MC Intosh 2010

October 8, 2010 8:38 WSPC/S1793-0480 204-BRL S1793048010001184
Biophysical Reviews and Letters

Vol. 5, No. 3 (2010) 129–151

c World Scientific Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S1793048010001184
A COMPREHENSIVE TISSUE PROPERTIES DATABASE

PROVIDED FOR THE THERMAL ASSESSMENT
OF A HUMAN AT REST
Biophys. Rev. Lett. 2010.05:129-151. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
ROBERT L. MCINTOSH
by UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI on 03/12/13. For personal use only.
Australian Centre for Radiofrequency Bioeffects Research

John St, Hawthorn, VIC, 3122, Australia
robert.l.mcintosh@team.telstra.com
VITAS ANDERSON
Australian Centre for Radiofrequency Bioeffects Research
and
Swinburne University of Technology
John St, Hawthorn, VIC, 3122, Australia
vitasanderson@swin.edu.au
Received 23 June 2010
Accurate numerical calculation of the thermal profile in humans requires reliable esti-
mates of the following five tissue properties: specific heat capacity (c), thermal conduc-
tivity (k), blood perfusion rates (m), metabolic heat production (A0 ), and density (ρ).
A sixth property, water content (w, as a %), can also be used to estimate c and k. To
date, researchers have used various and inconsistent estimates of these parameters, which
hinders comparison of the corresponding results. In an effort to standardize and improve
the accuracy of these parameters for future studies, we have documented over 150 key
papers and books and developed a database of the six thermal properties listed above
for 43 human tissues. For each tissue and each property the following were obtained:
the average value, the number of source values, the minimum and maximum of source
values, and the reference for each source value. A key premise for the development of
the database was to only use references that provided the original measurements. This
database is offered for use by the biological thermal modeling community to help improve
the accuracy and consistency of thermal modeling results.
Keywords: Tissue thermal properties; Pennes bio-heat equation; numerical modeling;

specific heat capacity; thermal conductivity; blood perfusion; metabolic heat production;
density; water content.
1. Introduction
Pennes’ bioheat equation1 is often used by researchers when estimating the thermal
profile, T = T (x, t)(◦ C), in biological tissue:
∂T
ρc = ∇ · (k∇T ) + q + A0 − b(T − Tb ) (1)
∂t
129
130 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson
where c is the specific heat capacity (J/(kg · ◦ C)), k is the thermal conductivity
(W/(m · ◦ C)), ρ is the mass density of the tissue (kg/m3 ), q is the volumetric heat
(W/m3 ) from an external source such as ultrasound or radiofrequency heating, A0
is the metabolic heat production (W/m3 ), b is the heat-sink strength from each
tissue volume by blood perfusion (W/(m3 · ◦ C)), with these quantities specified
separately for each tissue, and Tb is the temperature of blood (◦ C). The more
common indicator for blood perfusion heat-sink strength found in the literature is
the blood perfusion rate, m, usually stated in ml/min/100 g. It is related to b, via
b = ρ · ρ blood · m · c blood · (10−5 /60), where the latter numerical term on the right
is present to convert the quantity to SI units.
For applications in bioelectromagnetics, Pennes’ equation can be used to deter-
mine the induced tissue temperature rise from exposure to radiofrequency (RF)
electromagnetic fields. For this application, q = ρ · SAR, where the Specific energy
Absorption Rate (SAR) is the rate of energy transferred relative to the tissue mass
(W/kg).2 An example is presented in Bernardi et al.3
Many authors state values for tissue properties by quoting values from other
authors, who in turn quote other authors, and so on. When traced back some of
the original values are questionable in their derivation or measurement or were
approximated. In our review we sought to obtain direct sources of original mea-
surements. If numerous values were available for a given property for a tissue then
the spread of values was used to check data quality.
Other good sources for the comprehensive discussion and listing of the phys-
ical properties of tissues include Bowman,4 Duck,5 Erdmann and Gos,6 ICRP,7
Poppendiek,8 Werner and Buse,9 and Woodward and White.10
2. The Tissue Thermal Properties Database

Over three hundred references (papers and books) were reviewed with over 90 key
references chosen to provide original data and around 60 other references providing
important sources of information (such as reviews of measurement techniques or
description of human biology and histology). The references chosen were either
those referred to by other references or by our own literature searches.
The data are presented in Table 1. The “Avg” value shown in the table is the
average value of all n source values. The minimum and maximum are also provided
so that the user can see an approximate range of measured values for a parameter.
This range could be useful to researchers wishing to perform sensitivity analyses on
thermal parameters. Some additional measurements are also provided in the section
“Other Tissues” near the end of this paper. Due to the scarcity of published data,
measurements were generally made (and presented here) as an average value for a
whole organ (e.g. stomach), rather than the individual components (e.g. mucosa in
the lining of the stomach).
A key premise for the database was to only accept values from reference sources
that provided the original measurements. Where primary data was not available, c
Table 1. Summary of the data collection of tissue thermal properties.

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided

131
Table 1. (Continued ) 132

R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson
(a) Avg is the average value of the n data values obtained.

