TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

TEMPERATURE

➢ To know that a person has a fever, his or her temperature should be measured since temperature is the
degree of hotness or coldness of an object.
Thermometer
➢ The instrument used to measure temperature is the thermometer.
➢ Materials used in a thermometer have properties that change with temperature. These properties are
called thermometric properties.
➢ Some physical properties that change with temperature are
o the volume of a liquid,
o the dimensions of a solid,
o the pressure of a gas at constant volume,
o the volume of a gas at constant pressure,
o the electric resistance of a conductor, and
o the color of an object.
➢ There are different kinds of thermometers, but the most common consists of mercury or alcohol dyed
red enclosed with glass tube. As temperature increases, the volume of mercury or alcohol increases.
Nowadays, a digital thermometer is already used.
➢ Thermocouple
o a thermometer used extensively in
scientific laboratories
o consists of thin wires of different metals,
welded together at the ends to form two
junctions
o generates voltage that depends on the
difference in temperature between two
junctions
o The voltage is the thermometric property
and is measured by a voltmeter.
o used to measure temperatures as high as
2300°C or as low as -270°C
➢ Electrical resistance thermometers
o often made from platinum wire because
platinum has an excellent mechanical
and electrical properties in the temperature range from -270°C to 700°C
o electrical resistance of platinum wire is known as a function of temperature

➢ Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer

o the gas volume is kept constant, and change in gas pressure
is used to measure a change in temperature
o the measured temperatures agree closely even far from the
calibration points, above 100°C and below 0°C
o in every case, the pressure is zero when the temperature is -
273.15°C.

Temperature Scales
There are different temperature scales. The most common and widely used
are the Celsius scale (Centigrade), the Fahrenheit scale. However, the most significant is the Kelvin scale.
Another temperature scale is the Rankine.

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THE KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE
➢ introduced by the Scottish Physicist William Thompson (Lord Kelvin, 1824 – 1907)
➢ SI Unit for temperature
➢ From the constant-volume gas thermometer measurement that in every case, the pressure is zero when
the temperature is -273.15°C. This is used as the basis for the absolute temperature scale, which sets -
273.15°C, as its zero point. This temperature is often referred to as absolute zero.
➢ Because the ice and steam points are experimentally difficult to duplicate, an absolute temperature
scale based on two new fixed points was adopted in 1954 by the International Committee on Weights
and Measures.
o The first point is absolute zero.
o The second reference temperature for this new scale was chosen as the triple point of water,
which is the single combination of temperature and pressure at which liquid water, gaseous
water, and ice (solid water) coexist in equilibrium. This triple point occurs at a temperature of
0.01°C and a pressure of 4.58 mm Hg. The temperature of water at the triple point was set at
273.16 kelvins, abbreviated
273.16 K.

Temperature Scale Freezing (ice) point of Boiling (steam) point of Change in Temperature
water water Δ𝑇 = 𝐵. 𝑃. −𝐹. 𝑃.
Celsius (°C) 0.0°C 100.0°C 100𝐶°
Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F 180𝐹°
Kelvin (K) 273.15 K 373.15 K 100 K
Rankine (°R) 491.67°R 671.17°R 180𝑅°

There is a subtle difference in the way the temperature of an object is reported, as compared to a change in its
temperature. For example, the temperature of the human body is about 37 °𝐶, where the symbol °𝐶 stands for
“degrees Celsius.” However, the change between two temperatures is specified in “Celsius degrees” (𝐶°)—not
in “degrees Celsius.” Thus, if the body temperature rises to 39 °𝐶, the change in temperature is 2 Celsius degrees
or 2 𝐶°, not 2 °𝐶.

Looking at the change in temperature for the boiling and freezing point of water, we can see that
5 𝐶°/ 9 𝐹° (For every 5 Celsius degree change, there is 9 Fahrenheit degree change)
1 𝐶°/ 1 𝐾
5 𝐶°/ 9 𝑅°
1 𝐹°/ 1 𝑅°

Converting one Temperature Scale into another

• Celsius scale to Fahrenheit scale
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32
5
• Fahrenheit scale to Celsius scale
5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 − 32)
9
• Celsius scale to Kelvin scale
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
• Rankine to Celsius
9
𝑇𝑅 = (𝑇𝐶 + 273.15)
5
• Rankine to Fahrenheit
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐹 + 459.67

Example 1: Converting from a Fahrenheit to a Celsius Temperature

A healthy person has an oral temperature of 98.6 0F. What would this reading be on the Celsius
scale?
Reasoning and Solution:
5
We can directly use the formula 𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 − 32).
9

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 5 5
𝑇𝐶 = (98.6 − 32) = (66.6) = 37.0 °𝐶
9 9

Or we can use the relationship of the changes in temperature for each temperature scale.

