2)
Control and instrumentation
Figure 5-1. Gas turbine package driving a centrifugal compressor. Left: Fully enclosed, Right:
Installed in a building
Figure 5-2. Analysis of the Air Flow in a Gas Turbine Enclosure
Chapter 5: Ancillary & Auxiliary Systems | 107

Each of these package systems has a number of subsystems and components. Generally,
package systems are classified into on-skid and off-skid systems. On-skid classification
generally corresponds to all equipment inside the gas turbine enclosure, while off-skid or
outside the package refers to equipment connecting to the gas turbine package, such as
ancillaries and auxiliaries. The main turbo compressor’s ancillary equipment, classified by
this definition, is listed below:
On-Skid – Inside the Package
Fuel system and spark igniter

Natural gas (control valves, filter)
Liquid (pumps, valves
Bearing lube oil system1,2
Tank (integral)
Filter (simple, duplex)
Pumps (main, pre/post, backup)
Accessory gears3
Fire/gas detection system
Starter/helper drive
Pneumatic, hydraulic, or variable speed AC starter motor
Controls and instrumentation (on-skid, off-skid)
Seal gas/seal oil system (compressors)
Off-Skid – Outside the Package
Enclosure with lifting devices and fire protection system4

Enclosure ventilation
Inlet system
Air-filter (self-cleaning, barrier, inertial, demister, screen)
Silencer
Inlet fogger/cooler
Anti-icing system
Exhaust system
Silencer
Stack
Lube oil cooler (water, air)
Fuel filter/control valve skid

Off skid control system
Motor control center
Switchgear, neutral ground resistor
Yard valves (load, recycle, anti-surge)
Turbine cleaning system (on-line, on-crank)
Documentation
1
Some packages have two separate lube oil systems.
2
Lube oil systems/lube oil tanks can also be separate skids.
3
The accessory gear is used by the starter but can also drive the main lube oil pump and hydraulic pumps.
4
Enclosures can be mounted on the skid, or they can be of the drop-over type.
MACHINERY CONTROL AND PROTECTION
As gas turbines are complex mechanical devices, they require electronic and mechanical
controls, as well as, instrumentation. The gas turbine must be protected from operational
upsets and process excursions. The control system has to be designed to prevent the
gas turbine, and its driven equipment, from operating in unsafe modes—be it overspeed,
excessive operating temperatures or unsafe vibration levels. Problems with lube oil supply,
fuel supply, air supply, sensors, and the control system itself have to be detected, and
evaluated. Thus, the gas turbine’s unit control system principal design function is to protect
the turbomachinery train from these types of upsets.
The unit control system relies on auxiliary measurements (flow, temperature, and pressure)
for reaching set alarm points and/or shutdown levels, and it initiates auxiliary automatic
valves (surge, loading, isolation, blowdown, etc.) action to avoid or mitigate a flow upset
condition. An off-skid backup battery rack and battery charger are employed to bring the
unit to a safe shutdown upon a significant operational upset.
At a minimum, the control system of a gas turbine driven compressor must provide the
following functions through the use of a Human Machine Interface (HMI):
Machinery Monitoring and Protection

- Equipment startup, shutdown and protective sequencing
- Stable equipment operation
- Alarm, shutdown logic
- Backup (relay) shutdown
Driven load regulation

- Fuel/speed control
- Process control
- Surge control
- Communication (SCADA) interface

UTILITIES
Usually, the quality of only three or four utility fluids can affect a gas turbine's life and
performance. These are the lube oil, the combustion fuel, the inlet air, and possible water
used for washing or performance enhancement. To protect the machine, the air, fuel, and
oil utility streams must be maintained within the manufacturer’s specifications, which are
primarily achieved by proper filtration.
Inlet Air Filters
The selection of an inlet filtration system for a new or existing gas turbine installation is
often under appreciated and handled as one of the lower priority decisions in the overall
equipment purchasing process. Considering that the inlet system only constitutes a small
fraction of the total purchase price for a gas turbine package, this may appear appropriate.
However, the proper selection of the inlet filtration system can have a substantial impact on
the overall lifecycle cost of the gas turbine installation. While many operators only consider
the filter replacement and sometimes the gas turbine's output power loss associated
with the inlet pressure drop in their cost analysis, other factors that can affect the overall
Turbine Air
Inlet Filter
Ducting
90° Elbow
Duct
Turbine
Exhaust
Silencer
Enclosure
Ventilation
Inlet Filter
Transition Duct
Flex Duct
Air Inlet
Silencer
Enclosure
Ventilation
Exhaust
Figure 5-3. Fully enclosed gas turbine package with inlet air filters and exhaust ducting

operation and maintenance cost of a plant include: downtime associated with offline water
washing, reduced time-between-overhaul, and startup reliability. All of these can be directly
attributed to filter selection. Figures 5-1 and 5-3 show fully enclosed mid-size gas turbine
packages with inlet filter and exhaust stack all mounted on a single skid. In Chapter 10, we
will discuss this topic in greater detail.
Lube Oil Filtration
Contamination, such as particles, water, and process fluids in lubricant streams can lead
to increased maintenance costs and reduce equipment service life on lubrication systems,
such as the turbine bearing lube and hydraulic control systems. Gas turbine manufacturers
have very strict guidelines for lube oil quality, and failure to maintain the lube oil to these
standards is often sufficient reason for manufacturers to reject warranty claims.
Most modern gas turbines employ duplex lube oil filters with a continuous-flow transfer
valve. The media inside these filters can range from paper cardboard to synthetic matrix
fibers. Multi-layer filter cartridges with a high flow, high-efficiency media are typically
provided by the manufacturer when the units are shipped. Differential pressure transducers
to monitor the pressure drop across the filter media should also be mounted to the unit
control system, with electronic signals and alarms for trending purposes.
Fuel Gas Quality
"Clean" fuel is essential at today's elevated gas turbine firing temperatures, since modern
engines are more sensitive to high temperature corrosion if there are impurities present
in the fuel and/or in the combustion air. The fuel must be free of chemical impurities and
solids as these either stick to the fuel passages and blades of the turbine or damage the
components in a turbine that operates at high temperatures. Older engines may be less
sensitive because of lower temperature operation, however, contaminated fuel and/or
combustion air can still lead to performance degradation, premature maintenance, and
operating difficulties. Keeping fuels free of contaminants such as water, compressor oils,
and dirt are important to efficient operation and low maintenance. Filter and coalescers for
liquid/gas separation are available to remove impurities as small as 5 microns.
Fuel gas heating is often employed to ensure that 100% of the fuel that enters the gas
turbine is in the gaseous state. To ensure this, the fuel must be at a temperature above
its dew point. However, the natural gas’ dew point is a strong function of its hydrocarbon
composition; the higher the percentage of heavy hydrocarbons in the fuel, the higher the
dew point. Consequently, swings in the composition of the natural gas can easily move
the average dew point of the pipeline’s gas significantly. If the fuel constituents in the gas
turbine combustion system vary significantly from the design point, liquids may form in the
gas turbine’s fuel system and combustor damage will rapidly result.
A fuel heating system should be directly interfaced with either the unit control system
or the station control system to maintain a constant fuel gas temperature above the
dew point, and to be automatically activated during significant fuel quality swings. Also,
electric heat tracing of the fuel supply lines, rather then natural gas burners, is a safer and
more controllable means to maintain the fuel gas temperature. Fuel gas related issues are
discussed in detail in Chapter 9.

OFF-SHORE APPLICATIONS
Gas turbines are preferred

prime movers for power
generation, as well as, drivers
for compressors and pumps for
offshore installations (Figure
5-4). Many offshore projects,
especially in deep waters, use
Floating Production Storage and
Off-Loading Systems (FPSO) as
the equipment platform. This
type of system, as well as, semi- Figure 5-4. Gas Turbine Installation on an FPSO
submersible platforms, SPAR’s,
and TLP’s, exhibit significant
deck movement as a result of wave and wind action, as well as, possible deck deflections.
This requires specific design considerations for the turbomachinery packages employed to
achieve the highest possible availability and reliability. There are various types of structures
used for oil and gas exploration and production, either bottom-supported structures or
vertically moored structures, i.e., Fixed Leg Platform (FLP), Compliant Tower (CT), Tension
Leg Platform (TLP) and Mini Tension Leg Platform (Mini TLP)] and the Floating Production
and Sub-Sea category consisting of Spar, Semi-Submersible (SS) and Floating Production
Storage and Off-Loading (FPSO).
Offshore platforms and Floating Production Systems perform complex operations in a

compact space. As a result, there is a high value placed on the installed size of offshore
equipment. In addition to the installed footprint, successful design for operation in offshore
applications must address a variety of load cases. A prime initiator of many of these
load cases is the environment. Wind and its resulting effects are key contributors to sea
conditions causing wide variations from the relatively calm condition to the very severe
condition as evidenced, for example, in the Gulf of Mexico during hurricane Katrina. At one
stage, a Category 5 hurricane, Katrina ultimately made landfall in Louisiana and Mississippi,
at Category 4 strength.
In addition to considering the effects on the environment, code compliance to assure safe,
reliable equipment has a role to play. The framework of directives and standards, such as
ATEX and CSA, are one piece of the puzzle. There are other international, national, and
local rules and regulations that must also be satisfied. These other rules and regulations
are represented by two groupings of authority. International Authority, represented by an
International Class Society, may represent a country’s government’s interest and also have
the capability to enforce the laws. Additionally, each country may have a local authority. In
the United States, the USCG Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) serves this function. Each
Class Society has individually developed rules for building and classification of vessels.
Depending on the type of machinery, and its usage, several options are available.
Unlike a land-based application, movements in all six degrees-of-freedom are considered

when designing the machinery for floating applications (Figure 5-5). It is critical to
understand the applicable class requirement, the type of vessel, the expected deck
deflection, and where the equipment will be located on the vessel.

This information is then translated
into the design conditions of:
• Type of mounting method

used to attach the package to
the deck
• Acceleration for structural

analysis
• Static and dynamic angles for Figure 5-5. Degrees-of-Freedom for Dynamic Movement and
fluid management Static Displacement
Wind and Wave action cause stresses and deflections in the Floating Production System,
resulting in hogging, sagging and twisting of the vessel’s hull. Apart from the external
connections between the package and site interfaces, the machine’s drivetrain alignment
requires close attention.
Figure 5-6 illustrates how, if not properly addressed, the effect of the deck deflection can
translate through the base-plate and compromise the machinery’s alignment. Insufficient
stiffness in the machinery’s supporting structure, or improper attachment to the deck, can
result in unwanted vibration levels. Figure 5-6 illustrates two methods of attaching a turbine
package to a vessel’s deck. The four-point tie-down graphic on the left does not decouple
the vessel’s structural deflections from the package. Although acceptable under certain
conditions, in this mounting arrangement, the package will see more of an effect from deck
twist. On the other hand, the three-point tie-down graphic on the right allows the vessel’s
structural deflections to become decoupled from the package. With less effect from deck
twist being transmitted to the package, this is generally considered to be the preferred
arrangement for offshore applications.
Understanding the benefit of three-point mounting is only one aspect. The success of
three-point mounting the equipment is dependent on what is used to connect the package
to the deck. Two common mounting methods are utilized to transition from the turbine
package to the deck.
3
3 4
2 3 4
1
Top View
Top View
Hogging 1 2 1 2
End View End View
0 0
Sagging Twisting 1,3 2,4 1 3 2
Figure 5-6. Deck Deflections and their Impact on a Turbomachinery Package for 4-Point and 3-Point
Mounts

One method is using an Anti-Vibration Mount, commonly referred to as an AVM. It is
located between the package and the deck in sets of three. AVMs are positioned to most
effectively carry the package’s operational load requirements. The AVM affords a level of
protection to the package and drivetrain alignment from deck movement, but less than
that provided by a gimbal design. AVMs are used when there is a need to isolate the
turbomachinery package from deck vibration; or, when installation near onboard living
quarters mandates a level that cannot be achieved without them. AVM selection is project
specific and depends on the package weight, center of gravity location, and application (i.e.,
moderate or severe duty).
The second method commonly used is the gimbal mount. The gimbal mount is also located
between the package and the deck in sets of three. Like the AVM, gimbal mounts are
positioned on the package to most effectively carry its operational load requirements.
A gimbal is designed with a spherical bearing that allows the two mounting surfaces to
move independent of one another. This, in effect, isolates the package and the drivetrain
alignment from the deck’s constant movement. The gimbal is chosen when the package
will be exposed to excessive deck deflection, or the deck deflection data is not available.
Although three-point mounting decouples the turbomachinery from the vessel’s structural
deflections, it does not alleviate the requirement to react to the dynamic forces applied
to the components supported by the package structure. Structural requirements,
transportation needs, and handling all play a role in the design of the base-plate resulting in
three basic methods (Figure 5-7).
Single-Piece Base Plate
Two-Piece Base Plate
Two-Piece Base Plate

with Sub-Base
Figure 5-7. Base-Plate Design

• Single-piece minimizes the number of on-site connections, but
depending on factory needs and/or transportability to site, this is not
always a practical solution.
• Two-piece is an appropriate solution when transportability,

manufacturing, and non-operational requirements take precedence.
This allows the machine to be easily moved and transported in
smaller modules, and then assembled either dockside for single lift
or assembled on the deck.
• Two-piece with a sub-base is appropriate for large machines with long

drive trains. More easily managed in the factory and during transport to
site in smaller modules, these long base-plates alone do not
provide enough structural rigidity for the severe environmental conditions
of an FPS. As a result, a sub-base structure under the entire
machine, designed to maintain the powertrain alignment, is required.
To develop and predict how the machinery will respond to the various load cases, finite
element models are used to evaluate the base-plate designs. With the environmental loads
applied to the model, deflection and stresses can be determined. Using this information,
structural design of the base-plate can be compared with established design criteria
to ensure it meets the application requirements. In addition to the base-plate analysis
performed in the as-installed condition, analysis is also performed for the offshore lift
scenarios. In offshore applications, the engine-handling kits are designed with an integrated
braking system for safety. A chain is welded along the underside of the beams, and a
sprocket is incorporated into the hoist.
In the same way that the base-plates are analyzed using finite element analysis, the
enclosure and ancillary structures are also evaluated using 3D beam analysis.
Fluid management is another important aspect of ensuring successful operation of the

equipment. Knowing the installed package orientation relative to the vessel’s centerline is a
key data point. Installation perpendicular to the vessel’s centerline is a structurally simpler
design, but is not as prevalent on FPSs. This is because perpendicular orientation provides
a level of difficulty in designing for fluid management of the lube oil system. By far the
most common and recommended installation option is parallel with the vessel’s centerline.
While this option presents difficulty in structural design, it is the simplest orientation when
considering fluid management of the package lube oil system.
CFD tools are also used to assist the engineer in efficiently addressing fluid management
within the package. Regardless of the location of the equipment, accurately monitoring the
nominal oil level is critical to successful operation. With the constant motion of the lube oil
within the tank, monitoring the lube oil level within the tank must be handled differently
than in a non-floating application. Installing the level indicator inside a stilling tube to
dampen the effect of the oil movement can assist in accomplishing this vital operational
feature. Due to the constant motion offshore, if such a simple feature is not incorporated,
even the most efficient placement of baffles within the oil tank can cause false low and/or
high level alarms to be sounded.

As mentioned earlier, the severity of the dynamic or static inclinations experienced may
exceed the baffle and gate valve capability, and/or cause the lube oil drain lines to no
longer slope downwards. In these instances, a scavenge system is required. To ensure
oil is drawn out of the turbine bearing cavity regardless of the inclination, the addition of a
dedicated scavenge pump and drain line to return lube oil back to the tank may be the only
turbine modification required. The package scavenge system ensures that all other lube oil
drain lines return oil back to the oil tank efficiently. There are two scenarios that can drive
the need for a package-scavenge system. These are defined not only by the magnitude of
movement, but also the package length. Where the package length is such that even slight
inclinations cause the lube oil drains to no longer slope downwards back to the tank, a
second tank system is added to the driven base-plate. This is dedicated to ensure effective
bearing drainage of the driven equipment. When the inclinations seen by the package are
significant, a completely separate oil tank system located beneath the package may be
required. Locating the tank system below the package provides the additional insurance
that, regardless of inclination, the drains will always have a downward slope to the tank.
Other environmental considerations taken into account that are vital to the longevity of the
machinery are corrosion due to chemical reactions with oxygen, water and sulfur; erosion
as a result of wind, sand and salt; and electrolysis, resulting from contact of dissimilar
materials. These elements are addressed with the type of attachments, consideration for
galvanic bonding, material selection, and coatings.

118 | Chapter 6: Gas Turbine Components
CHAPTER 6
GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS
To understand in more detail how a gas turbine works, explanations of the working
principles of a gas turbine have to start with the thermodynamic principles of the Brayton
cycle, which essentially defines the requirements for the gas turbine components
(Figure 6-1). Since the major components of a gas turbine perform based on aerodynamic
principles, we will explain these in this chapter, too.
Combustor Power Turbine
Compressor
Gas Generator
Turbine
Figure 6-1. Typical Industrial Gas Turbine
AERODYNAMICS
Any gas turbine consists of several turbo machines. First, there is an air compressor, and
after the combustion has taken place, there is a turbine chapter. Depending on the design
of the gas turbine, the turbine chapter may consist either of a gas generator turbine,
which operates on the same shaft as the air compressor, and a power turbine which is
on a separate shaft (two-shaft design) or only of a gas generator turbine (single shaft)
(Figure 6-2).
The energy conversion from mechanical work into the gas (in the compressor) and from
energy in the gas back to mechanical energy (in the turbine) is performed by the means of
aerodynamics, by appropriately manipulating gas flows. Leonard Euler (in 1754) equated
the torque produced by a turbine wheel to the change of circumferential momentum of
a working fluid passing through the wheel. Somewhat earlier (in 1738), Daniel Bernoulli
stated the principle that (in inviscid, subsonic flow) an increase in flow velocity is always
accompanied by a reduction in static pressure and vice versa, as long as no external energy
is introduced. While Euler’s equation applies Newton’s principles of action and reaction,
Chapter 6: Gas Turbine Components | 119

Output
Shaft Power
SINGLE SHAFT
Expansion
Turbine
Combustion
Compression
TWO SHAFT
Output
Shaft Power
Figure 6-2. Single and Two shaft gas turbines
Bernoulli’s law is an application of the conservation of energy. These two principles explain
the energy transfer in a turbomachinery stage (Figure 6-3). We had discussed some basic
principles in Chapter 2.
Turbomachines in general consist of stationary and rotating airfoils. How do airfoils interact
with a fluid such as air?
There are two important mechanisms:

- Changing the velocity of the fluid
- Changing the direction of the fluid
Changing the velocity of the fluid: A flowing fluid (such as air) is subject to the conservation
of mass and energy.
Bernoullis
Bernoullis law
law (which
(which is
is strictly
strictly true
true only for
for incompressible flows, but which can be modified
Bernoulli’s law (which is strictly true only for only incompressible
incompressible flows,
flows, but which can but
be which can be modified
for
for the
the subsonic
subsonic compressible
compressible flows,
flows, describes
describes the interchangeability of
of two
two forms
forms of
of energy
energy ::
modified for the subsonic compressible flows, describesthe
theinterchangeability
interchangeability of two
static
static pressure
pressure and velocity.
forms of energy : and
staticvelocity.
pressure and velocity.
The incompressible formulation of

The
The incompressible
incompressible formulation
formulation of Bernoulli’s
of Bernoullis law
Bernoullis law for
law for aaa frictionless,
for frictionless,stationary,
frictionless, stationary,adiabatic
stationary, adiabatic
adiabatic flow
flow without
without any
any work
work
flow
input without
is:
input is: any work input is:
ρ
ρ 2 const
ptt =
p =pp+
+ 2 cc 2 =
= const
2
For
For compressible
compressible flows,
flows, the
the equation
equation becomes
becomes
For compressible flows, the equation becomes
cc 22
htt = h + 2 =
h = h + = const
const
2
Another requirement is, that mass cannot appear or disappear, thus for any flow from a point 1 to a point 2
ht = h + = const
2
that mass
Another requirement is, that masscannot
cannotappear
appearorordisappear,
disappear,thus
thusfor
forany
anyflow
flowfrom
fromaapoint 1 to a poin
point 1 to a point 2
m 1 = ρ1Q1 = m 2 = ρ 2 Q2
ρ ⋅Q = ρ ⋅c ⋅ A
This requirement is valid for compressible and incompressible flows, with the caveat that
for compressible
This requirement flows the
is valid fordensity is a function
compressible of pressure andflows,
and incompressible temperatures, and thus
with the caveat that for compressi
density is a function of pressure and
ultimately a function of the velocity. temperatures, and thus ultimately a function of the velocity.
These two concepts explain the working principles of the vanes and diffusers used. Due to requirement
These two concepts
conservation, any flow explain the working
channel that has principles
a wider flowof the vanes
area at itsand diffusers
inlet used. Due
and a smaller flowto area at its exit w
requirement
velocity for mass
increase fromconservation,
inlet to exit.any flow
If no channel
energy that has a wider
is introduced to the flow areaBernoulli’s
system, at its inlet law requires a d
and a smaller
pressure flow6-5a).
(Figure area at its exit will
Examples forrequire a velocitylike
flow channels increase from
this are inlet toblades
turbine exit. Ifand
no energy
nozzles, inlet vanes i
is introduced to
compressors andthe system,
others Bernoulli’s
(Figure 6-5b).law requires aany
Conversely, dropflow
in static
channelpressure (Figure
that has 6-3a). flow area A at its
a smaller
Examples
larger flowforarea
flowatchannels like require
its exit will this are aturbine blades
velocity and nozzles,
decrease from inletinlettovanes
exit. in
If compressors
no energy is introduced to
Bernoulli’s
and others (Figure 6-3b). Conversely, any flow channel that has a smaller flow area Aflow
law requires a increase in static pressure (Figure 6-5c). Examples for at itschannels
inlet like this
vaneless diffusers, flow channels in impellers, rotor and stator blades of axial
and a larger flow area at its exit will require a velocity decrease from inlet to exit. If no energy
compressors volutes and o
(Figure 6-5d).
is introduced to the system, Bernoulli’s law requires a increase in static pressure (Figure 6-3c).
Examples for flow channels like this are vaned or vaneless diffusers, flow channels in impellers,
rotor and stator blades of axial compressors volutes and others (Figure 6-3d).
velocity velocity
pressure pressure
Mass Flow Mass Flow
1
a
Compressor
blades
Turbine
blades
1
b 1
d
velocity velocity
pressure pressure
Mass Flow Mass Flow
1
c
Figure 6-3a-d. Acceleration and Diffusion
If these flow channels are in a rotating system (for example in a turbine or compressor
rotor), mechanical energy is added to or removed from the system. Nevertheless, if the
velocities are considered in a rotating system of coordinates, above principles are applicable
as well.

W2
y 2 p2
A
2
W1 (p1 + w 21) A1
p1 A1 Fx
Fy
(p2 + w 22) A2
Figure 6-6 – Conservation of Momentum
Changing
Figure 6-6 – the directionofof
Conservation the fluid
Momentum
Figure 6-4. Conservation of Momentum
Figure 6-6 – Conservation of Momentum
Changing
When theadirection
we force of the
fluid to change its fluid
flow direction, we will have to act with a force upon this fluid. This is also
Changing
known the
as the
Changing the direction
ofofof
conservation
direction the fluid The change in momentum M of gas flowing from a point 1 to a point 2
momentum.
the fluid
its mass times the change in its velocity (m c), and is also the sum of all forces F acting. The change in momentum
When we force a fluid to change its flow direction, we will have to act with a force upon this fluid. This is also
When
When we we force aa fluid
force fluid to
to change
change its flow
its flow direction,
direction, we
we will
will have
havetoto act
actMwith
with aa force
force upon
uponfrom
this afluid.
known as the conservation of momentum. The change in momentum of gas flowing pointThis
1 toisa also
point 2
this
known
its fluid.
mass This
 astimes is also known
the conservation as the
the change inofitsmomentum.conservation
velocity (m The of momentum.
change
c), and The
in momentum
is also change
the sum of allM forces in momentum
of gas Fflowing
acting. from a point in
The change 1 to a point 2
momentum
M of gastimes from
flowing a point
in its1velocity
to a point(m2 c),
is its
andmass times
the the
sumchange in its velocity
F acting.(m
dM
its mass
c),dt
= m (
 c 2 the
− c =)
change
F
is also
and is also the sum of all forces F acting. The change in momentum is
1
of all forces The change in momentum

dM   
= m ( c −
2 1 c ) = 
F
= m (the − c1 ) = F of this gas, either by changing the velocity or the direction of the gas (or both), a force is
dM
Todtchange c 2 momentum
dt
necessary. Figure 6-5 outlines this concept for the case of a bent, conical pipe. The gas flows in through the area A
with
To w1, p1the
change , andmomentum
out throughofthe thisflow
gas,area A2 by
either with w2, p2. The
changing differences
thevelocity
velocity in the
or the
the force of
direction duethethe pressure (p1A1 and
To
p2Achange the momentum of this gas, either by changing the or direction of the
2, respectively), and the fact that a certain mass flow of gas is forced to change its direction generates a reaction
gas (or both), a force is
gas (or both),
To change
necessary. theamomentum
Figure force
6-5 isoutlines
necessary.
of this
this Figure
gas,
concept 6-4
eitherforoutlines
by changing
the case this
of concept
the
a velocity
bent, foror
the
conical thecase
pipe. of agas
direction
The bent,
offlows
the gas (or both),thea force
in through area Ais
force FR. Split into x and y coordinates, and considering that
conical
with w1pipe.
necessary. Theout
, p1Figure
, and gas flows
6-5through inthe
outlines through
this the A
concept
flow area area
for A1 with
the
2 with w2, pw
case 2.1,The
of apbent,
, andconical
out through
pipe. the
Theflow area in through the area A
gas flows
1 differences in the force due the pressure (p1A1 and
with
A 2,w
p22Awith 1,wp1,, pand outdifferences
. The
respectively), through
and theinthat
the fact flow
theaarea
forceAdue
certain2 with
thewflow
mass 2, p2.of
pressure The (pdifferences
gas A forced
is toin
and p2 A the force
,change due the pressure
respectively),
its direction (p1aAreaction
generates 1 and
2 2 1 1 2
p A ,
forcethe
and respectively),
FR. Split into and the
x and ymass fact that
coordinates,a certain
and is mass flow
considering of gas is forced to change
that its direction generates a its direction generates a reaction
m = FρR1fact that
= aρcertain flow of gas forced to change
2 2
force .A 1 w1 into
Split x2 A
and2 wy2 coordinates, and considering that
reaction force FR. Split into x and y coordinates, and considering that
m = ρ A w = ρ A w
we getρ(due
m =
1 1 1
= ρchoice
A wto the
2 2 2
A wof coordinates, w1y=0)
1 1 1 2 2 2
we get (due to the choice of coordinates, w1y=0)
ρA1 wto1 (the ) =coordinates,

we get (due to the choice of coordinates, w1y=0)
x : get (due
we x − w1 of
w2choice p1 A1 − ( pw
2A 2 )x
1y=0)
+ FRx
y : ρA1 w1 (w2 y ) = −( p 2 A2 ) y + FRy
x: ρA1 w1 (w2 x − w1 ) = p1 A1 − ( p 2 A2 ) x + FRx
ρA (wnoted− wthat) =thisp formulation
A − ( p Ais)also+ valid
y : ρA11 w11 (w22 xy ) = −1 ( p 2 A12 ) 1y + FRy2 2 x
:
Itxshould w be
also FRx for viscous flows, because the
friction
y : forces (w2 y ) =internal
ρA1 w1become −( p 2 Aforces.
2 ) y + FRy
For a rotating row of vanes in order to change the
velocity of the gas, the vanes have to exert a force upon the gas. This is fundamentally
the same force that FRy that acts in the previous example for the pipe. This force has to
act in direction of the circumferential rotation of the vanes in order to do work on the gas.
According to the conservation of momentum, the force that the blades exert is balanced

by the change in circumferential velocity times the associated mass of the gas. This
relationship is often referred to as Euler’s Law, described in Chapter 2.
The importance of Euler’s law lies in the fact that it connects aerodynamic considerations
(i.e the velocities involved) with the thermodynamics of the compression process.
Mach number
To make things more complicated, the density of the gas flowing over airfoils or through
channels is not constant. In other words, the gas is compressible. Form the discourse
above we know, that when we conserve the mass flow, then the volumetric flow, and
with it all velocities, will change, if the density changes. An indicator of the severity of the
impact of these density changes is the Mach number Ma which compares flow velocities c
to the speed of sound a:
Ma =c/a
If the flow velocities through the entire section is below the speed of sound, we talk
about sub sonic flow, and for really small Mach numbers, we can actually consider the
flow incompressible, in other words we don’t need to consider the density changes. Flow
velocities above the speed of sound are called supersonic. If the flow changes within
a component form subsonic to supersonic or vice versa, the flow is call transonic. An
example for a transonic compressor stage is shown in Figure 6-5, where the flow enters
at speeds above the speed of sound, and is decelerated through a shock to subsonic
velocities.
Figure 6-5. Mach Number distribution for typical transonic compressor blades. The flow enters
at supersonic speeds, and is decelerated to subsonic speeds at the exit (Schodl, 1977). The
shock, where the supersonic flow is decelerated to subsonic speeds immediately upstream of
the leading edge is clearly visible.

1.40E+00
THROAT
1.20E+00
1.9
EXIT MACH NUMBER
Nozzle Pressure Ratio

1.00E+00
p/p=1.1
1.7 p/p=1.3
8.00E-01 p/p=1.5
1.5 p/p=1.7
1.3 p/p=1.9
6.00E-01
THROAT
4.00E-01
1.1
2.00E-01
γ=1.3
0.00E+00
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE ALONG BLADE SURFACE
Figure 6-6. Velocity distribution (isentropic Mach Number Mis along the surface coordinates) in
a turbine nozzle at different pressure ratios
As soon as the maximum local flow velocity exceeds Mach 1 (at a pressure ratio of 1.5 in
this example), the inlet flow can no longer be increased (Kurz, 1991).
Figure 6-6 shows the situation of a turbine nozzle that is operated at different pressure
ratios. We see that not only the levels of velocity increases with increased pressure ratio,
but the velocity distribution actually changes its shape- an example for the profound
changes of aerodynamic behavior with the change in Mach number. At a certain pressure
ratio (in this case 1.5) the velocity at the suction side of the nozzle just reaches the speed of
sound. For higher pressure ratios, the flow is actually accelerated past the speed of sound.
A further increase of the pressure ratio yields higher velocities downstream of the throat,
but the flow, which is proportional to the velocity at the inlet into the nozzle, can no longer
be increased.
If we look at the volumetric flow, represented by the flow velocity entering the nozzle
(Figure 6-7) we find that once we exceed the pressure ratio where we first reached the
speed of sound, the flow cannot be increased any more: the nozzle is choked. In other
words, even an increase in pressure ratio does not yield more flow.

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
MS,0
0.1
0.05
0
0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
P/P
Figure 6-7. Flow through a Nozzle as a Function of Pressure Ratio
Any aerodynamic component performance will change if the characteristic Mach numbers
are changed.
Not surprisingly, the Mach number has a strong influence on losses and enthalpy rise or
decrease for a given blade row. Figure 6-8 shows how the losses increase for an axial
compressor stage, while the range is reduced with a rising Mach number.
0.3
0.25
LOSS COEFFICENT
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
INCIDENCE
M=0.8 M=0.7 M=0.5
Figure 6-8. Effect of Mach Number on Losses and Range of an Axial Compressor Airfoil
The practical conclusion is that the performance of any aerodynamic component will
change if the characteristic Mach number changes. On the other hand, if characteristic
Mach numbers of a component are held constant, then the performance of said component
will remain the same (except for changes in Reynolds number, gas composition etc.).

The aerodynamic behavior of a turbine or compressor is thus significantly influenced by the
Mach number of the flow. The same turbine or compressor will show significant differences in
operating range (flow range between stall and choke), pressure ratio and efficiency.
The aerodynamic behavior of a turbine or compressor is thus significantly influenced
by
In the Mach number
a modern of the flow.
gas turbine, theThe same turbine
compressor or compressor
front stages arewill show significant
transonic, which means that the relative
differences in operating range (flow range between stall and choke), pressure ratio and
flow velocity into the rotor is higher than the speed of sound, while the flow velocity leaving th
efficiency.
rotor is below the speed of sound. Turbine stages usually see subsonic inlet velocities, but the
velocities
In a modern within the the
gas turbine, blade channelsfront
compressor canstages
become locally supersonic.
are transonic, which means that
the relative flow velocity into the rotor is higher than the speed of sound, while the flow
Component
velocity leavingperformance maps
the rotor is below the show
speed a ofsignificant sensitivity
sound. Turbine to changes
stages usually in Mach numbers. Ther
see subsonic
inlet
is a velocities, but the velocities
strong dependency within the
of losses, blade channels
enthalpy can becomeand
rise or decrease, locally
flowsupersonic.
range for a given blade row
on the characteristic Mach number.
Component performance maps show a significant sensitivity to changes in Mach numbers.
There is a strong dependency of losses, enthalpy rise or decrease, and flow range for a
given blade row on the characteristic Mach number.
Reynolds number
Reynolds number
While the Mach number essentially accounts for the compressibility effects of the working gas,
the Reynolds
While numberessentially
the Mach number describesaccounts
the relative
for theimportance
compressibilityofeffects
friction effects.
of the workingIn industrial gas
turbines,
gas, wherenumber
the Reynolds neitherdescribes
the working temperatures,
the relative importancenor the working
of friction pressures
effects. In industrial change as
dramatically as in the operation of aircraft engine, the effects of changes
gas turbines, where neither the working temperatures, nor the working pressures change in the Reynolds
number
as are typically
dramatically not veryofpronounced.
as in the operation A change
aircraft engine, the effects ofinchanges
the ambient temperature from 0° F to
in the Reynolds
number
100° F are typicallythe
changes notReynolds
very pronounced.
number A change
of the infirst
the compressor
ambient temperature
stage byfrom 0° F 40%. The typical
about
to 100° F changes the Reynolds number of the first compressor stage by about 40%.
operating Reynolds numbers of compressor blades and turbine blades are above the levels wher The
typical operating
the effect Reynolds the
of changing numbers of compressor
Reynolds numberblades and turbine blades are above the
is significant.
levels where the effect of changing the Reynolds number is significant.
The Reynolds number is defined by:
The Reynolds number is defined by:
w⋅ L
Re = 
 v 
The kinematic viscosity () viscosity

The kinematic depends on(ν)
thedepends
gas, temperature and pressure.
on the gas, In industrial
temperature gas
and pressure. In industrial
turbines, where neither the working temperatures nor the working pressures change
gas turbines, where neither the working temperatures nor the working pressures change as as
dramatically as in the operation of aircraft engines, the effects of changes in the Reynolds
dramatically as in the operation of aircraft engines, the effects of changes in the Reynolds
number are typically not very pronounced. A change in the ambient temperature from -18
number are typically not very pronounced. A change in the ambient temperature from -18 to
to 38°C (0 to 100°F) changes the Reynolds number of the first compressor stage by about
38°C (0 to 100°F) changes the Reynolds number of the first compressor stage by about 40%. Th
40%. The Reynolds number dependency of the losses of a typical compressor or turbine
Reynolds number dependency of the losses of a typical compressor or turbine airfoil are shown
airfoil are shown in Figure 6-9.
in Figure 6-11.
The typical operating Reynolds numbers of compressor and turbine blades are above the
levels where the effect of changing the Reynolds number is significant.
However, in all instances the Reynolds numbers are rather large (usually in the range over
several hundred thousands or millions). This means, that only areas close to surfaces such
as the blades or the casing are affected by frictional effects. These areas are usually called
boundary layers (Figure 6-10).

Figure 6-9. Losses and Exit Flow Angle for a Turbine Nozzle as a Reynolds Number Function
BOUNDARY LAYER
ON SUCTION SIDE
WAKE
BOUNDARY LAYER
ON PRESSURE SIDE
Figure 6-10. Boundary Layer on an Airfoil
The practical implication is, that the state of the flow in these areas, be it laminar, turbulent,
separated or transitional, has a significant impact on friction losses, mixing losses and heat
transfer. For example, turbulent flow leads to higher friction losses and increased heat
transfer, but it also tends to be more stable versus the risk of flow separation. Laminar
flow causes lower friction, but tends to transition smoothly, or via a separation bubble,
into turbulent flow. Laminar flow is also more prone to flow separation. The structure of
the boundary layer does not disappear downstream of a blade. It rather, after the suction
and pressure side boundary layer mix at the trailing edge of the blade forms a wake
(Figure 6-10). This means that the flow entering the downstream blade rows is always non-
uniform.