(b) b is the heat-sink strength from each tissue volume by blood perfusion (W/(m3 · ◦ C)).
(c) A0 is the metabolic heat production (W/m3 ).
A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 133
and k were estimated in the first instance from proxy formulae using water content
data. Use of references without clear measurement details were only employed in
cases where data was not available. For any remaining missing data values, a tis-
sue thermal datum was assigned from another tissue of a similar histology. Blood
perfusion values were used for deriving A0 . More thorough discussion on all of the
above and details of the surrogate data used is given throughout the paper.
The integrity of the values used was checked by ensuring that there was common
agreement between values for that tissue. Consistency between tissues of a similar
type was also considered. The values were selected under the constraint that they
were for humans or animals at rest and adult humans between 18 to 70 years
of age. The animal data was from baboons, dogs, goats, pigs and rabbits, and
from the bovine family. Such animal data was generally avoided if multiple values
from humans were available. Preference was also given to animals with a similar
physiology to that of humans such as baboons and pigs. An aim with this database
was not to list all available animal data but to provide suitable values for human
tissues for modeling purposes. Data from small animals (e.g. rodents) were not
used. The remainder of this paper provides information on the sources of the data
for Table 1.
3. Specific Heat Capacity, c

Specific heat capacity, c, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the
heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance
by a certain temperature interval. Table 2 details the sources of data for c.
Specific heat capacity was measured using a calorimeter by Henschel,11
Henriques and Moritz,12 Brown,13 Clattenburg et al.,14 and Biyikli et al.,15 using
a conventional hot-water bath, and by Mendlowitz16 through heating the liquid
(blood) and comparing its behavior with that of water. In his study of rabbit eyes,
Lagendijk17 used thermocouples to measure the temperature in the vitreous humor
and then estimated c for the lens empirically.
In Cooper and Trezek,18 a copper needle-like probe was developed, and was
inserted into the tissue at a temperature different to that of the tissue, and the
temperature–time response used to determine thermal properties, using an ana-
lytically determined response curve. This technique was designed to account for
the metabolic heat production and blood flow characteristics of the tissue if used
in-vivo.
In Valvano,19 van Gemert et al.,20 Valvano and Chitsabesan,21 and El-Brawany
et al.,22 c was determined indirectly through instrument probes, which both measure
temperature and deliver heat into the tissue. The time to a steady-state condition
was used to determine k and the thermal diffusivity, α. Thermal diffusivity is the
ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric heat capacity, i.e. α = k/(c · ρ). This
expression was reformulated to give c, and calculated by using the values of α and
k from each reference, and the value for ρ from Table 1. A commercially available
instrument (a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC)) was used in Gieringa et al.23

A non-invasive technique for measuring α is described in Milner et al.24 The tech-
nique involves the infrared imaging of a tissue’s response to laser irradiation. This
method is compared with the use of a self-heated thermistor probe in Youn et al.25
and the results agree within 7% for cartilage at 27◦ C.
Many of the values were derived from information on the tissue’s water content
and this is discussed later in the paper.
Values were not found for bile, vitreous humor and urine, and they were assumed
to have the same specific heat capacity as water. Yellow bone marrow was assigned
the same value as fat; and lymph nodes were set the average value for thyroid and
adrenal glands.
Table 2. Values and references for specific heat capacity, ca .
Tissue Value (J/(kg · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Bladder 3544 water % formula Ref. 5
Blood 3651 Ref. 16
Blood vessel 3267 Human aorta Ref. 21
3171 Human aorta Ref. 20
3480 water % formula Ref. 5
Bone — cancellous 2060 Femora Ref. 15
2524 Bovine femora Ref. 14
Bone — cortical 1650 Femora Ref. 15
826 Pigs & sheep Ref. 22
1255 Ref. 11
Bone marrow — red 2666 water % formula Ref. 5
Brain — average 3682 Ref. 18
Brain — cerebellum 3653 water % formula Ref. 5
Brain — grey matter 3682 Ref. 18
Brain — white matter 3598 Ref. 18
Breast — gland 2960 water % formula Ref. 5
Cartilage 3599 Porcine nasal septal Ref. 25
Dura 3364 water % formula Ref. 5
Eye — cornea 3615 water % formula Ref. 5
Eye — lens 3000 Rabbit Ref. 17
Fat 1806 Pigs Ref. 22
2324 Pigs Ref. 12
Gall bladder 3716 water % formula Ref. 5
Glands — adrenal 3425 water % formula Ref. 5
Glands — pituitary 3687 water % formula Ref. 5
Glands — thyroid 3609 water % formula Ref. 5
Intestine — large 3609 water % formula Ref. 5
Intestine — small 3595 water % formula Ref. 5
Kidneys 3891 Ref. 18
Ligaments/tendons 3364 water % formula Ref. 5
Table 2. (Continued )
Tissue Value (J/(kg · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Liver 3598 Ref. 18
3617 Ref. 23
3332 Ref. 19
Lung 3886 Ref. 23
Muscle — cardiac 3724 Ref. 18
Muscle — skeletal 2624 Pigs Ref. 22
3799 Pigs Ref. 12
Nerve — spine 3562 water % formula Ref. 5
Pancreas 2822 Ref. 19

