Design and performance analysis of a solar-powered

thermoacoustic engine

by

Sibutha Sphumelele

A Final Report submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering Technology Honours –

BEngTech Honours

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

in the

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: Prof. L.K Tartibu

CO-SUPERVISOR: Mr. M. Ngcukayithobi

13 November 2020

Copyright © University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Printed and published by the University of Johannesburg
 Abstract
Concerns over the adverse impacts of engine emissions on the environment have
motivated researchers to investigate alternative approaches to producing clean, cost
effective, and sustainable energy. Thermoacoustic technology is one of the promising
approaches that have the potential to produce power without negatively impacting the
environment. This technology makes effective use of heat energy to produce
mechanical energy in form of sound waves. A heating and cooling source is supplied
to the system to generate the required temperature gradient. In this study an
experimental investigation of the effect of input power on the temperature difference
across the regenerator of a travelling wave engine was conducted. The results
obtained from the experiment were analysed and used and used to get an insight into a
design of a new model of thermoacoustic engine. This study presents the design of
single stage travelling wave thermoacoustic engine that utilizes solar energy as a
source of power. The Design Environmental for Low-amplitude Thermoacoustic
Energy Conversion (DeltaEC) software was used to simulate the proposed design
model and the obtained results were analysed.
 Acknowledgements
This research project represents a significant personal achievement, and it is the final
objective to complete one of the most difficult goals I have ever pursued. Through
this research, I have gained valuable skills and deepened my knowledge in areas that I
find both interesting and important. I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. L.
Tartibu and my co-supervisor Mr M. Ngcukayithobi for their commitment to my
success and encouragement in times of doubt. Additionally, the completion of this
degree could not have been achieved without the support of my friends and family. I
will always be grateful for the opportunities and blessings that have been granted to
me.
 Table of Contents
Abstract..........................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................iii
List of symbols and abbreviations...............................................................................vii
List of figures..............................................................................................................viii
List of tables..................................................................................................................ix
1. Introduction............................................................................................................1
1.1 Thermo-acoustics............................................................................................1
1.2 Thermo-acoustics technical background.........................................................2
1.2.1 Acoustics..................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Thermo-acoustics.....................................................................................3
1.3 Problem statement...........................................................................................6
1.4 Objectives........................................................................................................6
1.5 Design constraints...........................................................................................6
1.6 User requirements............................................................................................6
2. Literature review of thermoacoustic devices.........................................................7
3. Experimental investigation of TAE.....................................................................10
3.1 Objectives......................................................................................................10
3.2 TAE engine setup..........................................................................................10
3.2.1 Single stage travelling TAE...................................................................10
3.2.2 Two stage travelling wave TAE.............................................................11
3.3 Experimental quipment.................................................................................12
3.4 Experimental methodology...........................................................................12
3.5 Experimental observations............................................................................12
3.5.1 Single stage configuration observations.................................................12
3.5.2 Two stage configuration observation.....................................................13
3.6 Results and discussin.....................................................................................13
3.6.1 Single stage travelling wave TAE..........................................................13
3.6.2 Two-stage travelling thermoacoustic engine.........................................15
3.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................16
4. Functional analysis...............................................................................................17
4.1 Functional analysis of design parameters......................................................17
4.1.1 Mean pressure and working fluid...........................................................17
4.1.2 Operational frequency............................................................................17
4.1.3 Thermal penetration depth.....................................................................18
4.1.4 Viscous penetration depth......................................................................18
4.2 Functional analysis of design components....................................................18
4.2.1 Hot and Cold heat exchanger.................................................................19
4.2.2 Regenerator............................................................................................20
4.2.3 Piping network.......................................................................................21
5. Technical specifications.......................................................................................22
5.1.1 Working fluid.........................................................................................22
 5.1.2 Mean pressure........................................................................................22
5.1.3 Power heat source..................................................................................23
5.1.4 Heat source.............................................................................................23
6. Concepts...............................................................................................................24
6.1 Concept 1.......................................................................................................24
6.2 Concept 2.......................................................................................................25
6.3 Concept selection...........................................................................................26
7. Description of the final design.............................................................................27
7.1 Cold heat exchanger......................................................................................28
7.2 Regenerator....................................................................................................29
7.3 Hot heat exchanger........................................................................................30
7.4 Secondary cold heat exchanger.....................................................................31
7.5 Regenerator housing......................................................................................31
7.5.1 Expander/ reducer..................................................................................32
7.6 Feedback piping.............................................................................................33
8. Design modelling and analysis.............................................................................33
8.1 Calculations...................................................................................................33
8.2 DeltaEC.........................................................................................................34
8.3 Analysis of results.........................................................................................35
9. Manufacturing analysis........................................................................................37
10. Maintenance analysis........................................................................................37
11. Cost analysis......................................................................................................37
12. Impact of design................................................................................................38
12.1 Certification requirements.............................................................................38
12.2 Healthy and Safety........................................................................................38
12.3 Social.............................................................................................................39
12.4 Environment..................................................................................................39
13. Conclusion.........................................................................................................40
13.1 Recommendations.........................................................................................40
14. References / Bibliography.................................................................................41
15. Manufacturing drawings...................................................................................44
16. Appendices........................................................................................................53
16.1 Appendix 1: DeltaEC model parameters.......................................................53
16.2 Appendice 2: Graduate attributes..................................................................60
16.3 APPENDIX 2.1: Application of scientific and engineering knowledge:
Graduate attribute 2 rubrics......................................................................................61
16.4 APPENDIX 2.2: Engineering design: Graduate attribute 3 rubrics..............64
16.5 APPENDIX 2.3: Investigations, experiments and data analysis: Graduate
attribute 4 rubrics.....................................................................................................68
16.6 APPENDIX 2.3: Sustainability and Impact of Engineering Activity:
Graduate attribute 7 rubrics......................................................................................72
16.7 APPENDIX 2.4: Independent Learning: Graduate attribute 9 rubrics..........75
16.8 APPENDIX 2.5: Engineering Professionalism: Graduate attribute 10 rubrics
78
 List of symbols and abbreviations
Greek letters
Symbol Description Unit