SECONDARY FLOWS
An important problem that arises in the design and performance analysis of modern
turbomachinery is the understanding and prediction of the nature and influence of
secondary flows. Secondary flows can be defined as those portions of the total flow that
behave significantly differently from the main flow. Thus, any flow that deviates from the
average flow path is considered a secondary flow (Figure 6-11).
Boundary-layer Flow
Rel. Motion
of Casing
er
Radial rn
C o r tex
Clearance Vo
ce
r an Rotation Rel. Motion
e a ex of Hub
C l or t er
V
o r n ex ce
Radial
C or t an Clearance
V r
e a ex
ROTOR C l or t STATOR
V
Figure 6-11. Secondary Flow Regions in rotor and stator of an axial flow compressor by
Fottner (1989)
Strong secondary flows occur when the gas flow is forced to change its flow direction in
an airfoil. For this change in direction from incoming to exiting direction, the interaction
between the boundary layers of the blade and the casing or the hub lead to systems of
vortices. The flow in these vortices clearly does not follow the intended direction of the
flow path and can have a detrimental effect on the performance of the airfoil.
Figure 6-12 shows streamlines of the flow close to the side wall in a cascade of turbine
blades. Clearly, the flow in this region does not follow the path prescribed by the airfoil
geometry.
Blade
FLOW Horseshoe
Vortex
Wake
Blade
FLOW
Figure 6-12. Flow Lines Created by Secondary Flow Vortex Structures on the side wall of a
Turbine Blade Cascade

Secondary flows in turbine blades tend to be more prominent than in compressor blades,
due to the stronger turning. Various efforts have been made to reduce the impact of
secondary flows. Earlier efforts included boundary layer fences and slots. More recently,
blades are sculpted in 3 dimensions, thus addressing the flow structures created by
secondary flows (Figure 6-13).
Figure 6-13. Sculpted blades
COMPONENT PERFORMANCE
In following paragraphs, we will discuss the relationships of flow, pressure ratio and speed
that are expressed in the performance maps for compressors and turbines. As expected,
the influence of Mach numbers is very visible.
Figure 6-14 with the compressor maps for typical gas turbine compressors show in
particular the narrowing of the operating range with an increase in Mach number, which in
this case is due to increasing compressor speed NGP.
P2
P1
PRESSURE RATIO
Stall
Line
105
100
95 %NGP
90
θ
MASS FLOW T
W
p
Figure 6-14. Typical compressor performance map

Figure 6-16 :Typical compressor performance map
For turbine nozzles, one of the effects connected with the Mach number is the limit to the
maximum
For turbineflownozzles,
that can pass
one through a nozzle.connected
of the effects Beyond a certain
with pressure
the Mach ratio, the amount
number is the limit to the
of actual flow Q that can pass through the nozzle can no longer be
maximum flow that can pass through a nozzle. Beyond a certain pressureincreased by increasing
ratio, the amount of
the pressure ratio. As demonstrated with the turbine map in Figure 6-15, which shows the
actual flow Q that can pass through the nozzle can no longer be increased by increasing the
flow Q in a turbine nozzle for increasing pressure ratios, the velocity or Mach number levels
pressure ratio. As demonstrated with the turbine map in Figure 6-17, which shows the flow Q i
in the nozzle become higher and higher, until the speed of sound (= Mach 1) is reached in
a turbine nozzle for increasing pressure ratios, the velocity or Mach number levels in the nozzle
the throat, as discussed in Chapter 2. A further increase of the pressure ratio yields higher
become higher and higher, until the speed of sound (= Mach 1)is reached in the throat, as
velocities downstream of the throat, but the through flow (which is proportional to the
discussed in section 2. A further increase of the pressure ratio yields higher velocities
velocity at the inlet into the nozzle) can no longer be increased.
downstream of the throat, but the through flow (which is proportional to the velocity at the inlet
into the nozzle) can no longer be increased.
T3
QαW
P3
EFFICIENCY, η t
,
FLOW
N
T3
PRESSURE RATIO P3/P5
Figure 6-17: typical turbine map

Figure 6-15. Typical turbine map
The Mach number increases with increasing flow velocity , and decreasing Temperature T. It
The Mach number increases with increasing flow velocity , and decreasing Temperature
also depends on the gas composition, which determines the ratio of specific heats γ and the gas
T. It also depends on the gas composition, which determines the ratio of specific heats 
constant R. To characterize the level the Mach number of a turbo machine, the 'Machine' Mach
and the gas constant R. To characterize the level the Mach number of a turbo machine, the
number Mn is frequently used. Mn does not refer to a gas velocity, but to the circumferential
'Machine' Mach number Mn is frequently used. Mn does not refer to a gas velocity, but to
speed u of a component, for example a blade tip at the diameter D:
the circumferential speed u of a component, for example a blade tip at the diameter D:
u 2πDN
Mn = =
γRT γRT
This points to the fact that the Mach number of the component in question will increase
once the speed N is increased. The consequences for the operation of the gas turbine are,
that
• The engine compressor Mach number depends on its speed , the ambient temperature
and the relative humidity.
• The gas generator turbine Mach number depends on its speed, the firing temperature,
and the exhaust gas composition (thus, the load, the fuel and the relative humidity)
• The power turbine Mach number depends on its speed, the power turbine inlet
temperature and the exhaust gas composition.

ower turbine Mach number depends on its speed, the power turbine inlet temperature and
position.
xhaust gas composition.-the power turbine Mach number depends on its speed, the power turbine inlet temper
the exhaust gas composition.
y, the reference diameter will always be the same. Thus, we can define the
given geometry, the reference diameter will always be the same. Thus, we can define the
ber also in terms of a speed, for example the gas generator speed, and get the
ine Mach number also Forina given
terms of geometry,
a speed,the for reference
example the diameter will always
gas generator be and
speed, the same.
get theThus, we can d
as generator speed:For a given geometry, the reference diameter will always be the same. Thus, we can define
Machinespeed:
led corrected gas generator Mach number also in terms of a speed, for example the gas generator speed,
the Machine Mach number also in terms of a speed, for example the gas generator speed,
so called corrected gas generator speed:
and get the so called corrected gas generator speed:
N
= N
T / Tref N corr =
T / Tref
not dimensionless, it is a convenient way of writing the machine Mach
though Ncorr is not dimensionless,
Even though Ncorr
it is adimensionless,
is not
convenient way of writingway
it is a convenient
the machine Mach
onent. In the following text, we will also use this simplified expressionof writing the machine Mach
er of the component. Even though
In the Ncorr istext,
following
number of the component.
not dimensionless,
we will also useitthisis asimplified
convenient way of writing the machine
expression
In the following text, we will also use this simplified expression
d on the above explanations.
number of the component. In the following text, we will also use this simplified expr
, which is based on N/√T,
the above explanations.
which is based on the above explanations.
N/√T, which is based on the above explanations.
s ship for mass flowSimilarly,
and volumetric
a relations flow can be flow
shipvolumetric
for mass defined as an ‘axial
and volumetric flowMach
canasbean
defined
arly, a relations ship for mass flow and flow can be defined ‘axialasMach
an ‘axial
er’: Mach number’:
Similarly, a relations ship for mass flow and volumetric flow can be defined as an ‘ax
number’:
   
= =    
  = =    
  = =
nce through flow area A
or some reference through flow area A  
and, for some reference through flow area A
and, for some reference through flow area A
     √  √
 = = =  =     ∝ √  √
   √= = =  =  ∝    √  √
   √  =  =

= = ∝
   √   
Because each gas turbine consists of several aerodynamic components, the Mach number
rbine consists of several aerodynamic components, the toMach number
constantof
use each gas turbineofconsists
each of these components
of several aerodynamic would have be kept
components, in order to achieve a similar
the Mach number of
nents would have tooperating
be keptcondition
constantforintheorder to achieve a similar operating
overall machine. While the characteristic temperature for the
of these componentsBecause
would have eachtogasbeturbine consistsinoforder
kept constant several aerodynamic
to achieve a similarcomponents,
operating the Mach num
erall machine. While engine compressor is the
the characteristic ambient temperature,
temperature for the enginethe characteristic temperature for the gas
each of these
tion for the overall machine. Whilecomponents would have
the characteristic to be kept
temperature forconstant
the engine in order to achieve a similar
mbient temperature, generator turbine andtemperature
the characteristic the power turbine for isthethegasfiring temperature T3 and the power turbine
generator
ressor is the ambient condition
temperature,for thethe overall machine.
characteristic While thefor
temperature characteristic
the temperature for the engine
gas generator
inlet temperature T respectively. Therefore,
er turbine is the firing temperature T5 3 and the power turbine inlet if two operating points (op1 and op2) yield the
ne and the power turbinecompressor
is the is the
firing ambient
temperature temperature,
T 3 and the the characteristic
power turbine temperature
inlet for the gas gene
ectively. Therefore,same
if twomachine Mach numbers
operating points (op1 for theand
gasop2)
compressor
yield and thethe gas generator turbine, and
same
erature T5 respectively.turbine and the ifpower
Therefore,
both operating two turbine
operating is points
theoptimum
firing(op1 temperature
and turbine T3 and
op2) yield the the
thensame
power turbine inlet
bers for the gas compressor and points
the gas are at the
generator respective
turbine, and bothpower operating speed, the thermal
temperature
ine Mach numbers efficiencies
for T respectively.
the gasforcompressor
both operating
5 and the
points Therefore,
gas generator
will beefficienciesif two operating
turbine,
the same – asfor longbothand points
both (op1
operating
as second order effects, and op2) yield t
such
ective optimum power turbine speed, then the thermal
s are at the respective
asmachine
optimum
Reynolds Mach
power
number numbers
turbinefor the of
speed, gas
thencompressor
the
and thermal and the gas generator
efficiencies for bothturbine, and bot
be the same- as long as second ordervariations,
effects,effects
such as gaps
Reynolds clearances
numberetc. are not considered.
ting points will be thepoints
The
The same- areasat
requirement
requirement the
long respective
to
as maintain
second optimum
the
order machinepower
effects, Mach
suchturbine
as
to maintain the machine Mach number for compressor numberspeed,
Reynolds for then the thermal
compressor
number andefficiencie
and gas
gas genera
genera
gaps and clearances Theetcrequirement
are not considered.
to maintain the machine Mach number for compressor and gas generator
operating
turbine
ions, effects of gapsturbine can points
and clearances be will
expressed be
etc are not
can be expressed the
by same-
N
byconsidered.
NGPcorr
GPcorr
as long
=constant
=constant as second
(which
(which order
leads
leads effects,
to
to such
identical
identical as
Mach
Mach Reynolds
numbers
numbersn
turbine can be expressed by
variations, effects of gapsGPcorr
compressor): N = constant (which leads to
and clearances etc are not considered. identical Mach numbers for
compressor):
the compressor):
N
N GP N GP , op 2
GP , op1 = N GP , op 2
, op1
=
T
T11,, op1 T
T11,, op 2
op1 op 2
and, in order to maintain at the same time the same mach number for the gas generator
and, in
and, in order
order to
to maintain
maintain atat the same
same time thethe same
same mach
mach number
number for for the
the gas
gas generator
generator
turbine, which rotates at the samethespeed as time
the compressor, we require for the firing
which rotates at the same speed as the compressor, we require for the
which rotates at the same speed as the compressor, we require for the firing temperaturfiring temperatur
temperature:
T
T33,,op T3,op 2
op1 = T3,op 2
1
T = T
T11,,op1
op1 T11,,op 2
op 2
In this case, the fact that the volumetric flow through the turbine section is determined by
In
In this
this case,
case, the
the fact
fact that
that the
the volumetric
volumetric flow
flow through
through the
the turbine
turbine section
section is
is determined
determined
nozzle geometry, also enforces (approximately)
nozzle geometry, also enforces (approximately) identical
identical head
head and
and flow
flow coefficients
coefficients fo
fo
compressor and turbine.
metric flow through the turbine section is determined by the
the nozzle
pproximately) geometry,
identical headalso
andenforces (approximately)for
flow coefficients identical head and flow coefficients for
Therefore, the engine heat rate will remain constant, while the engine power will by
will remainchanged
constant, while the engine power will by changed
proportional to the change in inlet density. This approach does not take effects
t density. like
This approach
Reynolds numberdoes not take
changes, effects
changes like Reynolds
in clearances with temperature, changes in gas
rances with temperature, changes in gas characteristics or theThis approach also finds its
characteristics or the effect of accessory loads into account.
ount. Thislimitations
approachin also finds its
mechanical andlimitations
temperature in mechanical
limits of an actualand
engine, that restrict actual
gine, that speeds
restrict actual speeds and
and firing temperatures. firing temperatures (Kurz
Compressor
In previous chapters, the concept of energy transfer in compressors and turbines was
explained. Here we want to extend this concept to understand the behavior of these
of energy components
transfer in when
compressors and turbines was explained.
they are operated at different operating conditions. In other words, we
cept to understand the behavior
want to understand of these
component components
performance maps.when they
g conditions. In other words, we want to understand component
The general behavior of any gas compressor can be described by some additional,
fundamental relationships: The vanes of the rotating impeller ‘see’ the gas in a coordinate
mpressor can be gauged by some additional, fundamental relationships: The
system that rotates with the impeller. The transformation of velocity coordinates from an
gas in a coordinate system that rotates with the impeller. The transformation
absolute(c)
frame of reference frame of reference
to a frame (c) to arotating
of reference frame of reference
with rotating
a velocity with a velocity u is by:
u is by:
  
w = c −u
u=πDN.
of the stage where, for any diameter D and speed N of the stage u=πDN.
The importance of Euler’s law lies in the fact that it connects aerodynamic considerations
(i.e., the velocities involved) with the thermodynamics of the compression process.
Stator
cz2
a b
U2
3
1 2
β2
h = cu2 • u2 - cu1 • u1
Rotor β1 w2
U1
U c2
w1
α3 α2 cu2
c3
a b α1 cu1
c1
1 2 3 cz1
Figure 6-16. Velocities in a Typical Compressor Stage. Mechanical Work h Transferred to the Air
is Determined by the Change in Circumferential Momentum of the Air.

c2
cz w1
c3=c1 w2
Δcu
Figure 6-17. Velocity vectors in an axial compressor at constant speed and changing flow
head and loss
ideal best efficiency point

head
isentropic head
incidence
loss

Caterpillar: Non-Confidential
friction
loss (+)
(-)
flow
Incidence Losses
Figure 6-18. Head (or pressure ratio) versus flow relationship at constant speed
The rotor exit geometry determines the direction of the relative velocity w2 at the rotor
blade exit. The basic 'ideal' slope of head (or pressure ratio)vs. flow is dictated by the
kinematic flow relationship of the compressor, in particular exit angle of the blades. Any
increase in flow at constant speed (Figure 6-17) causes a reduction of the circumferential
component of the absolute exit velocity (cu2). It follows from Euler’s equation above,
that this causes a reduction in head. Adding the influence of various losses to this basic
relationship shape the head-flow-efficiency characteristic of a compressor (Figure 6-18).
Whenever the flow deviates from the flow the stage was designed for, the components of
the stage operate at lower efficiency. This is due to incidence losses. Figure 6-19 illustrates
this, using an airfoil as an example: At the 'design flow' the air follows the contours of
the airfoil. If the direction of the incoming air is changed, increasing zones occur where
the airflow ceases to follow the contours of the airfoil, and create increasing losses.
Furthermore, the higher the flow, the higher the velocities and, thus, the friction losses.

a c
b d
Figure 6-19. Unseparated (a, b), partially separated (c), and fully separated (d) flow over an airfoil
at increasing angle of attack (Nakayama, 1988)
A compressor, operated at constant speed, is operated at its best efficiency point (‘Best
Efficiency Point’ in Figure 6-18. If, without changing the speed, the flow through the
compressor is reduced (for example, because the discharge pressure that the compressor
has to overcome is increased), then the compressor efficiency decreases as well. At a
certain flow, stall, probably in the form of rotating stall, in one or more of the compressor
components will occur. At further flow reduction, the compressor will eventually reach its
stability limit, and go into surge.
If, again starting from the best efficiency point, the flow is increased, then the efficiency is
also reduced, accompanied by a reduction in head. Eventually the head and efficiency will
drop steeply, until the compressor will not produce any head at all. This operating scenario
is called choke.
Stall
If the flow through a compressor at constant speed is reduced, the losses in all
aerodynamic components will increase. Eventually the flow in one of the aerodynamic
components will separate (Figure 6-19 shows such a flow separation for an airfoil).
Stall in the rotor or stator blades is due to the fact that the direction of the incoming
flow (relative to the rotating blade) changes with the flow rate through the compressor.
Therefore, a reduction in flow will lead to an increased mismatch between the direction of
the incoming flow the blades or vanes were designed for and the actual direction of the
incoming flow. At one point this mismatch becomes so significant that the flow through the
blades breaks down.
Flow separation can take on the characteristics of a rotating stall. Rotating stall occurs if the
regions of flow separation are not stationary, but move in the direction of the rotor. Rotating
stall can often be detected from increasing vibration signatures in the sub-synchronous
region.

Choke
At high flow the head and efficiency will drop steeply, until the compressor will not produce
any head at all. This operating scenario is called choke. The efficiency starts to drop off
at higher flows, because a higher flow causes higher internal velocities, and thus higher
friction losses. The increased mismatch between design and actual incidence further
increases the losses. The head reduction is a result of both the increased losses and the
basic kinematic relationships in a compressor (Figure 6-18). 'Choke' and 'Stonewall' are
different terms for the same phenomenon.
Surge
At flows lower than the stability limit, practical operation of the compressor is not possible.
At flows on the left of the stability limit, the compressor cannot produce the same head
as at the stability limit. It is therefore no longer able to overcome the pressure differential
between suction and discharge side. Because the gas volumes upstream (at discharge
pressure) is now at a higher pressure than the compressor can achieve, the gas will follow
its natural tendency to flow from the higher to the lower pressure: The flow through the
compressor is reversed. Due to the flow reversal, the system pressure at the discharge
side will be reduced over time, and eventually the compressor will be able to overcome the
pressure on the discharge side again. If no corrective action is taken, the compressor will
again operate to the left of the stability limit and the above described cycle is repeated: The
compressor is in surge. The observer will detect strong oscillations of pressure and flow in
the compression system.
It must be noted that the violence, frequency and the onset of surge are a function of the
interaction between the compressor and the inlet system, and discharge volumes.
If we operate a compressor at changing speeds, each constant speed curves forms part of
an overall map (Figure 6-20).
P2
P1
PRESSURE RATIO
Stall
Line
105
100
95 %NGP
90
MASS FLOW W
Figure 6-20. Typical compressor performance map

Variable Inlet and Stator Vanes
Many modern gas turbines use variable inlet guide vanes and variable stator vanes in the
engine compressor. Adjustable vanes allow to alter the stage characteristics of compressor
stages (see explanation on Euler Equations) because they change the head-making
capability of the stage by increasing or reducing the pre-swirl contribution. This means that
for a prescribed pressure ratio they also alter the flow through the compressor (Figure 6-21).
It is therefore possible to change the flow through the compressor without altering its
speed. There are three important applications:
1. During startup of the engine it is possible to keep the compressor from operating in
surge
2. The airflow can be controlled to maintain a constant fuel-to-air ratio in the combustor for
dry low NOx applications on single-shaft machines.
3. Two-shaft engines can be kept from dropping in gas generator speed at ambient
temperatures higher than the match temperature, i.e. the gas generator turbine will
continue to operate at its highest efficiency.
3.5
Ideal
Actual
3
Reference Characteristics
2.5
2
Characteristics
HEAD
with Positive
1.5 IGV Angle
0.5
Flow at Positive Flow at Reference
IGV Angle IGV Angle
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
FLOW
Figure 6-21. Characteristics of an Axial Compressor Stage with Variable Guide Vanes
Turbine
We have described earlier (Figure 6-9) the characteristic a turbine exhibits regarding the
flow through of said turbine versus the pressure ratio. A choked turbine nozzle therefore
limits the flow a turbine can accommodate.
To understand the effects of changing the power turbine speed, we have to consider the
velocity polygons. Figure 6-22 shows velocity polygons for a reaction turbine. Leaving
the flow area and flow constant, since we do not change the flow condition from the gas
producer, the axial portion of the velocity remains unchanged. Also, the exit flow angles of
both rotor (in the absolute frame) and stator (in the rotating frame) will not change, since
they are set by the geometry of the blades. The tip speed will change from u to u* due to
the change in speed.

To understand the effects of changing the power turbine speed, we have to consider the velocity polygo
24 shows velocity polygons for a reaction turbine. Leaving the flow area and flow constant, since we do
the flow condition from the gas producer, the axial portion of the velocity remains unchanged. Also, the
angles of both rotor (in the absolute frame) and stator (in the rotating frame) will not change, since they
the geometry of the blades. The tip speed will change from u to u* due to the change in speed.
u* u
w2* DESIGN
c2 REDUCED
w1* SPEED
w1
c2'
w2 c1*= c1
Figure6-22.
Figure 6-24.Velocity
Velocity Polygons
Polygons for for a Turbine
a Turbine Stage
Stage
We can see
Wethat
can for
seethe
thatdesign
for thepoint:
design point:
cu2 ≅ 0
cu1 ≅ u
h ≅ u2
The
The change in speed
change in from N
speed from N to
to N*
N* yields:
yields:
≅ u** - u
u2 ≅ u - u
ccu2
≅u
u1 ≅ u
ccu1
h≅ u* (( ccu1* -- ccu2* )) ≅
≅u
* * * *
u* (2u - u*)
h u1 u2 ≅ u (2u - u*)
And
And with P= W ••• h,
with P= h, we
we get:
And with P= W
W h, we get:
get:
* * * *
P
P* = h
h* = N
N * N
N * 2
= = 2
2 -
- [
[ ]] 2
P
P h
h N
N N
N
This correlation yields the

speed/power relationship
for the turbine stage and 1.2
is plotted in Figure 6-23. 1.0

The drop in power for off- 0.8
optimum speeds is, in reality,
0.6
somewhat larger since we
P*/P
0.4
neglected the reduction of
the turbine efficiency due to 0.2
higher incidence angles and 0

higher swirl in the exit flow. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
N*/N
The pressure ratio over the
turbine, therefore, remains
almost constant for a wide Figure 6-23. Resulting Speed/Power Characteristics for a
flow range. Turbine Stage (assuming a constant actual inflow)

ZERO STAGING AND SCALING
The use of proven components in the development or uprating existing engines has many
advantages regarding development risk and performance prediction. Two design strategies
foster this goal: zero staging and scaling.
Zero staging is used extensively for engine compressors (Figure 6-24). By adding a front
stage to an existing compressor, the existing compressor will see the same flow as before,
but at a higher pressure level (Figure 6-25). Therefore, its performance remains unchanged.
However, the addition of the front or zero-stage increases both the pressure ratio and mass
flow of the compressor, thus increasing engine output.
Figure 6-24. Zero-Staged Engine Compressor
Figure 6-25. Zero Staging of Existing Compressor to Improve Flow Capacity and Pressure Ratio

The idea behind scaling is that if the engine or engine component is scaled linearly while
reducing the speed by the same amount, and the cycle parameters (such as pressures
and temperatures) are left unchanged, then the aerodynamic characteristics, the stress
and temperature load levels and, thus, the component life remain the same. However, the
The idea
power output behind scaling
will increase by theissquare
that ifof
thethe
engine
scaleor engine
factor. component
A larger engineiscan
scaled linearly while reduc
therefore
speed by the same amount, and the cycle parameters (such as pressures and temperatures)
be developed very rapidly and with little risk, since it is based on proven technology
are left uncha
the aerodynamic characteristics, the stress and temperature load levels and, thus, the component life rem
(Figure 6-26).
same. However, the power output will increase by the square of the scale factor. A larger engine can the
developed very rapidly and with little risk, since it is based on proven technology (Figure 6-28).
MAINTAIN
1
• Cycle Parameters Speed –
Scale SF
• Component Temperature
and Stress
Factor = Power – (SF)2
(SF)
• Component Life
Airflow – (SF)2
TAURUS 70 TITAN 130
Figure 6-28. Gas Turbine Component Scaling

Figure 6-26. Gas Turbine Component Scaling
Combustion
COMBUSTION
The gas turbine combustor is the place where fuel is injected (through fuel injectors) into
The gas turbine combustor is the place where fuel is injected (through fuel injectors) into the air previou
the air previously compressed in the engine compressor. The released fuel energy Ef
compressed in the engine compressor. The released fuel energy Ef causes the temperature to rise from T
causes the temperature to rise from T2 to T3:
c~pe (T3 − T2 ) = E f W f / W
˜
The heat capacity c~pe in the equation above is a suitable average heat capacity. Modern
The heat capacity c pe in the equation above is a suitable average heat capacity. Modern combustors co
combustors convert the energy stored in the fuel almost completely into heat. (Typical
energy stored in the fuel almost completely into heat.Typical combustion efficiencies for natural gas bu
combustion efficiencies for natural gas burning engines range above 99.9%). This is
engines range above 99.9%). This is also evident from the fact that the results of incomplete combustio
also evident from the fact that the results of incomplete combustion, namely CO and
CO and unburned hydrocarbons, are emitted only in the parts per million level. Only some part of the co
unburned hydrocarbons,
air participates directly inare
theemitted only inwhile
combustion, the parts per millionairlevel.
the remaining Only
is later someinto
mixed partthe gas stream for
of
purposes. The temperature profile in a typical combustor is shown in Figure 6-29.air
the compressed air participates directly in the combustion, while the remaining is local temperatu
The
later mixed
highest into
in the the gas
flame zone, stream for cooling
also known purposes.
as primary TheCooling
zone. temperature
of the profile in a typical
combustor liner, and the additio
combustor
the combustoris shown
bring in
theFigure 6-27. The local
gas temperature down temperatures are highest
to an acceptable combustor in the flame
exit zone,
temperature. The flow w
incurknown
also a pressure loss due
as primary to friction
zone. Coolingandof mixing. Todaysliner,
the combustor industrial
and the gas turbines
addition of use either
air into thediffusion flam
premix combustions
combustor systems
bring the gas (Figure 6-30).
temperature down In to aandiffusion flame
acceptable combustor,
combustor exitthe fuel is injected into the
temperature.
via the injector. It mixes with combustion air in the combustor, and the flame burns where is finds stoich
conditions. Stoichiometric conditions mean, that for each carbon and each hydrogen atom in the fuel, th
enough oxygen available to form CO2 and water. Ina lean premix combustor, the fuel is mixed with air
injector barrel prior to entering the combustor.Chapter
This allows to Turbine
6: Gas create aComponents
lean mixture,| at a prescribed
139 fuel
where there is a surplus of oxygen for the hydrogen and carbon atoms in the fuel.
The flow will also incur a pressure loss due to friction and mixing. Today’s industrial gas
turbines use either diffusion flame or lean premix combustions systems (Figure 6-28). In a
diffusion flame combustor, the fuel is injected into the combustor via the injector. It mixes
with combustion air in the combustor, and the flame burns where it finds stoichiometric
conditions. Stoichiometric conditions mean, that for each carbon and each hydrogen atom
in the fuel, there is just enough oxygen available to form CO2 and water. In a lean premix
combustor, the fuel is mixed with air in the injector barrel prior to entering the combustor.
This allows creation of a lean mixture, at a prescribed fuel-to-air ratio, where there is a
surplus of oxygen for the hydrogen and carbon atoms in the fuel.
40%
20% COOLING 20%
8%
80% DILUTION
20% 12%
PRIMARY ZONE DILUTION ZONE

TEMPERATURE
Cente
rline G
as Te
mper
ature
Average Combustor Exit Temperature
AXIAL DISTANCE
Figure 6-27. Axial temperature distribution in a combustor
AIRFLOW 70%
30%
Conventional
FUEL Same Inlet

Turbine
FUEL Temperature
Lean-Premixed
50%
AIRFLOW 50%
Figure 6-28. Conventional and Lean-Premix Combustion Systems

Blade Cooling
As pressure ratios and firing temperatures are increased to improve simple-cycle

efficiencies, the role of turbine section cooling technology also becomes a critical issue.
TRIT above 1100°C (2000°F) are now common in industrial gas turbines, while acceptable
metal temperatures are still limited at about 900 to 1000°C (1600 to 1800°F). The blade
temperature impacts mechanical strength (creep, fatigue) as well as oxidation and
corrosion resistance, and thus life. As firing temperatures increase, more of the stationary
nozzles and rotating blades must be actively cooled; and as pressure ratios increase, the
temperature of the cooling air, typically bled from the compressor, also increases. Increases
in cooling airflow cause losses in cycle thermal efficiency. For a modern industrial turbine,
the blade-cooling airflow is about 10 to 15% of the total compressor flow. A major design
challenge in achieving high turbine efficiency is to minimize turbine-cooling airflow with the
best utilization of its cooling potential.
The cooling air is taken from the engine compressor, and is guided to a variety of cooling
locations in the turbine section as shown in Figure 6-29.
Figure 6-29. Turbine Air Cooling Circuits
In some designs, steam is used HOT GAS

rather than air. There are a number Convection Cooling
of different ways the cooling is COOLANT

accomplished (Figure 6-30 and 6-31):
HOT GAS
The air is pushed through the inside
of the blade with the goal to remove Transpiration Cooling
as much heat from the blade surface
as possible. To this end, ribs are used COOLANT
to increase the turbulence, and thus HOT GAS
the heat transfer (convection cooling),
Film Cooling
and jets of air are blown though small
holes to impinge on the blade inside COOLANT
(impingement cooling). Another
Figure 6-30. Overview of Various Cooling Techniques

design brings cold air from the inside of the blade through small holes to the outer blade
surface, this generating a thin layer of cooler air between the blade surface and the hot gas
(film cooling). The amount of air used impacts the performance of the gas turbine, because
some (but not all) of the work to compress the air is lost if air is used for cooling purposes.
FIRST-STAGE
NOZZLE
CROSS-SECTION
COOLING
AIR
HOT GAS SHOWER

FLOW HEAD HOT GAS
FILM FLOW
HOLES
ENTRY
SLOT
FIRST-STAGE
TURBINE BLADE
CROSS-SECTION
COOLING AIR INLET
Figure 6-31. Practical Examples of Blade Cooling Concepts
Blade and nozzle cooling techniques have advanced considerably. Common features of gas
turbine blade cooling systems include:
• Cooled Stage 1 and Stage 2 nozzle vanes (additional vanes may be cooled depending on
TRIT)
• Cooled Stage 1 blades (additional blades may be cooled depending on TRIT)
• Blade cooling air delivery system based on a pre-swirler that accelerates air in the
tangential direction in order to reduce air temperature when it enters the cooled blades
• Cooled nozzle and tip shroud support structures (nozzle case, diaphragms)
• Cooled turbine rotor assemblies
In addition to component temperature reduction, another important role for the cooling
system is to control the relative position between rotor and stator, maintaining turbine
blade tip clearances. Tip clearance and corresponding gas turbine performance degradation
during long-term operation are concerns among all gas turbine users and manufacturers.
Design concepts to address this challenge include the highly effective cooling of the
stationary components supporting the nozzles and tip shrouds. Evidence from direct tip
clearance measurements performed during instrumented turbine tests at various transient
and steady-state operating conditions as well as extensive field experience proves a
remarkable stability in blade tip clearances and associated turbine performance.

First-stage nozzle vanes and blades operate at the highest cycle gas temperatures and
experience large transient thermal gradients. Accordingly, cooling them presents the most
difficult task in turbine cooling system design. Typical thermal loads for the blades, such as
the thermal boundary conditions on external surfaces, depends on the local heat transfer
coefficients and the gas temperature, which in turn depends on TRIT. The heat transfer
from the hot gas to the blade surface depends on the velocity distribution around the blade
and, in particular, on the state of the blade boundary layers. How much heat is transferred
from the hot exhaust gas to the blade surface depends on the state of the boundary layer,
and whether it is laminar, turbulent, transitional or separated.
Internal airfoil cooling is often employed to counterbalance thermal loads to keep the
metal temperatures at an acceptable level. Figures 6-30 and 6-31 show various cooling
techniques for advanced airfoils, including:
• Convective cooling with internal heat transfer augmenters (turbulence promoting devices
such as pin fins and trip strips), where cooling air is circulated inside the blade.
• Impingement cooling, where cooling jets impinge on surfaces inside the blade, which is
highly effective for the leading edge.
• Film cooling through discrete holes for the entire airfoil and particularly for the leading
edge vicinity, which is also known as “shower head” cooling.
• Transpiration cooling is another form of film cooling. Instead of discrete holes, the
cooling air is transpired through highly porous blade surfaces.
• Trailing edge slots. Cooling air is brought in at the root or tip of the airfoil and then
discharged at the other end of the airfoil or through the trailing edge or film ejecting
holes.
0.8 Convection/Impingment/
Film Cooling
COOLING EFFECTIVENESS, η
0.7 1260˚C (2300˚F)

Convection/
Impingment
0.6 1177˚C (2150˚F)
Convection/ 1149˚C (2100˚F)
0.5 Cooling 1121˚C (2050˚F)
1121˚C (2050˚F)
0.4
1010˚C (1850˚F)
0.3
0.2
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
COOLING FLOW PARAMETER, WC 002-057M
Figure 6-32. Blade Cooling Effectiveness

The three latter methods will alter the flow around the airfoil, thus potentially causing
additional losses. Cooling effectiveness is defined by:
T gas - T l.e. ,met
η=
T gas - -T l.e. ,met
η = T gas T cool
T gas - T cool
where:
where:
where:
Tgas = gas
Tgas = Mainstream Mainstream
temperaturegas temperature
T le,met =
Tgas Leading edgegas
= Mainstream metal temperature
temperature
Tl.e., met = Leading
T edge
= metal temperature
Cooling air temperature
Tle,met = Leading edge metal temperature
cool
Tcool air=temperature
Tcool = Cooling Cooling air temperature
and, from the amount of cooling air necessary:
and,
and,from from thethe amount
amount of cooling air necessary:
of cooling air necessary:
W
δ = cool
WW
δ = cool
Different
Different W types types of cooling can becan
of cooling usedbetousedincrease the cooling
to increase the effectiveness, thus either
cooling effectiveness, thus either allowing
allowing
higher higher
gas gas temperatures
temperatures for forgiven
a a given amount of
amount of cooling
cooling air,air,
or reduced
or reduced amount of
amount of cooling air for
Different types of cooling can be used to increase the cooling effectiveness, thus either allowing
cooling
design air for a design
gas temperatures gas
temperature (Figure temperature (Figure
6-35). 6-32).
higher gas for a given amount of cooling air, or reduced amount of cooling air for
design gas temperature (Figure 6-35).
COMBUSTOR LINER COOLING
COMBUSTOR
Just
COMBUSTORthe turbine LINER COOLING
blades
LINER andCOOLING
nozzles, the combustor liner has to survive at temperatures that are
higher
Just thethan turbine the acceptable
blades and material
nozzles, temperature.
the combustor It liner
is also has subject
to survive to intense thermal cycles
at temperatures as th
that are
Just as the turbine blades and nozzles, the combustor liner has to survive at temperatures
temperatures
higher than the change when the gas turbine is started, changes load or is shut down.
that are higher thanacceptable
the acceptable material
materialtemperature.
temperature. ItItisis also
also subject
subject to intense thermal cycles as th
to intense
A variety
temperatures of technologies
change when are
the used
gas to protect
turbine is
thermal cycles as the temperatures change when the gas turbine is started, changes
the combustor
started, changes liner
load from
or isexcessive
shut down.
load
temperatures
caused
A isvariety
or
by
shut down.
the high convective and radiative heat loads
of technologies are used to protect the combustor liner from excessive temperaturesin the combustor. Cooling air is either
introduced to serve as a blanket between the combustion
caused by the high convective and radiative heat loads in the combustor. Cooling air gas and the metal surface (louver,
is eitherfilm
A variety of technologies
transpiration
introduced toandserve asarea blanket
effusion used to protect
cooling) betweenor the combustor
to remove
the combustion linerfrom
heat from gas excessive
theand linerthequickly by cooling
metal surface its film
(louver,
temperatures
backside caused
(impingement by the high
and convective
augmented-backsideand radiative heat
transpiration and effusion cooling) or to remove heat from the liner quickly by cooling its loads
cooling, in the
often combustor.
in connection with thermal
Cooling air is either on introduced to serve as a blanket betweenexit the combustion
barrier
backside coatings
(impingement the liner).
and As future
augmented-backside combustor cooling, often ingas
temperature and
requirements
connection withincrease,
thermal the
the metal
percentage surface of (louver,
available film,
airtranspiration
for cooling and effusion
decreases. cooling)
This or to
mandates remove anheat from in cooling
increase
barrier coatings on the liner). As future combustor exit temperature requirements increase, the
the liner quickly by cooling its backside (impingement and augmented-backside cooling,
effectiveness.
percentage of available air for cooling decreases. This mandates an increase in cooling
often in connection with thermal barrier coatings on the liner). As future combustor exit
effectiveness.
temperature requirements increase, the percentage of available air for cooling decreases.
Earlier combustor liners (Fig 6-36) used louvers to bring cooling air jets between the combusto
This mandates an increase in cooling effectiveness.
liner
Earlier and the combustion
combustor liners (Figgases. Theused
6-36) method louversleadstotobring a very non-uniform
cooling temperature
air jets between the distributio
combusto
on
Earlierthe
liner and line,
combustor which causes a
liners (Figure gases.
the combustion number
6-33) used of
Thelouvers issues:
method It
to bring
leads requires
cooling
to a air relatively
veryjetsnon-uniform large amounts
between the temperature of cooling air
distributio
to
onkeep
combustor
the line,all metal
liner and the
which surfaces
combustion
causes aatnumber
angases.
acceptable
Theissues:
of temperature,
method Itleads to a very
requires and the colder
non-uniform
relatively largeareas tend to
amounts of quench
cooling loca
air
combustion
temperature reactions,
distribution on thus
the potentially
line, which causes increasing
a number CO
of and
issues:
to keep all metal surfaces at an acceptable temperature, and the colder areas tend to quench loca unburned
It requires hydrocarbon
relatively emissions. The
large amounts of
development
combustion cooling
of
reactions, air thus
to keep
effusion-air all metal has
cooling
potentially surfaces at an acceptable
enhanced
increasing COcombustor temperature,
and unburned liner life and the reducing
while
hydrocarbon cooling
emissions. Thea
colder areas
requirements tend to
and, quench local
therefore, combustion
the formation reactions,of thus
CO potentially
in
development of effusion-air cooling has enhanced combustorx liner life while reducing cooling a low NO increasing
combustionCO and systems. In effusion
unburned hydrocarbon emissions. The development of effusion-air
cooling,
requirements the cooling air is introduced
and, therefore, the formation through of small
CO lowcooling
in holes in xthe
NO hascombustor
enhanced wall and emerges as
combustion systems. In effusion
combustor
closely liner life while reducing cooling air requirements and, therefore, the formation of
cooling, the cooling air is introduced through small holes in the combustor protective
spaced small jets on the hot gas side. These jets coalesce to form a layer of as
wall and emerges
CO in
coolant low NO combustion
overx thesmall entire systems.
surface, In effusion cooling, the cooling air is introduced through
closely spaced jets on thethereby
hot gas reducing
side. These convective
jets coalesce heat to transfer
form atoprotective
the combustor wall
layer of
small
(Figure holes in the combustor wall and emerges as closely spaced small jets on the hot gas
6-37).
coolant over the entire surface, thereby reducing convective heat transfer to the combustor wall
side. These jets coalesce to form a protective layer of coolant over the entire surface, thereby
(Figure 6-37).
reducing convective heat transfer to the combustor wall (Figure 6-34).