Skin 3250 water % formula Ref. 5

Spleen 3724 Ref. 18
3376 Ref. 19
Stomach 3690 water % formula Ref. 5
Testicles 3778 water % formula Ref. 5
Tooth — dentine 1590 Human molars Ref. 13
1255 Ref. 11
Tooth — enamel 711 Human molars Ref. 13
Tooth — whole 1255 Human molars Ref. 13
Uterus 3676 water % formula Ref. 5
(a) All measurements were made in-vitro except for the Lagendijk17 in-vivo study.
(b) Human tissue unless stated otherwise. Specific locations are given as necessary.
4. Thermal Conductivity, k
The sources of data for k are presented in Table 3.
The conventional method for measuring k, through applying a thermal gradient
across a given volume of tissue and measuring the steady-state temperature at
either end of the sample, was employed in Hatfield and Pugh,26 Hatfield,27 Craig
and Peyton,28 Clattenburg et al.,14 and Biyikli et al.15 Variants of this approach
were developed by Soyenkoff and Okun,29 Spells30 (for liquids), and Poppendiek
et al.8 (who considered the determination of k in non-homogeneous tissues, such as
for red-blood cells in blood).
The self-heated thermistor probe described above was used by Bowman et al.,31
Bowman,4 Valvano et al.,19 van Gemert et al.,20 Valvano and Chitsabesan21 and
Youn et al.25 The probe used by Cooper and Trezek18 is described in the previ-
ous section. A “hot-wire” probe with an attached thermocouple was developed by
Bhattacharya and Mahajan32 (the authors also provide a review of measurement
techniques). Similar technologies seem to have also been employed by Gautherie,33
who used a “fine-needle thermoelectric probe”, and El-Brawany et al.22
Bowman4 noted that for lung tissue, k changes significantly with age from a
value of 0.30 W/(m · ◦ C) for a young male to 0.55 W/(m · ◦ C) for an older, diseased
lung. Poppendiek et al.8 suggests the low value for lung is partially due to the
presence of captured gases.
Many of the values were derived from information on the tissue’s water content
and this is discussed later in the paper.
Data were not available for some tissues with bile assigned the properties of
water, yellow bone marrow that of fat, and lymph nodes were set the average
properties for thyroid and adrenal glands. Whole teeth were assumed to comprise
70% dentine and 30% enamel (based on images in Williams et al.34 ).
Table 3. Values and references for thermal conductivity,k a .
Tissue Value (W/(m · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Bladder 0.481 water % formula Ref. 35

Blood 0.488 Ref. 4

0.530 Ref. 8
0.507 Ref. 30
Blood Vessel 0.476 Aorta Ref. 21
0.444 Aorta Ref. 20
0.466 water % formula Ref. 35
Bone — cancellous 0.300 Femora Ref. 15
0.290 Bovine femora Ref. 14
Bone — cortical 0.300 Femora Ref. 15
0.300 Pigs & sheep Ref. 22
Bone marrow — red 0.279 water % formula Ref. 35
Brain — average 0.537 Ref. 4
0.527 Ref. 35
0.500 Bovine Ref. 8
Brain — cerebellum 0.506 water % formula Ref. 35
Brain — grey matter 0.565 Ref. 18
Brain — white matter 0.502 Ref. 18
Breast — gland 0.322 Ref. 33
Cartilage 0.518 Porcine nasal septal Ref. 25
Dura 0.440 water % formula Ref. 35
Eye — cornea 0.497 water % formula Ref. 35
Eye — lens 0.400 Ref. 17
Eye — vitreous humor 0.590 Bovine Ref. 8
Fat 0.222 Ref. 4
0.233 Pigs Ref. 22
0.199 Ref. 27
0.180 Ref. 26
0.190 Ref. 8
Gall bladder 0.521 water % formula Ref. 35
Glands — adrenal 0.426 Ref. 4
0.363 Ref. 31
Glands — pituitary 0.514 water % formula Ref. 35
Glands — thyroid 0.530 Ref. 4
Tissue Value (W/(m · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Intestine — large 0.556 Ref. 4
Intestine — small 0.493 water % formula Ref. 35
Kidneys 0.547 Ref. 4
0.556 Ref. 31
0.544 Ref. 18
0.520 Bovine Ref. 8
Ligaments/tendons 0.440 water % formula Ref. 35
Liver 0.508 Ref. 4
0.527 Ref. 31
0.565 Ref. 18
0.490 Bovine Ref. 8
0.512 Ref. 19
Lung 0.478 Ref. 4
0.302 Ref. 31
0.280 Ref. 8
0.451 Ref. 19
Muscle — cardiac 0.562 Ref. 31
0.586 Ref. 18
Muscle — skeletal 0.508 Ref. 4
0.459 Pigs Ref. 22
0.530 Bovine Ref. 8
Pancreas 0.466 Ref. 4
0.588 Ref. 31
0.542 Ref. 19
Skin 0.498 Ref. 4
0.376 Ref. 116c
Spleen 0.515 Ref. 4
0.544 Ref. 31
0.544 Ref. 18
0.539 Ref. 19
Stomach 0.527 Ref. 4
0.553 Ref. 31
Testicles 0.515 water % formula Ref. 35
Tooth — dentine 0.575 Ref. 28
0.425 Ref. 29
Tooth — enamel 0.933 Ref. 28
0.650 Ref. 29
Urine 0.560 Ref. 8
Uterus 0.511 water % formula Ref. 35
(a) All measurements were made in-vitro except for the Lagendijk17 in-vivo study.
(b) Human tissue unless stated otherwise. Specific locations are given as necessary.
(c) Referenced in Chato.36
5. Density, ρ
The sources of data for ρ are presented in Table 4.
Standard mass and volume (through water displacement) measurements were
employed by Erdmann and Gos,6 who examined 48 tissue types from ten human
cadavers, Clauser et al.,37 Cooper and Trezek,18 and Robinson and Elliot38 (which
feeds into the survey presented in Robinson39 ). Boyd et al.40 used a method of
cutting cut teeth into precise volumes and measuring their mass. The method of
flotation was employed in Manly et al.41 and Thewlis42 where the liquid is altered
until the density of the liquid matches that of the item under investigation. Liquids
with a density that varied with height (a “density gradient”) were used in Weidmann
et al.,43 Akerstrom et al.44 and Masugata et al.45 The measurement methods in the
remaining references were not clearly stated.