δ Penetration depth [m]

ρ Density [kg/m 3 ]
φ Volumetric porosity
k Thermal diffusivity [m 3 /s]
υ Kinematic viscosity [m 2 /s]
μ Dynamic viscosity [kg/m.s]
λ Acoustic wavelength [m]
ω Angular frequency [rad/s]
α Absorptivity
ϒ Ratio of specific heat
𝛿𝑘 Thermal penetration depth [m]
𝛿𝑣 Viscous penetration depth [m]
ρm Mean density [kg/m 3 ]

Latin letters
Symbol Description Unit
A Cross-sectional area [m 2 ]
a Speed of sound [m/s]
ƒ Oscillation frequency [Hz]
P Pressure [pa]
d Diameter [m]
L Length [m]
D Depth [m]
Ԛ Heat [J]
rh Hydraulic radius [m]
R Gas constant [J/kg.k]
T Temperature [K or ºC]
t Time [s]
m Mass [Kg]
Pr Prandtl number
K Thermal conductivity [W/m.k]
m Number of wires per unit length [Wires/m]
𝑞̇ heat transfer per unit surface area [W/m2]
𝑄̇ Rate of heat transfer [W]
rh Hydraulic radius [m]
V Volume [m3]
Ẇ Acoustic energy flow [w]
TH Temperature of XXH [K or ºC]
Tm Mean temperature [K or ºC]
Tc Temperature of CHH [K or ºC]
CP Specific heat capacity [J/K]
∆𝑡𝑚 Mean temperature difference [ K or ºC]
 List of figures
FIGURE 1.1: TYPICAL ACOUSTIC; (A) STANDING ,AND (B) TRAVELLING WAVEFORM
(ADOPTED FROM [14])............................................................................................4
FIGURE 1.2: STIRLING-LIKE THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS EXPERIENCED BY THE
WORKING FLUID WITHIN THE THERMOACOUSTIC TRAVELLING WAVE ENGINE

CORE (ADOPTED FROM [8])....................................................................................4

FIGURE 1.3: THERMOACOUSTIC CONVERSION PROCESS - (A) PRIME MOVER, AND (B)
HEAT PUMP (ADOPTED FROM [3].............................................................................5
FIGURE 2.1MODERN STANDING WAVE ENGINE SCHEMATIC ( ADOPTED FOR [10]).......7
FIGURE 3.1: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR A SINGLE STAGE TRAVELLING WAVE TAE...11
FIGURE 3.2: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR A TWO STAGE TRAVELLING WAVE TAE.......11
FIGURE 3.3: TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE REGENERATOR........................14
FIGURE 3.4: ONSET TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AS A FUNCTION OF INPUT VOLTAGE.14
FIGURE 3.5: TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE REGENERATOR OF TWO-STAGE

TRAVELLING..........................................................................................................15

FIGURE 3.6: ONSET TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AS A FUNCTION INPUT POWER..........16

FIGURE 6.1: CONCEPT 1- BASED ON THE STERLING ENGINE........................................25
FIGURE 6.2: CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 2............................................................................26
FIGURE 7.1: FINAL DESIGN OF SINGLE STAGE TRAVELLING WAVE THERMOACOUSTIC
ENGINE..................................................................................................................28

FIGURE 7.2: DESIGN OF A PRIMARY COLD HEAT EXCHANGER.....................................29

FIGURE 7.3: HONEYCOMB CERAMIC REGENERATOR....................................................29
FIGURE 7.4: DESIGN OF THE HOT HEAT EXCHANGER...................................................30
FIGURE 7.5: DESIGN OF SECONDARY COLD HEAT EXCHANGER....................................31
FIGURE 7.6: DESIGN OF REGENERATOR HOUSING........................................................32
FIGURE 7.7: DESIGN OF REDUCER/EXPANDER..............................................................32
FIGURE 8.1: PRESSURE AMPLITUDE ALONG THE THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE...............36
FIGURE 8.2: ACOUSTIC POWER.....................................................................................36
FIGURE 8.3: PRESSURE AMPLITUDE AND VOLUMETRIC VELOCITY...............................37
List of tables
TABLE 2.1: THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE CORE PARAMETERS..........................................8
TABLE 3.1: EXPERIMENTAL READINGS OF SINGLE STAGE TRAVELLING WAVE TAE...12
TABLE 3.2: EXPERIMENTAL READINGS OF TWO STAGE TRAVELLING TAE..................13
TABLE 5.5.1: WOKING GAS PROPERTIES.......................................................................22
TABLE 5.2: MEAN PRESSURE SPECIFICATION...............................................................23
TABLE 6.1: PUGH SELECTION MATRIX..........................................................................27
TABLE 7.1: PROPERTIES OF HONEYCOMB CERAMIC REGENERATOR.............................30
TABLE 11.1: COST ANALYSIS.......................................................................................37
 1. Introduction
1.1 Thermo-acoustics
The global demand for energy has increased throughout history and is expected to
increase as the population grows. Coal and oil have been the world’s primary source
of energy but threatening environmental concerns and dwindling fossil fuels are
promoting a shift towards alternative energy sources [1]. Investments in renewable
energy sources have increased to reduce fossil fuel dependence, and a variety of fuel
sources are predicted to increase in the next 20 years to meet the growing energy
demand [2].

Greater reliability and efficient production can be achieved by implementing a diverse

portfolio of energy sources and a distributed energy network to meet growing energy
demand. Thermoacoustic power can play an important role in expanding the energy
source portfolio and aid in the solution of environmentally friendly energy production.
The field of thermo-acoustics attempts to define the interaction between acoustics and
thermodynamics. Thermoacoustic concepts can be applied to create devices capable
of electric power production and heat pumping applications. For example, a
thermoacoustic engine converts input heat into acoustic power, which can be further
converted into electrical power through the application of an acoustic-to-electric
power conversion device, such as linear alternators.