950
METAL TEMPERATURE, C (F)

(1742) Fuel Injector Plane
750
(1382)
550
(1382)
350
(662)
CONVECTOR
COMBUSTOR
OUTER WALL
Figure 6-33. Non-Uniform Liner Temperatures with Louver Cooling
COMBUSTOR EFFUSION CONVECTOR

WALL HOLES
HOT GAS
COOLING
AIR
FILM STARTING
SLOT
Figure 6-34. Effusion-Cooled Liner Concept
Augmented backside-cooled liners use convective cooling of the liner’s outer surface
with internal heat transfer augmenters (turbulence promoting devices such as pin fins and
trip strips) to avoid cold spots on the liner wall, thus reducing CO and UHC production
(Figure 6-35). However, the typically higher wall temperatures require thermal-barrier
coating.

TRIP STRIP
COOLING
AIR DILUTION AIR
COMBUSTOR LINER
ir
Fuel/A
FUEL
INJECTOR
Figure 6-35. Augmented Backside-Cooled Liner

148 | Chapter 7: The Gas Turbine as a System
CHAPTER 7
THE GAS TURBINE AS A SYSTEM
The major components of a gas turbine include the compressor, the combustor, and the
turbine.
The compressor (usually an axial flow compressor, but some smaller gas turbines also use
centrifugal compressors) compresses the air to several times atmospheric pressure. In
the combustor, fuel is injected into the pressurized air from the compressor and burned,
thus increasing the temperature. In the turbine section, energy is extracted from the hot
pressurized gas, thus reducing pressure and temperature. A significant part of the turbine’s
energy (from 50 - 60 percent) is used to power the compressor, and the remaining power
can be used to drive generators or mechanical equipment (gas compressors and pumps).
Industrial gas turbines are built with a number of different arrangements for the major
components:
• Single-shaft gas turbines have all compressor and turbine stages running on the same
shaft (Figure 7-1)
• Two-shaft gas turbines consist of two sections: the gas producer (or gas generator) with
the gas turbine compressor, the combustor, and the high pressure portion of the turbine
on one shaft and a power turbine on a second shaft (Figure 7-1). In this configuration,
the high pressure or gas producer turbine only drives the compressor, while the low
pressure or power turbine, working on a separate shaft at speeds independent of the
gas producer, can drive mechanical equipment.
• Multiple spool engines: Industrial gas turbines derived from aircraft engines sometimes
have two compressor sections (the HP and the LP compressor), each driven by a
Output
Shaft Power
SINGLE SHAFT
Expansion
Turbine
Combustion
Compression
TWO SHAFT
Output
Shaft Power
Figure 7-1. Single-and Two-shaft gas turbines
Chapter 7: The Gas Turbine as a System | 149

separate turbine section (the LP compressor is driven by an LP turbine by a shaft
that rotates concentric within the shaft that is used for the HP turbine to drive the
HP compressor), and running at different speeds. The energy left in the gas after this
process is used to drive a power turbine (on a third, separate shaft), or the LP shaft is
used as output shaft. In general, all the operating characteristics described below also
apply to this type of engines.
The Brayton or gas turbine cycle (Figure 7-2) involves compression of air (or another
working gas), the subsequent heating of this gas (either by injecting and burning a fuel or by
indirectly heating the gas) without a change in pressure, followed by the expansion of the
hot, pressurized gas. This was described in Chapter 1. The compression process consumes
power, while the expansion process extracts power from the gas. Some of the power from
the expansion process can be used to drive the compression process. If the compression
and expansion process are performed efficiently enough, the process will produce
useable power output. The process is thus substantially different from a steam turbine
(Rankine) cycle that does not require the compression process, but derives the pressure
increase from external heating. The process is similar to processes used in Diesel or Otto
reciprocating engines that also involve compression, combustion, and expansion. However,
in a reciprocating engine, compression, combustion, and expansion occur at the same
place (the cylinder), but sequentially, in a gas turbine, they occur in dedicated components,
but all at the same time.
The compressed air from the compressor enters the gas turbine combustor. Here, the fuel
(natural gas, natural gas mixtures, hydrogen mixtures, diesel, kerosene and many others) is
injected into the pressurized air and burns in a continuous flame. The flame temperature is
usually so high that any direct contact between the combustor material and the flame has
to be avoided, and the combustor has to be cooled, using air from the engine compressor.
Additional air from the engine compressor is mixed into the combustion products for
further cooling. An important topic is the combustion process and emissions control: Unlike
in reciprocating engines, the gas turbine combustion is continuous. This has the advantage
that the combustion process can be made very efficient, with very low levels of products
of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide (CO) or unburned hydrocarbons (UHC).
Lowering the amount of NOx, a reaction product occurring at the high temperatures in
flame can also successfully accomplished.
The conversion of heat released by burning fuel into mechanical energy in a gas turbine is
achieved by first compressing air in an air compressor, then injecting and burning fuel at
(ideally) constant pressure, and then expanding the hot gas in turbine (Figure 7-2, Brayton
Cycle). The turbine provides the necessary power to operate the compressor. Whatever
power is left is used as the mechanical output of the engine. This thermodynamic cycle
can be displayed in an enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram (Figure 7-2). The air is compressed
in the engine compressor from state 1 to state 2. The heat added in the combustor brings
the cycle from 2 to 3. The hot gas is then expanded. In a single-shaft turbine, the expansion
is from 3 to 7, while in a two-shaft engine, the gas is expanded from 3 to 5 in the gas
generator turbine and afterwards from 5 to 7 in the power turbine. The difference between
Lines 1-2 and 3-7 describes the work output of the turbine, i.e. most of the work generated
by the expansion 3-7 is used to provide the work 1-2 to drive the compressor.
In a two-shaft engine, the distances from 1 to 2 and from 3 to 5 must be approximately

combustion process and emissions control: Unlike in reciprocating engines, the gas turbine combustion i
a reaction product occurring at the high temperatures in flame can also successfully accomplished.
This has the advantage that the combustion process can be made very efficient, with very low levels o
incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide (CO) or unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). Lowering the am
a reaction product occurring at the high temperatures in flame can also successfully accomplished.
equal, because the compressor work has to be provided by the gas generator turbine work
output. Line 5-7 describes the work output of the power turbine.
Figure 7- 2: Brayton Cycle
The Figure
conversion7- of
2: heat
Brayton Cycle
released by burning fuel into mechanical energy in a gas turbine is achieved by f
Temperature
compressing air in an air compressor, then injecting and burning fuel at (ideally) constant pressure, and
3
expanding the hot gasTinmax turbine (Brayton Cycle, Figure 7-2). The turbine provides the necessary powe
The conversion of heat released by burningpfuel into mechanical energy in a gas turbine is achieved by f
()
5
the compressor. Whatever power is left is used as the mechanical output of the engine. This thermodyn
compressing air in an air compressor, then injecting and burning2 fuel at (ideally) constant pressure, and
can be displayed in an enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram (Figure 7-2). The air is compressed in the engin
expanding the hot gas in turbine (Brayton Cycle, Figure 7-2). The turbine provides the necessary powe
from state 1 to state
= p 2. The heat added
5 1
in the combustor brings the cycle from 2 to 3. The hot gas
7 is then
the compressor. pWhatever
2 3 power is left is pused
1
= p as the mechanical output of the engine. This thermodyn
7
In a single shaft turbine, the expansion is from 3 to 7, while in a two shaft engine, 3the5 gas is expanded fr
can be displayed in an enthalpy-entropy 7
(h-s) diagram (Figure 7-2). The air is compressed in the engin
the gas generator
2 turbine and afterwards from 5 to 7 in the power turbine. The difference between Lin
from state 1 to state 2. The heat added in the combustor brings the cycle from 2 to 3. The hot gas is then
3-7 describes the work output of the turbine, i.e. most of the work generated by the expansion 3-7 is us
In a single shaft turbine, the expansion is from 3 to 7, while in a two shaft engine, the gas is expanded fr
provide the work 1-2 to drive the compressor.
the gas generator turbine and afterwards from 5 to 7 in the power turbine. The difference between Lin
In a two 1shaft engine , the distances from entropy
1 to 2 and from 3 to 5 must be approximately equal, because t
3-7 describes the work output of the turbine, i.e. most of the work generated by the expansion 3-7 is us
compressor work has to be provided by the gas generator turbine work output. Line 5-7 describes the w
provide
Figure theBrayton
7-2. work 1-2 to drive the compressor.
Cycle
of the power turbine.
In a two shaft engine , the distances from 1 to 2 and from 3 to 5 must be approximately equal, because t
compressor work has to be provided by the gas generator turbine work output. Line 5-7 describes the w
For aa perfect
Forthe perfect gas,
gas, enthalpy
enthalpy and
and temperature
temperatureare arerelated
relatedby
by
of power turbine.
∆h a=perfect
For c p ∆T gas, enthalpy and temperature are related by
For the actual process, the enthalpy change ∆h for any step can be related to a temperature rise ∆T by a
For the actual process, the enthalpy change ∆h for any step can be related to a temperature
∆ h
choice= cofp ∆
rise ∆T by
T capacity cp for each of the steps.
a heat
a suitable choice of a heat capacity cp for each of the steps.
We can thus describe the entire process (assuming that the mass flow is the same in the entire machine,
For the actual process, the enthalpy change ∆h for any step can be related to a temperature rise ∆T by a
neglecting the fuel mass flow and bleed flows, and further assuming that the respective heat capacities c
We canofthus
choice describe
a heat capacity thec entire process
for each of the(assuming
steps. that the mass flow is the same in the
cp,a are suitable averages )p
entire
We canmachine, i.e. neglecting
thus describe the entirethe fuel mass
process flow and
(assuming thatbleed flows,
the mass and
flow is further
the sameassuming
in the entire machine,
neglecting
that the respective heat capacities cp, cp,e (for the inlet air) cp,a (for the exhaust gas) are heat capacities c
the fuel mass flow and bleed flows, and further assuming that the respective
− c pare
cp,a 2 − T1 ) +
,a(Tsuitable c pe (T3 −) T7 ) = P / W
averages
suitable averages.
c p,e(T3 − T2 ) = E f W f / W
− c p ,a(T2 − T1 ) + c pe (T3 − T7 ) = P / W
c p,e(T3 − T2 ) = E f W f / W
In this equation, the first term is the work input by the compressor, and the third term
describes is the work extracted by the turbine section. The second term the temperature
In this equation,
increase the first
from burning theterm
fuel is
in the
thework input by the compressor, and the third term describes is the w
combustor.
by the turbine section. The second term the temperature increase from burning the fuel in the combustor
For two-shaft engines, where the gas generator turbine has to balance the power
For two shaft of
requirements engines, where the gas
the compressor, andgenerator
the usefulturbine
power has to balance
output the power
is generated requirements
by the power of the com
the useful power output is generated by the power turbine,
turbine, we can re-arrange the equation above to find:
we can re-arrange the equation above to find
− c p,a (T2 − T1 ) = c pe (T3 − T5 )

c p,e(T5 − T7 ) = P / W
This
This relationship
relationshipneglects
neglects mechanical
mechanical losses and the
losses and the difference
difference between
betweenthethegas
gasflow
flowinto the compresso
into the compressor
the turbine due to theand into the
addition of turbine dueflow.
fuel mass to the additionthe
However, of fuel massinaccuracies
resulting flow. However, are small, and don
understanding of the general principles.
The compressor and the turbine sections of the engine follow the thermodynamic relationships between
− c p,p,aa (T22 − T11 ) = c pe ( 3 − T55 )
pe T3
c−−p,e
cc(p,Ta ((TT−2 T−− TT
p,e p,a55 2 7 7 1
) 1=)) = pe ((T
= c/cW
P 3 − T5 )
pe T3 − T5 )
cc p,e((TT5 −− TT7 )) == P P //WW
p,e 5 7
This relationship neglects mechanical losses and the difference between the gas flow into the compressor and into
the turbine
the resultingdueinaccuracies are small,
to the addition of fueland
massdon’t addHowever,
flow. to the understanding
the resulting of the generalare small, and don’t add to th
inaccuracies
This
This relationship
relationship neglects
neglects mechanical
mechanical losses and the difference between the gas flow into the compressor and into
principles.
understanding of the general principles.losses and the difference between the gas flow into the compressor and into
the
the turbine
turbine due
due toto the
the addition
addition of
of fuel
fuel mass
mass flow.
flow. However,
However, the
the resulting
resulting inaccuracies
inaccuracies are
are small,
small, and
and don’t
don’t add
add to
to th
th
understanding
understanding of
of the
the general
general principles.
principles.
The compressor and the turbine sections of the engine follow the thermodynamic
compressor and the turbine sections of the engine follow the thermodynamic relationships between pressure
relationships
increase
The between
and work pressure
input, increase
which are for theand work input,
compressor which are for the compressor
The compressor
compressor and and the
the turbine
turbine sections
sections of
of the
the engine
engine follow
follow the
the thermodynamic
thermodynamic relationships
relationships between
between pressure
pressure
increase and work input, which are for the
increase and work input, which are for the compressorcompressor
γγ −
 −11 
∆h cp,a cp T   γγ
 22  γγ −−11 − 1
= p,a (T22 − T11 ) = p 11
p
P=   γ 
∆ ccp,a cc p ηTT1c  pp1122  γ − 1
P == W == Wp,a((TT22 −− TT11 )) == W η 1
∆hh W
W W
 p1  − 1
P p c
W W W ηc c  p1  
and the
and the turbine
turbine
 
and
and the
the turbine
turbine γγ −
  γγ 
−11
∆h cp,e c 
= p,e (T33 − T77 ) = p ⋅ η tt ⋅ T33 1 −  77  γγγ−−11 
p
P=
p
∆ ccp,e cc p   pp73  γ 

p,e (T − T ) = p ⋅η ⋅ T 
W h
∆h = W W
P = W = W (T33 − T77 ) = W ⋅ ηtt ⋅ T33 11−−  p 7  
P = 3
  p3  
  3  
W W W
The efficiency
The efficiency of
of aa gas turbine is
gas turbine is defined
defined byby comparing
comparing the amount of
the amount of power
power contained
contained in
in the fuel fed into the
The efficiency of a gas turbine is defined by comparing the amount of power contained in the fuel fed into the
the fuelwith
engine fed into the engine
the amount with the
of power amount
yielded. of thermal
The power yielded. Theisthermal
efficiency thus efficiency is
The
The efficiency of aa gas turbine is defined by comparing the amount of power
power contained
contained in
in the
the fuel
fuel fed
fed into
into the
thus efficiency of gas turbine is defined by comparing the amount
P the amount of power yielded. The thermal efficiency is thus of the
η =
engine
η thth =
engine with
with the amount of power yielded. The thermal efficiency is thus
W fP
PE f
η
ηthth == W f E f
Wf E f
f f
and the heat rate is
and
and the
and the heat
the heatrate
heat rateis
rate isis
1 W ff E ff
HR = =
η11thth WW ffPE
E ff
HR =
HR = η = P =
ηthth
In this discussion,
PT3, TIT and TRIT will be (loosely) referenced as firing temperatures. The differences, which lie
In this discussion, T3, TIT and TRIT will be (loosely) referenced as firing temperatures. The differences, which lie
simply in fact that temperatures
In this discussion,
discussion, T3, TIT upstream of the first turbine nozzle (TIT) are differentThe from the temperatures
In
In this
this discussion, T3, TITandandTTRIT
RIT
willwill
be (loosely) referenced
be (loosely) referenced as firing
as temperatures.
as firing temperatures. The differences, which
which lie
downstream of the T3,
firstTIT and (TRIT)
nozzle TRIT will
duebeto (loosely)
the coolingreferenced
of the nozzles, firing
aretemperatures.
not importantThe for differences,
the understanding lie
of
differences,
simply
simply in
in fact
factwhich
that
that lie simply in fact
temperatures
temperatures that temperatures
upstream
upstream of
of the
the first
first upstream
turbine
turbine nozzle
nozzleof the
(TIT)
(TIT)first
areturbine
are nozzle
different
different from
from the
the temperatures
temperatures
the topic of this paper. Appendix A shows an example for a typical GT cycle.
(TIT) are different
downstream
downstream of thefrom
of the first the
first temperatures
nozzle
nozzle (TRIT)
(TRIT) dueduedownstream
to
to the
the cooling
cooling of of
thethe
of first
the nozzleare
nozzles,
nozzles, (TRITnot
are ) due
not to the for
important
important for the
the understanding
understanding of
of
the topic
cooling
the of this
topicofofthe paper.
thisnozzles,
paper. are Appendix A
not important
Appendix shows
A shows an
for an example
theexample for
understanding a typical GT
of theGT
for a typical cycle.
topic. Appendix A
cycle.
The specific heat and ratios of specific heats, which determine the performance of the turbine
shows an example for a typical GT cycle.
section
The depend onand the fuel toofair ratio, the fuelwhich
composition andthe the relative humidity of the air.
The specific
specific heat
heat and ratios
ratios of specific
specific heats,
heats, which determine
determine the performance
performance of of the
the turbine
turbine
The specific
The heat and ratios
main constituents
section ofofthe
specific heats,gas
exhaust which
aredetermine
Nitrogen,theOxygen,
performance of thedioxide and Water
Carbon (see
section depend
depend on on the
the fuel
fuel to
to air
air ratio,
ratio, the
the fuel
fuel composition
composition and and the
the relative
relative humidity
humidity of of the
the air.air.
turbine
part
The 1).
mainsection
The depend
specific
constituents on the
heat
of fuel-to-air
(cp)
the and
exhaust ratio,
gas gasthe fuel
are composition
constant(R) of
Nitrogen, all and
these
Oxygen,the relative
constituents
Carbon are
dioxideknown,
and so
Water it is
(see
The main constituents ofconstituents
the exhaust gas exhaust
are Nitrogen, Oxygen,Oxygen,
Carbon dioxide and Water (see
humidity
easy
part
part 1).
1).
of thespecific
The
The
air. The
to calculate themain
specific overall
heat
heat (cp)
(cp)cpand
and γ,the
of
andgas
gas once
constant(R)
constant(R)
gasof
the mole arefractions
of
Nitrogen,
all
all these
these of the constituents
constituents
constituents are mii are
are known,
known, soknown.
so itit is
is
Carbon dioxide and Water (see part 1). The specific heat (cp) and gas constant (R) of all
easy
easy to calculate the overall cp and γ , once
and γto, once the mole fractions of the constituents m i are known.
these to calculateare
constituents theknown,
overallso cp
it is easy thethe
calculate mole fractions
overall cp and , of thetheconstituents
once mole mi are known.
fractions of the constituents mi are known.
The specific heat and ratios of specific heats, which determine the performance of the
turbine section, depend on the fuel-to-air ratio, the fuel composition and the relative
humidity of the air.

The specific heat and ratios of specific heats, which determine the performance of the turbine section,
The specific
fuel-to-air heatthe
ratio, andfuel
ratios of specificand
composition heats,
the which
relativedetermine
humiditythe performance
of the air. of the turbine section, d
fuel-to-air
1 ratio, the fuel composition and the relative humidity of the air.
c p = 1 ∑c p,i mi
c p = 100 ∑c p,i mi
100
1
R = 1 ∑ Ri mi
R = 100 ∑ Ri mi
100 c
γ = cp
p
γ = cp - R
cp - R
where mi is the mole fraction of the individual component.
where m
where mii is the
the mole fraction of the individual
individualcomponent.
component.
The following Table 7-1 gives , cp and R of the above substances

The following table 7-1 gives γ, cp and R of the above substances
The bar, 800ºC: table 7-1 gives γ, cp and R of the above substances
at 10 following
at 10 bar, 800ºC:
at 10 bar, 800ºC:
ccp (J/kgK)
(J/kgK) R(J/kgK)
R(J/kgK) = 1/(1-R/ cp) γ=1/(1-R/ cp )
Air cpp
1156 (J/kgK) R(J/kgK)
287 γ=1.33
1/(1-R/ cp )
Air
Air 1156
1156 287287 1.33 1.33
CO2 1255 189 1.18
CO2
CO2
H2O 1255
1255
2352 189189
462 1.18 1.18
1.24
H2O 2352 462 1.24
H2O 2352 462 1.24
and 1 bar, 500ºC
and 1 bar, 500ºC
and 1 bar, 500ºC
cp (J/kgK) R(J/kgK) γ= 1/(1-R/ cp )
Air cp
1093 (J/kgK) R(J/kgK)
287 γ=1.36
1/(1-R/ cp )
Air c1093
p
(J/kgK) R(J/kgK)
287 = 1/(1-R/ cp) 1.36
CO2 1158 189 1.19
CO2
Air
H2O 1158
1093
2132 287189
462 1.36 1.19
1.28
H2O 2132 462 1.28
CO2 1158 189 1.19
HO 2132 462 1.28

2
Table 7-1: Specific heat (cp) , ratio of specific heats γ and gas constants ( R) for som
Table 7-1: Specific
components heat gas
of exhaust (cp) , ratio of specific heats γ and gas constants ( R) for some
Table 7-1. Specific heat
components of exhaust (cp
), ratio
gasof specific heats  and gas constants (R) for some
components of exhaust gas
Assuming
Assuming anan expansion
expansion over aover a constant
constant pressurepressure
ratio, and ratio, and
constant constant
efficiency efficiency , then
, then
Assuming an expansion over a constant pressure ratio, and constant efficiency , then
γ −1
 
∆h η t ⋅ ∆h s    γ γ−1

∆T = ∆h = η t ⋅ ∆h s = η t T3 1 −  p 5  γ 
p5
∆T = c p,e = c p,e = η t T3 1 −  p3 
c p,e c p,e   p3  
 
Thus, the temperature differential over the turbine for a given pressure ratio depends on the
Thus, the temperature differential over the turbine for a given pressure ratio depends
fuel gasthe
Thus, composition,
temperatureand the water content
differential over of the
the inlet air. The
turbine forpractical
aThe
given consequence
pressure of
ratio depends
gas composition, and the water content of the inlet air. practical consequence of t
the
gas above is the
composition, fact that
and most
the engines
water measure
content ofT rather than
5the inlet air.
T for control purposes. The
3 The practical consequence of t
the fact that most engines measure T5 rather than T3 for control purposes. The ratio T
ratiofact
the T5 /T3that
is often
most assumed
enginesconstant.
measureHowever,
T5 in reality
rather than it is
T3dependent on the
for control fuel-to-airThe ratio T
purposes.
often assumed
ratio, the fuel gas and
constant. However,
the water
in
content ofin
the
reality it is
air (i.e.itthe
dependent
relative
on
humidity
the
and
fuel
the
to air ratio, the
ambient
often
and the water content of the air (i.e. the relative humidity and the ambientair
assumed constant. However, reality is dependent on the fuel to ratio, the
temperature
temperature).
and the water content of the air (i.e. the relative humidity and the ambient temperature

Another effect that must be considered is the fact that the relationship between the
pressure ratio and the Mach number depend on . That means that the maximum
volumetric flow through the 1st stage GP nozzle and the first stage PT nozzle also depend
on the exhaust gas composition, which means that different fuel compositions (if the
differences are very large) can influence the engine match.
Key cycle parameters for any gas turbine are its specific work and thermal efficiency which
are related to the cycle pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature. The general qualitative
relationships between PR and TIT (Turbine Inlet Temperature) are indicated in Figure 7-3
(Meher-Homji et al., 2009).
1. The salient relationships of this figure may be conveniently summarized as follows:
2. For a given TIT, gas turbine specific work increases with pressure ratio, reaching a
maximum and then decreasing with further pressure ratio increase.
3. The specific work increases with increasing turbine inlet temperature.
4. The maximum specific work as the TIT is increased occurs at increasing pressure ratios.
Temp
ine Inlet High PR Aeros
b
asin g Tur
Incre
40
20
30
Thermal Efficiency
18
10 18
14
Modern
8
20 Heavy Duty
14
12
io
15
at
.R
8
Pr
6
ng
si
ea
4
cr
In
Older Heavy Frame
Specific Work, kW / Kg/sec
Figure 7-3. Key Cycle Parameters
Pressure ratios and TIT parameters of a wide range of industrial gas turbines are shown in
Figure 7-4.

1600 40
1400 35
TIT
1200 30
Pressure Ratio
1000 25
TIT, Deg C 800 20

600 15
400 PR RATIO 10
200 5
0 0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Specific Work, kW/kg/sec
Figure 7-4. Pressure Ratios and Firing Temperature Parameters of a Wide Range of Industrial
Gas Turbines
We will see that the gas turbine power output is a function of the speed, the firing
temperature, as well as the position of certain secondary control elements, like adjustable
compressor vanes, bleed valves, and in rare cases, adjustable power turbine vanes. The
output is primarily controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the combustor. Most
single-shaft gas turbines run at constant speed when they drive generators. In this
case, the control system modifies fuel flow (and secondary controls) to keep the speed
constant, independent of generator load. Higher load will, in general, lead to higher firing
temperatures. Two-shaft machines are preferably used to drive mechanical equipment,
because being able to vary the power turbine speed allows for a very elegant way to adjust
the driven equipment to process conditions. Again, the power output is controlled by fuel
flow (and secondary controls), and higher load will lead to higher gas producer speeds and
higher firing temperatures.
Key to understand gas turbine behavior is the fact that the different components influence
each other:
When the compressor, the gas generator turbine, and the power turbine (if applicable)
are combined in a gas turbine, the operation of each component experiences operating
constraints that are caused by the interaction (matching) between the components
(Figure 7-5) (Texam, 2014).
power
Q,W
Gas
Generator Power
Compressor Combustor Turbine Turbine
p,T p,T p,T
Wfuel speed, flow

flow
Figure 7-5. Component Interaction

For example, the engine compressor will compress a certain mass flow, which in turn
dictates the compressor discharge pressure necessary to force the mass flow through the
turbine section.
On a two-shaft engine, the gas generator turbine provides the power for the compressor.
This determines the gas generator speed, where the compressor-absorbed power and the
gas generator turbine-produced power are at equilibrium.
On a single-shaft engine, where the gas generator speed is held constant, the firing
temperature has to be at a level where the power from the turbine, after the necessary
power for the compressor is subtracted, satisfies the load demand of the driven electric
generator. The firing temperature influences both the power that the turbines can produce,
but it also impacts the discharge pressure necessary from the compressor.
In the following text, we will analyze the interaction of the gas turbine components.
SINGLE SHAFT
A single-shaft engine consists of an air compressor, a combustor and a turbine. The air
compressor generates air at a high pressure, which is fed into to the combustor, where the
fuel is burnt. The combustion products and excess air leave the combustor at high pressure
and high temperature. This gas is expanded in the gas generator turbine, which provides
the power to turn the air compressor. The excess power is used to drive the load. Most
single-shaft turbines are used to drive electric generators at constant speeds. We will not
consider the rare case of single-shaft turbines driving mechanical loads at varying speeds.
The operation of the components require the following compatibility conditions:
1. Compressor speed = Gas generator Turbine speed
2. Mass flow through turbine = Mass flow through compressor - Bleed flows
+ Fuel mass flow
3. Compressor power < Turbine power
Typical compressor and turbine maps are shown in Figure 7-6 and 7-7, respectively.
The fact that the gas turbine operates at constant speed means any operating point of
the engine compressor (for given ambient conditions) lies on a single speed line. Load
increases are initiated by increasing the fuel flow, which in turn increases the firing
temperature. Due to the fact that the first turbine nozzle is usually choked, the compressor
operating point moves to a higher pressure ratio, to compensate for the reduced density
(from the higher firing temperature). The possible operating points of the compressor
depending on the load running are also shown in the compressor maps (Figure 7-6).
In the case of the single-shaft engine driving a generator, reduction in output power results
in only minute changes in compressor mass flow as well as some reduction in compressor
pressure ratio.
A single-shaft engine has no unique matching temperature. Used as a generator drive, it

inthe
In the compressor maps (Figure 7-6).driving a generator, reduction in output power resu
In thecase
caseof ofthe
thesingle-shaft
single-shaftengine
engine driving a generator, reduction in output power res
In the
only case of the single-shaft engine driving a generator, reduction in output power res
onlyminute
minutechanges
changesin incompressor
compressormass massflow
flowas aswell
wellas assome
somereduction
reductionin in compresso
compresso
only
ratio. minute changes in compressor mass flow as well as some reduction in compresso
ratio.
Aratio.
Asingle
singleshaftshaftengine
enginehas hasnonounique
uniquematching
matchingtemperature.
temperature.Used Usedasasaagenerator
generatordrive,
drive,iti
A single
operate shaft
atataat engine has no unique matching temperature. Used as a generator drive, i
will operate
operate asingle
a singlespeed,
single speed,and
speed, and can
andcan be
canbe temperature
betemperature
temperature topped
topped atatambient
at any
topped any
anyambient temperature
temperatureas
temperature
ambient as
operate
as long
the load at
asisthea single speed,
load enough
large is and
large enough can be temperature topped at any ambient temperature as
the load is large enough
the
The load is largebetween
Therelationships
enough
relationshipsbetween the
thework
workinput
inputand
andpressure
pressureratio
ratioof
ofturbine
turbineandandcompressor
compressor(we
(weassume
assumepp7 ==p
7
The relationships
The between the workinput
input andpressure
pressure ratio of turbine and compressor (we
Wt t==relationships
W WWtotomake
makethebetween
theexamplethe
example work
simpler)
simpler)are and
aregiven
given by: ratio of turbine and compressor (we assume p7 =
by:
assume
W p7 =
t = W to p1 and
make theW = W
example
c t
= W to make
simpler) are the
givenexample
by: simpler) are given by:
∆∆TTc 11 pp2 γγ-1-1
∆ T cc== 1 [([( p 22 ))γγ-1--1]
1]
TT11 = ηηcc [( pp11 ) γ - 1]
T1 ηc p1
∆∆TTt pp7 γγ-1-1

∆ T tt ==ηηt t[1
[1--(( pp77 ))γγ-1]]
TT33 =ηt [1 - ( p3 ) γ ]
T3 p33
These relationships
These are a consequence of the relationships between temperature rise and and pressur
Theserelationships
relationshipsare
areaaconsequence
consequenceof ofthe
therelationships
relationshipsbetween
betweentemperature
temperaturerise
rise and pressu
pressure ratio inrelationships
isentropic systems. The introduction
of the of the component efficiencies thenrise andthe
isentropicThese
isentropic systems.
systems. The are a consequence
Theintroduction
introduction of
ofthe
thecomponent
component relationships
efficiencies between
efficienciesthen
then temperature
bridges
bridgesthe
thegap
gapbetween pressu
between the isen
isen
bridges thesystems.
isentropic
real process. gap between the isentropic
The introduction andcomponent
of the real process.
efficiencies then bridges the gap between the isen
real process.
real process.
The
Thegas
gasproducer
producerturbine
turbineand
andthe
thecompressor
compressoroperate
operateon
onthe
thesame
sameshaft,
shaft,thus:
thus:
The gas producer turbine and
The gas producer the compressor
turbine operate operate
and the compressor on the same
on theshaft,
samethus:
shaft, thus:
NN NN TT11
N == N ⋅⋅ T
TT33 = TT11 ⋅ TT313
T3 T1 T3
P2
Design Point
P1
PRESSURE RATIO
Stall
Line
Operating Line
Single-Shaft
105
100
95 %NGP
Lines of 90
Constant Efficiency θ
MASS FLOW T
W
p
Figure 7-6. Typical Map of Axial Compressor – Single-Shaft Engine (Constant mechanical speed)

T3
QαW
P3
EFFICIENCY, η t
,
FLOW
N
T3
Figure 7-7. Typical Map of Axial Turbine – Single-Shaft Engine
The preceding equations are all coupled by the firing temperature ratio (T3 /T1). This ratio
has to be determined by trial and error for operation at any arbitrary point of the compressor
characteristic using the following method:
1. On the compressor map (Figure 7-6), choose any point on the operating (N/√T1) line. The
characteristics then yield p2 /p1, W√T1 /p1 and ∆Tc /T1.
2. Estimate a value for p3/p5. The turbine characteristic (Figure 7-7) then gives W√T3 /p3 and
T3/T1 can be obtained from the second equation; furthermore, it allows us to calculate
N/√T3.
3. With the turbine efficiency from the map (Figure 7-7) ∆Tt /T3 can be calculated and, using
the power balance equation, another ratio (T3 /T1) results.
4. Because the ratio T3 /T1 normally is not the same as the initial one, a new ratio (p3 /p5)
has to be estimated, until the same ratio T3 /T1 is obtained. At this point, a compatible
operating point is found if the resulting T3 is within the allowed operating limits of the
engine.
5. The power output finally becomes the difference between turbine power and
compressor absorbed power.
Using the above method, we can determine the performance of a single-shaft gas turbine
at any operating point.
TWO SHAFT
A two-shaft gas turbine consists of an air compressor, a combustor, a gas generator

turbine and a power turbine. The air compressor generates air at a high pressure, which is
fed into to the combustor, where the fuel is burnt. The combustion products and excess
air leave the combustor at high pressure and high temperature. This gas is expanded
in the gas generator turbine, which has the sole task of providing power to turn the air

compressor. After leaving the gas generator turbine, the gas still has a high pressure and
a high temperature. It is now further expanded in the power turbine. The power turbine is
connected to the driven equipment. It must be noted at this point, that the power turbine
(together with the driven equipment) can and will run at a speed that is independent of the
speed of the gas generator portion of the gas turbine (i.e., the air compressor and the gas
generator turbine).
The gas generator is controlled by the amount of fuel that is supplied to the combustor.
Its two operating constraints are the firing temperature and the maximum gas generator
speed (on some engines, torque limits may also constrain the operation at low ambient
temperatures). If the fuel flow is increased, both firing temperature and gas generator
speed increase, until one of the two operating limits is reached. Variable stator vanes at
the engine compressor are frequently used, however, not for the purpose of controlling the
airflow, but rather to optimize the gas producer speed. In two-shaft engines, the airflow is
controlled by the flow capacities of the gas generator turbine and power turbine nozzles.
Increasing the speed and temperature of the gas generator provides the power turbine
with gas at a higher energy (i.e., higher pressure, higher temperature and higher mass
flow), which allows the power turbine to produce more power. If the power supplied by the
power turbine is greater than the power absorbed by the load, the power turbine together
with the driven compressor will accelerate until equilibrium is reached.
The operation of the components requires the following compatibility conditions:
1. Compressor speed = Gas generator Turbine speed
2. Mass flow through turbine = Mass flow through compressor - Bleed flows + Fuel
mass flow
3. Compressor power = Gas generator turbine power (- mechanical losses)
4. The subsequent free power turbine adds the requirement that the pressure after the
GP turbine has to be high enough to force the flow through the power turbine.
Typical compressor and turbine maps are shown in Figures 7-8 and 7-9, respectively.
The gas generator for a two-shaft engine adapts to different load requirements (and ,
accordingly different fuel flow) by changing both speed and firing temperature. Note, that
the compressor operating points are very different between a single-shaft and a two-shaft
engine (Figure 7-6 and 7-8).
Again, we can write the relationships between the work input and the pressure ratio of
components. To make the example easier to follow, we again assume p7 = p1 and Wc= W t
= W.
∆ T c 1 p 2 γ -1
∆ T c = 1 [( p 2 ) γγ-1 - 1]
T 1 = ηc [( p1 ) γ - 1]
T1 ηc p1
∆T t p5 γ -1
∆ T t =ηt [1 - ( p5 ) γγ-1]
T 3 =ηt [1 - ( p3 ) γ ]
T3 p3