Density values for “lung”, are provided for the entire entity including the cap-
tured gases and not the specific lung tissue itself. Huang and Wu46 and Guenard
et al.47 estimated the lung density in-vivo through interpretation of computed
tomography (CT) scan data. The value of Erdmann and Gos6 is quite different
and as noted above was measured through water displacement.
Woodward and White10 provided the first author’s measurements combined
with a reassessment of ICRP (1975)7 tissue data. This is a comprehensive reference
that includes discussion on tissue composition and tissues that are of a similar
nature (which is useful if there is no data for a given tissue).
Scammon and Hesdorffer48 provide data from a survey of lens mass and volume
measurements, complemented by their own measurements, and use these values to
estimate the density (the value for a forty year old was used).
Data were not available for some tissues with dura (as per Pessoa de Barros
et al.49 ) and cornea assigned the properties of ligaments/tendons, cerebellum that
of grey matter, and pituitary glands and lymph nodes set the average properties
for thyroid and adrenal glands.
Table 4. Values and references for density, ρa .
Tissue Value (kg/m3 ) Sourceb Reference

Bile 928 Ref. 6
Bladder 1132 Ref. 6
Blood 1057 Ref. 6
1025 Ref. 46
1057 Ref. 8
Blood vessel 1147 Aorta, iliac external (vein & Ref. 6
artery), and vena cava
Bone — cancellous 1105 Ref. 37
1350 Dogs Refs. 38 and 39
Bone — cortical 1800 Ref. 37
2100 Ref. 11
1800 Dogs Refs. 38 and 39

Bone marrow — red 1030 Ref. 10
Bone marrow — yellow 980 Ref. 10
Brain — average 1050 Ref. 18
1041 Bovine Ref. 8
Brain — grey matter 1050 Ref. 18
Brain — white matter 1040 Ref. 18
1040 Ref. 46
Breast — gland 1092 Ref. 6
Cartilage 1099 Ref. 6
Eye — lens 1061 Ref. 48
Eye — vitreous humor 1000 Ref. 46
Fat 930 Ref. 44

961 Ref. 37
947 Ref. 6
902 Ref. 46
900 Ref. 50
812 Ref. 8
Gall bladder 1115 Ref. 6
Glands — adrenal 1030 Ref. 10
Glands — thyroid 1050 Ref. 10
Intestine — large 1132 Ref. 6
Intestine — small 1030 Ref. 10
Kidneys 1050 Ref. 18
1147 Ref. 6
1019 Bovine Ref. 8
Ligaments/tendons 1174 Ref. 6
Liver 1050 Ref. 18
1158 Ref. 6
1057 Bovine Ref. 8
Lung 563 Ref. 6
288 Ref. 47
255 Ref. 46
604 Bovine Ref. 8
Muscle — cardiac 1060 Ref. 18
1143 Ref. 6
1059 Ref. 46
1082 Ref. 45
Muscle — skeletal 1178 Ref. 6
1087 Ref. 37
1066 Ref. 46
1080 Bovine Ref. 8
Nerve — spine 1112 Ref. 6
Pancreas 1128 Ref. 6
Skin 1102 Ref. 37
1125 Ref. 6
Spleen 1050 Ref. 18
1163 Ref. 6
Stomach 1126 Ref. 6
Testicles 1120 Ref. 6