Thermoacoustic systems boast high reliability and reduced maintenance requirements

due to a lack of mechanical components. Thermoacoustic devices are solid-state
devices with an acoustic-to-electric conversion device as the only dynamic
component. They do not require lubricating fluids, nor considerable routine or
preventive maintenance efforts. The devices are self-starting, further improving
reliability. Thermoacoustic engines (TAE) can be designed for a variety of energy
sources, since the only requirement is a sufficient heat source, thus improving
application flexibility. For example, a thermoacoustic engine can utilize concentrated
solar or low-grade industrial waste heat if the heat exchangers are designed properly
[3, 4]. Construction does not require exotic materials, tight tolerances, nor critical
dimensions for successful operation [5]. System configuration and input energy

52
source determine the thermoacoustic function of the core as either a heat pump or
prime mover. But perhaps the most enticing characteristic of thermoacoustic devices
is the use of environmentally friendly working fluids, such as air or noble gases.
Thermoacoustic engines can be scaled to produce substantial amounts of acoustic
power and bi-directional turbine technology can convert these high levels of acoustic
power into electrical power [6].

1.1 Thermo-acoustics technical background

Several thermal and acoustic concepts need to be clarified prior to exploring detailed
thermoacoustic system design. Differentiation between standing wave and travelling
wave thermoacoustic properties are important to the development and analysis of
these thermoacoustic systems.

1.1.1 Acoustics
Sounds waves are physical waves in which a group of particles vibrate back and forth.
This wave requires a medium to propagate, typically air, and generates regions of
compression and refraction. As the acoustic energy propagates, velocity and pressure
oscillations are generated within the medium. Density and temperature oscillations
within the fluid are also produced under this acoustic excitation. In thermoacoustic
applications, the acoustic wave is considered to propagate in only one dimension,
longitudinally, and is termed a plane wave. The duct in which the plane wave is
propagating is assumed to have lateral dimensions much smaller than the wavelength
[10]. The acoustic wave has an associated wavelength, λ, and frequency of oscillation,
f, defined by the relationship

2 πa
ω=2 πf =
λ

where a is the speed of sound and ω is the angular frequency. The frequency and
wavelength of a sound wave’s pressure and velocity oscillations are identical [10].
This sound wave within the duct is further characterized by the associated pressure
and velocity amplitudes and phases. An acoustic wave propagating within a duct may
be classified as a travelling wave or standing wave, although a component of each is
present in most acoustic networks. A travelling wave is produced when a pure tone
acoustic wave propagates through an infinitely long duct without obstacles to cause
reflections. A travelling wave's nodes and antinodes appear to be moving or
"travelling" along the length of the duct over time. In contrast, a standing wave is
generated if the duct is finite in length, thereby creating a reflection when the
propagating wave meets the end of the duct. The reflected wave generates
constructive interference with the initial wave resulting in pressure and velocity
oscillations amplitudes nearly double the magnitude of the initial wave. A standing
wave will occur regardless if the end of the duct is open or closed [10]. The standing
wave’s node and antinodes appear to be stationary or “standing” along the length of
the duct over time. The length and end conditions of a duct determine the fundamental
wavelength of the acoustic wave. For a duct with finite length and both ends open or
closed, the acoustic wavelength will be double the length of the duct, 𝜆 = 2𝑑. For a
duct with finite length and one end open and the other end closed, the acoustic
wavelength is four times the length of the duct, 𝜆 = 4𝑑. For a continuously looped
duct of finite length, the acoustic wavelength is equal to the length of the duct, 𝜆 = 𝑑.

1.1.2 Thermo-acoustics
Thermoacoustic engines, or prime movers, convert heat into mechanical power by
forcing the working fluid to perform a continuous cycle of compression, heating,
expansion, and cooling, comparable to most heat engines [14]. These thermoacoustic
engines utilize acoustic energy to produce the pressure oscillations (compression and
expansion), and heat exchangers to provide the heating and cooling. Acoustic waves
are characterized by a sinusoidal oscillation of pressure and velocity for a gas parcel.
Acoustic standing wave pressure oscillations lag the velocity oscillations by 90°. This
phase lag results in the simultaneous occurrence of heating/cooling and
compression/expansion within a standing wave prime mover. The standing wave
thermoacoustic engine requires imperfect thermal contact to cause a 90° phase lag in
the heat transfer process [19]. This thermal lag results in decreased efficiency and
irreversibility [14]. A travelling wave device operates with the acoustic pressure and
velocity oscillations nearly in phase. High regenerator effectiveness, plus increases in
efficiency and reversibility can be achieved by a travelling wave thermoacoustic
engine with respect to a standing wave configuration. Figure 1.1 displays the
characteristics of standing and travelling acoustic waves.
 Figure 1.1: Typical acoustic; (a) standing ,and (b) travelling waveform (Adopted
from [14])

The core of a thermoacoustic engine is comprised of a regenerator located between a

cold and hot heat exchanger. The core provides acoustic power amplification by
executing a Stirling-like thermodynamic cycle, which converts heat into acoustic
power observed in Figure 1.2 [8].

Figure 1.2: Stirling-like thermodynamic process experienced by the working fluid within the
thermoacoustic travelling wave engine core (Adopted from [8])
The regenerator, a porous medium that is capable of heat exchange with the working
fluid and located between high and low-temperature regions, is the driving force of a
thermoacoustic engine. A steep temperature gradient is generated axially along the
length of the regenerator. A gas parcel in the regenerator experiences thermal
expansion as it is displaced toward the high-temperature region, and then thermal
contraction as it is displaced toward the low-temperature region. The acoustic wave
provides pressure/volume compression and expansion, as well as the displacement
towards the hot and cold regions of the regenerator's temperature gradient [8]. The
regenerator acts as several thin heat exchangers as the working fluid oscillates through
it. As mentioned before, a travelling wave thermoacoustic device is reversible. A
thermoacoustic prime mover, Figure 1.3a, accepts heat and produces an acoustic wave
that propagates through the cold heat exchanger, into the regenerator, and out of the
hot heat exchanger. In contrast, a thermoacoustic heat pump is supplied with an
acoustic wave to pump heat from the cold heat exchanger into the hot heat exchanger
to be expelled from the system, displayed in Figure 1.3b.