A temperature of 98.6 °F is 66.6 Fahrenheit degrees above the ice point of 32.0 °F. Since 1 C° = F°, the
difference of 66.6 F° is equivalent to
5 𝐶°
(66.6 𝐹°) ( ) = 37.0 𝐶°
9𝐹°
Thus, the person’s temperature is 37.0 Celsius degrees above the ice point. Adding 37.0 Celsius
degrees to the ice point of 0 °C on the Celsius scale gives a Celsius temperature of 37.0° Celsius.

Example 2. Converting from a Celsius to a Fahrenheit Temperature

A time and temperature sign on a bank indicates that the outdoor temperature is -- 20.0 °C. Find
the corresponding temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.

Reasoning and Solution

9
We can directly use the formula 𝑇𝐹 = (𝑇𝐶 ) + 32.
5
9 9
𝑇𝐹 = (𝑇𝐶 ) + 32 = (−20.0°𝐶) + 32 = −4.0 °𝐹
5 5
Or we can use the relationship of the changes in temperature for each temperature scale.
The temperature of --20.0 °C is 20.0 Celsius degrees below the ice point of 0 °C. This number of Celsius
degrees corresponds to
9 𝐹°
(20𝐶°) ( ) = 36.0 𝐹°
5 𝐶°
The temperature, then, is 36.0 Fahrenheit degrees below the ice point. Subtracting 36.0 Fahrenheit degrees
from the ice point of 32.0 °F on the Fahrenheit scale gives a Fahrenheit temperature of −4.0 °𝐹 .

THERMAL EXPANSION
➢ Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average separation between the atoms in
an object.
➢ Most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.
➢ Linear Thermal Expansion of solid
o increase in any one dimension of a solid when it is subject to change in temperature
o The length L0 of an object changes by an amount ΔL when its temperature changes by an
amount ΔT:
∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿0 𝛥𝑇
where 𝛼 is the coefficient of linear expansion which has a common unit 1/C°.
o When solids cannot freely expand, they experience thermal stress.
𝐹 𝛥𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 𝑌
𝐴 𝐿0
where Y is the Young’s modulus.
SMART Q-Time! The Expansion of Holes
An interesting example of linear expansion occurs when there is a hole in a piece of solid
material. We know that the material itself expands when heated, but what about the hole?
Does it expand, contract, or remain the same?

Answer: A hole in a piece of solid material expands when heated and contracts when cooled,
just as if it were filled with the material that surrounds it.

Example: A gold engagement ring has an inner diameter of 1.5 × 10−2 𝑚 and a temperature of 27 °C.
The ring falls into a sink of hot water whose temperature is 49 °C. What is the change in the diameter of
the hole in the ring?
Reasoning The hole expands as if it were filled with gold, so the change in the diameter is given by Δ𝑳 =
𝛼𝑳0 Δ𝑻, where 𝛼 = 14 × 10−6 /𝐶° is the coefficient of linear expansion for gold, L0 is the original diameter,
and T is the change in temperature.
Solution The change in the ring’s diameter is
Heat and Thermodynamics | Prepared by CLSU – DMP
 Δ𝑳 = 𝛼𝑳0 Δ𝑻 = (14 × 10−6 /𝐶°)(1.5 × 10−2 m)(49 °C − 27 °C)
ΔL = (14 × 10−6 /𝐶°)(1.5 × 10−2 m)(22 C°) = 4.6 × 10−6 m

➢ Area Thermal Expansion of solid

o The area A0 of an object changes by an amount ΔA when its temperature changes by an
amount ΔT:
∆𝐴 = γ𝐴0 𝛥𝑇
o where 𝛾 is the coefficient of area expansion which has a common unit 1/C° and is equal to
2𝛼.

➢ Volume Thermal Expansion

o The volume of a normal materials increases when heated and decreases when cooled. Most
solids and liquids behave this way.
o The volume V0 of an object changes by an amount ΔV when its temperature changes by an
amount ΔT:
∆𝑉 = β𝑉0 𝛥𝑇
o where β is the coefficient of volume expansion which has a common unit 1/C° and is equal
to 3a.