Tooth — dentine 2000 Ref. 40
1960 Ref. 13
2110 Ref. 11
2145 Ref. 41
2100 Ref. 42
Tooth — enamel 2970 Ref. 41
2980 Ref. 42
2925 Ref. 43
Tooth — whole 2200 Ref. 13
Urine 1035 Ref. 6
Uterus 1157 Ref. 6
(a) All measurements were made in-vitro except Guenard et al.47 and Huang
and Wu46 which were in-vivo.
(b) Human tissue unless stated otherwise. Specific locations are given as
necessary.
6. Blood Flow, m
The sources of data for m are presented in Table 5.
Tissue blood flow measurement is generally performed in-vivo, with the excep-
tion of the complex setup used in Linzell et al.51 for the study of perfusion in the
mammary gland of a goat. The two main techniques used for measuring blood flow
rates were the clearance method and microsphere trapping.
The clearance method involves injecting a soluble radioactive tracer into a body
and examining the level of radioactivity after a given time period. The isotope
133
Xe is suitable for local blood flow determination, including for muscles in human
subjects. This approach is described in Sekins et al.52 (where the authors estimate
that the method underestimates the true value by around 25%). Amery et al.53
also give muscle blood flow rates after exercise (around 60 ml/min/100 g). Cerebral
blood flow is measured using 133 Xe as a tracer in Madsen et al.54 with blood sampled
through a catheter. Non-invasive techniques are described in Meyer et al.55 and
Wilkinson et al.56 For adipose tissue, Nielsen and Larsen57 use 133 Xe in solution,
and Lesser and Deutsch58 use 85 Kr, inhaled in a gas.
To determine the blood flow rate in organs, animals are regularly used with
measurements of the radioactivity of the organ performed posthumously. An iso-
tope, such as 42 K or 86 Rb, is used and is injected into the heart. The method is
based upon the assumption that the fraction of the injected radioactive indicator
contained in an organ 30–60 s after the injection is equal to the fraction of the
cardiac output perfusing that organ. 42 K clearance is described in Sapirstein59 and
employed in Delaney and Grim.60
In the microsphere trapping method, small radioactive microspheres may be
injected into the left ventricle of the heart and then after a given time the
radioactivity of the tissues under investigation is measured. A required assumption

is that the microspheres distribute at arterial bifurcations in proportion to the
blood flow.60 Examples of types of microspheres used were the 15 µm microspheres
labeled with 85 Sr used in Alm and Bill,61 and 15 µm 46 Sc microspheres used in
Bødtker et al.62
Data for red blood marrow was found by Petrakis et al.63 who considered the
clearance of 131 I. As in Mapleson,64 the results were converted from % per min
of 131 I clearance to blood flow in units of (ml/100 ml)/min by assuming that the
two are equal. Only patients with diseases including leukemia were involved in the
study.
In other techniques used, Campbell and Hill65 placed goats under increased
atmospheric pressure and measured the nitrogen saturation levels in bone marrow
after given time intervals. Soto et al.66 used the non-invasive Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) for assessment of myocardial blood flow using the marker 15 O.
Lassen et al.67 used both the 133 Xe clearance method and venous occlusion plethys-
mography on the human calf muscle. Lassen68 also presents an overview on mea-
surement techniques.
Rayner et al.69 quotes and utilizes the Fick principle which states that the
rate of uptake of a test substance is equal to the rate of inflow of that sub-
stance via the arteries minus the rate of outflow via the veins (that is, sources
and sinks are accounted for in a localized area). In Rayner et al.69 the substance
used is deuterium oxide (D2 O), whilst Kety and Schmidt,70 Scheinberg et al.71
and Rowe et al.72 used nitrous oxide (N2 O). Stow and Schieve73 used the Fick
principle and determine blood flow in the skin through measurement of the skin
temperature.
The blood flow was assumed to be non-existent for bile, cortical bone, and
all tissues of the eyes and teeth. Data was not available for some tissues with
bladder,8 gall bladder,8 blood vessels and uterus assigned the properties of muscle.
Best and Taylor74 and Williams and Leggett75 do not directly discuss measurement
techniques and data was only used where no other data is available.
For discussion on skeletal muscle blood flow and metabolism during exercise,
see Grimby76 (where the authors recorded a peak blood flow of 69 ml/min/100 g)
and Rowell.77,78 Scheinberg et al.71 considers cerebral blood flow (which increased
around 25% during exercise to 61 ml/min/100 g) and metabolism.
Table 5. Values and references for blood flow,ma .
Tissue Value Source Method Reference

(ml/min/100 g)
Bone — cancellous 1.2 Human Plethysmography Ref. 79
Bone marrow — red 10.0 Human 131 I clearance Ref. 63
Bone marrow — yellow 2.8 Goats Nitrogen saturation Ref. 65

(ml/min/100 g)
Brain — average 44.0 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
54.0 Human N2 O Ref. 70
56.4 Human 133 Xe clearance Ref. 54
45.7b Human N2 O Ref. 71
Brain — cerebellum 77.0 Pigs Microsphere trapping Ref. 81
Brain — grey matter 78.2 Human 133 Xe clearance Ref. 55
Brain — white matter 18.7 Human 133 Xe clearance Ref. 55
Breast — gland 15.0 Goats Outflow measured Ref. 51
Cartilage 3.5 Pigs Microsphere trapping Ref. 82

Dura 38.0 Dogs Microsphere trapping Ref. 83
Fat 2.1 Human 85 Kr clearance Ref. 58