P2
Design Point
P1 T3/T1 = Constant
PRESSURE RATIO
Stall
Line
Operating Line
Single-Shaft
105
100
95 %NGP
Lines of 90
Constant Efficiency θ
MASS FLOW W
θ
σ
Figure 7-8. Typical Map of Axial Compressor – Two-Shaft Engine
Figure 7-8.
Figure 7-8. Typical
Typical Map
Map of
of Axial
Axial Compressor
Compressor -- Two-Shaft
Two-Shaft Engine
Engine (REDO
(REDO to
to Capture
Capture nomenclauture
nomenclauture in
in text
text belwo
belwo
T3
QαW
P3
EFFICIENCY, η t
,
FLOW
N
T3
Figure 7-9.Typical
Figure 7-9.
Figure 7-9. Typical
Typical
Map
Map
Map
of Axial
of
Turbine
of Axial
Axial – Two-Shaft
Turbine
Turbine
Engine
-- Two-Shaft
Two-Shaft Engine
Engine
Unlike
Unlike forUnlike the single-shaft
single-shaft
the single-shaft
the engine,
engine, the pressure
pressure
the pressure
engine, the ratio
ratio for for
thefor
ratio the turbine
turbine
turbine
the (p3 /p5(p /p
)(pis33/p 5) is not known in advance. Howeve
not known
5) is not known in advance. Howeve
we find an additional condition because the absorbed compressor power must be provided
provided by
by the
the gas
gas producer
producer
in advance.
we However, condition
find an additional we find anbecause
additional
thecondition
absorbed because
compressorthe power
absorbedmust compressor
be
turbine:
turbine:
power must be provided by the gas producer turbine:
∆T 1 ∆T T
c ⋅ ∆ T cc ⋅⋅ 1 =
⋅ = c p,e⋅⋅∆ T tt T 33
c p,a T 1 η
p,a c p,e T 3 T 1
T 1 η mm T3 T1
Also,
Also, theAlso, the gas
gas producer
gas producer
the producer turbine
turbine and and compressor
compressor
compressor
turbine and operate
operate on on the
the same
operate on the samethus:
shaft,
same shaft, thus:
shaft, thus:
N N
N =
=
N
⋅⋅ TT11
T
T33 T
T11 TT 33

The preceding equations are all coupled by the firing temperature ratio (T3 /T1). This ratio
can be determined by trial
The preceding and errorare
equations forall
operation
coupledatbyany
thearbitrary point of theratio
firing temperature compressor
(T3/T1). This ratio can
determined byusing
characteristic, trial and
the error for operation
following method: at any arbitrary point of the compressor characteristic, usin
The preceding equations are all coupled by the firing temperature ratio (T3/T1). This ratio can
following method:
determined by trial and error for operation at any arbitrary point of the compressor characteristic, usin
1. On the compressor map (Figure 7-8), choose any point on the operating (N/√T1) line. The
following method:
characteristics then yield p2 /p1, W√T3 /p3 and ΔTc /T1.
1. On the compressor map (Figure 7-8), choose any point on the operating (N/ T 1 ) l
2. Estimate
1. a value
thenOn for p3 /p
the . The
pcompressor
 characteristic
turbine
map
/T1.gives W√T /p3 and on
T3 /T can T1 ) l
characteristics yield 25/p1,  (Figure
and ∆Tc7-8), choose any
3 point the1 operating (N/
be obtained from the second equation.   Furthermore, this characteristic allows us to
characteristics   
2. N/Tthen
calculate 3
usingyield
Estimatethe psame
2/p1, speed (N)
a value for p 3 /p
 5.and
asThe∆T c/T1. used for the compressor.
previously
turbine characteristic gives  and T3/T1 can
 
3.
fromWith 2. turbine
thethe
second Estimate
efficiency
equation. a value for map
from the
Furthermore, /p5.(Figure
p3this The turbine
7-9), ΔT
characteristic characteristic gives
/T3 canusbetocalculated
allows
t
calculate N/ T3and
and, T3/T
using 1 can
the sa
using the power balance equation, another ratio T3 /T1 results. Because the ratio T3 /TT1 3
as previously used for the compressor.
from the second equation. Furthermore, this characteristic allows us to calculate N/ using the sa
3. is not the
With the turbine efficiency
one, afromnewthe map (Figure 7-9),
be ∆T t/T3 can until
be calculated and
as normally
previously used forsame as the initial
the compressor. ratio (p3 /p 5
) has to estimated,
power balance
the same equation, another ratio T3/Tpoint,
1 results. Because the ratio T3point
/T1 normally is not the same a
3. ratio TWith
3
/T1 istheobtained. At this
turbine efficiency a compatible
from operating
the map (Figure 7-9), ∆Tt/T is 3found
can be if calculated and
one, a new ratio
the resulting
(p
T3 is
/p ) has
within
to be estimated,
the allowed
until the same ratio T /T is obtained. At this point, a com
ratio Toperating limits of the the
engine.
3 5 3 1
power balance equation, another 3/T1 results. Because ratio T3/T1 normally is not the same a
operating point is found if the resulting T3 is within the allowed operating limits of the engine.
one, a new ratio (p3/p5) has to be estimated, until the same ratio T3/T1 is obtained. At this point, a com
4. For the4.point
operating
For the the
poweristurbine, power turbine,
found if thefollowing
the following
resultingrelations apply:
T3 is within
relations apply:
the allowed operating limits of the engine.
4. For the power turbine, the following relations apply:
W T 5 W T 1 p1 T 5
= ⋅ ⋅
W p 5T 5 W p 1T 1 pp51 T 15
= ⋅ ⋅
p5 p1 p5 T 1
∆ T pt p γ -1
=η pt [1 - ( a ) γ ]
∆TT5 pt p γ -1
=η pt [1 - ( 5a ) γ ]
This T
condition
5 p 5 constraint, because the available pressure ratio (p5 /p1) has to
adds another
This condition adds another constraint, because the available pressure ratio (p /p ) h
5 1
be sufficient to move the mass flow (W) through the power turbine section. If the available
sufficient to move the mass flow (W) through the power turbine section. If the available pressure ratio
pressure ratio is too low,condition
This another operating pointconstraint,
adds another at a lowerbecause
mass flow, thus a lower
the available gas ratio (p5/p1) h
pressure
another operating point at a lower mass flow, thus a lower gas producer speed, has to be selected.
producer
sufficientspeed,
to move
5. has to
the be selected.
mass flow (W) through the power turbine section. If the available pressure ratio
Combining the relationships for the gas producer turbine and the power turbine yiel
another operating point at a lower mass flow, thus a lower gas producer speed, has to be selected.
10):
5. Combining
5. the relationships
Combining thefor relationships
the gas producer turbine
for the and the power
gas producer turbineturbine yields
and the power turbine yiel
10):(Figure 7-10):
W T 5 W T 3 p3 T5
= ⋅ ⋅
W p5T 5 W p3T 3 pp53 TT35
= ⋅ ⋅
p5 p3 p5 T3
γ -1
T 5 = 1 - [1 - ( p ) ] γ
ηt 5
γ -1
TT35 pp 3 γ
= 1 - η t [1 - ( 5 ) ]
T3 p3
p5 p 2 p 3 p 5
= ⋅ ⋅
ppa ppa pp2 pp3
5
= 2
⋅ 3⋅ 5
p a p a p 2 p3

Exit Flow GPT = Inlet Flow PT
W T5
P5
QαW T
P
W T5
P5
FLOW
W T3
P3
Figure 7-10. Turbine Characteristic

PRESSURE RATIOfor Gas
P /PProducer and Power Turbine
PRESSURE RATIO P /P
3 5 5 7
Gas Producer Turbine Power Turbine
6. Finally, the engine output is the power that the power turbine generates at the available gas
producer exit temperature and pressure ratio over the power turbine:
7-10.Turbine
Figure 7-10.
Figure TurbineCharacteristic for for
Characteristic GasGas
Producer and Power
Producer Turbine
and Power Turbine
p7 γ - 1
P p ⋅ ∆ T pt ⋅Finally,
pt = c 6. W =
6. Finally, the engine outputc T η
theisengine
the
[1 - (
output
pt power
γ ]W
is) the
the power
powerthat the power turbine generates at the available gas
pthat turbine generates at the available
p 5
producer exit temperature and pressure ratio 5 over the power turbine:
gas producer exit temperature and pressure ratio over the power turbine:
p7 γ - 1
P pt = c p ⋅ ∆ T pt Note
⋅ W =that T 5ηpower
c p the pt [1 - (
turbine γ ]W
)efficiency depends strongly on the actual power turbine speed
deviation from its optimum speed. p5
Note that the power turbine efficiency depends strongly on the actual power turbine speed
deviation from its Note that the
optimum power turbine efficiency depends strongly on the actual power turbine speed
speed.
deviation from its optimum speed.
Two shaft engines operate with the gas generator turbine and the power turbine in series. The
Two-shaft engines operate with the gas generator turbine and the power turbine in series.
power turbine pressure ratio p5/pa is thus related to the compressor pressure ratio p2/pa by the
The power turbine pressure ratio p5 /pa is thus related to the compressor pressure ratio p2 /pa
identity:
by the identity:
Two shaft engines operate with the gas generator turbine and the power turbine in series. The
p5 p 2 p3 ppressure
= turbine
power 5 ratio p5/pa is thus related to the compressor pressure ratio p2/pa by the
pa p a p 2 p3
identity:
The
p5 pressure
The p p drop
pressure p in the
drop gas generator
in the gas generatorturbineturbine
p5 /p3 andp5the
/p3pressure
and theincrease
pressurein the
increase in the compressor
= 2 p32 /pa 5are related insofar as the gas generator turbine has to provide enough
compressor
pp2/pa are related
p p p insofar as the gas generator turbine has to provide enough power to drive the
power
a to adrive2 the3 compressor.
compressor.
The maximum
The maximum
pressurepossiblepossiblethepressure
inpressure
gasratio pratio
/pa ispcontrolled
5/pa is controlled
pby by the flow capacity Q5the
of compressor
the power
The drop generator
5 turbine 5/pthe flowthe
3 and capacity Q5 ofincrease
pressure the in
turbine.
ppower In
turbine.particular if
In particular, the
insofar ifasthe power
thepower turbine is choked,
turbine is choked, it
it will will
hascause cause the gas
the gas enough generator turbine
generatorpower to drive theto
2/pa are related gas generator turbine to provide
operate
turbine toat
compressor. one fixed
operate at onepoint (Figure
fixed point (Figure7-10) . In
7-10). In many cases,both
many cases, boththethe
gasgas generator turbine first-stag
generator
nozzle maximum possible pressure ratio p5/pa is controlled by the flow capacity QIn
and the power turbine nozzle operate at or near choked
turbine first-stage nozzle and the power turbine nozzle operate at or near choked flow
The flow conditions. this case, the
5 of the power
actual
turbine. flow
conditions. Q 3 through
case, the the
InInparticular
this gas
actual
if the flow
power generator
turbineturbine
Q 3 through
isthe gasnozzle
choked, generator is turbine
it will practically
cause nozzle
the gasconstant.
is Theturbine
generator mass flow
to is
practically
then only constant.
dependent The on
mass theflow is then only
combustor dependent
exit pressure onpthe combustor
3, the firing exit pressure T3 , the gas
temperature
operate at one fixed point (Figure 7-10). In many cases, both the gas generator turbine first-stag
p3, the firing temperature
composition
nozzle and the (which
powerdetermines
turbine nozzle γ, andoperate
T3 , the gas composition thus(which
the determines
at volume
, and during
increase
or near choked
thus thethe expansion), and the
flow conditions. In this case, the
volume increase during the expansion), and the geometry of the nozzle, which determines
actual flow Q through the gas generator turbine nozzle is practically constant. The mass flow is
the through flow3 area (in reality, it is determined by the critical nozzle area, the clearance
then
area and thedependent
only on the
effective bleed valvecombustor
area). exit pressure p3, the firing temperature T3 , the gas
composition (which determines γ, and thus the volume increase during the expansion), and the
Gas Turbine Performance Control
Gas turbines are primarily controlled by the amount of fuel supplied. There are some
secondary control options, such as adjustable vanes, or bleeding air from the compressor
directly to the exhaust. The control system will limit the gas turbine operation within the
limits of maximum gas generator speed and maximum firing temperature.
A single-shaft engine, is controlled by the amount of fuel that is supplied to the combustor,
such that the speed of the engine stays constant even if the load changes. Its other
operating constraint is the firing temperature. Variable stator vanes at the engine
compressor are frequently used, for the purpose of controlling the airflow. Further, the
airflow is constrained by the flow capacities of the gas generator turbine nozzles.
In a two-shaft engine, the gas generator operation is controlled by the amount of fuel
that is supplied to the combustor. Its two operating constraints are the firing temperature
and the maximum gas generator speed (on some engines, torque limits or corrected core
speed limit may also constrain the operation at low ambient temperatures). If the fuel flow
is increased, both firing temperature and gas generator speed increase, until one of the two
operating limits is reached. Variable stator vanes at the engine compressor are frequently
used, however, not for the purpose of controlling the airflow, but rather to optimize the gas
producer speed. In two-shaft engines, the airflow is controlled by the flow capacities of the
gas generator turbine and power turbine nozzles.
Increasing the speed and temperature of the gas generator provides the power turbine
with gas at a higher energy (i.e., higher pressure, higher temperature, and higher mass
flow), which allows the power turbine to produce more power. If the power supplied by the
power turbine is greater than the power absorbed by the load, the power turbine together
with the driven compressor will accelerate until equilibrium is reached.
One of the two operating limits of a gas turbine is the turbine rotor inlet temperature (TRIT
or T3). Unfortunately, it is not possible to measure this temperature directly – a temperature
probe would only last for a few hours at temperatures that high. Therefore, the inlet
temperature into the power turbine (T5) is measured instead. The ratio between T3 and T5
is determined during the factory test, where T5 is measured and T3 is determined from a
thermodynamic energy balance. This energy balance requires the accurate determination of
output power and air flow, and can therefore be performed best during the factory test.
It must be noted, that both T3 and T5 are circumferentially and radially very non-uniformly
distributed in the reference planes (i.e., at the combustor exit, at the rotor inlet, at the
power turbine inlet). Performance calculations use a thermodynamic average temperature.
This is not exactly the temperature one would measure as the average of a number of
circumferentially distributed temperature probes.
Rather than controlling T3 the control system limits engine operations to the T5 that
corresponds to the rated T3 . However, the ratio between T3 and T5 is not always constant,
but varies with the ambient temperature: The ratio T3 / T5 is reduced at higher ambient
temperatures. Modern control algorithms can take this into account.
Engines can also be controlled by their exhaust temperature (T 7). For single-shaft engines,
measuring T 7 or T5 are equivalent choices. For two-shaft engines, measuring T 7 instead of

T5 adds the complication that the T 7 control temperature additionally depends on the power
turbine speed, while the relationship between T3 and T5 does not depend on the power
turbine speed.
GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The gas turbine power output is a function of the speed, the firing temperature, as well as
the position of certain secondary control elements, like adjustable compressor vanes, bleed
valves, and in rare cases, adjustable power turbine vanes. The output is primarily controlled
by the amount of fuel injected into the combustor. Most single-shaft gas turbines run at
constant speed when they drive generators. In this case, the control system modifies
fuel flow (and secondary controls) to keep the speed constant, independent of generator
load. Higher load will, in general, lead to higher firing temperatures. Two-shaft machines
are preferably used to drive mechanical equipment, because being able to vary the power
turbine speed allows for a very elegant way to adjust the driven equipment to process
conditions. Again, the power output is controlled by fuel flow (and secondary controls), and
higher load will lead to higher gas producer speeds and higher firing temperatures.
Figure 7-11 shows the influence of ambient pressure and ambient temperature on gas
turbine power and heat rate, as well as the impact of part load and power turbine speed.
The influence of ambient temperature on gas turbine performance is very distinct. Any
industrial gas turbine in production will produce more power when the inlet temperature
is lower and less power when the ambient temperature gets higher. The rate of change
cannot be generalized and is different for different gas turbine models. Full-load gas
turbine power output is typically limited by the constraints of maximum firing temperature
and maximum gas producer speed (or, in twin-spool engines, by one of the gas producer
speeds). Gas turbine efficiency is less impacted by the ambient temperature than the
power.
Lower ambient pressure (for example, due to higher-site elevation) will lead to lower power
output, but has practically no impact on efficiency. It must be noted that the pressure drop
due to the inlet and exhaust systems impact power and efficiency negatively with the inlet
pressure drop having a more severe impact.
Gas turbines operated in part load will generally loose some efficiency. Again, the reduction
in efficiency with part load is very model-specific. Most gas turbines show a very small
drop in efficiency for at least the first 10% of drop in load.
In two-shaft engines, the power turbine speed impacts available power and efficiency.
For any load and ambient temperature, there is an optimum power turbine speed. Usually,
lowering the load (or increasing the ambient temperature) will lower the optimum power
turbine speed. Small deviations from the optimum (by say +/- 10%) have very little impact
on power output and efficiency.

Performance vs Power and Heat vs
Ambient Temperature Elevation Efficiency at Part Load Operation
Relative Thermal Efficiency, %

Heat Rate
Heat Rate 100
Power, Heat Rate
Power, Heat Rate

Power Power
Ambient Temperature Elevation 50 Load, % 100
Power Turbine Speed
Optimum
Speed
Power
Increasing
Ambient
Temperature
40 Npt, % 100
Figure 7-11. Performance Characteristics
The humidity does impact power output, but to a small degree, (generally, not more than
1 to 3%, even on hot days). The impact of humidity tends to increase at higher ambient
conditions.
After this general overview, we will discuss the influence factors in more detail:
Load
Any gas turbine will experience a reduced efficiency at part load (Figure 7-11). The reduction
in efficiency with part load differs from design to design. In particular, DLN engines show
different part-load efficiencies than their conventional combustion counterparts. The
necessity to control the fuel-to-air ratio closely yields different part load behavior when
comparing gas turbines with DLN combustors and with conventional combustors. A
typical way of controlling these engines is by controlling the airflow into the combustor,
thus keeping the combustor primary zone temperature within narrow limits. The part load
behavior of single shaft and two shaft, Standard Combustion and Dry Low Nox concepts
is fundamentally different. This is due both to the different aerodynamic configuration, and
the requirements of keeping the fuel-to-air ratio within a narrow window for DLN engines.
To operate the engine at part load, the fuel flow is adjusted, until some control parameter
(for example the flow through the driven compressor, or a certain kW value for a generator)
is satisfied. Other adjustments, such as guide vane settings or bypassing combustion air
may be necessary.
For a single-shaft engine, which has to operate at constant gas generator speed (to keep
the generator frequency constant) this means that the firing temperature will be changed
with load. A governor will keep the speed constant and will increase the fuel flow with

increasing load, thus increasing the firing temperature, until the control limit is reached. Due
to the constant speed, the airflow through the engine will not vary greatly between full load
and part load. This means, that the fuel-to-air ratio drops significantly at part load and the
combustor exit temperature drops significantly from full load to part load. Therefore, most
single-shaft dry-low NOx engines use variable stator vanes on the engine compressor to
vary the airflow, and thus keep the fuel-to-air ratio relatively constant.
For a given mass flow, any increase in firing temperature would increase the volume flow
through the turbine section. Therefore the pressure supplied from the compressor has
to be increased, because the turbine nozzle is at or near choked conditions. Since the
compressor also operates at constant speed, the result is a reduction of mass flow until
equilibrium is reached. A typical performance map for a single-shaft engine shows this
increase in compressor discharge pressure at increased load. If the engine is equipped
with VIGV's to keep the fuel-to-air ratio in the combustor constant, a reduction in load will
require a closing of the VIGV's to reduce the airflow. Closing the VIGV's also reduces the
pressure ratio of the compressor at constant speed.
For single-shaft engines as described above the part load efficiencies of gas turbines
with DLN combustion and conventional combustion are very similar. The need to bleed
combustion air for two-shaft engines typically leads to a lower part load efficiency for
engines equipped with DLN combustors.
For a two-shaft engine, both gas generator speed and firing temperature change with load.
If the output at the power turbine has to be increased, the fuel flow has to increase.
Because the gas generator is not mechanically coupled with the power turbine, it will
accelerate, thus increasing airflow, compressor discharge pressure and mass flow. The
increase in gas generator speed means, that the compressor now operates at a higher
Mach number. At the same time the increased fuel flow will also increase the firing
temperature. The relative increase is governed by the fact that the power turbine requires
a certain pressure ratio to allow a given amount of airflow pass. This forces an equilibrium
where the following requirements have to be met:
1. The compressor power equals gas generator turbine power. This determines the
available pressure upstream of PT.
2. The available pressure ratio at the power turbine is sufficient to allow the airflow to be
forced through the power turbine.
Depending on the ambient temperature relative to the engine match temperature, the fuel
flow into the engine will either be limited by reaching the maximum firing temperature or
the maximum gas generator speed. The ambient temperature, where both control limits are
reached at the same time is called engine match temperature.
Variable stator vanes at the engine compressor are frequently used, however, not for the
purpose of controlling the airflow. This is due to the fact that in two-shaft engines, the
airflow is controlled by the flow capacities of the gas generator turbine and power turbine
nozzles. To control the fuel-to-air ratio in the combustor, another control feature has to
added for two-shaft engines with Dry Low Nox combustors: Usually, a certain amount
of air is bled from the compressor exit directly into the exhaust duct. This leads to the

fact that while the airflow for two-shaft engines is reduced at part load, the reduction in
airflow is larger for an engine with a standard combustion system. Like in single-shaft
engines, the combustor exit temperature at part load drops significantly for engines with
standard combustion, while it stays relatively high for DLN engines. The drop in combustor
temperature in engines with standard combustion, which indicates the leaner fuel-to-air
ratio, automatically leads to NOx emissions that are lower at part load than at full load. In
DLN engines, there is virtually no such reduction, because the requirement to limit CO and
UHC emissions limits the (theoretically possible) reduction in fuel-to-air ratio.
Ambient Temperature
Changes in ambient temperature have an impact on full-load power and heat rate, but also
on part-load performance and optimum power turbine speed (Figure 7-11) Manufacturers
typically provide performance data that describe these relationships for ISO conditions.
These curves are the result of the interaction between the various rotating components and
the control system. This is particularly true for DLN engines.
If the ambient temperature changes, the engine is subject to the following effects:
1. The air density changes. Increased ambient temperature lowers the density of the inlet
air, thus reducing the mass flow through the turbine, and therefore reduces the power
output (which is proportional to the mass flow) even further. At constant speed, where
the volume flow remains approximately constant, the mass flow will increase with
decreasing temperature and will decrease with increasing temperature.
2. The pressure ratio of the compressor at constant speed gets smaller with increasing
temperature. This can be determined from a Mollier diagram, showing that the higher
the inlet temperature is, the more work (or head) is required to achieve a certain
pressure ratio. The increased work has to be provided by the gas generator turbine, and
is thus lost for the power turbine, as can be seen in the Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram.
At the same time NGgcorr (i.e., the machine Mach number) at constant speed is reduced at
higher ambient temperature. As explained previously, the inlet mach number of the engine
compressor will increase for a given speed, if the ambient temperature is reduced. The
gas generator Mach number will increase for reduced firing temperature at constant gas
generator speed.
The Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram (Figure 7-12) describes the Brayton cycle for a two-shaft
gas turbine. Lines 1-2 and 3-5 must be approximately equal, because the compressor work
has to be provided by the gas generator turbine work output. Line 5-7 describes the work
output of the power turbine. At higher ambient temperatures, the starting point 1 moves
to a higher temperature. To make the same pressure ratio, the compressor will consume
more work, the gas producer turbine has to generate more work, and therefore the power
turbine inlet pressure p5 has to drop. Looking at the combustion process 2-3, with a higher
compressor discharge temperature and considering that the firing temperature T3 is limited
to TRITmax, we see that less heat input is possible, i.e., less fuel will be consumed. The
expansion process has, due to the lower p5, less pressure ratio available or a larger part
of the available expansion work is being used up in the gas generator turbine, leaving less
work available for the power turbine.

P3
Temperature, Enthalpy
3 P5
TRIT, max
2 P1
Entropy
Figure 7-12. Brayton Cycle for Different Ambient Temperatures
On two-shaft engines, a reduction in gas generator speed occurs at high ambient

temperatures. This is due to the fact that the equilibrium condition between the power
requirement of the compressor (which increases at high ambient temperatures if the
pressure ratio must be maintained) and the power production by the gas generator turbine
(which is not directly influenced by the ambient temperature as long as compressor
discharge pressure and firing temperature remain) will be satisfied at a lower speed.
The lower speed often leads to a reduction of turbine efficiency: The inlet volumetric flow
into the gas generator turbine is determined by the first stage turbine nozzle, and the
Q3/NGG ratio (i.e., the operating point of the gas generator turbine) therefore moves away
from the optimum. Variable compressor guide vanes allow to keep the gas generator speed
constant at higher ambient temperatures, thus avoiding efficiency penalties.
In a single-shaft, constant-speed gas turbine one would see a constant head (because
the head stays roughly constant for a constant compressor speed), and thus a reduced
pressure ratio. Because the flow capacity of the turbine section determines the pressure-
flow-firing temperature relationship, an equilibrium will be found at a lower flow, and a
lower pressure ratio, thus a reduced power output.
3. The compressor discharge temperature at constant speed increases with increasing

temperature. Thus, the amount of heat that can be added to the gas at a given maximum
firing temperature is reduced.
4. The relevant Reynolds number changes
At full load, single-shaft engines will run a temperature topping at all ambient temperatures,
while two-shaft engines will run either at temperature topping (at ambient temperatures
higher than the match temperature) or at speed topping (at ambient temperatures lower
than the match temperature). At speed topping, the engine will not reach its full firing
temperature, while at temperature topping, the engine will not reach its maximum speed.

The net effect of higher ambient temperatures is an increase in heat rate and a reduction
in power. The impact of ambient temperature is usually less pronounced for the heat rate
than for the power output, because changes in the ambient temperature impact less the
component efficiencies than the overall cycle output.
Humidity
The impact of humidity on engine performance would be better described by the water
content of the air (say, in mole%) or in terms of the specific humidity (kgH20 /kgdry air).
Figure 7-13 illustrates this, relating relative humidity for a range of temperatures with the
specific humidity.
Since the water concentration in the air for the same relative humidity increases with
increasing temperature, the effects on engine performance are negligible for low ambient
temperatures and fairly small (in the range of 1 or 2%) even at high temperatures of 38°C
(100°F). Since the water content changes the thermodynamic properties of air (such as
density and heat capacity), it causes a variety of changes in the engine, such that on some
engines performance is increased with increased humidity, while other engines show
reduced performance at increased humidity.
0.03 100% RH
90% RH
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY, H2O/dry AIR
0.025 80% RH
70% RH
60% RH
0.02
50% RH
40% RH
0.015 30% RH
20% RH
0.01 10% RH
0.005
0
0 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
Figure 7-13. Specific and Relative Humidity as a Function of Temperature
The main properties of concern that are affected by humidity changes are density, specific
heat, and enthalpy. Because the molecular weight of water (18 g/mol) is less than dry air
(28 g/mol), density of ambient air actually decreases with increasing humidity. When the
density of the ambient air decreases the total mass flow will decrease, which then will
decrease thermal efficiency and output power.
Performance of the combustor and turbines as a function of humidity is dominated by

the changes in specific heat and enthalpy. Increases in water content will decrease

temperatures during and after combustion (the same reason water is injected into the fuel
to reduce NOx levels).
Since the water concentration in the air for the same relative humidity increases with
increasing temperature, the effects on engine performance are negligible for low ambient
temperatures and fairly small (in the range of 1 or 2%) even at high temperatures of 38°C
(100°F). The water content changes the thermodynamic properties of air (such as density
and heat capacity) and thus causes a variety of changes in the engine.
For single-shaft engines, increasing humidity will decrease temperatures at the compressor
exit. Humidity also causes decreased flame temperatures at a given fuel-air ratio. As a
result T2, combustor exit temperature, TRIT and T5 all decrease with an increase in humidity.
Since the speed is set in single-shaft engines, the controls system will increase fuel flow
in order to get T5 temperature up to the topping set point. Despite the increase in fuel
flow, the total exhaust flow still decreases due to the decrease in airflow. Output power
increases throughout the range of temperatures and humidity experienced by the engines,
which shows that the increased fuel energy input has a greater influence on output power
than does the decreased total flow.
In two-shaft engines, we have to distinguish whether the engine runs at maximum speed
(NGP topped), or at maximum firing temperature (T5 topped). Increasing humidity will
decrease air density and mass flow when running NGP topped, which will decrease output
power. This is the general trend in output power noticed in all two-shaft engines when
running NGP topped. As previously discussed, increased humidity causes lower T2, Flame
temperature, TRIT, and T5 temperatures. When running T5 topped, the trend in output power
reverses due to the engine increasing fuel flow to increase temperatures, and results in
increased output power. So for two-shaft engines, output power will be seen to increase
when running T5 topped, and to decrease when running NGP topped.
Wobbe Index, Fuel Supply Pressure
While the influence of the fuel composition on performance is rather complex, fortunately
the effect on performance is rather small if the fuel is natural gas. Fuel gas with a
large amount of inert components (such as CO2 or N2) have a low Wobbe index, while
substances with a large amount of heavier hydrocarbons have a high Wobbe index. Pure
methane has a Wobbe index of about 1220.
In general, engines will provide slightly more power if the Wobbe Index
LHV
WI =
SG
is reduced. This is due to the fact that the amount of fuel mass flow increases for a given
is reduced. This is due to the fact that the amount of fuel mass flow increases for a given amount
amount of fuel energy when the Wobbe index is reduced. This increases the mass flow
of fuel energy when the Wobbe index is reduced. This increases the mass flow though the
though the turbine section, which increases the output of the turbine. This effect is to
turbine section, which increases the output of the turbine. This effect is to some degree
some degree counteracted by the fact that the compressor pressure ratio has to increase
counteracted
to push theby the fact
additional that
flow the compressor
through pressure
the flow restricted ratio
turbine. has to
In order increase
to do this, theto push the additional
flow through the flow restricted turbine. In order to do this, the compressor will absorb
somewhat more power. The compressor will also operate closer to its stall margin. The above is
valid
170whether| Chapter
the engine is aTurbine
7: The Gas two shaft or single shaft engine.
as a System
compressor will absorb somewhat more power. The compressor will also operate closer to
its stall margin. The above is valid whether the engine is a two-shaft or single-shaft engine.
The fuel gas pressure at skid edge has to be high enough to overcome all pressure losses
in the fuel system and the combustor pressure, which is roughly equal to the compressor
discharge pressure p2. The compressor discharge pressure at full load changes with the
ambient temperature, and therefore, a fuel gas pressure that is too low for the engine to
reach full load at low ambient temperature may be sufficient if the ambient temperature
increases.
If the fuel supply pressure is not sufficient, single and two-shaft engines show distinctly
different behavior, namely:
A two-shaft engine will run slower, such that the pressure in the combustor can be
overcome by the fuel pressure (Figure 7-14). If the driven equipment is a gas compressor
(and the process gas can be used as fuel gas), 'bootstrapping' is often possible: The
fuel gas is supplied from the gas compressor discharge side. If the initial fuel pressure is
sufficient to start the engine and to operate the gas compressor, the gas compressor will
increase the fuel gas pressure. Thus, the engine can produce more power which in turn
will allow the gas compressor to increase the fuel pressure even more, until the fuel gas
pressure necessary for full load is available.
A single-shaft engine, which has to run at constant speed, will experience a severe
reduction in possible firing temperature and significant loss in power output, unless it uses
VIGV's. With VIGV's, the compressor exit pressure, and thus the combustor pressure can
also be influenced by the position of the VIGV's, thus leading to less power loss (Figure
7-14).
Without VIGV's, the only way to reduce PCD pressure is by moving the operating point
of the compressor on its map. This can be done by reducing the back pressure from
the turbine, which requires a reduction in volume flow. Since the speed is fixed, only
a reduction in firing temperature — which reduces the volume flow through the gas
generator if everything else remains unchanged — can achieve this. A reduced volume flow
will reduce the pressure drop required for the gas generator turbine.
Single-shaft
Two-shaft Single-shaft VIGA (SoLoNOx)
kW
kW
kW
PCD=Const PCD=Const PCD=Const
Inlet Air Temp Inlet Air Temp Inlet Air Temp
Figure 7-14. Effect of low fuel gas pressure on different engine designs. PCD is the pressure in
the combustor.