Figure 1.3: Thermoacoustic conversion process - (a) Prime mover, and (b) heat pump (adopted
from [3]

For a travelling wave engine, a feedback network connects the hot heat exchanger to
the cold heat exchanger via a continuous ducting network. An acoustic to electrical
conversion devices, such as a bi-directional turbine or linear alternator, can be
installed in the acoustic network to extract a portion of the acoustic power produced
by the core. The remaining acoustic power travels through the feedback piping
network and is directed back into the core for re-amplification. An increase in
acoustic volumetric velocity is produced by supplying acoustic power into a
regenerator containing a steep temperature gradient in the direction of acoustic wave
propagation [20].

1.2 Problem statement

Although the thermoacoustic engines pose a potential to revolutionise the energy
industry, there is still a huge demand to improve thermoacoustic technology to be
more useful, efficient and compete against the conventional engines. Currently, the
existing TAE designs suffer from low thermal efficiency. This is caused by sound
distortion and the viscous effect that takes place on the gas molecules within the
resonator and pores of the regenerator. The viscous losses due to viscous effect reduce
the total efficient that can be achieved by the engine. As results, it will not be worth it
to design engine that consumes twice or even more heat than conventional prototypes.
Therefore, focussing on efficiency will enable thermoacoustic engines to become the
future of energy-producing technology.
1.3 Objectives
This study is aiming at achieving the following three objectives.
 To conduct an experimental investigation of the effect of input power on the
temperature difference across the stack.
 To design a model of a solar-powered thermoacoustic engine (SPTAE).
 To simulate the proposed design model of SPTAE using DeltaEC and analyse
the results.

1.4 Design constraints

 Cost
 Time
 Engineering standards and codes
 Healthy, safety, economic, environmental,

1.5 User requirements

The product developed in this project is intended to be used for experimental
investigations of thermo-acoustics, it can be stored at laboratory. For any user, to
operate the product he or she will need electricity or sunlight as a source of energy
and cold water as a cooling source. The electrical energy can be harvested from the
sunlight using solar panels or other means of harvesting solar energy such as Fresnel
lens.

2. Literature review of thermoacoustic devices

This literature review aims to discuss the parametric study of thermo-acoustics and
design process that has been done to optimize the modern thermoacoustic engine
performance. It presents the most recent innovations and commercializing efforts
made on the field of thermo-acoustics and lastly, the scope of the present study.

The modern thermoacoustic engines use thermoacoustic concepts to generate acoustic

power from a heat source. A stack is placed between high and low-temperature heat
exchangers to produce a steep temperature gradient that converts heat into work in the
form of a standing wave [10]. This power can be converted into mechanical power
and then further converted into electrical power, typically through the application of a
piston and flywheel combination or linear alternator. The acoustic power generated
from the input heat could also be used to drive a thermoacoustic heat pump. A
schematic of a typical modern standing wave thermoacoustic engine is observed in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 2.4Modern standing wave engine schematic ( adopted for [10])

Wetzel and Herman worked on design optimization of thermoacoustic devices and

found that the performance of thermoacoustic devices depends on the core parameters
that can be divided into three groups as shown in table 1 [14]. The first group shown
in the first column includes geometrical parameters such as cross-sectional area, stack
length, stack porosity and stack centre position, etc. The second column shows
material-specific parameters such as working fluid, specific heat, mean density, speed
of sound, and thermal conductivity. The third column shows design requirements such
as heating power, mean pressure and frequency. These are the basic parameters that
one must take into consideration when designing a thermoacoustic engine.

Table 2.1: Thermoacoustic engine core parameters

Geometric Parameters Material specific parameters Design parameters
Stack length Working fluid Material Heating power
Stack center position properties properties Mean temperature
Porosity Thermal Mean density Mean pressure
Cross-sectional area conductivity Thermal Onset temperature
Heat exchangers dimensions Speed of sound conductivity Pressure amplitude
Dynamic Specific heat
Resonator dimensions Frequency
viscosity

Considering the importance of the onset temperature in designing a thermoacoustic engine.

Yu and Jaworski [15] studied numerically the onset temperature in various stack geometries
and discovered that the circular pores have the highest onset temperature, followed by parallel
plates and then pin arrays. They found that parallel plates have an optimum ratio of the
diameter of the hydraulic channel to a depth of the thermal expansion that leads to a minimum
onset temperature. They stated that depending on the stack position, ratio ranges from an
approximation of 1.6 to 3.5 at a stack location that gives minimum.

Arafa et al [16] conducted a research on the performance of standing waves engine.

Their research focused on the effects of porosity, stack length, and mean pressure to
the thermoacoustic engines that generate power using standing waves. Based on their
findings, they recommended that for an engine to perform efficiently and produce
sufficient power, inert gases with low Prandtl number and high speed of sound should
be used. They further suggested that to improve the low onset temperature, the engine
should be driven within an approximate range of 3 to 5 of the ratio of pore half-width
to thermal expansion depth.

Some of the most recent innovations and commercializing efforts of travelling wave
thermoacoustic technology have been pursued by Aster Thermo-acoustics located in
the Netherlands. Kees de Blok, of Aster Thermo-acoustics, developed a novel 4-stage
travelling wave thermoacoustic power generator in 2010 [18]. A multiple core/stage
thermoacoustic engine promotes greater power generation at lower operation
temperatures, and if design properly, an arbitrary number of core stages may be
inserted [18]. Aster has conducted research of bi-directional turbines for acoustic-to-
electric power conversion applications. Unlike linear alternators, bi-direction turbines
can be scaled to large sizes.