Glands — adrenal 158.0 Sheep Microsphere trapping Ref. 84
161.5 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
428.0 Dogs (large) Outflow measured Ref. 85
199.0 Sheep Microsphere trapping Ref. 86
Glands — pituitary 110.0 Sheep Microsphere trapping Ref. 86
Glands — thyroid 697.0 Dogs Outflow measured Ref. 87
560.0 Dogs Outflow measured Ref. 88c
Intestine — large 123.6 Dogs 86 Rb clearance Ref. 89
61.0 Pigs Microsphere trapping Ref. 81
Intestine — small 143.5 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
56.0 Dogs D2 O Ref. 69
Kidneys 314.5 Human 131 I clearance Ref. 90
372.5 Human 131 I clearance Ref. 91
Ligaments/tendons 2.9 Dogs Microsphere trapping Ref. 62
2.9d Dogs Microsphere trapping Ref. 92
Liver 42.2 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
Lung 40.0 Human Ref. 75
Lymph nodes 50.0 Human Ref. 75
Muscle — cardiac 161.0 Sheep (‘heart’) Microsphere trapping Ref. 84
151.9 Baboons (‘heart’) Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
105.5 Sheep (myocardium) Microsphere trapping Ref. 86
63.6 Human (coronary) N2 O Ref. 72
100.5 Human (myocardium) PET with 15 O Ref. 66
121.7 Pigs (ventricles)e Microsphere trapping Ref. 81
Muscle — skeletal 3.3 Human (anterior tibial) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 53
1.6 Human (anterior tibial) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 93
2.7 Human (quadriceps) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 76

(ml/min/100 g)
1.9 Human (calf muscle) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 67
2.1 Human (anterior tibial) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 94
2.6 Human (thigh) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 52
1.6 Human (calf muscle) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 95
Nerve — spine 18.9 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
16.2 Goats 133 Xe clearance Ref. 96
Pancreas 63.2 Dogs 86 Rb clearance Ref. 89
Skin 4.9 Baboons Microsphere trapping Ref. 80
5.7 Human (leg) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 97

5.0 Human (leg) Skin temperature Ref. 73
Spleen 198.0 Sheep Microsphere trapping Ref. 84

Stomach 54.0 Dogs 42 K clearance Ref. 60
123.6 Dogs 86 Rb clearance Ref. 89
Testicles 22.8 Dogs 133 Xe clearance Ref. 98
(a) All measurements were made in-vitro. In Linzell et al.,51 the mammary gland was sep-
arated from the body.
(b) Value for supine position adjusted to estimate for standing position using information
provided that such a change causes a 21% decrease.
(c) Referenced by Shinaberger and Bruner.87
(d) Average value over the range from 0.1 for isthmus to 7.l ml/min/100 g for superficialis,
in the canine flexor tendons.
(e) Average of the left (around 145 ml/min/100 g), right (90 ml/min/100 g), and cardiac
(130 ml/min/100 g) ventricles.
7. Water Content, w
The sources of data for w are presented in Table 6.
The determination of water content was made through the comparison of the
dry weight and wet weight throughout all references when stated. The measurement
method was not clearly stated in Forbes et al.,99,100 Mitchell et al.,101 Neufeld,102
Poppendiek et al.,8 and Thornton et al.103 From Ohkuda et al.104 we use the data
provided where blood is still present. Woodward and White10 is discussed above.
The books by Best and Taylor74 and Moses and Hart105 do not directly discuss
measurement techniques and data were only used where no other data are available.
This is similarly the case for Cate106 who gives a value of 4% for combined water
content and protein of teeth enamel, which we have halved.
Data were not available for some tissues with bladder assigned the properties of
muscle,10 and dura that of ligament/tendons.49
Table 6. Values and references for water content,w a .
Tissue Value (%) Sourceb Reference

Bile 97.5% Ref. 74
Blood 79.0% Ref. 102
80.4% Ref. 104
78.5% Ref. 8
Blood vessel 72.0% Ref. 10
Bone — cancellous 30.0% Ref. 74
53.5% Dogs Ref. 38
Bone — cortical 21.7% Dogs Ref. 38
12.0% Ref. 10
Bone marrow — red 40.0% Ref. 10
Bone marrow — yellow 15.0% Ref. 10
Brain — average 78.0% Ref. 35

75.0% Ref. 99
73.3% Ref. 101

77.7% Bovine Ref. 8
Brain — cerebellum 79.0% Ref. 102
Brain — grey matter 83.0% Ref. 35
Brain — white matter 71.0% Ref. 35
Breast — gland 51.0% Ref. 10
Cartilage 78.6% Patella Ref. 107
66.2% Femoral heads Ref. 108
75.0% Ref. 10
Eye — cornea 77.5% Ref. 105
Eye — lens 66.0% Ref. 105
Eye — vitreous humor 99.7% Bovine Ref. 8
Fat 20.0% Refs. 99 and 100
20.0% Bovine Ref. 8
Gall bladder 81.5% Ref. 102
Glands — adrenal 75.7% Ref. 31
64.1% Ref. 102
Glands — pituitary 80.4% Ref. 102
Glands — thyroid 77.3% Ref. 102
Intestine — large 80.0% Refs. 99 and 100
79.1% Ref. 101
72.7% Ref. 102
Intestine — small 79.1% Ref. 101
71.0% Ref. 102
80.0% Refs. 99 and 100
Kidneys 86.6% Ref. 31
84.0% Ref. 35
74.0% Refs. 99 and 100
79.5% Ref. 101
73.4% Ref. 102
76.4% Bovine Ref. 8
Ligaments/tendons 67.5% Rabbits Ref. 103
Liver 81.9% Ref. 31
77.0% Ref. 35
73.0% Refs. 99 and 100
71.5% Ref. 101
75.0% Ref. 102
72.2% Bovine Ref. 8
Tissue Value (%) Sourceb Reference