-Elevation/Ambient pressure
Figure 7-14:Effect of low fuel gas pressure on different engine designs. PCD is the pressure in
Elevation/Ambient pressure
the combustor.
The impact of operating the engine at lower ambient pressures (for example, due to site elevation
The impact
or simply dueoftooperating
changing the atmospheric
engine at lower conditions)
ambient pressures is that (forof
example,
a reduced due toairsite
density (Figure 7-11).
elevation or simply due to changing atmospheric conditions) is that of a reduced air density
The engine, thus, sees a lower mass flow (while the volumetric flow is unchanged). The changed
(Figure 7-11). The engine,
-Elevation/Ambient thus, sees a lower mass flow (while the volumetric flow is
pressure
density only impacts the power output, but not the efficiency of the engine. However, if the
unchanged). The changed density only impacts the power output, but not the efficiency of
engine drives
The impact accessory
of operating equipment
the engine through
at lower ambient the (for
pressures gasexample,
generator,
the engine. However, if the engine drives accessory equipment through the gas generator,
due tothis is no longer true because the
site elevation
or simply
ratio due to changing
between gas atmospheric
generator workconditions)
and is that of a accessory
required reduced air density
power (Figure
(which 7-11).is independent of
Thethis is nothus,
engine, longer
seestrue because
a lower the ratio
mass flow (whilebetween gas generator
the volumetric work and required
flow is unchanged). The changed accessory
changes
power
density in the
only(which
impactsambient
is the conditions)
independent
power output,of changes is affected
but not theinefficiency
the ambient. conditions)
of the is affected
engine. However, if the.
The
engineimpact is universal
drives accessory for through
equipment any engine, except for
the gas generator, the
this is no result of some
longer true becausesecondary
the effects such as
The
ratio impact
between gasis universal
generator for
work any
and engine,
required except
accessory for the
power result
(which of some
is
accessory loads. If the ambient pressure is known, the performance correction can be easily secondary
independent of effects
changes
suchinasthe
accomplished
ambient conditions)
accessory
by: for ambient. pressure is known, the performance correction can
is affected
loads. If the
The impact is universal any engine, except for the result of some secondary effects such as
be easily accomplished by:
accessory loads. If the ambient pressure is known, the performance correction can be easily
accomplished by:
p
δ = pambient
p sea level
δ = pambient
sea level
If only the site elevation is known, the ambient pressure at normal conditions is:
IfIf only the
only the sitesite elevation
elevation is the
is known, known,
ambientthe ambient
pressure pressure
at normal at is:normal conditions is:
conditions
elevation ( ft )elevation ( ft )
− −
ppambient = p=sea level
p ⋅e ⋅e
27200
27200
ambient sea level
Inlet/Exhaust Loss/Accessory Loads

-Inlet/Exhaust Loss/Accessory Loads
Any gas turbine needs an inlet and exhaust system to operate. The inlet system consists
of one -Inlet/Exhaust Loss/Accessory
or several filtration Loads
systems, a silencer, ducting and possibly de-icing, fogging,
evaporative cooling and other systems. The exhaust system may include a silencer,
ducting, and waste heat recovery systems. All these systems will cause pressure drops,
i.e., the engine will actually see an inlet pressure that is lower than ambient pressure,
and will exhaust against a pressure that is higher than the ambient pressure. These
inevitable pressure losses in the inlet and exhaust system cause a reduction in power
and cycle efficiency of the engine. The reduction in power, compared to an engine at ISO
conditions, can be described by simple correction curves, which are usually supplied by the
manufacturer. The ones shown in Figure 7-15 describe the power reduction for every inch
(or millimeter) of water pressure loss. These curves can be easily approximated by second
order polynomials. The impact on heat rate is easily calculated by taking the fuel flow from
ISO conditions and dividing it by the reduced power.
Accessory loads are due to mechanically driven lube oil or hydraulic pumps. While the
accessory load can be treated fairly easily in a single-shaft engine — its power requirement
is subtracted from the gross engine output — this is somewhat more complicated in a two-
shaft machine.
In a two-shaft gas turbine, the accessory load is typically taken from the gas generator.
In order to satisfy the equilibrium conditions, the gas generator will have to run hotter
than without the load. This could lead to more power output at conditions that are not
temperature limited. When the firing temperature is limited (i.e., for ambient temperatures
above the match point), the power output will fall off more rapidly than without the load.
That means, that an accessory load of 50hp may lead to power losses at the power turbine

45
40
Loss per 25mm H2O (kW)

35
30
NPT. The volumetric25 flow depends on the ambient temperature and the load. This explain
Inlet Loss
20 Exhaust Loss
the optimum power turbine speed is a function of ambient temperature and load.
15
10
5
0
NPT. The volumetric flow depends on the ambient temperature and the load. This explains, why
0 speed is a function
the optimum power turbine 5000 10000
of ambient temperature and load.
Output Power at SL (kW)
Figure 7-15. Impact of Inlet and Exhaust Pressure losses
of 100 or more hp at higher ambient temperatures. The heat rate will increase due to
accessory loads at all ambient temperatures. The net effect of accessory loads can also be
described as a move of the match point to lower ambient temperatures.
Power Turbine Speed
For any operating condition of the gas generator, there is an optimum power turbine speed
at which the power turbine operates at its highest efficiency, and thus produces the highest
amount of power for a given gas generator operating point. Aerodynamically, this optimum
point is characterized by a given ratio of tip speed (u) and axial velocity (cax). The axial
component of the velocity (cax) is proportional to the volume flow at the power turbine inlet
Q5, while the tip speed is related to the rotating speed NPT. The volumetric flow depends on
the ambient
Figure 7-16. temperature
Resulting and theCharacteristics
Speed/Power load. This explains
for awhy the optimum
Turbine power turbine
Stage (assuming speed
a constant actual inflow
is a function of ambient temperature and load.
above)
Figure 7-16. Resulting Speed/Power Characteristics for a Turbine Stage (assuming a constant actual inflow , see
If the power turbine does not operate at this the optimum power turbine speed, the power
Ifabove)
the power turbine does not operate at this the optimum power turbine speed, the power o
output and the efficiency of the power turbine will be lower (Figure 7-16). The impact of
and the efficiency of the power turbine will be lower (Figure7-16). The impact of changin
changing
If the power the power
turbine turbine
does speed isateasily
not operate described
this by:
the optimumby: power turbine speed, the power output
power turbine speed is easily described
and the efficiency of the power turbine 2 will be lower (Figure7-16). The impact of changing the
 N PTdescribed
N PT is easily
powerPturbine speed  by:
= 2⋅ − 
 2

PPopt N PT , opt  NN
N PT 
PTPT , opt 
= 2⋅ − 
Popt N
N PT ,opt 
 PT , opt 
This equation can be derived from basic relationships (see Chapter 6) and is pretty accurate
Thisforequation can be derived from basic relationships (see section 6) and is pretty accurate
any arbitrary power turbine:
any
Thisarbitrary power
equation can turbine:
be derived from basic relationships (see section 6) and is pretty accurate for
any When
arbitrary power
using turbine: it must be considered that the optimum power turbine speed
this relationship,
When (Npt,opt ) depends
using on the gas generator
this relationship, it mustload
beand the ambient
considered temperature
that the optimum(Kurz and Brun,
power turbine speed
When using
2001). In this relationship,
general, the it must
optimum powerbe turbine
considered
speedthat
is the optimum
reduced for power turbine
increasing ambientspeed
(Npt,opt) depends on the gas generator load and the ambient temperature (Kurz and Brun, 20
(Npt,opt ) depends on
temperatures
the gas generator
and lower load (Figure
load and the ambient
7-11). speed
The heat
temperature (Kurz and Brun, 2001).
In general, the optimum power turbine is rate becomes
reduced for for a constantambient
increasing
In general, the optimum power turbine speed is reduced for increasing ambient temperatures and
gas temperatur
lowergenerator operating
(Figure7-11).
load(Figure point:
7-11).
lower load TheThe
heatheat
rate rate becomes
becomes for a constant
for a constant gas generator
gas generator operatingoperating
point: po
HR Poptopt
HR P
==
HRoptopt PP
HR
Off optimum
Off optimumspeed
speedofof
thethe
power turbine
power reduces
turbine the7:efficiency
reduces
Chapter theGas
The
and the ability
efficiency
Turbine asand thetoability
a System
extract
| tohead
173 extract he
from the flow. Even if N GG (and the fuel flow) do not change, the amount of power that is
from the flow. Even if NGG (and the fuel flow) do not change, the amount of power that is
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
P*/P
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
N*/N
Figure 7-16. Resulting Speed/Power Characteristics for a Turbine Stage (assuming a constant
actual inflow)
Off optimum speed of the power turbine reduces the efficiency and the ability to extract
head from the flow. Even if NGG (and the fuel flow) do not change, the amount of power that
is produced by the PT is reduced. Also, because of the unchanged fuel flow, the engine heat
rate increases and the exhaust temperature increases accordingly. Theoretically, any engine
would reach its maximum exhaust temperature at high ambient, full load and locked PT.
Another interesting result of the above is the torque behavior of the power turbine (Figure
7-17), considering that torque is power divided by speed :
2.0
1.5
1.0
T*/T
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 2.5
N*/N
Figure 7-17. Resulting Speed/Torque Characteristic for a Turbine Stage

Figure 7-17. Resulting Speed/Torque Characteristic for a Turbine Stage
τ  N PT 
=2− 
τ opt N 
 PT ,opt 
The
Thetorque
torque is is
thus a linear
thus function
a linear of the speed,
function of thewith the maximum
speed, with thetorque at the lowest
maximum torque at the lowe
speed This explains one of the great attractions of a free power turbine:
This explains one of the great attractions of a free power turbine: To provide To provide the the neces
necessary
torque to start the driven equipment is usually not difficult (compared electric
torque to start the driven equipment is usually not difficult (compared to to electric motor
motor drives or reciprocating
reciprocating engines)the
engines) because because
highestthe torque
highest torque is already
is already available
available at atlow
lowspeeds of
speeds of the power turbine. As stated earlier, the optimum power turbine speed is not a
turbine. As stated earlier, the optimum power turbine speed is not a constant, but chan
constant, but changes with ambient temperature and load (Figure 7-18).
ambient temperature and load (Figure 7-18)
NPT opt Fuel Flow

14000 60
12000 50
10000
40
8000
NPT opt (rpm)
30
FF (MMBTU/hr)
6000
20
4000
2000 10
0 0
30 50 70 90
Load (%)
Figure 7-18. Fuel Flow and Optimum Power Turbine Speed as a Function of Load
Emission Control
All emission control technologies that use lean-premix combustion require a precise
management of the fuel-to-air ratio in the primary zone of the combustor (i.e., where the
initial combustion takes place) as well as the a precise distribution of combustor liner
cooling and dilution flows. Deviations in these areas can lead to increased NOx production,
higher CO or UHC levels, or flame-out (Greenwood, 2000).
Lean-premix combustion achieves reduction in NOx emissions by lowering the flame

temperature. The flame temperature is determined by the fuel-to-air ratio in the combustion
zone. A stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio (such as in conventional combustors) leads to
high flame temperatures, while a lean fuel-to-air ratio can lower the flame temperature
significantly. However, a lean fuel-to-air mixture also means, that the combustor is
operating close to the lean flame-out limit.

Any part load operation will cause reduction of fuel-to-air ratio, because the reduction in air
flow is smaller than the reduction in fuel flow.
Several different approaches to control the fuel-to-air ratio are possible to avoid flame-out
at part load or transient situations, for example:
- bleeding air overboard
- using variable inlet guide vanes
- managing the ratio between fuel burned in lean-premix mode and in a diffusion flame
to name a few.
Obviously, all these approaches can have an effect on the part load performance
characteristics of the gas turbine.
Matching the Gas Producer and the Power Turbine (two-shaft only)
Depending on
- the ambient temperature
- the accessory load
- the engine geometry (in particular the first power turbine nozzle)
the engine will reach one of the two limits first. At ambient temperatures below the match
temperature, the engine will be operating at its maximum gas generator speed, but below
its maximum firing temperature (speed topping). At ambient temperatures above the
match temperature, the engine will operate at its maximum firing temperature, but not
at its maximum gas generator speed (temperature topping). The match temperature is
thus the ambient temperature at which the engine reaches both limits at the same time
(Figure 7-19).
Match
Temperature
PT Nozzle Area Smaller
PT Nozzle Area Larger

HP
NGP = const
T3 = const
INLET AIR TEMPERATURE
Figure 7-19. Matching

Because the first power turbine nozzle determines the amount of pressure ratio needed by
the power turbine to allow a certain gas flow it also determines the available pressure ratio
for the gas generator turbine. If the pressure ratio available for the gas generator does not
allow to balance the power requirement of the engine compressor (see enthalpy-entropy
diagram), the gas generator will have to slow down, thus reducing the gas flow through the
power turbine. This will reduce the pressure ratio necessary over the power turbine, thus
leaving more head for the gas generator to satisfy the compressor power requirements.
Some effects can cause the gas turbine to exhibit an altered match temperature:
Gas fuel with a low heating value, or water injection increase the mass flow through
the turbine relative to the compressor mass flow. The temperature topping will thus be
shifted to higher ambient temperatures. Dual-fuel engines, that are matched on gas will
top early on liquid fuel. This is caused by the change in the thermodynamic properties of
the combustion product due to the different Carbon to Hydrogen ratio of the fuels. The
matching equations indicate that a reduction in compressor efficiency (due to fouling,
inlet distortions) or turbine efficiency (increased tip clearance, excessive internal leaks,
corrosion) will also cause early topping. Accessory loads also have the effect of leading to
earlier topping.
Single-shaft Versus Two-shaft Engines
The choice of whether to use a single-shaft or two-shaft power plant is largely determined
by the characteristics of the driven load. If the load speed is constant, as in the case of an
electric generator, a single-shaft unit is often specified; an engine specifically designed for
electric power generation would make use of a single-shaft configuration. An alternative,
however, is the use of a two-shaft engine. If the load needs to be driven with varying
speeds (compressors, pumps), two-shaft engines are advantageous.
The two types have different characteristics regarding the supply of exhaust heat to a
cogeneration or combined cycle plant, primarily due to the differences in exhaust flow as
load is reduced; the essentially constant air flow and compressor power in a single-shaft
unit results in a larger decrease of exhaust temperature for a given reduction in power,
which might necessitate the burning of supplementary fuel in the waste heat boiler under
operating conditions where it would be unnecessary with a two-shaft. In both cases,
the exhaust temperature may be increased by the use of variable-inlet guide vanes.
Cogeneration systems have been successfully built using both single-shaft and two-shaft
units.
The torque characteristics, are very different and the variation of torque with output speed
at a given power may well determine the engine's suitability for certain applications. The
compressor of a single-shaft engine is constrained to turn at some multiple of the load
speed, fixed by the transmission gear ratio, so that a reduction in load speed implies a
reduction in compressor speed. This results in a reduction in mass flow, hence of output of
torque. This type of turbine is only of limited use for mechanical drive purposes. The two-
shaft unit, having a free power turbine, however, has a very favorable torque characteristic.
For a constant fuel flow, and constant gas generator speed, the free-power turbine can
provide relatively constant power for a wide speed range. This is due to the fact that

the compressor can supply an essentially constant flow at a given compressor speed,
irrespective of the free turbine speed. Also, at fixed gas generator operating conditions,
reduction in output speed results in an increase in torque. It is quite possible to obtain a
stall torque of twice the torque delivered at full speed.
Starting
When a gas turbine is started, a purge cycle is initiated first, to avoid the presence of
combustible gas anywhere in the engine or the exhaust system. To accomplish this, the
starter motor will rotate the engine gas producer at low speeds for a preset amount of
time. The starting process is outlined in Figure 7-20: Following the purge cycle, the starter
accelerates the gas producer, fuel gas is injected and ignited by a torch (Light-Off). The
starter continues to accelerate the gas producer to a point where the gas producer can
operate self sustaining, and operates at idle speed. Along this path, compressor surge, as
well as excessive combustor temperatures have to be avoided. Once the machine operates
at idle, it is ready to be loaded, that is, the fuel flow can be increased, to bring the engine
to full load. The maximum acceleration rate is limited by the maximum allowed firing
temperature. For a single-shaft engine, the starter motor has to accelerate the gas turbine
Starter Self Design Over

Required Sustaining Max Temp Point Speed
Steady State
FUEL FLOW
Surge
Path for Max

Acceleration
Idle
Light
Off
GAS PRODUCER SPEED
Figure 7-20. Starting of a Gas Turbine and Acceleration Limits
and the driven load. For a two-shaft engine, the starter motor only has to accelerate the gas
producer section of the gas turbine.
Gas Turbine Maps
Figures 7-21 and 7-22a-b show operating maps for single and two-shaft gas turbines. They
describe the behavior of power, fuel flow, exhaust flow and temperature, compressor
discharge pressure and, for two-shaft machines, gas producer speed, optimum power

Output Power at Generator Terminal, kW (SL)
Output Power at Generator Terminal kW (SL)

Inlet Air Temperature, Deg F Inlet Air Temperature, Deg F
Figure 7-21. Maps for Typical Single-shaft Gas Turbines.
turbine speed, and power turbine output versus power turbine speed curves, all, as a
function of ambient temperature. Some of the component behavior described above can be
identified in these maps.
For example, in the single-shaft engine maps (Figure 7-18), the exhaust flow is almost
vertical, indicating the operating lines of the compressor displayed in Figure 7-3.
Output Power Parameter, HP (SL)
Inlet Air Temperature, Deg F Inlet Air Temperature, Deg F
Figure 7-22a. Typical Maps for Two-shaft Gas Turbines

Inlet Air Temperature, Deg F Power Turbine Speed, Percent (100% = 14300 rpm)
Figure 7-22b. Typical Maps for two-shaft gas turbines
In the two-shaft engine, we see the shape of the power turbine curves, as expected
from the discussion leading to Figure 7-16. The optimum power turbine speed is indeed
load and ambient temperature dependent. We can also see that the engine is matched
at 59°F, because the full load power line follows a line of constant firing temperature at
high ambient temperatures, and a line of maximum gas producer speed at low ambient
temperatures.
APPENDIX A: GAS
APPENDIX A: GAS TURBINE
TURBINE CYCLE CALCULATION
CYCLE CALCULATION
A gas
A gasturbine
turbine may be designed
may for thefor
be designed following parameters
the following for the compressor:
parameters for the compressor:
pa=14.73psia
pa=14.73 psia
(1.013bara) p2=147.3W=
(1.013bara) p2=147.3 psia (10.13bara)
psia (10.13bara) W= 100lbs/s ( 45 kg/s) η c =85%
100lbs/s ( 45 kg/s) c=85%
Ta=100F(37.8°C)
Ta=100F(37.8°C) = 560R (311K)= 560R (311K)
and the turbine (neglecting the fuel mass flow and the combustor pressure drop)
and the turbine (neglecting the fuel mass flow and the combustor pressure drop)
pa=14.73psia (1.013bara) p3=147.3 psia (10.13bara) W= 100lbs/s ( 45 kg/s) η c =85%
pa=14.73psia (1.013bara) p3=147.3
T3=1600F(870°C) psia (10.13bara)
= 2060R (1144K)W= 100lbs/s ( 45 kg/s) c =85%
T3=1600F(870°C) = 2060R (1144K)
We use the relationships for work H and power P:
We use the relationships for work H and power P:
H = c p ∆T
P =W ⋅H
and the gas properties for air: cp=0.24BTU/lbR (1.007kJ/kgK) ; =1.4 (this is a simplified
and the gas properties for air: cp=0.24BTU/lbR (1.007kJ/kgK) ; γ=1.4 (this is a simplified
assumption, because the gas properties of the exhaust gas are somewhat different from
assumption, because the gas properties of the exhaust gas are somewhat different from air)
air).
The compressor temperature rise is

180 | Chapter 7: The
γ −Gas Turbine as a System
 1

T1  p 2  γ

P =W ⋅H
and the gas properties for air: cpp=0.24BTU/lbR (1.007kJ/kgK) ; γ=1.4 (this is a simpli
assumption, because the gas properties of the exhaust gas are somewhat different from
γγ −
 −1
1 
T11  p 22  γγ
T22 − T11 =   − 1 = 613R (341K )
η cc  p11  
 
and the
and thecompressor
compressordischarge temperature
discharge is therefore
temperature is therefore
560R + 613R = 713°F (379°C).
560R + 613R = 713°F (379°C).
This indicates, that the compressor consumed the work
This indicates, that the compressor consumed the work
H = .24 x 613 = 147 BTU/lb (= 1.007 x 341 = 344kJ/kg ),
H = .24 x 613 = 147 BTU/lb (= 1.007 x 341 = 344kJ/kg ),
and thepower
and the power
P= 100
P= 100lbs/s x 147BTU/lb=14700BTU/s=
lbs/s x 147BTU/lb=14700BTU/s= 20800hp 20800hp
( = 45 kg/s (x =
344kJ/kg
45 kg/s=15480 kJ/s = =15480 kJ/
x 344kJ/kg
15480
kW) kW)
The powerextraction
The power extraction ofturbine
of the the turbine
causescauses a temperature
a temperature drop of drop
γγ −
 1
−1
  γ
T33 − T77 = η tt ⋅ T33 1 −    = 844 R
 p77 γ
(469 K )
  p3  
 
3
and thus an exhaust temperature of

and thus an exhaust temperature of
T 7=1600-844= 756°F (=1144-469= 402°C)
T77=1600-844= 756°F (=1144-469= 402°C)
Thereby extracting the work
Thereby extracting the work
H =.24 x 844 = 202 BTU/lb ( =1.007 x 469 = 472 kJ/kg),
producing a power of
P=100 lbs/s x202BTU/lb=20200BTU/s = 28583hp (=45 kg/s x 472kJ/kg =21240 kJ/s =

21240 kW)
The net engine output is the difference between the power produced by the turbine and
absorbed by the compressor:
Pnet= 28583hp-20800hp = 7783hp (= 21240kW-15480kW = 5760kW)
With a compressor exit temperature of 713°F (379°C) and a turbine inlet temperature of
1600F (870°C), we need to add heat to bring the gas from 713°F (379°C) to 1600F (870°C):
Q = W cp ∆T = 100 x 0.24 x (1600-713) = 21300BTU/s = 76.7MMBTU/hr ( = 45 x 1.007 x

(870-379) = 22250 kJ/s = 80.1 GJ/hr)

With this, the engine heat rate can be calculated from
HR = 76.7/ 7783 = 9850 BTU/hphr ( = 80.1/5760 = 13900 kJ/kWh),
and the thermal efficiency is
 th
=5760kW/22250kJ/s=25.9%.

184 | Chapter 8: Combustion & Emissions
CHAPTER 8
COMBUSTION & EMISSIONS
SECTION 8 COMBUSTION
The engine combustor is the place where fuel is injected (through fuel injectors) into the
Thepreviously
air engine combustor is the
compressed in place wherecompressor.
the engine fuel is injected
The(through
releasedfuel
fuelinjectors) into the
energy causes air previously c
the
in the engine to
temperature compressor.
rise: The released fuel energy causes the temperature to rise:
c~pe (T3 − T2 ) = E f W f / W
both the large

˜
The heat capacity c~pe in the equation above is a suitable average heat capacity. In practice,
c pe in temperature and the change in gas composition due to the
change
The heat capacity in the equation above is a suitable average heat capacity. In practice, both the lar
combustion
temperature products have toinbe
and the change gasconsidered.
composition due to the combustion products have to be considered.
Modern combustors convert

Modern combustors convert the
theenergy
energystored
storedininthe
thefuel
fuelalmost
almostcompletely
completelyinto
intoheat
heat(Typical combusti
(Typical combustion
efficiencies efficiencies
for natural forengines
gas burning natural gas
rangeburning
aboveengines
99.9%).range
This above
is also 99.9%). This the fact that
evident from
is also evident
incomplete from the fact
combustion, that CO
namely the and
results of incomplete
unburned combustion,
hydrocarbons, namely
are emitted COinand
only the parts per millio
unburned hydrocarbons, are emitted only in the parts per million level.
Only a part of the compressed air participates directly in the combustion, while the remaining air is later
Only a part
the gas of the
stream for compressed air participates
cooling purposes. directly profile
The temperature in the combustion, while the is shown in Figure
in a typical combustor
remaining air is later mixed into the gas stream for cooling purposes. The temperature
profile in a typical combustor is shown in Figure 8-1.
The local temperatures are highest in the flame zone. Cooling of the combustor liner, and
subsequent addition of air bring the gas temperature down to an acceptable combustor exit
temperature. The flow will also incur a pressure loss due to friction and mixing.
TEMPERATURE
Cente
rline G
as Te
mper
ature
Figure 8-1. Combustor Axial Temperature Distribution
Average
The local temperatures are highest in the Combustor
flame zone. Cooling ofExit Temperature
the combustor liner, and subsequent ad
bring the gas temperature down to an acceptable combustor exit temperature. The flow will also incur a
due to friction and mixing.
Most industrial gas turbines today use either conventional combustors where the fuel is injected into th
and mixes with the air present in the combustor, to burn in a more or less stoichiometric flame , or lean
AXIAL DISTANCE
combustors, where the fuel is premixed with air in the injector before it enters the combustor (Figure 8-
Figure 8-1. Combustor Axial Temperature Distribution
Chapter 8: Combustion & Emissions | 185

Most industrial gas turbines today use either conventional combustors where the fuel is
injected into the combustor, and mixes with the air present in the combustor, to burn in a
more or less stoichiometric flame , or lean-premix combustors, where the fuel is premixed
with air in the injector before it enters the combustor (Figure 8-2)
AIRFLOW 70%
30%
Conventional
FUEL Same Inlet

Turbine
FUEL Temperature
Lean-Premixed
50%
AIRFLOW 50%
Figure 8-2. Conventional and Lean-Premix Combustion Systems
Unlike in reciprocating engines, the gas turbine combustion is continuous. This has the
advantage that the combustion process can be made very efficient, with very low levels of
products of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide (CO) or unburned hydrocarbons
(UHC). The other major emissions component, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), is not related to
combustion efficiency, but strictly to the temperature levels in the flame and the amount
of nitrogen in the fuel. The solution to NOx emissions, therefore, lies in the lowering
the flame temperature. Initially, this was accomplished by injecting massive amounts of
steam or water in the flame zone, thus ‘cooling’ the flame. This approach has significant
drawbacks, not the least the requirement to provide large amounts (fuel-to-water ratios
are approximately around 1) of extremely clean water. Since the 1990’s, combustion
technology has focused on systems often referred to as dry low NOx combustion, or lean-
premix combustion (Figure 8-2).
CONVENTIONAL (DIFFUSION FLAME) COMBUSTORS
Diffusion-flame combustion, used in Solar’s conventional combustor, is characterized by

the fact that fuel and air are not homogeneously mixed prior to entering the combustion
zone (Figure 8-2 and 8-3). Fuel and air are separate entities in the initial stages of
combustion; they come together in the reaction (or primary) zone through molecular and
turbulent diffusion.

DILUTION AIR
PRIMARY SECONDARY DILUTION

ZONE ZONE ZONE
Figure 8-3. Diffusion-Flame Combustor
Combustion occurs over a range of local fuel-to-air ratios that may range from the lean limit
to the stoichiometric mixture and further on to the rich limit. This leads to locally different
flame temperatures and reaction rates. The burning rate is controlled by the mixing time,
not the chemical reaction rate. The flame typically has a white, yellow or orange color.
LOW EMISSION COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
While several low emission combustion system designs are possible, two basic
approaches are used. The first employs a “lean-premixed” primary zone and the second
employs a rich primary zone followed by rapid quenching and subsequent dilution of the
reacting gases to the required turbine inlet temperature. The second approach is known as
a “rich-lean” combustion system. In both approaches, the local and average temperatures
in the primary zone are controlled to levels considerably less than the level corresponding
to the stoichiometric fuel/air ratio in order to minimize formation of NOx.
The lean-premixed approach, also known as dry low NOx, or SoLoNox, is currently the most
widely used method to reduce emissions (Figures 8-2 and 8-4). Unlike the diffusion flame,
where the local fuel-to-air ratio varies strongly, the idea behind lean-premixed combustion
is to create a uniform and lean fuel-to-air ratio in the primary zone. To achieve this, fuel and
air are thoroughly mixed prior to entering the primary zone. Therefore, an overall low flame
temperature can be achieved, which in turn reduces the formation of NOx. The burning rate
is controlled by the ability to transfer heat and mass from the flame to the unburned gas
(and only to a small degree by the chemical reaction rate). The flame typically has a blue
appearance.

PRIMARY PREMIXING PREMIXING DILUTION AIR
AIR FUEL ZONE INJECTION PORTS
INLET INJECTOR
PILOT PRIMARY COMBUSTOR DILUTION

FUEL AIR PRIMARY ZONE
INJECTOR SWIRLER ZONE
Figure 8-4. Lean-Premixed Combustor Concept
The general idea behind any Lean-Premix combustor currently in service is to generate
a thoroughly mixed lean fuel and air mixture prior to entering the combustor of the gas
turbine (Greenwood, 2000). The lean mixture is responsible for a low flame temperature
(Figure 8-5), which in turn yields lower rates of NOx production (Figure 8-6). Because the
mixture is very lean, in fact fairly close to the lean extinction limit, the fuel-to-air ratio
has to be kept constant within fairly narrow limits. This is also necessary due to another
constraint: The lower combustion temperatures tend to lead to a higher amount of products
related to incomplete combustion, such as CO and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). The dry
low NOx combustion system
uses a fuel/air mixing zone
where fuel is injected into the Conventional
airstream to achieve complete
FLAME TEMPERATURE
Lean Premixed
vaporization (for liquid fuel)
and uniform mixing of fuel Lean Limit
with air prior to combustion.

ad
Lo
rt-
The fuel/air ratio in this zone at Turbine

Pa
Inlet
the design point is controlled
to be significantly less than
stoichiometric (Figure 8-4). LEAN RICH
The premixed gases enter the

primary zone of the combustor FUEL/AIR RATIO
where they are allowed to react
Figure 8-5. Flame Temperature and Fuel-to-Air Ratio
by providing a recirculation zone
to stabilize the combustion
process. The gases from the
primary zone enter the dilution zone where they are mixed with dilution air to meet gas
turbine inlet temperature requirements.

The necessity to control the fuel-to-air ratio closely yields different part-load behavior
when comparing gas turbines with conventional combustors and DLN engines.1 While
for conventional combustion systems, the firing temperature drops when the engine is
operated at reduced load, in a lean-premix combustor the firing temperature has to be kept
high to avoid combustion inefficiency and increased CO and UHC levels. To accomplish
this, the air flow into the combustor has to be reduced at part load. In single-shaft engines,
the task can be accomplished by modulating the compressor inlet guide vanes, while two-
shaft engines usually bleed air from the compressor directly into the exhaust. Therefore,
while the airflow for any two-shaft engines is reduced at part load, the reduction in airflow
is greater for a conventional combustion engine than for a DLN engine. This sounds
paradoxical because the amount of air available at the combustor in part-load operation
has to be less for a DLN engine (to maintain the fuel-to-air ratio) than for an engine with
conventional combustion. However, due to the bleeding of air in a DLN engine, the flow
capacity of the turbine section is artificially increased by the bleeding duct. The combustor
exit temperature at part load drops significantly for engines with conventional combustion,
while it stays high for DLN engines. Once the bleed valve opens, the part-load efficiency
of a DLN engine drops faster than for an engine with conventional combustion. Since
the opening of the bleed valve is driven by emissions considerations, it is not directly
influenced by the load. Regarding emissions, the drop in combustor temperature in engines
with conventional combustion, leading to a leaner fuel-to-air ratio, automatically leads to
NOx emissions that are lower at part load than at full load. In DLN engines, there is virtually
no such reduction because the requirement to limit CO and UHC emissions limits the
(theoretically possible) reduction in fuel-to-air ratio. However, the NOx emissions levels of
DLN engines are always lower than for engines with conventional combustion.
10
RELATIVE NOX
0
1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950
FLAME TEMPERATURE, K
Figure 8-6. Effect of Flame Temperature on NOx Emissions
Regarding the requirements for DLN engines, multi-spool engines show no fundamental
1
differences from single-spool engines.

The impact of design considerations on NOx emissions needs to be considered:
Fortunately, there is no evidence that pressure ratio influences NOx production rate (on a
ppm basis) in DLN systems. There might be some compromises necessary for engines
with high firing temperatures regarding the cooling air usage. But this is a secondary effect,
because the combustor exit temperature and the flame temperature are not directly related.
Some aeroderivative engines, which tend to have high pressure ratios, have space limits
for the combustion system, thus might be at a disadvantage. But this is not primarily due to
the high pressure ratio, but rather due to the specific design of the engine. A limiting factor
for lowering NOx emissions is often driven by the onset of combustor oscillations. Again,
there is no evidence that the operating windows that allow operation without oscillations
are influenced by operating pressure or firing temperature. They rather seem to depend far
more on the specific engine design.
Combustion systems using this approach generally do not have a secondary zone since all
the air that participates in the combustion is directed through the injector. Furthermore, the
temperature of the primary zone gases is low enough to prevent any significant dissociation
of CO2 to CO. The temperature in the primary zone of a lean-premixed combustor is
uniform and significantly lower than the average temperature in the primary zone of
a conventional combustor. The lower temperature in turn leads to reduced NOx levels
(Figure 8-6).
Due to the low equivalence ratio and uniformity of the fuel/air ratio in the primary zone,
such a combustion system operates close to its weak flame extinction limit (equivalence
ratio is defined as the fuel/air ratio divided by the stoichiometric fuel/air ratio). Therefore,
a very accurate control of the primary zone fuel/air ratio is required to prevent flame-outs
during off-load transients and for part-load operation.
To accommodate part-load operation, the fuel-to-air ratio in the primary zone can be
maintained in an acceptable range either by adjusting the airflow by means of adjustable
IGVs, air bleed, variable air management systems, adjustable power turbine nozzles or
through staged combustion.
Operational Constraints
Due to operation relatively close to the lean limit, dry low NOx combustion systems face
certain operational constraints:
• Stability. The locus of points in the flame region needs to exhibit a burning velocity
equal to the flow velocity; otherwise, as shown in Figure 8-7, the result is flame-out.
• Dynamics. The energy release in the flame may amplify or dampen pressure waves.
Combustor oscillations are a result of “resonance” between heat and pressure waves.
• NOx emissions. Nitrogen oxides form in the hot regions of the combustor.
• CO and UHC emissions. Carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons result from
local cold spots (typically at over-cooled combustor liners). DLN systems typically exhibit
temperatures too low to force dissociation of CO2.

Lean Limit
AIR/FUEL RATIO
Stable Region
Rich Limit
AIR VELOCITY
Figure 8-7. Combustion Stability Limits
For any combustion chamber, there are both rich and lean limits to the fuel/air ratio beyond
which the flame is unstable. Aside from the chemical composition of the fuel, these limits
depend on the air velocity in the combustor (Figure 8-7). The velocity of the air leaving the
compressor has to be reduced in a diffuser. This is required to assure stable combustion, as
well as to reduce the combustor pressure loss.
It must be noted that these stability limits not only have to be met at all loads, but in
particular during acceleration and deceleration of the engine.
To accelerate the engine, the fuel flow will increase rapidly, while, due to the inertia of the
gas producer (in a two-shaft engine), the airflow will lag behind, thus creating a very rich
mixture. Control systems, therefore, usually limit the rate of change of fuel flow, not only to
avoid flame-out, but also to avoid high transient temperatures in the turbine.
The reverse situation occurs during deceleration. The fuel flow is reduced very quickly,
while the airflow remains high for a short period of time, thus creating a very lean mixture
at the continuously high air velocity of the combustor.
COMBUSTOR OSCILLATIONS
An unfortunate side effect of lean-premixed combustion, is the fact that the heat release
and local pressures can be the basis of a system capable of oscillations. In gas turbines that
use lean-premix-combustion for emissions reduction, a common and key feature is that fuel
and air are premixed prior to entering the combustor. This is necessary to control the local
fuel-to-air ratio in the combustor to a lean mixture to maintain a reduced flame temperature,
and consequently low production of NOx.
If the fuel nozzles or air nozzles are not choked, the flow rate through these nozzles is
dependent on fluctuations of the pressure and temperature field in the combustor. Any

pressure disturbance in the combustor will, after a delay determined by the speed of sound
along its path, cause a pressure disturbance immediately downstream of the fuel nozzle
(or air nozzle). If the fuel (and/or air) flow is modulated as a result of these fluctuations in
the combustor, the local fuel-to-air ratio in the injector, and subsequently in the combustor,
will fluctuate. There is, thus, a time delay between the time when the fuel or air enters
the mixing zone in the injector and the time when it burns in the combustor. In this case,
this time is determined by flow velocities in the injector and combustor. Because the
local flame temperature is also determined by the local fuel-to-air ratio, the fluctuations in
the local fuel-to-air ratio lead to fluctuations in the pressure and temperature field in the
combustor. This is a feedback mechanism that can cause measurable pressure fluctuations
if the time constants involved excite gas in the combustor at one of its natural frequency
modes. These can cause resonant oscillations strong enough to initiate mechanical damage
to the engine and, thus, every effort is made to prevent them. One mechanism of these
oscillations becomes clear from Figures 8-8 and 8-9. The oscillation modes can be axial,
radial or circumferential depending on the combustor geometry (Figure 8-9).
Delay Time t = x/v
FLAME
INJECTOR
SPOKES X FLAME
Figure 8-8. Combustor Oscillations: Delay Time and Rayleigh Coupling. There is a time lag
between the release of a fuel particle at the fuel spokes and the actual combustion of this fuel
particle in the primary zone
PREMIXING
FUEL
INJECTOR
Figure 8-9. Combustor Oscillation Modes

GAS TURBINE EMISSIONS
The combustion process in a gas turbine is essentially a clean and efficient process and
for many years there was little concern about emissions, with the exception of the need to
eliminate smoke from the exhaust when burning liquid fuels. Recently, however, control of
emissions has become probably the most important factor in the design of industrial gas
turbines, as the causes and effects of industrial pollution become better understood and
the population of gas turbines increases.
The pollutants appearing in the exhaust include oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2), carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC); any sulphur in the fuel results in oxides
of sulphur (SOx), the most common of which is SO2. Although these all represent a very
small proportion of the exhaust flow (typically in the 5 to 300 ppm range), the large flow of
exhaust gases produces significant quantities of pollutants that can become concentrated
in the area close to the emission source. Nitrogen oxides can react in the presence of
sunlight to produce “smog,” which can be seen as a brownish cloud. This problem was
originally identified in the Los Angeles area, where the combination of vehicle exhausts,
strong sunlight, local geography and temperature inversions resulted in severe smog.
The problem of controlling emissions is complicated by the fact that gas turbines may be
operated over a wide range of power and ambient conditions. As a simple example, power
changes on a single‑shaft gas turbine driving a generator will occur with the compressor
operating at constant speed and approximately constant airflow, while an engine with a
free-power turbine must operate at different compressor speeds and, hence, airflows as
the power setting is changed. Variable geometry compressor systems introduce further
variables, but also introduce the means of controlling the combustion process.
In the past, the only function of the engine control system was to provide the correct
amount of fuel for all operating conditions, both steady-state and transient while emissions
control was a function of the combustor design. With modern engines, however, the
control system plays a major role in adjusting fuel/air ratios to minimize emissions
over a large portion of the operating range. This was only possible with the advent of
sophisticated digital fuel control systems.
POLLUTANT FORMATION
The initial goal of combustion engineers was the design and development of high efficiency
combustors that were rugged and durable. Later, relatively simple solutions to the problem
of smoke were developed. When the requirements for emissions control emerged, much
basic research became necessary to establish the fundamentals of pollutant formation.
Regarding the generation of pollutants, there are different classes :
- Pollutants generated due to the high temperature environment: NOx
- Pollutants resulting from incomplete combustion: CO, UHC
- Pollutants resulting from complete combustion of fuel contaminants: SOx

- Pollutants that are carried through the engine, coming from air bound
contaminants: Most particles.
The single most important factor affecting the formation of NOx is flame temperature; it is
theoretically at maximum at stoichiometric conditions and will fall off at both rich and lean
mixtures (Figure 8-10). Unfortunately, while NOx can be reduced by operating well away
from stoichiometric conditions, this results in an increasing formation of both CO and UHC.
The rate of formation of NOx, varies exponentially with the flame temperature, so the key
to reducing NOx is reduction of the flame temperature (Figure 8-6). The formation of NOx is
also slightly dependent on the residence time of the fluid in the combustor, decreasing in
a linear fashion as residence time is reduced. An increase in residence time, however, has
a favorable effect on reducing both CO and UHC emissions, because it allows for the time
necessary to complete these reactions. Increasing the residence time implies an increase
in combustor cross‑sectional area or volume. This is the reason low NOx combustors are so
much larger than conventional combustors (Figure 8-11).
STOICHIOMETRIC
NOx
CO
EMISSIONS
UHC
LEAN RICH FUEL/AIR RATIO
Figure 8-10. Emissions as a Function of Fuel-to-Air Ratio

STANDARD
SoLoNOx
082-054M/S
Figure 8-11. Comparison of Dry Low NOx and Standard Combustors
Figure 8-11.
Figure 8-11. Comparison
Comparison of
of Dry
Dry Low
Low NO
NOxx and
and Standard
Standard Combustors
Combustors
It is important to understand the relationship between emissions and the key cycle
parameters It isofimportant
It is pressure to
important ratio
to and turbine
understand
understand theinlet
the temperature.
relationship
relationship Theemissions
between
between Zeldovich and
emissions reactions
and of cycle
the key
the key cycle parameters
parameters
formation
ratio and of thermal
turbine nitrogen
inlet oxides
temperature. are
The as follows:
Zeldovich reactions of formation of thermal nitrogen
ratio and turbine inlet temperature. The Zeldovich reactions of formation of thermal nitrogen oxides oxides are
ar
NN+
+O ↔ NO
O22 ↔ NO +
+OO
O+
O +N ↔ NO
N 22 ↔ NO +
+NN
N+
N OH ↔
+ OH ↔ NO
NO +
+HH
The
The initialThe initial
rateinitial rate of
of formation
of formation
rate formation of NO
of NOx is: of NOxx is:
is:
d(NO)
d(NO) 69090
=C
=
-1/2
C11TT -1/2 exp (- 69090 )(
exp (- 1/2
O22 ))1/2 (( N
)( O N 22 ))
dt
dt T
T
The rates
The reaction
The reaction rates become
become
reaction rates become significant
significant
significant above(3000°F)
above 1650°C
above 1650°C (3000°F)
1650°C (3000°F) flame temperature.
temperature. They
flame temperature.
flame They rough
rough
magnitude
They roughly
magnitude for each
fordouble 20°C (36°F).
in magnitude
each 20°C Note that
for each
(36°F). Note the
20°C
that the adiabatic flame
(36°F). Note
adiabatic temperature
flamethat in
the adiabatic
temperature a combustor for natural gg
combustor
in a flame for natural
approximately 2000-2300°C
approximately 2000-2300°C (3500-4200°F),
(3500-4200°F), while
while dry
dry low
low NO systems may
NOxx systems may operate
operate with
with flame temp
temperature in a combustor for natural gas is approximately 2000-2300°C (3500-4200°F), flame temp
about 1538°C
about 1538°C (2800°F).
(2800°F). Since
Since alternative
alternative fuels,
fuels, such
such as
as hydrogen,
hydrogen, have
have much
much higher
higher flame
flame temperature
temperatur
while dry low NOx systems may operate with flame temperatures of about 1538°C
140°C or 250°F higher), they would tend to create higher NO levels than for natural
140°C or 250°F higher), they would tend to create higher NOxx levels than for natural gas. gas.