SMART Q-Time! What is the anomalous expansion of water?

Thermal Equilibrium

➢ Two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each other if they do not exchange energy when in thermal
contact.

HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY

HEAT
• an energy that flows from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower one
• SI Unit: joule (J)
• Other unit: calorie (cal); 1 cal = 4.186 joules
Effects of Heat: Change in Temperature, change in size and change in phase.
INTERNAL ENERGY
• sum of all the molecular kinetic energy, molecular potential energy and other molecular energies of a
substance
Note: It is not right to say that an object or substance has heat, instead it has internal energy.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGE

• To raise the temperature of solids or liquids to a higher value requires greater amounts of heat.
• HEAT SUPPLIED OR REMOVED IN CHANGING THE TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE
• The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to change the temperature of a substance of mass m by
an amount of ΔT is
Q = mc∆T
where c is the specific heat capacity of a substance.
➢ Δ𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
➢ Common Unit for specific heat capacity: 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝐶°
➢ The specific heat capacity depends on the nature of a material
➢ For gases, the value of the specific heat capacity depends whether the pressure of volume is held
constant while energy in the form of heat added to or removed from a substance.

CALORIMETRY
• When materials are placed in thermal contact within a perfectly insulated container, the principle of
energy conservation requires that the heat lost by warmer materials equals heat gained by cooler
materials. The exchange of energy is the basis for a technique known as calorimetry, which is the
quantitative measurement of heat exchange. To make such measurements, a calorimeter is used.
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 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 0

|Qgained | = |Qlost |

HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE: LATENT HEAT

• The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to change the phase of a mass m of a substance is
Q = ±mL
where L is the latent heat of the substance.
• SI Unit of Latent Heat: J/kg
• The latent heat of fusion Lf refers to the change between solid and liquid phases, the latent heat of
vaporization Lv applies to the change between liquid and gas phases, and the latent heat of sublimation Ls
refers to the change between solid and gas phases. The latent heat is positive when the object gained
heat while it undergoes phase change and negative when it lost heat.

HEAT TRANSFER
• When heat is transferred to or from a substance, the internal energy of the substance can change and this
change is accompanied by a change in temperature or a change in phase.
• Heat is transferred in three different ways: by conduction, convection, radiation.
1. Conduction
• Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through a material, any bulk motion of
the material playing no role in the transfer.
• Heat conduction from one point to another takes place only if there is a difference in temperature
between two points.
• One mechanism for conduction occurs when the atoms or molecules in a hotter part of a material
vibrate or move with the greater energy than those in cooler part. By means collisions, the more
energetic molecules pass on some of their energy to their less energetic neighbors.
• A similar mechanism for the conduction of heat occurs in metals. Metals have free electrons that can
transport energy and allow metals to transfer heat very well.
o Thermal conductors
▪ materials that conduct heat well
o Thermal insulators
▪ materials that conduct heat poorly
• Conduction of Heat Through A Material
o The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar length L and cross-sectional area A is
(kA∆T)t
Q=
L
where ΔT is the temperature difference between the ends of the bar, k is the thermal
conductivity of the material.
o SI Unit of thermal conductivity: 𝐽/(𝑠 · 𝑚 · 𝐶°)
2. Convection
• Convection is the process in which heat is carried from a place to place by the bulk movement of fluid.
• During natural convection, the warmer, less dense part of a fluid is pushed upward by the buoyant
force provided by the surrounding cooler and denser part. Forced convection occurs when the
external device, such as a fan or a pump, causes the fluid to move.

3. Radiation
• Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves.
• All objects, regardless of their temperatures, simultaneously absorb and emit EM waves.
• STEFAN – BOLTZMANN LAW OF RADIATION
o The radiation energy Q, emitted in time t by an object that has a Kelvin temperature T, a surface
area A, and an emissivity e, is given by
Q = eσT 4 tAcosθ
where σ is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant and has a value of 5.67 × 10−8 𝐽/(𝑠 · 𝑚2 · 𝐾 4 )

Heat and Thermodynamics | Prepared by CLSU – DMP

A body that is a good absorber of radiation must also be a good emitter. An ideal radiator, (e=1), is also an
ideal absorber, absorbing all the radiation that strikes it. Ideal radiator is called a blackbody.

An ideal reflector, which absorbs no radiation at all, is also a very ineffective radiator.

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