Lung 84.4% Ref. 31
76.0% Refs. 99 and 100
83.7% Ref. 101
81.3% Ref. 102
83.0% Ref. 104
Lymph nodes 92.0% Ref. 10
Muscle — cardiac 85.9% Ref. 31
81.0% Ref. 35
69.0% Refs. 99 and 100
73.7% Ref. 101
77.3% Ref. 102
Muscle — skeletal 72.0% Refs. 99 and 100

79.5% Ref. 101
70.8% Ref. 102

76.2% Bovine Ref. 8
Nerve — spine 77.0% Refs. 99 and 100
73.3% Ref. 101
Pancreas 75.6% Ref. 31
73.0% Refs. 99 and 100
73.1% Ref. 101
70.8% Ref. 102
Skin 61.0% Refs. 99 and 100
64.7% Ref. 101
Spleen 85.7% Ref. 31
80.0% Ref. 35
79.0% Refs. 99 and 100
78.7% Ref. 101
78.7% Ref. 102
Stomach 86.7% Ref. 31
80.0% Refs. 99 and 100
79.1% Ref. 101
76.2% Ref. 102
Testicles 84.0% Ref. 102
Tooth — dentine 11.5% Ref. 109
Tooth — enamel 2.0% Ref. 106
Tooth — whole 8.0% Refs. 99 and 100
10.9% Ref. 109
Urine 96.0% Ref. 10
Uterus 79.9% Ref. 102
(a) All measurements were made in-vitro.

(b) Human tissue unless stated otherwise. Specific locations are
given as necessary.
8. Use of Water Content to Determine Thermal Properties

Estimation of values of the specific heat capacity, c, and the thermal conductivity,
k, were also obtained through information on the water content, w (as a %), of a
tissue.
Duck5 discusses how many authors have recognized a close linear relationship
between the thermal conductivity and the water content. These authors include
Spells,30 Cooper and Trezek,35 and Poppendiek et al.8 The formula presented in
Cooper and Trezek35 is k = 0.0502 + 0.00577 · w (W/(m · ◦ C)) and is used in
the database for tissues with a water content higher than that of fat. That such a
relationship applies to fat (with relatively low water content) is discussed in Spells.30
This was not found to be the case here where the estimated value of k for fat (0.165
(W/(m · ◦ C))) was 20% lower than the average value presented in Table 1.
A similar discussion is presented on specific heat capacity by Duck5 (who quotes
Cooper and Trezek35 and Riedel110,111 ). The formula presented is c = 1670+25.1·w
and is used here for tissues with a water content higher than that of fat.
These estimated values were also included in Table 1 for some tissues due to
the scarcity of data (see Tables 2 and 3). The values were found to be of good
consistency with measured values when available. The formulas were not used for
bile, blood, urine, lymph nodes, the lens and vitreous humor of the eye, and the
lung, due to the low water content or different physiological structure of the tissue
compared to the main tissue types.
9. Use of Blood Perfusion and Oxygen Consumption to Determine

Metabolic Heat Production, A0
Papers such as Gordon et al.112 and Bernardi et al.3 note that only a few values are
available on the metabolic heat production of tissues, A0 , and make use of the cor-
relation between A0 and blood perfusion. Gordon et al.112 give such a relationship
(0.222 cal/ml, the ratio for the whole body and used for “core” material) which has
been employed here for the majority of tissues. Once A0 has been determined for
each tissue in units of cal/min/100 g (using blood perfusion values from Table 5),
it is then easily converted to units of W/m3 (using density values from Table 4).
There is a closer relationship between A0 and oxygen consumption, and the
values for A0 have been refined when oxygen consumption data is available (see
the discussion in Gordon et al.112 ). Such values are listed in Bard113 for brain,
skin, skeletal and cardiac muscle, kidney, liver and the whole body average, and
Scheinburg et al.71 for brain. The relationship between A0 and oxygen consumption
for the brain is similar in the two references. For these tissues, the ratio between
oxygen consumption and A0 was compared to the ratio for the whole body, and the
A0 values were adjusted accordingly. Using liver tissue as an example, in Bard113
(Table 6) the ratio of oxygen consumption to blood flow is 0.035, which is 74.5%
of the value of 0.047 for the whole body. The scale factor to covert m to A0 for
the liver is then set in our determinations to 0.222 cal/ml ×74.5% = 0.166 cal/ml.
Other modified scaling factors are brain (all components): 0.292 cal/ml; kidneys:
0.068 cal/ml; cardiac muscle: 0.551 cal/ml; skeletal muscle: 0.354 cal/ml; and skin:
0.112 cal/ml.
10. Other Tissues