(2800°F). Since alternative fuels, such as hydrogen, have much higher flame temperatures
(about 140°C or 250°F higher), they would tend to create higher NOx levels than for natural
gas.
Once combustion systems designers began to understand the problem and incorporated
the necessary measures to minimize NOx, it was found that cycle pressure ratio did not
have a major effect: it is the flame temperature that is important. NOx emissions can be
more than halved by reducing the flame temperature from 1900°K to 1800°K.
This insight inspired the design of lean-premixed combustion systems that operate at a less
than stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio in the combustion zone, thus achieving a lower flame
temperature.
Lean-premixed combustion is the basis of Solar’s current pollution-prevention, dry low NOx
emission technology called SoLoNOx™.
Successful development of ultra lean-premixed (ULP) combustion will further decrease

emission levels by reducing the temperature in the primary zone of the combustor. ULP
requires a fuel injector that provides very thorough mixing of the fuel and air. To obtain
stable combustion in a lean-premixed system at part load, the fuel/air mixture ratio
must be held nearly constant as gas turbine load (fuel flow rate) is reduced. This can be
accomplished either with air bleed from the compressor at part load or via a variable-
geometry system that reduces airflow to the combustor as fuel flow is reduced.
Also, carbon monoxide (CO) generation can be caused by the combustor liner film-cooling
air passing through the liner and entering the reaction zone before the CO has oxidized
to carbon dioxide (CO2). One way to prevent this from occurring is to avoid internal film
cooling. An alternative to film cooling is, for example, back-side cooling of the combustor
liner. (Refer also to the discussion on cooling technologies in Chapter 6)
Comparison with other Fossil Fuel-Burning Alternatives
It may be preferable to compare emissions from various alternatives in terms of "mass of

pollutant per quantity of useful product output", in this case on a kg/MWh basis (Klein and
Kurz). Figure 8-12 provides an approximate emissions comparison of typical modern coal,
oil and gas-fired Rankine Cycle boiler systems, with GT Combined Cycle and Combined
Heat & Power, Wood waste and Gasification plants (GTCC, GT CHP, Biomass, IGCC). Note
that older coal and oil-fired plants, with less controls, have much higher emissions of acid
gases than noted in the figure.
The use of natural gas in a high-efficiency cycle with a DLN based gas turbine results
in much lower emissions of all acid gases, thus accomplishing goals consistent with a
comprehensive pollution prevention strategy. About 60 percent of the energy value of
natural gas is from its hydrogen content, thus CO2 emissions from high-efficiency natural
gas combustion are a fraction of those for coal-fired systems. Particulates, associated
toxic trace elements, and thermal impacts from cooling water, are also minimized with gas
plants. As shown in Figure 8-12, the gas turbine based facilities can reduce overall pollution
from average coal and oil plants by 90-95 percent .The issue is then: Why constrain this

cleaner energy choice by forcing regulatory NOx concentration standards that are so low as
to prevent effective plant operation.
Comparison of Air Pollution Emissions

from Various New Energy Generating Plants (kg/MWh)
kg/MWh
SO2
2.5
NOX
2.0 PM
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Coal Oil Gas GTCC GTCHP Bio IGCC
Comparison of CO2 Emissions

from Various Power Generation Plants (kg/MWh)
kg/MWh
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 8-12. CO2 , and other pollutant emissions of different power plants

198 | Chapter 9: Fuel & Fuel Treatment
CHAPTER 9
FUEL & FUEL TREATMENT
Industrial gas turbines enable operation with a wide variety of gaseous and liquid fuels,
while maintaining very low emissions. Lean-premix combustion systems, widely used
for emissions control, require particular considerations regarding the fuel quality and fuel
composition. To determine the suitability for operation with a gas fuel system, various
physical parameters of the proposed fuel need to be considered: heating value, dew
point, Wobbe Index and others. Attention is given to the impact of fuel constituents on
combustion characteristics and the problem of determining the dew point of the potential
fuel gas at various pressure levels. The impact of fuel properties on emissions, and the
proper operation of the combustion system are discussed. Suggestions about how to
approach fuel suitability questions during the project development and construction phase,
as well as in operation are made (Kurz et al., 2006).
Gas Fuels
The quality and composition of fuel burned in a gas turbine impacts the life of the turbine,
particularly its combustion system and turbine section. The fuel specified for a given
application is usually based on availability and price. Natural gas is a typical fuel of choice
for gas turbines due to its low (but increasing) cost, widespread availability, and low
resulting emissions. However, the composition of fuel gas can widely vary, from gas with
significant amounts of heavier hydrocarbons1 (butane and heavier), to pipeline-quality gas
consisting mostly of methane, to fuel gas with significant amounts of noncombustible
gases (such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide).
The fuel composition impacts the entire gas turbine system. For example, fuels with a large
amount of noncombustible components can move the operating point of the gas turbine
compressor closer to its stall limit. They also have an impact on the power and efficiency
of the gas turbine. Fuel choices impact the pollutant emissions levels. Durability issues,
especially of the hot section, due to corrosive compounds or the formation of liquids in
gaseous fuels, have to be addressed. Combustor operability (and durability) issues, especially
for lean-premix combustion systems depend on the choice of fuel. Certain fuel types
pose safety challenges for the gas turbine package due to their flammability, containment
(hydrogen is an example), and/or toxicity (carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide) issues.
Current dry low emissions technology primarily focuses on burning natural gas, a fuel that
is mainly composed of methane. However, interest in utilizing other energy resources, in
reducing pollutant emissions, as well as concern about energy security, have motivated
interest in utilizing associated gas and raw natural gas, coal-derived syngas or fuels from
other sources, such as biomass, landfill gas, or process gas. For many applications, dry,
low-emissions systems also have been designed to burn liquid fuels like diesel.
Gas fuels for gas turbines are combustible gases, or mixtures of combustible and inert
gases with a variety of compositions covering a wide range of heating values and densities.
The combustible components can consist of methane and other low molecular weight
1
Hydrocarbons in fuel gas are usually alkanes, with the summary chemical formula CnH2n+2
Chapter 9: Fuel & Fuel Treatment | 199

an example), and/or toxicity (carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide) issues.
ogy primarily focuses on burning natural gas, a fuel that is mainly composed
ng other energy resources, in reducing pollutant emissions, as well as concern
nterest in utilizing associated gas and raw natural gas, coal-derived syngas or
ass, landfill gas, or process gas. For many applications, dry, low-emissions
hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The major inert components are nitrogen,
n liquid fuels like Diesel.
carbon dioxide and water vapor. It is generally accepted that this type of fuel has to be
bustible gases, or mixtures
completely of combustible
gaseous at the entry and inert
to the fuelgases with a variety
gas system, of points downstream to the
and at all
f heating values and densities.
fuel nozzle.
The combustible components can consist of
t hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The major inert components
apor. It is generally accepted
The amount that this
of energy type
that willofbe
fuel has to be
released completely
during gaseous process for a specific
the combustion
at all points downstream to the fuel nozzle.
gaseous fuel composition is determined by the heating value. For simple cycle gas
turbines,
eleased during the lowerprocess
the combustion heatingfor
value is generally
a specific used
gaseous since
fuel the latent energy of the steam is
composition
simple cyclenot
gasrecovered. Gaseous fuels can be categorized by the lower the
turbines, the lower heating value is generally used since heating value, but another
red. Gaseousparameter
fuels can is
beused
categorized by the lower
more commonly heating
in the value, industry.
gas turbine but another
That parameter is the
he gas turbine industry. That parameter is the Wobbe index. From the lower 3
Wobbe Index. From the lower heating value (LHV) in Btu/scf [kJ/Nm ] and the specific
m3] and the specific gravity (SG), the Wobbe index (WI) of the gas can be
gravity (SG), the Wobbe Index (WI) of the gas can be calculated:
LHV
WI =
SG
e Tf has an impact on the actual volumetric fuel flow, a temperature corrected
Because the fuel supply temperature Tf has an impact on the actual volumetric fuel flow, a
eference temperature Tref is usually 520°R or 288°K:
temperature corrected Wobbe Index is often used, where the reference temperature Tref is
usually 520°R or 288°K:
alkanes, with the summary Tref formula CnH2n+2

LHV chemical
WI = ⋅
SG Tf
ositions haveIf the
twosame
different
Wobbefuelindex,
gas compositions
the pressure have thea same
drop in given Wobbe Index,
fuel system the pressure drop
will
eneral, direct
in substitution
a given fuel is possible
system willand no change
be the to both
same for the fuel system
gases and is
in required.
general, direct substitution
ation of energy flow in and
is possible the system at the
no change to same gassystem
the fuel pressureis and pressure
required. Thedrop.
Wobbe Index is, thus, an
indication
parameter to indicate of
theenergy
abilityflow in the
of the system
overall fuel at the same
handling andgas pressure
injection and pressure drop.
system
ion. If the Wobbe index varies too far from the design value, changes to the fuel
The Wobbe
obbe index often Index
indicates the ispresence
used asofa parameter to indicate the
heavier hydrocarbons ability
in the fuel,ofwhile
the overall fuel handling
by the presence of significant amounts of noncombustible fuel com-ponents orWobbe
and injection system to accommodate the fuel composition. If the by Index varies too
far from the design value, changes to the fuel system need to be made. A high Wobbe
of (highly combustible) hydrogen or carbon monoxide.
means, thatIndex often
the fuel indicates
mass the presence
flow, relative of heavier
to the engine hydrocarbons
air mass in the fuel,
flow increases, the while a low Wobbe
Index is often caused by the presence of
s slightly (Figure 9-1) when the Wobbe Index is lowered. significant amounts of noncombustible fuel
components or by the presence of significant amounts of (highly combustible) hydrogen or
es not capture the effects of other fuel properties, such as dew point, flame speed
re, the entirecarbon monoxide.
fuel composition must also be considered and, if more reactive species
bon monoxide are present in significant quantities, additional changes to the fuel
Because a lower Wobbe Index means, that the fuel mass flow, relative to the engine air
esign criterion is that gases having a Wobbe index within ±10% can be substituted
fuel controlmass flow
system orincreases, the power
injector flow area. Ifoutput of injector
the fuel an engine increases
flow area hasslightly
to be (Figure 9-1) when the
Wobbe
uld be inversely Index is lowered.
proportional to the effective controlling area of the injector.
However, the Wobbe Index does not capture the effects of other fuel properties, such as
dew point, flame speed and combustion chemistry. Therefore, the entire fuel composition
must also be considered and, if more reactive species such as hydrogen, Alkanes and
carbon monoxide are present in significant quantities, additional changes to the fuel system
may be required. A good design criterion is that gases having a Wobbe Index within ±10%
can be substituted without making adjustments to the fuel control system or injector flow
area. If the fuel injector flow area has to be changed, the gas Wobbe Index should be
inversely proportional to the effective controlling area of the injector.

Power
1.08
1.07
1.06
Power/Power (WI=1222)
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
0.99
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
Wobbe Index
Figure 9-1. Impact of Wobbe Index on Gas Turbine Power Output (Typical)
Figure 9-1: For a typical landfill gas, the Wobbe Index is one-third the value of standard
pipeline-quality natural gas. The controlling orifices on the injectors must be enlarged to
three times their previous area. This allows the fuel flow rate of the landfill gas to have an
equivalent pressure drop across the injector at full-load condition. This will provide stable,
high-efficiency combustion, with the desired turbine inlet temperature distribution, for long
combustor and blade life.
As the fuel heating value decreases below standard levels, the torch igniter and the
combustion system may require standard natural gas or liquid fuel for startup or shutdown,
as well as possible restrictions on turbine transient load operation.
Gaseous fuels can be classified based on changes required to the injector, fuel or control
systems as specified in Table 9-1. The table includes special start-up requirements and
limitations in loading based on the class of gas fuel. Both Lean-Premix and conventional
combustion gas turbines can be designed to use the standard fuel with Wobbe Index range
of 1220 ±10%. This range would be typical of pipeline-quality natural gas. High heating
value fuels are accommodated with minor changes to the control systems and can be
used in conventional combustion and, to a lesser degree, in gas turbines with lean-premix
combustors. Very high heating value fuels usually require that the fuel temperature be
monitored closely to prevent two-phase (gas and liquid) flow. For medium heating value
fuels, conventional combustion may require a change in injector flow area. Low-heating
value fuels require even more extensive changes to the injector and fuel system. The last
category of very low-heating values has limited application for conventional combustion
only. DLN combustion systems in industrial gas turbines are usually designed for standard
natural gas. The use with other gases (either high BTU or medium BTU) usually requires
careful evaluation and testing.

Gaseous fuels can be divided into four distinct categories as indicated in Figure 9-2. These
categories are broadly based on the fuel source.
Fuel Gases in Oil and Gas Upstream and Midstream Applications
Gas fuels produced from oil and natural gas reserves include: raw natural gas, associated
gas, pipeline-quality natural gas, liquefied natural gas (LNG), natural gas liquids (NGL) and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Wobbe Index
Fuel Energy Density
BTU/scf (MJ/Nm3)
Very High (NGL & LPG) >1600 (>59. 6)
High 1342 – 1600 (50. 0 – 59. 6)
Standard (Pipeline) 1098 – 1342 (40. 9 – 50. 0)
Medium 700 – 1098 (26. 1 – 40. 9)
Low 350 – 700 (13. 0 – 26. 1)
Very Low <350 (<13. 0)
Table 9-1. Classification of Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas is extracted from the ground either with crude oil or from natural gas reservoirs.
It is primarily a mixture of naturally occurring paraffin hydrocarbons including methane
(CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C 3H8) butane (C 4H10), pentane (C5H12), hexane (C6H14), and
higher molecular weight compounds. Hydrocarbons heavier than propane form isomers,
such as iso-butane (iC 4H10) and iso-pentane (iC5H12) that have different properties than their
‘normal’ counterparts. Additionally, other gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
mercaptanes, water vapor, and nitrogen can be present.
Associated Gas is extracted with crude oil and found either dissolved in the oil or as a
cap gas above the oil in the reservoir. Historically, associated gas has been treated as
a by-product of oil extraction and has either been flared or re-injected to extract more
oil. Burning associated gas in the gas turbines used to extract the crude oil has been
recognized in the past two decades as a more economical and environmentally sensitive
approach. The majority of associated gas is produced offshore, complicating further efforts
to recover and utilize these gases. The composition of associated gas depends on the type
of reservoir from which it originated.
Raw Natural Gas or wellhead gas is extracted from gas wells. The gas reserves
are generally classified as either dry or wet. Dry reserves do not contain appreciable
condensable heavier hydrocarbons (pentane+), while wet reserves do. Natural gas
containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is referred to as sour gas. Excessive H2S creates
extensive corrosion problems on fuel-wetted parts; thus, stainless steel and/or coatings are
often prescribed for equipment handling sour gas.
Pipeline-Quality Natural Gas that is transported and distributed for industrial and
residential use is a subset of raw natural gas. Pipeline gas has been processed to remove

Gaseous Fuel Sources
Oil and Gas

Industry Biomass Coal Derived
Operations
• Raw Natural Gas • Coke Oven Gas • Landfill Gas • Coal Mine Methane
• Associated Gas • Refinery Gas • Digester Gas • Coal Bed Methane
• Pipeline Gas • Gasified Solids • Coal Gas – Air Blown
• LNG • Coal Gas – Oxy Blown
• Natural Gas Liquids
• Liquefied
Petroleum Gas
Figure 9-2. Gas Turbine Gaseous Fuel Categories
the heavier hydrocarbons and adjust the heating value of the fuel within prescribed limits.
Methane is the lightest combustible component of natural gas and generally referred to
interchangeably with pipeline-quality gas (>90%) because it is the major constituent.
Mercaptans are typically added to pipeline gas to give a distinctive odor that facilitates gas
leakage detection.
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is pipeline-quality natural gas extracted remotely, chilled to
a liquid (‑260°F/‑162°C), transported via tanker, heated, revaporized, processed as required
and injected into an existing natural gas transmission and distribution network. LNG has a
similar composition to pipeline-natural gas.
Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) is a general classification for those paraffin hydrocarbons
heavier than methane, which can be transported and distributed in liquid form. At
atmospheric pressure, NGL is in the gaseous state. As a gas, NGL is separated from
methane by liquefying it through the process of pressure, absorption, or a combination of
both. Because of the relatively high dew point of this gas compared to natural gas, NGL is
usually handled as a liquid fuel for most industrial gas turbine applications. A determination
must be made for each source of NGL based on the fuel analysis as to whether the fuel
should be handled in the gaseous or liquid phase.
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a sub-classification of NGL referring specifically to

propane and butane mixtures offered commercially. LPG is always transported in liquid
form and as with NGL, LPG is usually handled as a liquid fuel in gas turbine applications.
Fuel Gases Produced in Industrial Applications
Several industrial and chemical processes generate significant quantities of gas by-products
and waste streams with acceptable fuel composition and adequate calorific value for use in
gas turbines without extensive equipment modifications. Primary industries producing such
fuels include steel mills and chemical and refining plants.
Refinery Gas is a by-product of gasoline production. This gas contains high hydrogen
(H2) content, along with several other reactive species including ethylene and propylene,

mixed with methane, ethane and propane. Refinery gas is corrosive and hydrogen has a
great tendency to leak and is explosive, therefore, safety is the main concern. With the
proper safety considerations incorporated into design modifications and minor fuel control
adjustments, refinery waste gas has been successfully used to fuel industrial gas turbines.
Hydrogen has a relatively low molecular weight and high flame speed compared to natural
gas.
Coke Oven Gas is generated during the production of coal and petroleum coke for iron
and steel production. It contains methane, hydrogen and some carbon monoxide and has
a lower heating value than pipeline gas. Coke oven gas composition is quite variable and
requires significant treatment to remove contaminants for use in a gas turbine combustion
that produces gases with high carbon monoxide and hydrogen content.
Anaerobic Digestion Gas is the gas recovered from the decomposition of organic matter
by bacteria in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic digestion occurs in:
- Liquid sewage
- Residues from fruit and vegetable canneries
- Animal and crop wastes
- Solid wastes disposed in sanitary landfills
- Marine plants, including macro-algae, water hyacinth and sea kelp
This process produces gas consisting of methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air with a
low heating value. Large variations in gas composition are common from different landfill
and digester sites.
Fuel Gases Derived from Coal
Coal-derived gases include coal gas produced through several different gasification
processes and gases that are collected during coal mining.
Coal Gas produced by gasification contains hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide as
their combustible components, with large proportions of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as
inerts. Depending on the type of gasification process, air-blown processes generate an
LHV of from 3. 0 to 7. 9 MJ/Nm3 (75 to 200 Btu/scf), while oxygen-blown processes yield
medium BTU gases with a LHV of from 7. 9 to 21. 2 MJ/ Nm3 (200 to 570 Btu/scf).
Coal Mine Gas is generally extracted in two forms: diluted with air as Coal Mine Methane
(CMM) or as a high quality natural gas as Coal Bed Methane (CBM). In a gaseous coal
seam, methane concentration can be up to 94-98% with 1-5% carbon dioxide. For safety
reasons, this gas has to be drained from underground coal seams, before mining, in the
form of CBM. To prevent explosions in coal mines, extensive ventilation is required to
extract gaseous methane trapped between coal seams and the surrounding rock. In
practice, the gas/air mixture from the coal mine is further diluted with air during extraction
and the resultant CMM gas contains 30 to 70% methane by volume. This gas/air mixture
can be compressed and directly used as a fuel in a gas turbine. Since the methane fuel
and its air oxidant are premixed in the fuel gas, potential explosion hazards need to be

addressed. The methane content in the gas/air mixture should always be kept with a
sufficient margin above the upper flammability limit, at the highest anticipated pressure and
temperature.
Fuel Gases from Biomass
Biomass can be converted into potential gas fuels for industrial gas turbines through
thermal gasification and anaerobic digestion.
Thermal Gasification is a process of heating wood and other biological substances without
combustion that produces gases with high carbon monoxide and hydrogen content.
Contaminants
In many systems, the gas composition and quality may be subject to variations (Newbound
et al., 2003). Typically, the major contaminants within these fuels are:
- Solids
- Water
- Heavy gases present as liquids
- Oils typical of compressor oils
- Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
- Hydrogen (H2)
- Carbon monoxide (CO)
- Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Siloxanes
Other factors that will affect turbine or combustion system life and performance
include lower heating value (LHV), specific gravity (SG), fuel temperature, and ambient
temperature.
Some of these constituents and contaminants may co-exist and be interrelated. For
instance, water, heavy gases present as liquids, and leakage of machinery lubricating oils,
may be a problem for turbine operators at the end of a distribution or branch line, or at a
low point in a fuel supply line.
Water in the gas may combine with other small molecules to produce a hydrate — a
solid with an ice-like appearance. Hydrate production is influenced, in turn, by gas
composition, gas temperature, gas pressure and pressure drops in the gas fuel system.
Liquid water in the presence of H2S or CO2 will form acids that can attack fuel supply lines
and components. Free water can also cause turbine flameouts or operating instability if
ingested in the combustor or fuel control components.
Heavy hydrocarbon gases present as liquids provide many times the heating value per unit
volume than they would as a gas. Since turbine fuel systems meter the fuel based on the fuel

being a gas, this creates a safety problem, especially during the engine start-up sequence
when the supply line to the turbine still may be cold. Hydrocarbon liquids can cause:
• Turbine overfueling, which can cause an explosion or severe turbine damage.
• Fuel control stability problems, because the system gain will vary as liquid slugs or
droplets move through the control system.
• Combustor hot streaks and subsequent engine hot section damage.
• Overfueling the bottom section of the combustor when liquids gravitate towards the
bottom of the manifold
• Internal injector blockage over time, when trapped liquids pyrolyze in the hot gas
passages.
Liquid carryover is a known cause for rapid degradation of the hot gas path components in
a turbine.
The condition of the combustor components also has a strong influence and fuel nozzles
that have accumulated pipeline contaminants that block internal passageways will probably
be more likely to miss desired performance or emission targets. Thus, it follows that more
maintenance attention may be necessary to assure that combustion components are in
premium condition. This may require that fuel nozzles be inspected and cleaned at more
regular intervals or that improved fuel filtration components be installed.
With a known gas composition, it is possible to predict dew point temperatures for water
and hydrocarbons. However, the prediction methods for dew points may not always be
accurate. In fact, it is known that different equations of state will yield different calculated
dew points under otherwise identical conditions. Furthermore, the temperature in an
unheated fuel line will drop because the pressure drop due to valves and orifices in the fuel
line causes a temperature drop in the gas (Figure 9-3). This effect is known as the Joule-
Spec A Manifold
Gas at Insurance
Req’d Filter B
Temp
Coalescer Presure 220
Skid Regulator C
A Fuel 200
Control D
B Valve 180
160
C D 140
Gas Dew Point 120
50°F (28°C) Superheat 100
10°F (5.5°C) Superheat 80
60
810 760 710 660 610 560 510 460 410 360 310 260
Figure 9-3. Pressure and Temperature drop in the fuel system

Thompson effect. Most fuel gases (except hydrogen) will exhibit a reduction in temperature
during an adiabatic throttling. Hydrogen, on the other hand, actually shows an increased
temperature when the pressure drops, which creates a potential explosion hazard.
Fuel Supply Condition
1.2
K
PRESSURE
1
Combustor Pressure
0.8
PCD–2shaft Saturated
0.6 Vapor
0.4 PCD–1shaft
0.2 Saturated
Liquid
0 Lowest
Combustor
0 0.5 1 1.5 Pressure
Load (%)
ENTHALPY
Figure 9-4. Pressure drop and Two-Phase region
Important Fuel Properties
Dew point of a gas is a function of gas composition, pressure and temperature. It describes
the boundary between the single-phase gas and the two-phase (gas and liquid) state of a
fluid (Elliott et al, 2002) (Figure 9-4). Usually, the water dew point of a fuel gas is reported
separately from the hydrocarbon dew point. One of the issues is that heavy hydrocarbons,
even if they are only present in traces, have a large impact on the dew point. In many
instances, a gas analysis lumps all the heavier hydrocarbons into one number (e.g., C6+).
Since the dew point depends on the distribution of the heavy hydrocarbons, estimates can
be made based on characterization methods (Campbell, 2000). However, these estimates
are often not very accurate, and direct dew point measurements may be the preferred
method.
In particular, there is no reproducible relationship between heating value and dew point.
Because most gases will see a reduction in temperature during isenthalpic expansion (this
is the Joule-Thompson Effect), it is possible that even a dry gas can develop liquids if it
is subject to the pressure drop in a typical fuel supply system. It is, therefore, necessary
to provide fuel gas sufficiently superheated. Values of 28°C/50°F of superheat at turbine
skid edge are frequently used as a requirement, but the appropriate amount (which can
be higher or lower) of superheat can be determined by a detailed dew point analysis.
The amount of superheat needs to include allowances for uncertainty in the fuel gas
composition at present and in the future, as well as the potential for heat loss of the fuel
system.
Blowout refers to a situation where the flame becomes detached from the location where
it is anchored and is physically “blown out” of the combustor. Blowout is often referred to

as the “static stability” limit of the combustor. Blowout occurs when the time required for
chemical reaction becomes longer than the combustion zone residence time. It can be an
issue because the chemical kinetic rates and flame propagation speeds vary widely with
fuel composition. For example, many candidate fuels have similar heating values but also
have chemical kinetic times that vary by an order of magnitude (Lieuwen et al., 2006).
The opposite problem is flashback, where the flame physically propagates upstream
of the region where it is supposed to anchor and into premixing passages that are not
designed for high temperatures. Similar to blowout, flashback is an issue because of the
widely varying flame speeds of candidate fuels. Again, fuels with similar heating values
but with flame speeds that vary by factors of five or more are common (Lieuwen et al.,
2006). Flashback occurs when the turbulent flame speed exceeds the flow velocity along
some streamline, allowing the flame to propagate upstream into the premixing section.
Flashback often occurs in the flow boundary layer, since this is the point of lowest flow
velocity. As such, the effect of fuel composition variations upon flashback depend upon the
corresponding change in turbulent flame speed. Flame speed is a propagation of the flame
front moving in the combustion zone. Changes in the fuel composition, fuel-to-air ratio and
inlet temperature affect the flame speed.
The laminar flame speed, also called flame velocity, or burning velocity (Figure 9-5), is
defined as the velocity at which unburned gases move through the combustion wave in
the direction normal to the wave surface. A key point here is that the flame speed does not
vary linearly between the respective pure values of the mixture constituents. For example,
the addition of H2 to CH4 does not have a significant impact upon the flame speed until
H2 is the dominant constituent of the mixture. The impact of adding diluents, like CO2, is,
that the flame speed is still lower than the non-diluted mixtures, even if the temperature is
maintained by increasing the equivalence ratio.
However, most issues are related to the turbulent flame speed, which depends, besides
the laminar flame speed, also on the turbulence levels of the gases in question. In
particular, data show that, as the turbulence intensity increases, the turbulent flame speed
initially increases, then asymptotes to a constant value, and then, at very high turbulence
intensities, begins to decrease. The most obvious effect of fuel properties on the turbulent
flame speed is through the laminar flame speed. For example, for a given turbulence
intensity and a given burner, fuels with higher laminar-flame speeds should have higher
turbulent-flame speeds. However, turbulence intensity and laminar-flame speed alone do
not capture many important characteristics of the turbulent-flame speed. Two different fuel
mixtures having the same laminar-flame speed, turbulence intensity and burner can have
appreciably different turbulent-flame speeds depending on the diffusion characteristics of
the species involved.
Flame-propagation velocity is also strongly influenced by the fuel/air mixture ratio;

the leaner the mixture the lower the velocity. If the flow velocity exceeds the flame-
propagation velocity, then flameout could occur. If the flame-propagation velocity exceeds
the flow velocity, then flashback within the premixing injectors could occur that can cause
damage by overheating the injector tips and walls. To maintain flame stability at a point,
the velocity of the fuel/air mixture must be within the flame-propagation speed to prevent
flashback.

Flame flashback from the combustion chamber into the premixing zone is one of the
inherent reliability problems of lean-premixed combustion. The flame speed is one of the
most important parameters governing flashback. High flame speeds occur, for example, in
associated gases containing high percentages of propane or butane (Figure 9-5).
Autoignition is a process where a combustible mixture spontaneously reacts and releases

heat in absence of any concentrated source of ignition such as a spark or a flame (Lefebvre,
1998). Rather than the flame propagating upstream into the premixing section, autoignition
involves spontaneous ignition of the mixture in the premixing section (Figure 9-6). Similar
to flashback, it results in chemical reactions and hot gases in premixing sections, but its
physical origins are quite different from those of flashback. In lean-premix combustors,
or in general, in any combustor where fuel and air are premixed prior to combustion, this
Associated Gas
LPG
Pipeline and LNG
Coal and Coke

Raw Natural Gas Oven Gas
Refinery
Landfill and Digester Gasified
Biomass
and Waste
0 50 100 150 200 250

Increasing Risk FLAME SPEED, cm/sec Increasing Risk
of Flameout of Flameback
SoLoNOx and SoLoNOx

Conventional
Figure 9-5. Fuel Type Effects on Flame Speed
265
245
225
Autoignition Delay Time (msec)
205
185
Methane
165 Low BTU
Standard
145 Natural Gas
105 Low BTU w/H2 Propane
85 Associated
Butane
65
45
Ethylene
25
5
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
C/H
Figure 9-6. Autoignition Delay Time Depending on Fuel Constituents

spontaneous ignition inside the injector barrel has to be avoided, because it can damage
combustor components, and yields high pollutant emissions. The autoignition delay time
of a fuel is the time required for a mixture to spontaneously ignite at some given condition.
This parameter is a function of the fuel composition, the fuel-to-air ratio, the pressure, and
the mixture temperature. Ignition delay time is of importance to the combustion specialist
because it is a direct indication of potential autoignition in the mixing barrel, and it is a
useful parameter that defines the chemical kinetic time scale at any temperature, such as
in the main burner, thus, playing an important role in the position of the flame relative to the
injector tip.
Leaner mixtures tend to have a longer delay time, while higher mixture temperatures
and higher pressures tend to shorten the delay time. In a lean-premix injector, the flow
velocities thus have to be high enough to avoid autoignition inside the injector at the
prevailing temperatures. Increasing the content of heavier hydrocarbons in an associated
gas leads to a decrease of delay time. This is mainly caused by the non-symmetry of all
higher hydrocarbons: Heavy hydrocarbons can be attacked much easier than methane
molecules, resulting in reduced ignition delay times (Figure 9-6).
In general, the characteristic kinetic times decrease with the addition of hydrogen, with
the lowest times (and hence faster chemical kinetics) corresponding to mixtures of CO
and H2. For the ignition times (given in milliseconds) for 1000 K temperatures, the longest
times (and hence slower chemical kinetics) are attributed to the mixtures containing mostly
methane. Similar conclusions can be drawn for the higher temperature (1400 K) conditions.
For example, CH4 only mixtures ignite at approximately 800 µs at 1400 K, while most
H2- and CO-based mixtures ignite in less than 10 µs. In general, few data are available for
specific mixtures, and engine specific tests are often necessary to avoid problems.
Another important parameter is the ratio of flammability limits. In the combustor, the fuel
and air must be continually burned to keep the engine running. When the flame in the
combustor is extinguished it is called a flameout or blowout. The fuel-to-air ratio changes
with the engine load, as described earlier. In order to prevent flameout the combustor must
support combustion over a range of fuel-to-air ratios. Each fuel composition has its own
flammability range (Ratio of Flammability Limits). If the engine required fuel-to-air ratio
range is equal to or larger than the fuel flammability range, then, at some point, the engine
will experience flameout and will not be able to operate at that point. Knowing the ratio of
flammability limits enables a decision as to whether or not the fuel composition has a broad
enough flammability range to support combustion for all operating points of the engine. The
ratio of flammability limits is defined as the upper flammability limit divided by the lower
flammability limit. The upper flammability limit is the maximum fuel percentage (volumetric)
mixed with air that will still light and burn when exposed to a spark or other ignition source.
The lower is the minimum fuel percentage to sustain combustion. Different gases have
different ranges of flammability. Hydrogen, for example, will burn with as little as 4 percent
fuel and 96 percent air (lower limit) and as much as 75 percent fuel and 25 percent air
(upper limit). Outside of this range (less than 4 percent or more than 75 percent fuel) the
hydrogen-air mixture will not burn. Therefore, hydrogen has a ratio of flammability limits of
75/4 equal to 18. On the other hand, a typical coal gas has a ratio of 13.5/5.3 equal to 2.5.
Coal gas typically contains methane, CO2, and CO. CO2 is not combustible. Therefore, if

the coal gas contains too much CO2, the flammability range will decrease and this ratio of
flammability limits will decrease as well.
The stoichiometric flame temperature impacts the amount of NOX emissions. It is also
a parameter to help verify that a given fuel composition can be burned at all gas turbine
operating loads and idle. Across the flammability range, the mixtures of fuel and air
will burn at different temperatures. As the fuel-to-air ratio is increased from the lower
flammability limit, the flame temperature will increase. Upon further increase in the ratio, a
point will be reached where the amount of fuel and air will be perfectly matched so that all
the oxygen in the air is reacted with all the fuel — this is called the stoichiometric fuel-to-
air ratio. It also corresponds to the maximum flame temperature. As the fuel-to-air ratio is
increased further still, the flame temperature starts to decrease and continues to decrease
until the upper flammability limit is reached. In standard combustion systems, with a
very heterogeneous mixture, the flame temperature is close to the stoichiometric flame
temperature. The flame temperature has a significant impact on the NOX production rate
(Figure 9-7). Fuel gas with a high amount of non-combustibles will usually cause low flame
temperatures, while fuel gas containing amounts of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or heavier
hydrocarbons, will exhibit higher flame temperatures. Therefore, a fuel gas with a high
amount of diluents will yield lower NOX emissions even in standard combustion systems.
In order to understand how variations in fuel composition affect the phase difference
between pressure and heat release fluctuations, it is necessary to consider the specific
mechanism responsible for the instability. Two mechanisms known to be particularly
significant in premixed systems are fuel/air ratio oscillations and vortex shedding. In the
former mechanism, acoustic oscillations in the premixer section cause fluctuations in the
fuel and/or air supply rates, thus, producing a reactive mixture whose equivalence ratio
varies periodically in time. The resulting mixture fluctuation is convected to the flame where
it produces heat-release oscillations that drive the instability. The coupling of the premixer
Digester
Landfill
Raw Natural Gas
Pipeline Natural Gas
LNG
Associated Gas
Refinery Gas
Gasified Biomass and Waste
Coal and Coke Oven Gas
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

NOx / NOx From METHANE
Figure 9-7. Impact of Fuel Gas on NOX Emissions

acoustics with the fuel system is affected by the pressure drop across the fuel injector. The
vortex shedding mechanism, as its name suggests, is due to large scale, coherent vortical
structures. These structures are the result of flow separation from flameholders and rapid
expansions, as well as vortex breakdown in swirling flows. They are convected by the flow
to the flame where they distort the flame front and thereby cause the rate of heat release
to change. Fuel/air ratio oscillations and vortex shedding become important when the
resulting heat-release perturbation is in phase with the pressure fluctuation.
Liquid Fuels
Industrial gas turbines can also burn liquid fuels. The source of liquid fuels is usually
petroleum liquids, but liquid petroleum gas, natural gas liquids, and alcohols have also been
used.
Petroleum liquids originate from processed crude oil. They may be true distillates (diesel,
kerosene) or ash-forming fuels. Natural gas liquids (NGL) are paraffin hydrocarbons other
than methane found in natural gas, which can be extracted and subsequently handled
as liquid fuels. They can also include LPG (liquid petroleum gas). LPG fuels are primarily
mixtures of propane and butane.
In certain regions of the world natural gas is either not available or in short supply, and in
these situations the local power producers must turn to alternative liquid fuels with qualities
ranging from light distillates to heavy residual-grade oils or un-refined crude oils. Liquid
distillates such as diesel oil or kerosene are also widely used as secondary back-up fuels
in dual-fuel applications, which is often a contractual obligation in case of disruptions to
natural gas supplies. Dual-fuel capability may also enable the primary fuel (i.e., natural gas)
to be purchased at a more favorable price (Meher-Homji et al., 2010).
Fuels should be appropriate for the intended application and, especially in the case of
low-grade fuels, must also be suitable for the particular gas turbine model. Residual-grade
oils and crude oils will require additional balance of plant and on-site treatment programs,
and these items also need to be carefully considered during the initial planning and design
stages. The use of residual oil and crude oil in gas turbine applications and the underlying
requirements for fuel treatment, BOP design considerations and the importance of realistic
fuel specifications for heavy fuel projects are discussed in Kurz et al, 2012.
Distillates and residual-grade fuels originate in the oil refinery, and are produced from
the fractionation of crude oil. The lower boiling point distillates are relatively free of sulfur
and trace metals, but contaminant concentrations increase in the higher boiling point
fractions toward the bottom of the distillation column. In fact, these components become
concentrated in the “residuum”, so that residual-grade oils contain higher contaminant
levels than the crude oil from which they were produced. This is an important consideration
for gas turbine applications, because trace metal impurities create ash deposits during
combustion and, unless treated, are responsible for various high-temperature corrosion
mechanisms. Other properties such as density and viscosity also increase on moving down
the distillation column.
Distillates are classified as “clean” fuels because of the absence of ash-forming trace metal
impurities. Combustion characteristics are similar to natural gas and, without considering
price, they are the most logical fuel alternative.