The scope of the present study will focus on the design process of thermoacoustic engine
model that can generate acoustic energy within the system, the conversion and
extraction of energy for powering external devices will be ignored.
 3. Experimental investigation of TAE

An experimental investigation of the behaviour of the temperature difference across

regenerator of a single stage and two stage travelling wave TAE and was conducted.
The influence of the supply on the onset temperature difference across the regenerator
was analysed. Thus, the TAE was supplied with different levels of supply voltage
ranging from 130 V to 170 V. The efficiency of the TAE was determined from the
temperature readings measured across the regenerator. The observed results from this
experimental investigation were utilised to get understanding on the design SPTAE.

3.1 Objectives
The objectives of this experiment were to:
 Measure the temperature difference across the regenerator for different levels
of supply voltage (input power).
 Investigate the influence of the supply voltage on the onset temperature.
 The effect of increasing the number stages on the onset temperature.
 Identify the onset temperature for each level of the supply voltage.

3.2 TAE engine setup

The experiment was set for a single stage travelling wave TAE and two stage
travelling TAE as shown in the section below.

3.2.1 Single stage travelling TAE

The experimental for a single stage thermoacoustic engine was setup as shown in
figure 3.1 below.
 Figure 3.5: Experimental setup for a single stage travelling wave TAE

3.2.2 Two stage travelling wave TAE

The experimental setup of the two-stage travelling wave TAE is shown in figure 3.2
below.

Figure 3.6: Experimental setup for a two stage travelling wave TAE
 3.3 Experimental quipment

A variable transformer was used to power to the system and a digital multi meter was
used to set up the voltage to the required voltage input. To monitor and measure the
temperature difference across the regenerator for both single-stage and two-stage, a
K-type of two thermocouples was inserted on the cold and hot and of the regenerator.
The thermocouples were then connected to the data acquisition device (DAQ) which
was in turn connected to the computer equipped with LabView 2014 software used
for signal processing and virtualisation. Each test was run until the engine reached a
steady state. A stopwatch was used to record the time taken by the engine to produce
sound. The recorded time, known as the onset-time was used to identify onset
temperature difference across the regenerator. Measurement of the temperature
difference was done on each end of the regenerator as it is this temperature difference
that is directly responsible for the acoustic output of the system.

3.4 Experimental methodology

Firstly, the cold water was supplied to cold heat exchangers for both single-stage and
two stage configurations. Then after, electrical power ranging from a minimum
voltage of 130V to maximum of 170 V was supplied to the system. The temperature
difference across the regenerator was measured using two thermocouples. To record
the measured temperature at a regular time interval, a data acquisition system was
setup to transform the signal into a virtual waveform at a time delay of 1s. Then, after
every 5 minutes the data recorded on LabView was exported to Microsoft Excel.

3.5 Experimental observations

The observed readings during the experiment were recorded as presented Tables
below for both single stage and two stage configurations.

3.5.1 Single stage configuration observations

The experimental readings recorded for a single stage travelling wave TAE are shown
in Table 3.1 below

Table 3.2: Experimental readings of single stage travelling wave TAE

Supply voltage (V) Onset time (Min: Sec) Onset temperature difference
 130 11:32 246.23
140 10:31 239.47
150 9:67 234.95
160 8:05 231.12
170 7:69 228.24

3.5.2 Two stage configuration observation

The experimental readings recorded for two stage travelling wave TAE are shown in
Table 3.2 below

Table 3.3: Experimental readings of two stage travelling TAE

Supply voltage (V) Onset time (Min: Sec) Onset temperature
difference (℃)
130 8:6 332.31
140 7:5 317.49
150 6:4 305.87
160 4:5 251.05
170 4:3 225.42

3.6 Results and discussin

The results obtained from the experiment are discussed below for both single and two
stage travelling wave TAE.

3.6.1 Single stage travelling wave TAE

When the supply voltage was set to be 170 V. The engine took 7.69 minutes to
generate sound, and at that, the onset temperature difference of 228.24 ℃ was
recorded. This temperature is defined as the minimum amount of temperature
difference across the regenerator required to be met for the engine to start producing
sound. At this temperature, sound waves propagating through the working fluid (air)
started transferring heat from the hot heat exchanger to the regenerator at a faster rate.
As results, the engine started producing self-sustained oscillations as the temperature
difference across the regenerator increased to reach the steady state. Figure 3.3 shows
the change of temperature difference across the regenerator as a function of time.
 T emp eratu re d ifferen ce across th e regen erator vs time
T-Cold T-Cold
500
450
400
Temperature (0C)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (min)

Figure 3.7: Temperature difference across the regenerator

During the experiment, it was observed that the engine responds differently to the
different supply voltages. When the voltage is increased from 130 V to 170V, the time
taken by the engine to generate sound decreases. It was also discovered that supply
voltage has a direct effect on the onset temperature difference. To graphical visualize
the behaviour of the onset temperature at different values for supply voltage, the plot
of the onset temperature as a function input voltage is shown in figure 3.4 below.

Onset tempereture difference against supply voltage

250

245
Onset temperature difference (0C)

240

235

230

225

220

215
120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Supply voltage (V)

Figure 3.8: Onset temperature difference as a function of input voltage

The graph above shows that the onset temperature difference decreases exponentially
when the supply voltage increases. This means the generation of sound is proportional
to the amount of power input. Therefore, increasing input will result to increased
thermoacoustic power.

3.6.2 Two-stage travelling thermoacoustic engine

During the experiment, a maximum supply voltage ranging from 130 V to 170 V was
supplied to heating cartridge heaters of the engine. It was observed, when the voltage
of 170 V was supplied to the two-stage engine, a sound was generated after 4 minutes
and 3 seconds. Comparing these results with the results obtained for a single-stage
travelling thermoacoustic engine, it is noticed that when the engine is operating with
many stages, it takes less time to reach the onset temperature difference than when
operating with a single stage engine.

To observe the behaviour of the temperature difference across, the graphical

presentation of the temperature difference at different levels of the supply voltage is
plotted as shown in figure 3.5 below.