Woodward and White10 suggest that skeletal muscle is a suitable proxy for the
esophagus, and suggest the trachea can be considered to be comprised of 90%
muscle and 10% cartilage, by mass. Erdmann and Goss6 provide measurements
for the density of the esophagus (1189 kg/m3 ), trachea cartilage (1212 kg/m3 ), and
trachea membrane (1175 kg/m3 ).
For the eye, Alm and Bill61 measure the blood flow for the tissues in the
eye including the ciliary body (150 g/min/100 g) and the iris (56 g/min/100 g).
Demarco et al.114 argue that the histology of the retina is similar to that of gray
matter, and the optic nerves that of white matter.
For mucosa, Rayner et al.69 provide measurements for dog ileum mucosa with
a blood flow of 34.5 ml/min/100 g and a water content between 75 to 85%. Hales84
measured the blood flow in nasal mucosa (27 ml/min/100 g) in sheep. Delaney
and Grim60 discuss how the blood flow values for the stomach (54 ml/min/100 g)
are distributed between antrum (30 ml/min/100 g) and corpus (61 ml/min/100 g),
and the corpus is distributed between mucosa (91 ml/min/100 g), submucosa
(42 ml/min/100 g), and muscularis (26 ml/min/100 g).
The blood flow in the prostate gland was measured by Andersson et al.115 using
dogs and indicated it is in the range 31 to 79 ml/min/100 g.
11. Conclusions
A comprehensive database has been developed for the thermal properties (c, k,
m, A0 and ρ), of biological tissues represented in the numerical modeling of heat
transfer in the human body, as well as water content. This resource is offered to the
biological thermal modeling community to help improve the accuracy and consis-
tency of published results. A key objective of the development process has been to
only source original measured values to ensure high integrity of the database. An
estimate for the range of a tissue’s property has been obtained in many cases.
The listing of data in Table 1 and the discussion throughout the paper highlight
the numerous tissues where data are scarce and where further measurements of their
thermal properties would be useful. In order to provide a comprehensive property
dataset for all tissues, we have nominated values for the data gaps using proxy
calculations based on tissue water content or by assigning values based on tissues
with similar histologies.
Acknowledgments
We would very much like to thank Joanne Cohen, our Information Officer, for
sourcing many of the papers, and performing extensive literature searches for us.
The grant sponsor was The Mobile Manufacturers Forum and the GSM Associ-
ation under Work Package 4 of the RF Dosimetry Program. The views expressed in
the paper are those of the authors and may not represent the views of the sponsors.
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October 8, 2010 8:38 WSPC/S1793-0480 204-BRL S1793048010001184

Biophysical Reviews and Letters

A COMPREHENSIVE TISSUE PROPERTIES DATABASE

Australian Centre for Radiofrequency Bioeﬀects Research

Received 23 June 2010

Keywords: Tissue thermal properties; Pennes bio-heat equation; numerical modeling;

130 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

2. The Tissue Thermal Properties Database

Table 1. Summary of the data collection of tissue thermal properties.

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided

Table 1. (Continued ) 132

(a) Avg is the average value of the n data values obtained.

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 133

3. Specific Heat Capacity, c

134 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

instrument (a diﬀerential scanning calorimeter (DSC)) was used in Gieringa et al.23

Table 2. Values and references for speciﬁc heat capacity, ca .

Tissue Value (J/(kg · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 135

Tissue Value (J/(kg · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Pancreas 2822 Ref. 19

Skin 3250 water % formula Ref. 5

136 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

Table 3. Values and references for thermal conductivity,k a .

Tissue Value (W/(m · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

Bladder 0.481 water % formula Ref. 35

Blood 0.488 Ref. 4

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 137

Tissue Value (W/(m · ◦ C)) Sourceb Reference

138 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

remaining references were not clearly stated.

Table 4. Values and references for density, ρa .

Tissue Value (kg/m3 ) Sourceb Reference

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 139

Tissue Value (kg/m3 ) Sourceb Reference

Fat 930 Ref. 44

140 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

Tissue Value (kg/m3 ) Sourceb Reference

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 141

radioactivity of the tissues under investigation is measured. A required assumption

Table 5. Values and references for blood ﬂow,ma .

Tissue Value Source Method Reference

142 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

Tissue Value Source Method Reference

Cartilage 3.5 Pigs Microsphere trapping Ref. 82

Fat 2.1 Human 85 Kr clearance Ref. 58

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 143

Tissue Value Source Method Reference

5.7 Human (leg) 133 Xe clearance Ref. 97

Spleen 198.0 Sheep Microsphere trapping Ref. 84

144 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson

Table 6. Values and references for water content,w a .

Tissue Value (%) Sourceb Reference

Brain — average 78.0% Ref. 35

73.3% Ref. 101

A Comprehensive Tissue Properties Database Provided 145

Tissue Value (%) Sourceb Reference

Muscle — skeletal 72.0% Refs. 99 and 100

70.8% Ref. 102

(a) All measurements were made in-vitro.

8. Use of Water Content to Determine Thermal Properties

146 R. L. McIntosh & V. Anderson