Several different grades of distillate are available and those most commonly used as gas
turbine fuels are No. 2 distillate (also known as No. 2 diesel oil, No. 2 fuel oil or heating oil)
and kerosene — which in Britain is often called paraffin. Naphtha is also gaining popularity
as a gas turbine fuel, and is actually the generic name for a group of volatile and low-boiling
point distillates normally used as a feedstock for gasoline production. However, depending
on the desired product mix at a particular refinery, portions of the naphtha fraction can be
sold directly as fuel. Due to the high volatility of naphtha, explosion-proof, fuel-handling
systems are needed and have been developed for this purpose, and many successful gas
turbine applications now exist around the world including the U. S. Probably the largest use
of naphtha is in India, where it is burned as the primary fuel in almost all gas turbines in that
country.
It also should be noted that the fuels listed under No. 2 distillate may contain different
amounts of sulfur. U.S. Highway Diesel No. 2 contains 15ppm sulfur, while many other
fuels in this category contain significantly higher levels of sulfur.
Distillates normally do not require additional treatment at the gas turbine power plant,
but certain fuel properties can influence reliable operation. For example, some diesel oils
and kerosenes have relatively high wax content and (more importantly) high wax-melting
temperatures, so fuel-heating systems must be designed to prevent wax crystallization
and filter plugging. Also, naphtha and certain kerosenes are known to have poor lubricating
properties, and lubricity-improvement fuel additives are often needed to protect critical
components such as fuel pumps and flow dividers.
The combustion of liquid fuels in gas turbines is dependent on effective fuel atomization
to increase the specific surface area of the fuel, thus resulting in sufficient fuel/air mixing
and evaporation rates. A smaller droplet size leads to higher volumetric heat release rates,
easier ignition, a wider burning range, and lower concentration of pollutant emissions. The
combustion reactions typically occur near the surface of the liquid droplets as the partially
vaporized fuel mixes with the adjacent air (Lefebvre, 1998). Ignition performance is affected
by two factors: the fuel volatility, as indicated by the Reid vapor pressure or the ASTM
evaporated temperature, and the total surface area of the fuel spray, which is directly
related to the spray Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD), and hence the fuel viscosity.
One of the main differences in the combustion between liquid and gas fuel is the presence
of free carbon particles (soot), which determine the degree of luminosity in the flame.
The presence of carbon particles at high temperatures is highly significant and luminous
radiation from the liquid fuel dominates, whereas the non-luminous radiation of gas fuels is
less important. The amount of radiation impacts the combustor liner temperature, and the
heavier the fuel, the greater the emissivity and the resulting wall temperatures become.
Further issues involve the storage and transport of the liquid fuel: Low viscosity fuel (such
as LPG) requires special pumps to avoid problems due to poor lubrication of the pump.
Foaming and formation of solids and waxes have to be avoided (Reid vapor pressure,
cloud point). The fuel has to be warm enough to be still capable to flow under gravity (pour
point), but not too warm to exceed is flash point temperature (flash point). The fuel also
has to be evaluated for its capability to corrode components of the fuel system (copper
strip corrosion). The ash content has to be limited to avoid fuel system erosion. Excessive
content of Olefins and Diolefins can cause fuel decomposition and plugging of fuel system

components. If the carbon residue of the distillate is too high, carbon deposits may form
in the combustion system. Solids in the fuel can cause clogging of the fuel system, in
particular the very fine flow passages in injectors.
Lastly, certain contaminants that can cause corrosion of the hot section of the engine
have to be limited. These contaminants include Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Vanadium,
Lead and Sulfur. Sodium is often found in fuels that are transported in barges, due to the
contamination with salt water.
For very volatile liquid fuels, such as propane, it is important to prevent these fuels from
flashing or bubble formation in the fuel line. The fuel pressure in the system has to be
high enough to keep the fuel above its bubble point pressure at the highest anticipated
temperature. The bubble point for a multi-component fuel is defined by the temperature
at which the first bubble of gas appears. The bubble point has to be considered for several
reasons:
- To set the minimum fuel supply pressure for a liquid system. The pressure must be
high enough to allow for fuel turndown ratio, and the pressure drops in the fuel system
including the injectors.
- To determine the size of the metering orifices.
- If the bubble point is below 0°C (32°F) at any combustor operating condition, ice
formation around the fuel injector is possible. This can distort the combustor spray
pattern, resulting in a change in the combustor temperature profile.
If the fuel temperature is above its critical temperature, it cannot be liquefied by

compression alone.
The fuel parameters that are of importance are thus:
Density and Lower Heating Value.
Reid Vapor Pressure:

- Bubble Point
- Cloud and Pour Point
- Flash Point
- Distillation End points (ASTM D86)
- Aromatics Content
- Content of Olefins and Diolefins
- Carbon Residue (ASTM D524)
- Ash content
Water and Sediment Contents:

- Copper Strip Corrosion
- Corrosive Contaminants

FUEL AND EMISSIONS
The fuel used impacts obviously the constituents in the exhaust gas. If the fuel yields a
high flame temperature, as it is the case with heavier hydrocarbons, as well as hydrogen,
carbon monoxide and some others, it will usually yield a higher amount of NOx. On the
other hand, fuels of this type often have a wide flammability range. Fuels with a low
Wobbe Index due to a large amount of dilutants will yield low flame temperatures, thus
low NOx levels, but can cause problems for start-up and load transients due to a limited
flammability range.
Another aspect should be considered: The amount of carbon dioxide produced in the
combustion process depends. Besides the thermal efficiency of the engine, only on the
amount carbon in the fuel. While methane has four hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom,
ethane has only three, and octane only a little over two hydrogen atoms per carbon atom.
Thus, burning a methane molecule generates four water molecules, but only one CO2
molecule. Burning hydrogen causes no CO2 emissions at all (however, most methods of
generating hydrogen do). Burning coal or CO will yield combustion products consisting
entirely of CO2. Therefore, typical coal-fired power plants will emit 1000kg/MWh of CO2,
oil-fired plants yield 800kg/MWh, while natural gas-fired plants produce 600kg/MWhr or
less (Figure 9-8).
It is often argued that electric motor drives (for example for compressor or pump
applications) do not generate any carbon dioxide, while the drivers that use natural gas as
a fuel do. However, the argument becomes less clear once we consider that the electricity
to drive the motor has to be generated somewhere, and has to be transported to the
compression site using transmission lines.
kg/MWh
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 9-8. Comparison of CO2 Emissions from Various Power Generation Plants

This in turn means, that a gas turbine-driven compressor station may generate less
emissions (both in terms of CO2, as well as in terms of NOx, Sox and others) than an electric
motor-driven compressor station, if the emissions produced when the electricity was
generated are taken into account. Figure 9-9 shows a comparison.
CO2 Generation NOx and SOx Production

40000 100
35000 90
80
30000
70
25000 60
NOx Generation
kg/hr
kg/hr
20000 CO2 Generation 50
15000 40 SOx Generation
30
10000
20
5000 10
0 0
GT EMD-Coal EMD-Power GT EMD-Coal EMD-Power
Fired Power Plants per Fired Power Plants per
Plant China Mix Plant China Mix
2006 2006
Figure 9-9. Emissions Footprints: Comparison for a 30MW Compressor Station with either
two 15MW Gas turbine Drivers or two 15MW Electric Drives. Assumptions: Dry Low Nox Gas
Turbine, power plant emissions per Figure 9-8, 93% efficiency for electric drive train, 95%
transmission efficiency for electric power, and a 65% Coal, 3% Gas, 2% Oil, 30% Nuclear and
Hydro Power Plant Mix (China, 2006).

218 | Chapter 10: Air Filtration & Air Inlet Systems
CHAPTER 10
AIR FILTRATION & AIR INLET SYSTEMS
Gas turbines ingest a large amount of ambient air during operation.
A normal mid-size (10 MW) gas turbine ingests about 100 million cubic feet (3 million cubic
meters) of air per day. At that rate, even 100 ppb of foulant such as dirt, oils, or minerals,
contained in the airflow, will result in almost one pound of foulant entering the gas turbine
per day. Axial compressor fouling due to blade dirt deposits, leading/ trailing edge erosion,
or surface corrosion, can reduce a gas turbine’s output power and efficiency by up to 10%.
Because of this, the quality of the air entering the turbine is a significant factor in the
performance and life of the gas turbine. A filtration system is used to control the quality of
the air by removing harmful contaminants that are present. The system should be selected
based on the operational philosophy and goals for the turbine, the contaminants present in
the ambient air, and expected changes in the contaminants in the future due to temporary
emission sources or seasonal changes.
Components used in gas turbine air cleaning applications with the purpose of removing
solid particles and liquid droplets from the airstream include:
• Barrier filter elements capable of removing solid particles and repelling water
• Self-cleaning filter elements capable of removing solid particles and repelling water
• Vanes mist separators capable of removing water droplets
• Screens (insect or trash) capable of removing large contaminants
• Weather hoods capable of avoiding direct rain or snow ingestion
Gas turbine applications typically require air cleaners that use combinations of different
filter types. Often, the face velocity is used to distinguish high velocity and medium/low
velocity systems (Wilcox, et al., 2011).
During gas turbine operation the air cleaners are exposed to a variety of contaminants such
as large and small particles, as well as liquids. Particles can be removed from the air stream
by various types of filtration materials. The type of the solid or liquid contaminants depend
on the location and environmental conditions. Water (and salts dissolved in the water) can
be removed either by inertial separation (i.e., vane separators), or by filtration materials that
repel water.
For off-shore applications, where salt water ingestion is a major concern, two filtration
concepts have emerged: High Velocity Systems and Medium/Low Velocity Systems.
These systems are also often used in coastal areas. For land-based on shore applications,
most applications use either barrier filters or self-cleaning filter systems. Self-cleaning filter
systems are essentially barrier filters that allow the occasional use of pressurized air to
pulse-clean the filter material.
Applications also may have to deal with issues like heavy rain, cold and freezing
Chapter 10: Air Filtration & Air Inlet Systems | 219

temperatures, snow or sand storms, swarming insects, very high or very low relative
humidity and combinations thereof.
Filtration Mechanisms
Filters in the filtration system use many different mechanisms to remove particles from the
air. The filter media, fiber size, packing density of the media, particle size, and electrostatic
charge influence how the filter removes particles. Each filter typically has various different
mechanisms working together to remove the particles. Four filtration mechanisms are
shown in Figure 10-1a-d.
The first filtration mechanism is inertial impaction. This type of filtration is applicable to
particles larger than 1 micron in diameter. The inertia of the large heavy particles in the flow
stream causes the particles to continue on a straight path as the flow stream moves around
a filter fiber. The particulate then impacts
and is attached to the filter media and
held in place as shown in the top picture
of (a). This type of filtration mechanism
is effective in high-velocity filtration
systems.
a Inertial Impaction
The next filtration mechanism, diffusion, is
effective for very small particles typically
less than 0.5 micron in size. Effectiveness
increases with lower-flow velocities
(b). Small particles interact with nearby
particles and gas molecules. Especially in
turbulent flow, the path of small particles
b Diffusion
fluctuates randomly about the main
stream flow. As these particles diffuse in
the flow stream, they collide with the fiber
and are captured. The smaller a particle
and the lower the flow rate through the
filter media, the higher probability that the
particle will be captured.
c Interception
The next two filtration mechanisms are
interception (c) and sieving (d). Interception
occurs with medium-sized particles that
are not large enough to leave the flow
path due to inertia or not small enough to
diffuse. The particles will follow the flow
stream where they will touch a fiber in
the filter media and be trapped and held.
Straining is the situation where the space
between the filter fibers is smaller than the
d Sieving
particle itself, which causes the particle to
be captured and contained.
Figure 10-1a-d. Common Filtration Mechanisms

When a new filter looses the charge
mechanism, the efficiency drops down
significantly (dashed line)
100
Total Efficiency
80
Interception
60
Diffusion
40
Inertial Impaction
Electrostatic
20
0 0.1 1 10
Particle Size (micron)
Figure 10-2. Combination of Filtration Mechanisms to Obtain Filter Efficiency at Various Particle
Sizes
Electrostatic charged filters are effective for particles in the 0.01 to 2 micron-size range
(Figure 10-2). This filtration mechanism works through the attraction of charged particles
to a charged filter. In gas turbine applications, the charge is applied to the filter before
installation as a result of the manufacturing process. Filters always lose their electrostatic
charge over time because the particles captured on their surface occupy charged sites,
thereby neutralizing their electrostatic charge. As the charge is lost, the filter efficiency
for small particles will decrease. On the other hand, as the filter is loaded, the filtration
efficiency increases, thus counteracting the effect of lost charge to some extent. This will
offset some of the loss of filtration efficiency due to the lost charge. Figure 10-2 shows a
comparison of a filter’s total efficiency based on the various filtration mechanisms that are
applied. The figure shows the difference between the filter’s efficiency curve before and
after the charge is lost. The performance of the filter should be based on the discharged
condition.
Different filter systems show different effectiveness for different dry particle sizes
(Figure 10-3). The paragraph above outlines methods to remove solid particles from the
airstream. However, as outlined earlier, ingestion of liquids is also an issue. Liquid water
can contain dissolved salts and can penetrate conventional filter materials regardless of
their capability to filter solid particles. At high humidity, water can enter the filter system.
Water can dissolve dirt already captured in the filtration material and seep through the filter.
Therefore, water removal is a crucial feature for air filtration systems especially in off-
shore, marine and coastal environments. There are two fundamental methods to remove
water: either with vanes upstream and downstream of the filter system or with special

100
Fractional Filter Efficiency (%) 90
Particle SizeHigh
(micro
Effm)
Filter,
Highclean,
Eff Filter,
3.5m/s
HiVelocity
dirty, 3.5m/s
Filter,clean,
HiVelocity Filter,dirty,
9.85m/s
F6 Filter, clean,3.2m/s
9.85m/s
F6 Filter, dirty,3.2m/sHigh Eff Filter, clean,
0.1 55
3.5m/s
80 0.15 60
0.2 62 74.2 High Eff Filter, dirty,
. 70 0.25 65 79
3.5m/s
0.35 70 91 22 50 0 38
60 0.4 75 93 35 60 5 51 HiVelocity Filter,clean,
0.6 87 98 60 78 8 67 9.85m/s
50 0.75 88 99 78 88 11 81
1 92 100 85 93 18 92 HiVelocity Filter,dirty,
40 1.5 97 100 92 95 25 97 9.85m/s
2 99 100 93 95 32 100
30 3 100 100 92 95 59 100 F6 Filter, clean,3.2m/s
4 100 100 92 95 65 100
20 5 100 100 92 95
F6 Filter, dirty,3.2m/s
10
0
0.1 1 10
Particle Size (µ m)
Figure 10-3. Comparison of Fractional Efficiency for Filter Elements from Different Suppliers and
Different Face Velocities in New and Dirty Conditions (Brekke and Bakken, 2010)
hydrophobic filter material that cannot be penetrated by water, typically in the last, high-
efficiency, filter stage. Water removal with vanes favors high air-flow velocities, and thus,
high-velocity filtration systems. Water removal with special high-efficiency filter material
favors low/medium velocity systems. Both methods, if applied properly, are capable of
preventing liquid water from entering the gas turbine. However, as can be determined
from Figure 10-3, high-velocity systems tend to have a lower filtration efficiency for solid
particles than can be achieved with low/medium velocity systems.
All gas turbine inlet filters are designed to deal with the common types of contaminants
such as: sand, dust and soot. Operation in the marine environment brings its own additional
contaminant challenges that must be addressed by the filtration system to maintain a
reliable and available machine, the main ones being discussed below (Wilcox et al, 2012
and Orhon et al, 2015).
Salt
Salt aerosol is the mixture of very small particles or droplets of salt with the surrounding air.
This is formed when waves trap air as bubbles, which rise through the sea to its surface
where they burst expelling small droplets into the atmosphere. The amount and make-up
of these aerosols is a function of the wind and sea states. Strong winds lead to more and
larger droplets. The resulting form of the salt within the aerosol when it eventually reaches
the gas turbine inlet is directly related to the ambient relative humidity.
At relative humidities (RH) below ~40%, salt is crystal and can be considered as a dry
particulate and can therefore be filtered just like any other dust-type particle with traditional
filtration methods. However, the salt particles may be very small, so the filter efficiency for
small particles is important.

Complications arise when the relative humidity changes as salt crystals are hygroscopic in
nature, i.e., they have an affinity for water and like to absorb moisture from the surrounding
air (Figure 10-4).
7.0
DROPLET DIAMETER RATIO
6.0
5.0 SHIP SPRAY

98% RH
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LOW TRANSITIONAL HIGH
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Figure 10-4. Change in Salt State with Humidity (Gas Turbine Design Handbook, 1983)
At a certain relative humidity (~70% RH, (Figure 10-4), the salt crystal will continue to
absorb moisture (and swell accordingly) until it reaches super saturation, at which time
it deliquesces. Deliquescence is the change undergone by certain substances, which
become damp and finally liquefy when exposed to the air, owing to the very low vapour
pressure of their saturated solution. Salt is such a substance. At this critical RH the salt
crystal becomes a saline droplet, which requires different filtration methods to capture and
retain it.
At a relative humidity between 40% and 70%, the salt crystal is neither completely ‘wet’
nor completely ‘dry’ and can be considered as dynamic or ‘sticky’. The relative humidity
near the surface of the sea approaches 100% and has a vertical distribution with height
which is dependent upon wind velocity. Offshore operators have recorded frequently
and regularly varying relative humidity, often below the 70% RH level where salt begins
to change from wet droplet to dry crystalline. Consequently, a gas turbine inlet air filter
system design for coastal, marine and offshore installations must be able to handle salt
in its wet, dry and dynamic phases (Figure 10-4). In other words, it has to be capable of
removing liquid water as well as fine salt dust.
When salt reaches a gas turbine, it can foul and corrode the compressor section, but more
importantly, the sodium in the salt combines with the sulphur in the fuel (if present) to
cause accelerated corrosion in the hot section of the gas turbine.
For any gas turbine installation, the trade-off between filter effectiveness, filter size, weight
and cost, and the pressure loss due to the filter have to be very carefully analyzed based on

site conditions (Figure 10-5). The selection of the filter system will impact both initial cost
as well as the cost to operate the equipment.
Effectiveness
(Salt, Dust, etc.)
Pressure Loss Size, Weight, Cost
Figure 10-5. Air Filtration Trade-off
(Figure 10-5). For a given gas turbine airflow, the pressure drop is a function of the filter
material, the amount of dirt the filter has already caught, and in particular the face velocity.
Thus, a bigger filter, will have a lower face velocity, thus a lower pressure loss. But it also
will be heavier, and probably more expensive. Lower face velocity in general allows for a
higher filter efficiency for fine dust (Figure 10-3).

226 | Chapter 11: Degradation In Gas Turbine Systems
CHAPTER 11
DEGRADATION IN GAS TURBINE SYSTEMS
Any prime mover exhibits the effects of wear and tear over time. The function of a gas
turbine and of a gas turbine package is the result of the fine-tuned cooperation of many
different components. Any of these parts can show wear and tear over the lifetime of
the package and, thus, can adversely affect the operation of the system. In particular,
the aerodynamic components, such as the engine compressor, the turbines, and the
driven compressor have to operate in an environment that will invariably degrade their
performance. Degradation of individual engine components has a compounded effect on
engine performance, because the change in component performance characteristics leads
to a mismatch of these components on the engine level, as well as on the component level.
The impact of individual component degradation is also influenced by the control system
and the control modes of the engine. Single-shaft engines, operating at constant speed,
will show different degradation behavior than two-shaft engines. The impact of degradation
on two-shaft engines depends on the control mode they are in, i.e., whether the gas
generator speed or the firing temperature are the limiting factors. Also, the method and
location of measuring the control temperature will determine the behavior of the engine in
degraded conditions (Kurz et al., 2008).
Causes for engine degradation include:
1. changes in blade surfaces due to erosion or fouling and the effect on the blade
aerodynamics. This includes airfoil (blade) fouling and pitting (loss of flow profile caused
by corrosion and surface deposits), and leading-and trailing-edge erosion (caused by
mechanical solid and liquid impacts on the rotor blades, as well as by erosion and hot
corrosion). Other flow path components (such as casing walls, etc.) are affected in
similar ways.
2. changes in blade clearances, seal geometries and the effect on parasitic flows. Opening
of blade clearances is typically caused by softening bearings and increased rotor
imbalance, thus a result of mechanical degradation.
3. changes in the combustion system (e.g., which result in different pattern factors).
4. mechanical degradation.
While some of these effects can be reversed by cleaning or washing the engine, others
require the adjustment, repair or replacement of components.
It should be noted that the determination of the exact amount of performance degradation
in the field is rather difficult. Test uncertainties are typically significant, especially if package
instrumentation, as opposed to a calibrated test facility is used. Even trending involves
significant uncertainties, because in all cases the engine performance has to be corrected
from datum conditions to a reference condition.
The overall effect of degradation on an engine compressor yields added losses and lower
capability of generating head. Typically, a degraded compressor also will have a reduced
surge or stall margin. This will not have any significant effect on the steady state operation,
Chapter 11: Degradation In Gas Turbine Systems | 227

as long as other effects that lower the stall margin (such as water or steam injection) are
avoided (Brun et al, 2005). For a given speed of a degraded compressor, each subsequent
stage will see lower Mach numbers (because of the higher temperature) and an increased
axial velocity component (because = p/RT, where p is reduced, T is increased, thus the
density gets reduced).
When the engine compressor operates at design aerodynamic speed (i.e., Machine Mach
Number), the stages in the axial compressor are usually fairly equally loaded. At low
aerodynamic speed (i.e., low mechanical speed, or high ambient temperature) the front
stages become higher loaded than the rear stages and vice versa for high aerodynamic
speed (i.e., high mechanical speed or low ambient temperature) (Williams, 2008, Kappis
and Guidati, 2012). The impact of fouling in the compressor can also change the stage
loading across the compressor. The net effect will be, that while in the new gas turbine
compressor all stages were working at their optimum efficiency point at design surge
margins, the degradation will force all stages after the first one to work at off-optimum
surge margins and lower-than-design efficiency. This will not only lower the overall
efficiency and the pressure ratio that can be achieved, but also the operating range.
Calculations for a typical axial compressor (Kurz and Brun, 2001) reveal that the combined
effects of airfoil fouling and increased clearances lead to loss of pressure ratio, loss of
efficiency and loss of range or stall margin. In particular, the increased clearances cause
choke to occur at a lower flow, in other words, the maximum flow through the compressor
is reduced.
For the turbine section, increased roughness may increase the boundary layer thickness,
thus reducing the flow capacity. This would also impact the operating point of the
compressor (see Chapter 7). On the other hand, erosion of the trailing edge would actually
increase the flow capacity of the turbine, again also affecting the compressor operating
point. Both effects also will reduce the amount of work the turbine can extract from the
gas stream, and reduce its efficiency. The airflow through the engine is typically controlled
by the fact that the turbine nozzle is choked. Thus, any geometry change or change in
boundary layer thickness will directly impact the airflow.
Several mechanisms cause the degradation of engines (Kurz et al., 2008):
• Fouling
• Corrosion, hot corrosion, and oxidation
• Erosion and abrasion
• Particle fusing
• Mechanical degradation
Fouling
Fouling is caused by the adherence of particles to airfoils and annulus surfaces. The
adherence is increased by oil or water mists. The result is a build-up of material that
causes increased surface roughness and, to some degree, changes the shape of the
airfoil. Particles that cause fouling are typically smaller than 2 to 10 m. Smoke, oil mists,

carbon, and sea salt are common examples. Fouling can be controlled by an appropriate
air filtration system. Fouling can often be reversed to some degree by detergent washing
of components. Fouling in the colder sections of the engine can normally be eliminated by
cleaning. Components operating at elevated temperatures are also subject to fouling, but
the dirt will often be baked to the surfaces, and can usually not be removed by cleaning
processes available in the field.
There are generally four different types of fouling deposits that can be found inside an
axial compressor: salts, heavy hydrocarbons (oils and waxes), carbon dirt, and other dirt.
A gas turbine compressor acts like a very effective air filter in that it collects and deposits
a significant percentage of any solids that are carried by the ambient air and are ingested
into the gas turbine inlet. Also, due to the heat of compression, the temperature of the
air passing through the compressor will increase to above 600°F such that any solids or
chemicals dissolved in the water will drop out and deposit on the compressor blades.
Salts: Salts (and other chlorides) in combination with moisture are primarily responsible for
metal surface pitting in gas turbine compressors. As one of the most common deposits,
salts lead to the formation of the deposit of chlorides in microscopic surface cracks and
subsequent subsurface corrosion (evidenced as characteristic pits (small holes) on the
surface of the blades). Salts do not enter the gas turbine from the ambient air (as is typical
in offshore applications) but would be introduced by the plant water (i.e., fogging and water
wash).
Oils and Waxes: Oils and waxes are usually residues from compressor washing or ambient
air contamination. Generally, the components do not cause significant damage but can act
as binding agents for dirt or sand in the compressor and, thus, can contribute to fouling.
Carbon: Carbon (or coke) deposits on compressor blades indicate that exhaust gases from
the gas turbine or other internal combustion engines are entering the axial compressor.
Coking inside the rotor can also be caused by local overheating or lube oil leakage. Deposits
will bind with oils to form a surface deposit on the blades, which is very hard to remove
with online and offline cleaning. Most will deposit in the first couple of stages of the
compressor and will not be carried downstream.
Dirt: Sand and other types of dust (for example from farming, industrial processes, drilling,
etc.) are primarily introduced into the gas turbine through the inlet filter and are an indication
of inadequate inlet filtration or filter dirt saturation. The likely source of any sand or dirt
particles entering the gas turbine at subject installation is from the inlet air as any water
carrying sand or dirt would have been captured by the high-efficiency, fogging-water filter.
Engine fouling is caused by the buildup of contaminants on internal surfaces. Adhesion of

particles on blade surfaces alters the profiles and results in a loss of engine power and an
increase in fuel consumption. Fouling in intercoolers reduces compression heat removal.
Air contamination can be significantly reduced by the use of more efficient air filtration
systems, especially those that reduce the quantity of smaller particles ingested. Therefore,
it is essential that the air filtration system be optimized to remove small particles, while
also being capable of protecting against larger contaminants. Many improved media filter
elements can be used as replacement elements during filter change-out. Filter companies
have developed media to capture more dust particles in the 0.1 to 2 m size range, while

still offering satisfactory filtration of larger particles and acceptable service life. However,
generally speaking, the more efficient the filtration efficiency of small particles, the higher
the pressure loss across the inlet system, or the larger the filtration system becomes.
Composition of the particles is important in determining the rate of fouling. Because of

very high mass flows, even very low levels of ingested foreign material can produce a
substantial input of contaminants through gas turbine engines (see discussion above).
For example, 1 ppmw of impurities entering the gas turbine results in over 10,000 lbs. of
ingested material for a gas turbine over an 8,000-hour operating period. Even after several
stages of cleanup (including barrier filters) of ambient inlet air, deposits commonly form
in gas turbine compressors due to ingested particulate so that compressor washing is
periodically needed to restore efficiency by removing deposits. Details on compressor
fouling may be found in (Meher-Homji et al, 2013).
Corrosion, Hot Corrosion, and Oxidation
Corrosion is the wearing away of surface metals due to a chemical reaction of the metal
with the environment (unlike erosion or fretting which are mechanisms of the wearing away
of surface metal due to mechanical surface action). Usually the metal reacts with oxygen
in the air but there are many other chemical reactions that can contribute to the different
corrosion mechanisms. Certain types of corrosion (such as oxidation, sulfidation, and hot
corrosion) are mainly attacking the hot section of the gas turbine. Other types, such as
crevice corrosion and pitting, are rather found in the compressor section of the gas turbine.
For gas turbine applications, the most important corrosion mechanisms are (Brun and Kurz,
2010): Oxidation, type 1 hot corrosion, type 2 hot corrosion, corrosion pitting, and crevice
corrosion. These mechanisms are relevant for gas turbines and can impact their life and
performance.
Corrosion can be caused both by inlet air contaminants and by fuel, water, or combustion-
derived contaminants. Fuel-side corrosion is more typically noted and severe with heavy-
fuel oils and distillates than with natural gas because of impurities and additives in the
liquid fuels that leave aggressive deposits after combustion. Salt-laden air can also cause
corrosion on unprotected engine parts.
Oxidation of a metal is the loss of one or more electrons, causing the metal to go from
a neutral state to a positively charged ion. This results in the formation of a surface metal
oxide. Rusting is a typical oxidation process. The oxide layer on the surface can either
be beneficial, as a protective barrier (also called a passivation film) over the metal, or
detrimental, when the corrosion continues at a rate that leads to a rapid reduction of
the mechanical properties of the metal. Oxidation is the chemical reaction between a
component and the oxygen in its surrounding gaseous environment. Oxidation of turbine
section components is relatively easy to predict and measures can be taken to control
it since it primarily involves relatively simple metal/oxygen reactions. The oxidation rate
increases with temperature. Metal loss due to oxidation can be reduced by the formation
of protective oxide scales. Due to the high temperatures, significant oxidation is often
observed in the combustor or on the hot section turbine blades; this should be monitored
carefully as it can weaken these highly stressed parts. It is important not to confuse this
oxidation with type 1 and 2 hot corrosion, which will be discussed next, or with basic metal
melting caused by a local hot spot.

Hot Corrosion, also called high-temperature corrosion requires the interaction of the metal
surface with another chemical substance at elevated temperatures. Hot corrosion is a form
of accelerated oxidation that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component
and molten salts deposited on its surface. Hot corrosion comprises a complex series of
chemical reactions, making corrosion rates very difficult to predict. It is the accelerated
oxidation of alloys caused by the deposit of salts (e.g., Na2SO4). Type I or high temperature
hot corrosion, occurs at a temperature range of 730 to 950°C. Type II or low temperature
hot corrosion occurs at a temperature range of 550 to 730°C. Inside gas turbines,
sulfidation, and vanadium-assisted hot corrosion are the most potent causes for premature
metal weakening and failure. For example, hot stress-corrosion cracking of turbine blades,
which is effectively the continuous weakening of the blade metal surface from hot
corrosion and the subsequent growth of subsurface cracks under mechanical stresses,
has been the recognized root cause for many aircraft and ground-based gas turbine engine
failures. Hot corrosion requires the interaction of the metal surface with sodium sulfate or
potassium sulfate, salts that can form in gas turbines from the reaction of sulfur oxides,
water, and sodium chloride (salt) or potassium chloride, respectively. Hot corrosion is
caused by the diffusion of sulfur from the molten sodium sulfate into the metal substrate
which prevents the formation of the protective oxidation film and results in rapid removal
of surface metal. For hot corrosion to occur, both sulfur and salt (e.g., sodium chloride or
potassium chloride) have to be present in the very hot gas stream in and downstream of
the combustor. Sulfur and salt can come from the inlet air, from the fuel, or water (if water
is injected).
Vanadium and lead are found in certain types of liquid fuels. Vanadium and lead-assisted
hot corrosion mechanisms are different in that molten vanadates (vanadium oxides such as
vanadium-pentoxide) or lead slag dissolve (flux) the protective metal surface oxide layer and
allow the diffusion of new oxygen into the metal substrates. i.e., the protective oxide layer
is destroyed, leaving the underneath metal unprotected against oxidation. As this process
continues as long as either vanadates or lead is present, the surface corrosion can be very
rapid. Most liquid fuels contain small traces of vanadium, potassium, and sometimes lead
(from accidental mixing with leaded gasoline during transport). It is critically important
to maintain the gas turbine’s fuel quality within the OEM specifications for these trace
elements, treat/wash the fuel, or use vanadium inhibitors if necessary.
Sulfidation is the reaction between a metal and a sulfur and oxygen-containing

atmosphere to form sulfides and/or oxides. This means in particular, that sulfidation only
requires the presence of sulfur in the combustion air or the fuel, but it does not require the
presence of sodium or potassium. In essence, sulfidation attack is a form of accelerated
oxidation resulting in rapid degradation of the substrate material due to loss of corrosion
protection. Whereas during oxidation protective oxide scales can form, the metallic sulfides
formed are not protective. This accounts for the rapid rate of degradation produced by
sulfidation attack.
Corrosion of compressor components, which operates at much lower temperatures,

is unlikely during engine operation because the compressor is dry. However, during
shutdowns where cold surfaces can condense water, chemical species such as salts or
sulfur compounds can be absorbed in the water producing an acidic, corrosive liquid. This
liquid phase can result in aqueous corrosion of compressor components through a variety

of mechanisms, e.g., generalized, pitting and crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion
cracking. Compressor coatings, where used, are very effective in preventing these types of
corrosion.
Corrosion Pitting, also simply called “pitting,” this is a localized corrosion mechanism
that leads to the formation of small but deep holes in the metal surface. As these holes
are often not detected because the remainder of the metal part may appear completely
clean, shiny, and polished, they represent a significant danger for unexpected failures.
Pitting is often found on gas turbine compressor blades and it is caused by the intrusion
of conductive impurities, such as salt water, into small surface cracks in the metal surface.
As the water evaporates, the concentration of the impurity (usually sodium, sulfate, or
chloride) increases, which results in highly localized corrosion and consequent deepening
of the cracks. This process continues until a deep crack forms, metal pieces break off,
and a pit (or hole) is formed. The pit can severely weaken the blade and also cause stress
concentrations. Pitting can be initiated by very small microscopic surface defects or
scratches, which are often not detectable visually. Most often, pitting on compressor
blades occurs in gas turbine applications where salt is ingested into the compressor (from
the inlet air) and if the unit‘s operation is highly cyclic with many starts and stops. During
any prolonged shutdown, water condensate forms on the blades, dissolves the blade salt
deposits, and then enters into microscopic surface cracks to initiate the pitting process. To
limit compressor blade pitting, anti-corrosive blade coatings can be utilized, and the axial
compressor should be thoroughly water-washed before any extended shutdown period (to
remove salt deposits), and the inlet filtration system should be designed to minimize salt
intrusion.
The physical process of crevice corrosion is similar to pitting, but rather than inside metal
surface cracks, crevice corrosion occurs in pre-existing tight gaps, such as contact areas
between parts, underneath grout, seals, and gaskets, or below hardened dirt or blade
foulant. Concentration factors of impurities in these crevices can reach several millions.
Because these areas cannot easily be inspected without disassembly, crevice corrosion
presents a substantial risk of catastrophic failure. In gas turbines, crevice corrosion at the
highly stressed mating surfaces between rotor blade base and disk slots can go undetected
for years until either the blades are disassembled (which is usually not done unless the gas
turbine is repaired/overhauled) or the blade structural support fails and they are liberated
into the gas path (resulting in domestic object damage).
Other corrosion mechanisms, such as weld corrosion, microbial corrosion, galvanic

corrosion, and green rot are also possible mechanisms in gas turbines and their ancillary
systems, but these are less common. Hydrogen embrittlement is also sometimes observed
in gas turbine fuel systems if the fuel composition contains elemental hydrogen but this is
not usually considered a classical corrosion mechanism.
Since all types of corrosion can be either enabled or accelerated by the presence of certain
contaminants in fuel, air or water supplied to the gas turbine, inspection, maintenance and
proper fuel, air and water treatment are important factors in the prevention of corrosion.
Ingested contaminants can result in corrosion to the compressor, combustion, and turbine
sections of gas turbine engines.
Corrosion can be controlled by proper maintenance procedures, good air filtration,

attention to fuel and water. It is important to note that corrosion processes are often self-
propagating, and will continue even after the source is removed or abated.
To avoid hot section corrosion, it is very important to minimize the amount of Na+K entering
the machine. By definition these limits apply to “total Na+K” entering the hot gas path from
all sources; i.e., from fuel, air and any water or steam that may be injected for NOx control
or power augmentation. As can be seen, these limits are very severe.
EROSION
Erosion is the abrasive removal of material from the flow path by hard or incompressible
particles impinging on flow surfaces. These particles typically have to be larger than 10 μm
in diameter to cause erosion by impact. Erosion is more a problem for aircraft engines,
because state of the art filtration systems used for industrial applications will typically
eliminate the bulk of the larger particles. Erosion can become a problem for engines using
water droplets for inlet cooling or water washing.
Abrasive solid particles attack rotating parts. Collisions between high-speed rotating blades
and airborne particles result in metal fragments being ejected from blade surfaces. Particles
as small as ten microns in diameter can cause erosion. Particle composition and shape can
significantly affect erosion rates. Blade profiles are so carefully designed that even minor
abrasions can alter the profiles to an extent that engine performance is affected. Erosion
is an expensive problem, since it causes permanent damage, eventually requiring parts
refurbishment or replacement. Erosion is proportional to particle concentration and, in
severe service with poor filtration, can significantly reduce engine life.
Damage may also be caused by foreign objects striking the flow path components. These
objects may enter the engine with the inlet air or the gas compressor with the gas stream or
are the result of broken off pieces of the engine itself. Pieces of certain types of ice breaking
off the inlet or carbon build up breaking off from fuel nozzles can also cause damage.
ABRASION
Abrasion is caused when a rotating surface rubs on a stationary surface. Many engines
use abradable surfaces, where a certain amount of rubbing is allowed during the run-in
of the engine, in order to establish proper clearances. The material removal will typically
increase seal or tip gaps. Part of this is also age related, as bearings tend to become softer
(reduction in stiffness) due to an increase in clearance over time that causes an increase in
journal orbital amplitude.
While some of the effects of fouling can be reversed by cleaning or washing the engine,
most other types of damage require the adjustment, repair, or replacement of components.
It is thus common to distinguish between recoverable and non-recoverable degradation.
Any degradation mechanisms that can be reversed by online and offline water washing are
considered recoverable degradation. Degradation mechanisms that require the replacement
of parts are considered non-recoverable, because they usually require an engine overhaul.
There are some grey areas, because some degradation effects can be recovered by
control system adjustments (that are, however, difficult to perform in the field due to
limited capabilities to measure mass flow and performance). It should be noted, that the
determination of the exact amount of performance degradation in the field is rather difficult.