T emp eratu re d ifferen ce across th e regen erator vs time

T-Cold T-Cold
700

600

500
Temperature (0C)

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (min)

Figure 3.9: Temperature difference across the regenerator of two-stage travelling

thermoacoustic engine
 Onset tempereture difference against supply voltage
350

330
Onset temperature difference (0C)

310

290

270

250

230

210
120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Supply voltage (V)

Figure 3.10: Onset temperature difference as a function input power

From the onset temperature difference graphical presentations above, it is observed

that the value of the onset temperature difference recorded from the two-stage engine
was is then the value of the onset temperature difference recorded from single-stage
engine experiment. Therefore, the two stage engine configuration takes less time to
produce sound than the single-stage engine.

3.7 Conclusion

In conclusion, the influence of the electrical heating power on the temperature

difference across the regenerator of a single-stage and two-stage engine was
investigated. The single-stage and two-stage engine reached a minimum onset
temperature of 228.24 ℃ and 225.42 ℃ respectively. It was observed that the onset
temperature decreases with an increase in supply voltage. This means that the engine
takes less time to reach the onset temperature when operating high levels of voltage
supply. The increase in the level of supply voltage resulted to an increase on the
sound generated across the regenerator.

4. Functional analysis

The functions of the operational characteristics and main components that make up a
typical Thermoacoustic Engine (TAE) was analysed The results obtained from this
section were used to get an insight into the dimensions and design parameters that are
required for designing the TAE.

4.1 Functional analysis of design parameters

The design of the thermoacoustic engine is made up of several key parameters

namely: working fluid, mean pressure, frequency, wavelength, thermal and viscous
penetration depth and major three components which include heat exchangers, stack
and acoustic network. The functional analysis of these elements provided below.

4.1.1 Mean pressure and working fluid

The mean pressure and working fluid have a strong influence on the design and
performance of the engine. A high mean pressure and high speed of sound are
desirable working fluid properties because thermoacoustic powers typically scale in
relation to 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝐴 [19]. Light gases are desirable working fluids because they typically
have a high speed of sound and thermal conductivity characteristics [19]. Helium at
elevated mean pressure is typically used for high-performance thermoacoustic
applications [16, 17]. Air at atmospheric pressure can be utilized as the working fluid
for a first build, as it reduces costs and complexity of the component design and
system operation.

7.1.2 Operational frequency

The operational frequency is often chosen based upon the acoustic-to-electric

conversion device characteristics. In the case of a linear alternator, the thermoacoustic
engine’s operational frequency is matched to the linear alternator’s resonate frequency
[20]. Several length scales must be defined prior to building or designing a
thermoacoustic engine. The gas displacement amplitude, Xa, can be calculated by the
ratio of acoustic velocity to acoustic frequency.

ua
X a=
ω

A lateral, direction perpendicular to wave propagation, dimensions are critical in

component design because they influence viscous and heat-related properties.

4.1.2 Thermal penetration depth

The thermal penetration depth, δk, is the distance that heat transfer can occur laterally
during acoustic oscillations.
2k
δ k=
√ ωρ c p

4.1.3 Viscous penetration depth

Viscous penetration depth, δv, is the distance that momentum can be transferred
laterally during acoustic oscillations.
2μ
δ v=
√ ωρ

The thermal and viscous penetration depths are typical of the same order of
magnitude, resulting in a Prandtl number, σ, near unity [19]
2
δv
σ= ( ) δk

4.2 Functional analysis of design components

The velocity in the core can be reduced by increasing the cross-sectional area of the
core with respect to the feedback piping network. Thereby, achieving a high
impedance in the regenerator and reducing acoustic losses. A larger core cross-
sectional area also provides an opportunity for improved heat exchange between the
heat exchangers and working fluid. The core cross-section is normally designed to be
two to three times larger than the cross-sectional area of the feedback piping network

7.2.1 Hot and Cold heat exchanger

The primary goal of a travelling wave thermoacoustic engine heat exchanger is to

provide high heat transfer to or from the working fluid, while simultaneously
generating minimal acoustic dissipation. The length of a thermoacoustic heat
exchanger is typically double the gas displacement amplitude [22]. Heat exchangers
longer than twice the gas displacement amplitude generate excessive acoustic
dissipation for unnecessary heat transfer. The most efficient cold heat exchanger
designs are typical of a shell and tube configuration, in which the working fluid
oscillates through multiple small diameter tubes and low-temperature fluid, such as
chilled water, flows around the perimeter of the tubes to remove excess heat from the
working fluid. However, viscous losses will be substantial if the tube diameters are
too small, and a compromise between heat transfer and viscous loss reduction is
necessary. Fabrication limitations may arise and limit tube diameter size.

A water jacket heat exchanger design is an acceptable alternative design for small
working fluid channel diameters in which, low-temperature fluid flows around the
perimeter of a solid core containing multiple passages for the working fluid to
oscillate through. The porosity of the cold heat exchanger should be high to reduce
acoustic dissipation, and void area, in which the working fluid oscillates, to total
cross-sectional area ratio of 0.30 to 0.40 is often targeted. The hot heat exchanger is
often designed with higher porosity than the cold heat exchanger because the acoustic
velocity sharply increases through the regenerator, and a low porosity near the bottom
of the regenerator generates high viscous losses.

For initial performance measurements, electrical heating elements are often employed
because it provides a straightforward calculation method of the supplied thermal
power to the system. If the heat exchangers are designed to be easily removed or
replaced, the hot heat exchanger can be redesigned to incorporate alternative heat
sources such as concentrated solar, waste heat (steam), fire, etc. The heat exchanger
material will depend upon the component design, fabrication, costs, and performance
characteristics. For low-temperature applications, copper is a desirable heat exchanger
material due to its high heat transfer coefficient, but material costs are high.
Aluminium is an inexpensive alternative to copper, containing favourable heat
transfer characteristics and machinability. High-temperature heat exchangers must
consider the material's maximum service temperature in addition to the heat transfer
properties. Stainless steel, although considered to have poor heat transfer capabilities,
has a high maximum service temperature and material costs are low. Premanufactured
heat exchangers can also be used, such as radiators, to reduce costs and generate a
high heat transfer to or from the working fluid [10]

4.2.1 Regenerator

The regenerator is a porous solid that exchanges heat with the working fluid during
oscillations. A steep temperature gradient through the axial length of the regenerator
is required to generate an acoustic wave. Typically, the gas displacement should be a
large fraction of the regenerator length [17]. The regenerator should have a high
impedance [23]. Near travelling wave phasing, acoustic pressure and volumetric
velocity in phase, within the regenerator is optimal. Typically, the volumetric velocity
phase will lead the acoustic pressure phase at the cold end of the regenerator, and the
acoustic pressure phase will lead the volumetric velocity phase at the hot end of the
regenerator [20]. A large pressure drop is produced across the regenerator, as well as a
steep increase in volumetric velocity caused by the temperature gradient. Cellular
ceramics, steel screens, stainless steel wool, or several stacked wire mesh screens can
be used to create a regenerator. However, wire mesh screens typically produce the
best performance results [24]. The hydraulic radius, rh, and porosity, ϕ, are important
design characteristics of the regenerator

∅
r h =Dwire
4 (1−∅)

πn Dwire
∅=1−
4
The hydraulic radius of the regenerator must be smaller than the thermal penetration
depth to ensure good thermal contact between the regenerator solid and working fluid.
The 27 optimal ratio of thermal penetration depth to hydraulic radius is between 4 <
𝛿𝑘 𝑟ℎ < 7 [25]. Because the viscous penetration depth is often of the same order of
magnitude as the thermal penetration depth, significant viscous losses should be
expected within the regenerator [19]. High porosity is desirable but if too high, the
mass of the regenerator will be low and result in reduced heat capacity. A low heat
capacity will lead to high heat relaxation losses that degrade performance [24]. The
porosity of the regenerator should typically range between 70% and 85% [26]. Heat
leaks down the temperature gradient should be avoided, and a tight fit between the
regenerator material and regenerator wall is desirable to limit low impedance paths
that produce streaming [19]. A laterally uniform temperature and linear axial
temperature gradient are desired through the regenerator. A small gap can be
implemented between the heat exchanger and regenerator to create a thermal mixing
region that reduces non-uniform lateral temperature distributions in the regenerator.
The thermal conduction through the regenerator wall should be limited by decreasing
wall thickness and using a poor thermally conductive material, such as stainless steel
or Inconel.

4.2.2 Piping network

The thermal buffer tube provides a thermal buffer between the hot heat exchanger and
the ambient temperature feedback network. The thermal buffer tube length should be
at least six times the gas displacement amplitude to provide adequate thermal isolation
[19]. A secondary cold heat exchanger (optional) may be installed below the thermal
buffer tube. In the absence of performance degrading streaming, the secondary
ambient heat exchanger will remove conductive heat through the thermal buffer tube
walls, and radiative heat from the hot heat exchanger [16]. High porosity is desirable
to limit flow resistance, but the remaining design concepts of the secondary cold heat
exchanger are similar to that of a primary cold heat exchanger. A piping network
connecting the thermal buffer tube to the primary cold heat exchanger, in the absence
of a terminating surface, promotes the development of an acoustic travelling wave.
This feedback is treated as a basic waveguide with inertance, compliance, and
resistive components. Smooth surfaces, gradual bends, and minimal changes in the
cross-sectional area are desirable to limit acoustic losses. The length of the acoustic
feedback network can be altered to adjust the system's operational acoustic frequency.
Metal piping and seals are used for pressurized thermoacoustic systems. A small stub
resonator, with a terminating end, is required if a travelling wave thermoacoustic
engine is configured with an odd number of thermoacoustic core sections [10].

5. Technical specifications
This section presents the design specifications that were considered during the design
process. Design specifications with detailed reasoning on the design selection of
operational characteristics is described

5.1.1 Working fluid.

Working fluid (gases) have a strong influence on the design and performance of the
engine. A property of gas fluid with high speed of sound is desirable for producing
large amount of acoustic power. Thus, light gases are desirable working fluids
because they typically have a high speed of sound and thermal conductivity
characteristics [19]. The working fluid is selected based on the Prandtl number,
preferable a gas with a low Prandtl number is selected. Helium at elevated mean
pressure is typically used for high-performance thermoacoustic applications [16, 17].
Air at atmospheric pressure can be utilized as the working fluid for a first build, as it
reduces costs and complexity of the component design and system operation.
Therefore, since this project is concerned with the first build of TAE for future
studies, air at atmospheric pressure will be used as the working. The properties of air
are tabulated below.

Table 5.5.4: Woking gas properties

Properties of air Prandtl number
Specific heat 1.005 kJ/kg K
Thermal conductivity 0.02514 W/m K
Speed of sound 343 m/s
Prandtl number 0.73

5.1.2 Mean pressure

A mean pressure has a direct influence on the performance of the engine. The
pressure oscillations inside regenerator increases the acoustic work. However, the
findings from the previous studies show that an increase in mean pressure reduces the
thermal penetration depth [19]. Hence, it worth to investigate the effect mean pressure
when designing a thermoacoustic device. The pressure oscillations generated in
regenerator induces hoop stress on wall of the regenerator and the hoop stress in turn
limits the mean pressure. In this study, the regenerator housing was designed to
withstand a maximum pressure of 10 bars.
Table 5.5: Mean pressure specification
Pressure Description
Minimum operating pressure 1 bar
Maximum operating pressure 10 bar

5.1.3 Power heat source

For any TAE to produce sound it requires minimum amount of temperature known as
onset temperature to be met. From the conducted experimental investigation results
presented in the previous section, it was observed that a maximum onset temperature
of 332 ºC was recorded when a minimum voltage of 130 V was supplies to the
cartridge heaters. Furthermore, some of the researchers discovered that the minimum
temperature required to generate sound is 400 ºC [24]. Since this project is concerned
with designing a Solar Powered Thermoacoustic Engine, a solar panel and Fresnel
lens were considered for powering the system. Therefore, the required power source
to power the engine must at least be capable of heating the system to a minimum
temperature of 400 ºC.