Test uncertainties are typically significant, especially if package instrumentation as opposed
to a calibrated test facility is used. Even trending involves some uncertainties, because in
all cases, the engine performance has to be corrected from datum conditions to a reference
condition.
Particle Fusing
The fusion of particles on hot surfaces leads to another source of problems. While dry,
2 to 10 μm-size particles could pass through older engines, causing little or no damage.
However, these particles can cause problems in new generation, hotter-running engines. If
the fusion temperature of the particles is lower than the turbine operating temperature, the
particles will melt and stick to hot metal surfaces. This can cause severe problems since
the resultant molten mass can block cooling passages, alter surface shape, and severely
interfere with heat transfer, often leading to thermal fatigue. Affected surfaces are usually
permanently damaged and will eventually need replacement.
Mechanical Degradation
Causes of mechanical degradation include wear in bearings and seals, coupling problems,
excessive vibration and noise, or problems in the lube oil system. Mechanical degradation
includes:
Gas turbine component creep or thermal ratcheting. The creep deformation of a nozzle can
cause aerodynamic problems and performance changes:
• Bearing wear and increased losses
• Gearbox losses
• Coupling problems
• Excessive misalignment causing higher bearing loads and losses
• Combustor nozzle coking or mechanical damage
• Excessive rotor imbalance
• Excessive parasitic loads in auxiliary systems due to malfunctions
• Excessive mechanical losses in the driven equipment (generator or compressor)
Probably the most common indicator of mechanical degradation has been vibration. It is
most important to note that several problems that manifest themselves as vibration may
in fact have underlying causes that are aerodynamic (or performance) related in nature.
Combustor fuel nozzles can, at times, plug up. There can be several causes for this such
as coking, erosion, and incorrect assembly. Temperature distortions can create a host of
problems in the hot section. Severe temperature distortions can create serious dynamic
loads on blading, possibly inducing fatigue problems. The pattern of the EGT spreads can
be monitored during transient conditions to indicate nozzle problems. Blade failures can
be induced by performance and other factors. Specific issues and deterioration problems
related to gas and liquid fuels are detailed in (Meher-Homji and Bromley, 2010)

Recoverable and Non-Recoverable Degradation
The distinction between recoverable and non-recoverable degradation is somewhat

misleading. The majority of degradation is recoverable, however the effort is very different
depending on the type of degradation. The recovery effort maybe as small as on-line
washing, or on-crank washing. The degradation recovery, by any means of washing,
is usually referred to as recoverable degradation. However, a significant amount of
degradation can be recovered by engine adjustments (such as resetting variable geometry).
Last, but not least, various degrees of component replacement in overhaul can bring the
system performance back to as-new conditions.
Protection against Degradation
While engine degradation cannot be entirely avoided, certain precautions can clearly
slow down the effects on performance. These precautions include the careful selection
and maintenance of the air filtration equipment, and the careful treatment of fuel, steam
or water that are injected into the combustor, as well as the careful treatment of water
used for evaporative cooling or fogging purposes. It also includes carefully following
manufacturers' recommendations regarding shut-down and restarting procedures.
The site location and environment conditions, which dictate airborne contaminants, their
size, concentration and composition, need to be considered in the selection of air filtration.
Atmospheric conditions, such as humidity, smog, precipitation, mist, fog, dust, oil fumes,
industrial exhausts, will primarily affect the engine compressor. Fuel quality will impact the
hot section. The cleanliness of the process gas, entrained particles or liquids, will affect
the driven equipment performance. Given all these variables, the rate of degradation is
impossible to predict with reasonable accuracy.
Thorough on-crank washing can remove deposits from the engine compressor blades, and
is an effective means for recovering degradation of the engine compressor. The engine
has to be shut down, and allowed to cool down prior to applying detergent to the engine
compressor while it rotates at slow speed. On-line cleaning, when detergent is sprayed
into the engine running at load, can extend the periods between on-crank washing, but
it cannot replace it. If the compressor blades can be accessed with moderate effort (for
example, when the compressor casing is horizontally split), hand cleaning of the blades can
be very effective.

236 | Chapter 12: Advanced Cycles & Performance Augmentation
CHAPTER 12
ADVANCED CYCLES
& PERFORMANCE AUGMENTATION
In the previous sections, we discussed gas turbines operating in the simple Brayton cycle.
This leads to a relatively low cost, low-complexity installation with a very high power
density. However, the Brayton cycle has some inherent disadvantages:
• Insufficient utilization of exhaust heat
• Limited efficiency
• High sensitivity to ambient conditions
• Efficiency increase by increasing firing temperature

– Emissions issues
– Materials issues
Improvements to the Brayton cycle can be achieved; however, they typically increase the
complexity and cost of an installation. We will describe some of the possible improvements
to the Brayton cycle, such as:
• Cogeneration
• Combined cycles
– Brayton and Rankine Cycles
– Cheng Cycle (Steam-Injected Gas Turbine)
• Recuperation
• Intercooling
• HAT/CHAT
• Inlet cooling, storage
• Fuel cells
COGENERATION
Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of two useful energy forms from the same
source. Examples would be a gas turbine driven generator that produces electricity, while
the gas turbine exhaust gas is passed through a heat recovery boiler to produce steam. In
conjunction with a gas turbine, cogeneration is typically applied in a “topping cycle”, where
the fuel is burned primarily to produce electricity, while the exhaust heat is used to satisfy
process heat requirements. In a “bottoming cycle”, the fuel is burned first to satisfy the
thermal requirements of the process, while the excess heat rejected from the process is
used to generate electricity.
Chapter 12: Advanced Cycles & Performance Augmentation | 237

COMBINED CYCLES
One of the characteristics of the processes using the Brayton cycle is relatively high
exhaust temperature. The available pressure ratio of the gas turbine limits the amount of
heat that can be converted into work. If the available exhaust heat can be used, significant
improvements in the overall efficiency are possible. A boiler and potentially another heat
source (e.g., a duct burner) to increase the exhaust temperature are used to generate
steam (Figure 12-1).
Figure 12-1. Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine Driving a Generator
The steam is then used to drive a steam turbine. Figure 12-2 shows the temperature/
entropy diagram for this combination of a Brayton cycle (for the gas turbine) and a Rankine
cycle (for the steam turbine). The Cycle 1-2-3-4 is the gas turbine cycle as discussed in
Chapter 1. The exhaust heat from Point 4 is subsequently used to heat the feed water
(A-B), evaporate the water (B-C) and superheat the steam (C-D). The steam is expanded
through a steam turbine (D-E) and afterwards condensed in a condenser (E-A).

3
Heat
Addition Gas Turbine
Brayton Expansion
TEMPERATURE, T
Compression Cycle 4
2 Superheat D Exhaust Gas

Evaporation Temperature
B C
Rankine Cycle Steam Turbine

1 Expansion
A Condenser E
ENTROPY, S
Figure 12-2. Combined Cycle Gas Turbines – Temperature/Entropy Diagram
The steam is used to operate a steam turbine that either drives a separate generator or the
same generator as the gas turbine, as in a Steam Turbine Assisted Cogeneration (STAC)
system (Figure 12-1). Flexibility is gained by adding a clutch between the generator and
the steam turbine. The STAC system is optimized around flexibility, i.e., the system can be
The amount and quality of steam produced does not only depend on the available exhaust heat
usedamount
The to vary the
andelectrical
quality power
of steamoutput based on
produced thenot
does needs
onlyofdepend
the process steam
on the load. exhaust
available heat
(Hex):
(Hex): The amountand
andquality
quality
The amount of of steam
steam produced
produced does not
depends notonly
onlyondepend on theexhaust
the available available exhaust heat
(Hex): Hex =
heat (Hcexp):⋅ Wex ⋅ (T 7 − Tsink )
Hex = cp ⋅ Wex ⋅ (T 7 − Tsink )
Hex = cp ⋅ Wex ⋅ (T 7 − Tsink )
but, alsobut,
on the
alsotemperature (T7) at(Twhich
on the temperature the exhaust
) at which gases
the exhaust are available.
gases Heat
are available. transfer
Heat transferin
ina heat
but, also
exchanger on the temperature
follows: (T 7) at which
7 the exhaust gases are available. Heat transfer in a heat
exchangera heat exchanger follows:
but, also onfollows:
the temperature (T7) at which the exhaust gases are available. Heat transfer in a heat
exchanger = k ⋅ A ⋅ ∆T
H follows:
H = k ⋅ A ⋅ ∆T
with
H =kthe
with k being ⋅A ⋅ ∆the
kbeing
heat
heat transfer coefficient, A the surface area and ∆T the average
Ttransfer coefficient, A the surface area and ∆T the average temperature difference
between
temperature
with k being the heatdifference
the exhaust transfer
gas
between the A
coefficient,
and the
exhaust
coolant. Thethe
gas and
surface
term kA can
theand
area ∆T the
coolant. Theaverage
be considered
term kA temperature
can be difference
constant once the boiler
between considered
the exhaustconstant
gas andonce
the the boiler
coolant. geometry
The term is
kA defined.
can beThe average
considered
∆T the temperature
constant once the boiler
with k being
geometry the heat The
is defined. transfer coefficient,
average A thedifference
temperature surface area∆T and
depends average
also on thetemperature difference
heat exchanger
geometrydifference ∆T gas
is defined. depends
Theand alsocoolant.
average on the heat
temperature exchanger
difference ∆T
geometry. In a counterflow
depends alsoconstant
on the heat exchanger
geometry. In a counterflow arrangement, ∆T becomes:
between the exhaust the The term kA can be considered once the boiler
geometryarrangement,
geometry. isIndefined. ∆T becomes:
a counterflow
The arrangement,
average ∆T becomes:
temperature difference ∆T depends also on the heat exchanger
( −T − T ) (∆T
−T )
∆T = (Texh,in − Tw,out ) − (Texh,out − Tw,in )
geometry. In a counterflow
T arrangement, becomes:
exh,in w,out exh,out w,in
∆T =
(Texh,in 1−nTwTT,out
exh,)in−−(TTw,out − T
exh,in − Texh  w,in )
,out 
∆T = 1n Texh,out − Tw,in 
 w,out
 Texh,in −−TTw,out 
1n exh,out w,in 
T − T 
 exh,out w,in 

Assuming we know the steam temperature (Tw,out), the feedwater temperature (Tw,in) and the
exhaust temperature (T7=Texh,in) as well as the exhaust flow (Wex) and additionally kA from the boiler
geometry, then we we
Assuming we
Assuming canknow
calculate
know the
the stack
thesteam
steam temperature
temperature
temperature (T
(T),w,out
(Tw,out the) feedwater
theexh,out
from:temperature
),feedwater temperature(Tw,in) and
(Tw,in) and the
( ) ( )
exhaust temperature (T7=Texh,in)(Tas7=T
the exhaust temperature well )as
as the exhaust
well as the flow
exhaust (Wflow
ex) and
(W additionally
) and additionallykA from the boiler
kA
Texh,in − then we−can ,out − Tthe
exh,in ex
Wthen
geometry,
from c pwe
exhthe cangeometry,
boiler
,exh calculate Tthe stack Texh
temperature
calculate w(T
,instack ) from:
exh,outtemperature (Texh,out) from:
=
w,out
T −T 
(Texh,in 1−nTw,exh
out ) − (Texh,out − Tw,in )
kA
Wexh c p ,exh ,in w,out

=  Texh,out − Tw,in
kA Texh,in − Tw,out 
1n 
T − T 
 exh,out w,in 
Knowing the stack temperature, we can now calculate the average temperature difference
betweenKnowing the stack
the exhaust gas and temperature, we can now
the water/steam (∆T).calculate
Then we thecan
average temperature
calculate difference
the transferred heat (H), as well
betweensteam
as the resulting the exhaust
flow gas )and
(W (if the
the water/steam
steam (∆T).isThen
enthalpy we can
defined) orcalculate
the steamtheenthalpy
transferred
(∆hw) (if the
Knowing the stack temperature,
w we can now calculate the average temperature difference
steam heat
flow (H), as well as the resulting steam flow (W ) (if the steam enthalpy is defined) or the
between theisexhaust
defined)gasfrom:
and the water/steam (∆T). Then w
we can calculate the transferred heat (H), as well
steam enthalpy (∆hw) (if the steam flow is defined) from:
as the resulting steam flow (Ww) (if the steam enthalpy is defined) or the steam enthalpy (∆hw) (if the
W wis⋅ ∆
steam flow ex ⋅ W ex ⋅( T exh,in - T exh,out )= c p,ex ⋅ W ex⋅ ( T 7 - T stack ) = H
h w = c p,from:
defined)
If the temperature
If
Wthew⋅∆ h w = c p,ex difference
temperature ⋅W
difference drops
ex ⋅( T exh,in - T(as
drops T 7 drops),
(as
exh,out T c p,exless
)=7 drops), ⋅ Wheat
ex⋅ ( T
less canbe
heat
7 T cantransferred
H to the to
) =transferred
stackbe
steam.
the steam. On
On single-shaft engines without variable inlet
single-shaft engines without variable inlet geometry, T7 will drop geometry, T 7
will at part load while WexWwill
drop at part load while ex stay roughly
will
constant.If stayvariable
With roughly constant.
inlet guide With variable
vanes, T inlet
will guide
stay vanes,
roughly T will
constant,stay roughly
but W constant,
will dropbut
7
the temperature difference drops 7(as T7 drops), less heat can be transferred ex to the steam. 12-3).
(Figure On
Wex will drop (Figure 12-3).
single-shaft engines without variable inlet geometry, T7 will drop at part load while Wex will stay roughly
constant. With variable inlet guide vanes, T7 will stay roughly constant, but Wex will drop (Figure 12-3).
0.7
0.6
kWsteam/ kWmax,gas turbine
0.5 1-Shaft - SoLoNOx
0.4
1-Shaft
0.3
2-Shaft
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(kW/kW max) gas turbine
Figure 12-3 Steam Power at Part Load for Three different Engine Concepts: Single Shaft With
Figure 12-3. Steam(for
VIGVs Power
DryatLow
Part Load
NOx for Three Different
Control), Engine Concepts:
Conventional Single-Shaft
Single Shaft, Two Shaftwith
VIGVs (for Dry Low NOx Control), Conventional Single-Shaft, Two-Shaft
Figure 12-3 Steam Power at Part Load for Three different Engine Concepts: Single Shaft With
In a Steam Injected
VIGVs (for Gas
Dry Turbine
Low NOx(STIG)
Control),cycle or Cheng cycle,
Conventional Single theShaft,
steamTwois injected
Shaft into the gas
turbine (Figure 12-4 ). ThisGas
In a Steam-Injected approach
Turbine eliminates
(STIG) cyclethe need for
or Cheng a steam
cycle, turbine
the steam and also
is injected intoallows
the some
flexibility
gaswhether
turbine the steam
(Figure is
12-4). used
This to generate
approach electricity
eliminates the or
need process
for a steam.
steam
In a Steam Injected Gas Turbine (STIG) cycle or Cheng cycle, the steam is injected into However,
turbine and since
also the the
gas gas
turbine section has
allows some
turbine (Figure to act both
12-4 flexibility as steam
whether the
). This approach and as gas
steam is the
eliminates turbine
used (and
to generate
need has
for a steam to swallow
electricity
turbine the
or processadded
and alsosteam. steam
allows some mass
flow) , the
flexibility flexibility
However,
whether theissteam
since limited
the because
gasisturbine
used to the process
section has to
generate steam
act both conditions
electricity as
or steam
process may
and notHowever,
as gas
steam. match the
turbine (and steamthe
since injection
gas
conditions in the turbine.
has to swallow
turbine section has to act Also,
theboth
added the turbine
assteam
steammass usually
flow),
and as requires
gasthe a
flexibility
turbine higher
(andishas feed
limited water quality
because the process
to swallow than a
added steam masssteam
turbine due
steam
flow) , the to the higher
conditions
flexibility process
may
is limited temperatures.
notbecause
match the
thesteam injection
process steamconditions
conditions in the
mayturbine. Also, the
not match the steam injection
conditionsturbine usually requires a higher feed water quality than steam turbine due to the higher
in the turbine. Also, the turbine usually requires a higher feed water quality than a steam
process
turbine due temperatures.
to the higher process temperatures.

5
STEAM EXHAUST GAS
SEPARATOR
FUEL FEEDWATER
AIR INLET EVAPORATOR
COMBUSTOR
SUPERHEATER
GENERATOR
HEAT RECOVERY
STEAM GENERATOR
ELECTRIC COMPRESSOR TURBINE

POWER
Figure 12-4. Steam Injected Gas Turbine Cycle (STIG, Cheng Cycle)
RECUPERATED CYCLE
Another method uses a heat exchanger to preheat the compressed air from the air
compressor before it enters the combustor (Figures 12-5 and 12-6). Therefore, the
heat input from 2 to 2' can be accomplished without using fuel. Obviously, this is more
effective the larger the temperature difference becomes between the exhaust gas and the
compressor discharge gas (T 7-T2). An engine that is recuperated is typically designed for
Figure 12-5. Recuperated Cycle Gas Turbine

lower pressure ratios than a non-recuperated engine, since a lower pressure ratio leads
to lower compressor discharge temperatures, which increases the potential efficiency
improvements (Figure 12-6 ).
25
POINTS OF EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT

p2=p3
20
Turbine Inlet Temperature
TRIT max. 3 2000˚F
ENTHALPY, H
15
1800˚F
1600˚F
p1=p7 10
Recuperator 2'
7 5
Recuperator
2 Performance
0
90%eff.,5%∆P/P
1
-5
ENTROPY, S 2:1 4:1 6.1 8.1 10.1 12.1 14.1 16.1
PRESSURE RATIO
Figure 12-6. Recuperated Cycle
INTERCOOLING
The power requirement for the engine compressor to achieve a certain pressure ratio can
be significantly reduced by introducing a gas cooler after some stages of compression.
As Figure 12-7 shows, a given compression requirement can be achieved with the least
amount of work if an isothermal process can be achieved. Intercooled compression
allows the compression process to be closer to an isothermal process, thus saving power.
P Difference Between P 1-2' Isentropic (1-Step)

Isentropic and 2* 2 2' 1-2* Isothermal
P2
Isothermal Intercooling
P=P2 2* 2' Compression
s=const
s=const
T=T1
s=s1
T=const Work Savings Due
W*+12,rev P" to Intercooling
s=const
T=T1
P' s=s1
1 Intercooling
P=P1
P1 1
Intercooling
0 V 0 V
Comparison of isentropic and isothermal Savings in power compression in 3 steps
processes in the p-v diagram with intercooling compared to compression
without intercooling
Figure 12-7. Effect of Intercooling on Compression Power Requirement

Because the compression power requirement is lost for the power output of the engine, a
significant increase in power output and efficiency could be realized.
However, the use of intercoolers yields pressure losses due to the flow losses in the cooler
and the necessary volutes and piping. Also, unless cooling water is available, air-cooled gas
coolers require a significant amount of power for driving the cooler fans.
INLET COOLING
Simple- and combined-cycle gas turbine concepts exhibit a significant loss of output power
with increasing ambient temperatures (see also Chapter 7). This can actually lead to acute
power shortages on hot days. Many efforts therefore, are, made to reduce the actual
engine inlet temperature below the ambient temperature.
A number of different gas turbine inlet cooling power augmentation technologies are
currently available commercially. They can be generally classified into two categories:
1. Evaporative Cooling: These include wetted media, fogging, wet compression,

overspray, and interstage injection.
2. Chillers: Mechanical and absorption chillers with or without thermal energy storage.
In general, chillers only affect the gas turbine by directly cooling the inlet air temperature.
This increases the gas turbine’s output power but otherwise has minimal effects on the
gas turbine’s internal aerodynamics. Inlet chillers are generally very large, expensive to
operate, and rarely offer more than marginal economic benefits. Thus, they are not widely
employed. On the other hand, evaporative inlet cooling relies on injecting water droplets
or vapor into the gas turbine’s compressor (either upstream or interstage). Two different
principles are employed: evaporative coolers utilize a wetted media that is exposed to the
inlet air flow while inlet fogging systems spray water mist into the gas turbine upstream
inlet system. Both systems are normally designed to avoid liquid water carryover into
the engine inlet but fogging systems can sometimes (unintentionally or intentionally)
“overspray,” which results in water droplets entering the gas turbine compressor.
The primary difference between the various commercially-available evaporative cooling

technologies is the quantity of water (percent air saturation), the water droplet size,
and the location of the water injection ports into the gas turbine. However, the basic
functional principle of all inlet water-augmentation technologies is that they effectively
reduce the gas turbine’s inlet air temperature from the air’s dry bulb temperature to the
wet bulb temperature of the ambient air. This effective temperature difference depends
on the ambient air’s relative humidity and temperature, as well as the evaporative cooler’s
efficiency as shown on a basic psychiometric chart for water (Figure 12-8).

Several arrangements for inlet water cooling are possible but the most common is to
place fine mist, water-atomizing nozzles just downstream of the gas turbine’s inlet filter.
Figure 12-9 shows a schematic of a typical gas turbine inlet cooling fogging system.
Figure 12-10 summarizes typical output power net gains that can be achieved with various
inlet cooling techniques.
Figure 12-8. Water Psychiometric Chart Relates Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperatures
Inlet Filter
Drain
Water
Pump Skid Gas Turbine
Figure 12-9. Gas Turbine Inlet Cooling Using Atomizing Water-Fogging Nozzles

1.9 Steam Turb
(incl GB Losses)
OUTPUT POWER (%HP)

1.7
Chiller
1.5
Evap (60% RH, 5"/4')
1.3
Evap (90% RH, 5"/4')
1.1
Base
0.9
0.7
60 70 90 110
Tamb (˚F)
Figure 12-10. Cooling, Inlet Chilling, and Combined-Cycle Application
FUEL CELLS
Fuel cells offer a highly-efficient way of converting chemical energy into electricity, without
an intermediate combustion process, with subsequent conversion of mechanical energy
into electricity (Figure 12-11). Having said this, one may wonder why fuel cells are discussed
in a book about gas turbines. The reason is that there are cycle concepts that integrate a
gas turbine into the fuel cell cycle.
LOAD
FUEL H2 1/2 O2 OXIDANT

+Ion
-Ion
Cathode
Anode
Electrolyte
H2O H2O
Figure 12-11. Fuel Cell

Fuel cells, in particular Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC), exhibit a significant increase in
power density and efficiency when operated at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Further, the conversion process in a fuel cell is exothermic; i.e., it generates heat. So, a
possible integration method would use a gas turbine compressor to produce air at elevated
temperature and pressure (at a pressure ratio of around 6). This air is used as the oxidant in
the fuel cell. The exhaust gas from the fuel cell is then expanded through the turbine part of
the gas turbine. The remaining heat can be used in a fuel reformer (Figure 12-12), which is
typically endothermic. Depending on the cycle design, the fuel cell may be the sole source
of electrical energy, while the turbine section is used only to drive the compressor, or both
the fuel cell and a turbine-driven generator produce electricity.
EXHAUST
FUEL CELL (DC)

Anode
Cathode
AUX
COMBUSTOR
HEAT
EXCHANGER
FUEL
COMPRESSOR TURBINE
GENERATOR (AC)
Figure 12-12. Gas Turbine Integrated in a Fuel Cell Cycle
Fuel cell pressurization increases the performance of the fuel cell and system at the cost
of providing the pressurization. Fundamentally, the question of pressurization is a trade-
off between the improved performance (and/or reduced cell area) and the reduced piping
volume, insulation, and heat loss compared to the increased parasitic load and capital cost
of the compressor and related equipment.
For SOFCs, a high temperature of approximately 1000°C (1830ºF) is required in order to

have sufficiently high ionic conductivities with the existing materials and configurations.

ORGANIC RANKINE AND SUPERCRITICAL CO2 BOTTOMING CYCLES
Similar to the previously discussed steam Rankine combined-cycle concept, other closed
power cycles can be utilized to efficiently convert gas turbine exhaust heat into mechanical
or electrical energy. These cycles are of special interest in gas turbine applications where
water is not available, such as in remote pipeline compression or oil and gas production
facilities. Instead of utilizing water and steam, organic fluids such as Pentene or inert gases
such as Helium or supercritical CO2 are utilized in a closed cycle as the process fluid. These
cycles can be fairly simple with a single compressor or pump, heat exchanger, and turbine
in a simple loop, as shown in Figure 12-13, or much more complex with multiple loops of
recuperators, re-compressors, and staged turbines.
HEAT
SOURCE
P4 P1
COMPRESSOR
PRECOOLER
P2 EXPANDER
P3
COOLING OUT
COOLING IN
Figure 12-13. Simple Closed Brayton Power Cycle for Waste Heat Applications
Depending on the application, the gas turbine exhaust temperature, and the mass flow,
the bottoming cycle can thus be optimized for the highest efficiency, the smallest footprint
and weight, or the least complexity. For example, Figure 12-14 shows a recompression
supercritical CO2 power cycle optimized for highest efficiency in gas turbine waste heat-
recovery applications. Nonetheless, all these cycles function basically the same in that they
utilize the hot exhaust air from the gas turbine in a heat exchanger to heat the compressed
process fluid and then convert the heat energy into mechanical shaft output power in one
or multiple-turbine sections. The type of cycle can involve a vapor-liquid phase change
(Rankine), operate purely within the vapor phase (Brayton), or function as a mix of the two
(hybrid). Organic Rankine cycles tend to be preferred for applications where the waste
heat temperature is below 400 degrees Celsius while supercritical CO2 cycles have the
best efficiencies for combined cycle temperatures between 450 and 650 degrees Celsius.
Supercritical CO2 Brayton cycles, because of the high-energy density of the CO2 working
fluid, also tend to be more compact and have slightly higher efficiencies than Rankine
cycles.

P3
LOW-TEMP HIGH-TEMP
RECUPERATOR RECUPERATOR
P6 P7a P7 P8
COMPRESSOR
P4b
P2
HEAT
RE-COMPRESSOR EXPANDER SOURCE
PRECOOLER
P5 P4
P4b P1
COOLING OUT
COOLING IN
Figure 12-14. Complex Recompression, Reheat CO2 Power Cycle Schematic
The analysis of advanced power cycles can be very complex. Specialized-process analysis
software is often used for this purpose. This software links and models the individual cycle
components, such as heat exchangers, compressors, turbines, valves, etc. and allows for
the optimization of a power cycle for a specific application.
SUMMARY
The Brayton cycle can be improved in many different ways. Some of the technologies
described are presently in use, while others (such as the fuel cell and supercritical C)
are still in the experimental stage. None of these advanced cycles can improve on the
simplicity and the high-power density of the simple-cycle gas turbine, but they are able to
improve on some of the inherent short falls of Brayton cycle engines.

REFERENCES
Brun, K., Kurz, R., Thorp, Joseph, Winkelmann, B., 2016, Gas Turbine Packaging
Options and Features, 45th Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX 2016
Brun, K., Nored, Marybeth, Kurz, R., 2012, Particle Transport Analysis of Sand Ingestion
in Gas Turbine Engines Trans ASME J Eng GT and Power Vol. 134, Jan 2012, GTP-
012402
Brun, K., Kurz, R., 2005, Gas Turbine Life Limiting Effects of Inlet and Interstage Water
Injection 34th Texas A&M Turbomachinery Symposium
Brun, K., Kurz, R., Simmons, Harold, Nored, Marybeth, 2007, Analysis of Combustor
Acoustic Resonances using an Efficient Transient Solver, ASME Paper GT 2007-27035
Cohen, H., Rogers, G.F.C., Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H., 1996, "Gas Turbine Theory", Longman,
Harlow
Elliott, F., Kurz, R., Etheridge, C., O'Connell, J.P., 2004, Fuel System Suitability
Considerations for Industrial Gas Turbines, Trans ASME J Eng GT and Power Vol. 126 No.1
Fiedler, K., 1987, Stroemungsmaschinen, UBw Hamburg
Fottner, L., 1989, ‘Review of Turbomachinery Blading Design Problems’, AGARDLS-167.
Habel, M., Kurz, R., Rocha, G., Sadaatmand, M., 2003, Titan 130 Update for Power
Generation and Mechanical Drive Applications, IAGT 2003
Klein, Manfred, Kurz, R., 2003, An Output Based Approach to Emissions Standards for
Gas Turbine Facilities, ASME Paper GT2003-38785
Kurz, R., 2014, Carbon Footprint Assessment for Compressor Stations, ETN 7th
International Gas Turbine Conference
Kurz, R., Brun, K., Meher-Homji, Cyrus, 2014, Gas Turbine Degradation 43rd
Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX 2014
Kurz, R., Brun, K., Moore, J., Meher-Homji, C., Gonzalez, F., 2013, Gas Turbine
Performance and Maintenance, 42nd Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX 2013
Kurz, R., Brun, K., Moore, J., Meher-Homji, C., 2012, Gas Turbine Performance and
Maintenance, 41st Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX 2012
Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2012, Fouling Mechanisms in Axial Compressors, Trans ASME J Eng
GTP Vol. 134, Mar 2012 GTP-11-1153
Kurz, R., Brun, K., Wollie, Meron, 2009, Degradation Effects on Industrial Gas Turbines
Trans ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power (Vol.131, Iss.6)
Kurz, R., Wen, Chaur, Cowell, Luke, Lee, John C.Y., 2007, Fuel Flexibility for Advanced
Gas Turbines, with up to 15MW Output: Requirements, Design and Experiences, VGB
PowerTech Vol. 87/2007
250 | References
Kurz, R., Wen, Chaur, Cowell, Luke, Lee, John C.Y., 2006, Gas Fuel Flexibility
Considerations for Low Emissions Industrial Gas Turbines, Proc. European Turbine
Network, Brussels, Belgium
Kurz, R., 2006, Turbomachines and Pipeline Simulations, psig Seminar Aachen, Germany
2006
Kurz, R., 2005, Gas Turbine Performance - Tutorial, 34th Turbomachinery Symposium 34th
Texas A&M Turbomachinery Symposium
Kurz, R., 2004, The Physics of Centrifugal Compressor Performance, Pipeline Simulation
Interest Group Annual Meeting 2004
Kurz, R., Ohanian, Sebouh, 2003, Modeling Turbomachinery in Pipeline Simulations

Pipeline Simulation Interest Group Annual Meeting 2003
Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2001, Degradation in Gas Turbine Systems, Trans ASME J Eng GT and
Power Vol. 123 No. 1
Kurz, R., 2005, Parameter Optimization on Combined Gas Turbine - Fuel Cell Power Plants,
Trans ASME J Fuel Cell Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No.4
Meher-Homji, C. B., and Bromley A. F., 2010, “Gas Turbine Fuels - System Design,
Combustion and Operability,” Proceedings of the 39th Turbomachinery Symposium,
Houston, Tx.
Nakayama, Y., 1988, Visualized Flow, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
Orhon, D., Kurz, R., Hiner, S.D., Benson, J., 2015, Gas turbine Air Filtration Systems for
Offshore Applications, 44th Turbosymposium, Houston, Tx.
Sawyer, R.T., 1945, The Modern Gas Turbine, Prentice-Hall
Schodl, R., 1977, Entwicklung eines Laser-2-Fokus Verfahrens, Diss. RWTH Aachen.
Sheard, A.G. (ed.), 2013, Oil and Gas Application Issues for Gas Turbines and Centrifugal
Compressors, Sigel Press, ISBN 978-1-905941-18-6
Stalder, J.P., Sire, J., 2001, Salt percolation through gas turbine air filtration systems and
its contribution to tatal contaminant level, IJPGC 2001, New Orleans, La.
Wilcox, Melissa, Kurz, R., Brun, K., 2012, Technology review of Modern Gas Turbine Inlet
Filtration Systems International Journal of Rotating Machinery, Article 128134 (Hindawi)
Windt, Jonathan P., Kurz, R., 2008, Turbomachinery Systems for Floating Production
Applications, Rio Oil and Gas Conference, IBP1555_08
References | 251
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
Klaus Brun
Rainer Kurz
Solar Turbines Short Style Guide Solar Turbines Short Style G
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Fundamental of Gas Turbine

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Introduction to Gas Turbine Theory

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Introduction to Gas Turbine Theory, 3rd Edition, 2019

Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics 18

Chapter 2: Turbomachinery Component Basics 46

Chapter 3: Modern Analysis Methods 82

Chapter 4: Rotordynamics & Vibrations 90

Chapter 5: Ancillary & Auxiliary Systems 106

Chapter 6: Gas Turbine Components 118

How Does a Gas Turbine Work? 119

Chapter 7: The Gas Turbine as a System 148

Component Interaction 149

Single Shaft 156

Two Shaft 158

Performance Characteristics 164

Appendix A: Gas Turbine Cycle Calculation 180

Chapter 8: Combustion & Emissions 184

Chapter 9: Fuel & Fuel Treatment 198

Chapter 10: Air Filtration & Air Inlet Systems 218

Chapter 11: Degradation In Gas Turbine Systems 226

Chapter 12: Advanced Cycles & Performance Augmentation 236

We dedicate this book to our loving and supportive wives.

Marisol & Renee

To you, a simple thanks is offered!

INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE THEORY

This is followed by a brief overview of the fundamental concepts of rotordynamics.

Finally, an outlook on advanced gas turbine cycles is provided.

GAS TURBINES – A BRIEF HISTORY

In 200 B.C., the Egyptian

Several significant technology improvements for combustion and axial compressors

Figure 0-2. Heinkel 178 Airplane

Figure 0-3. Saturn Gas Turbine

Before providing detailed information about turbomachinery thermodynamics, it is

A gas turbine’s function is to provide

Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics | 19

A gas turbine process must, by definition, involve density changes (compression

SIMPLE GAS TURBINE SYSTEM

Keeping in mind what was said

20 | Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics

Air Compression - Heat Addition - Air Expansion

Compressor Combustor Power

Figure 1-3. Simple Brayton Cycle Axial Flow Gas Turbine

Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics | 21

ht,12 = q12 + Wt,12

Wh12 = W · q12 + Pt,12

22 | Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics

Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics | 23

P2 = q fuel ≈ Wfuel qr,fuel

Figure 1-4. First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy In = Energy Out

24 | Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics

Work in = cp,(T hot-Tref )

Work lost = cp,(Tcold-Tref )

Figure 1-5. Energy Balance of a General Heat Engine

Work  Out cpTHot - cpTCold TCold

• TCold cannot be zero (3rd law of thermodynamics) or THot cannot be infinite.

Chapter 1: Gas Turbine Thermodynamics | 25

Compressor Burner Turbine

Figure 1-6. Gas Turbine Components

Work Out cpTHot - cpTCold TCold