5.1.4 Heat source

A heat source that can withstand temperatures ranging from minimum 400 ºC to a
maximum of 600 ºC is required.
 6. Concepts
The objective of this project was not necessarily about optimizing the existing design
of the thermoacoustic engine, but about proving that a soler powered thermoacoustic
engine is possible and moreover, it is practical, simple and reliable. The goal was to
design a simple concept that would work the first time out and produce a measurable
amount of sound. The concepts were generated with an aim of utilizing the resources
that are available at the University of Johannesburg for manufacturing and testing the
prototype if it were to be developed. Using the available resources would help in
cutting cost in order to meet the design criteria. two conceptual designs were
developed where each concept was evaluated and selected based on its effect on the
engine performance, simplicity, flexibility, and cost. Below is a discussion of the
concept generation and selection process of the final concept.

6.1 Concept 1

The design of this concept is based on the working principles of a sterling engine. It
incorporates the pistons that are driven by the compression and expansion of the
working fluid when operating temperatures are above the onset temperature. This
design makes use of sunlight concentrated by the optical lens as the source of power.
The thin Fresnel lens is designed to reflect and focus sunlight on the hot end of the
TAE. The hot end of the engine, in turn, transfers heat to working fluid. Therefore, the
working fluid in the resonator gets heated up and transfer heat across the stack. The
good thing about this concept is that no heat exchanger is needed, which makes it
simpler as it involves few components.
 Figure 6.11: Concept 1- based on the sterling engine

6.2 Concept 2
A concept based on a travelling wave thermoacoustic engine was generated. A larger
cross-sectional area was selected for the core engine components to decrease the local
velocity while keeping the mass flow constant. This action reduced the viscous losses
in the regenerator and improved the heat transfer at the hot and cold heat exchangers.
This concept is designed to be powered by solar or electricity in the absence of
sunlight in order to generate sound. The configuration of the concepts is represented
in the figure below. The component designs depend on the targeted performance
characteristics
 Figure 6.12: Conceptual design 2

6.3 Concept selection

This section outlines how the final concept was executed using Pugh Concept
Selection. Firstly, the selection matrix was prepared with the design concepts on the
top raw and design criteria on the leftmost column. The existing design of the
standard thermoacoustic engine was selected as a datum and the generated concepts
were compared against the datum. Each concept was rated against the selection
criteria to the neutral. The following keys were used to denote the rating criteria.
 0 = Same
 + = Better
 - = Worse
 Table 6.6: Pugh selection matrix
Decision Criteria Concept 1 Concept 2 Standard Design

Sound generation - 0 0
Maintenance + 0 0
Cost 0 - 0
Efficiency 0 + 0
Maintenance - 0 0
Manufacturability - + 0
Safety 0 0 0
PLUSES 1 2
SAMES 3 4
MINUSES 3 1
NET -2 1
RANK 2 1
CONTINUE No Yes

From the results obtained from Pugh selection matrix above, concept 2 appeared to be
superior to concept 1, as result, it was chosen as the final concept. Therefore, this
project is based on the design of concept 2 which is about a solar powered single stage
travelling wave thermoacoustic engine.

7. Description of the final design

The final design is design of single stage travelling wave thermoacoustic engine. This
design is to be powered by solar panel system. The good thing about design concepts
is that the solar panel system can easily be replaced with electrical energy source
when testing the engine in the absence of sunlight. Furthermore, the solar panel kit
that includes batteries and inverter that are already available at the University of
Johannesburg. The use of the available resources led to reduced costs of production.
Figure 7.1 below shows the final design configuration of a single stage travelling
wave Solar Powered Thermoacoustic Engine (SPTAE).
Figure 7.13: Final design of single stage travelling wave thermoacoustic engine

7.1 Cold heat exchanger

The cold heat exchanger is designed to be shell and tube heat exchanger type with 3.4
mm diameter of tubes in which the working fluid oscillated through and ambient
water flowed around the perimeter of the tubes made up copper to remove heat from
the working fluid. Figure 7.2 displays the shell and tube cold heat exchanger. The
shell and tube primary cold heat exchanger is designed to be housed with the mild
steel material. This primary cold heat exchanger has diameter of 110 and a length of
80 mm. One inlet and one outlet allow ambient temperature water to flow through the
cold heat exchanger
 Figure 7.14: Design of a primary cold heat exchanger

7.2 Regenerator

The design of regenerator adopted for this project is honeycomb ceramic. It was
chosen due to its availability, for having good thermal contact, and low thermal
conductivity.

Figure 7.15: Honeycomb ceramic regenerator

The properties of the honeycomb ceramic regenerator are presented in table 7.1
below.
Table 7.7: Properties of honeycomb ceramic regenerator
Density 2500 kg/m^3
Thermal conductivity 0.42 W/m K
Specific heat 1047 J/Kg K
Melting point 1450 C
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.7
 CPSI 300
Porosity 0.85

7.3 Hot heat exchanger

The hot heat exchanger contains four, 120 V heat cartridges; each heat cartridge is 10
mm in diameter, 100 mm in length and capable of producing up to 500 W of heat. The
maximum operating temperature that each heat cartridge can withstand is 760 ºC. The
hot heat exchanger equipped with one K-type thermocouple to monitor the surface
temperature of one heat cartridge and avoid overheating conditions. Heat cartridges
are inserted into a small three stainless steel rings to improve stability and heat
transfer to the working fluid. The copper screens will be used with an intention to
improve the heat distribution and transfer effectiveness and act as flow straighteners
to reduce jet driven streaming within the thermal buffer tube. Figure 7.1 displays the
designed hot heat exchanger.

Figure 7.16: Design of the hot heat exchanger

7.4 Secondary cold heat exchanger

This component features the design similar with the primary cold heat exchanger,
which is the shell and cold heat exchanger type. The secondary ambient heat
exchanger contains 3.5 mm diameter of tubes in which the working fluid oscillates.
The total length of the secondary cold heat exchanger is 50 mm, and the diameter is
50 mm. One inlet and one outlet allow ambient temperature water to flow through the
heat exchanger. The secondary heat exchanger is installed between the thermal buffer
tube and feedback piping network to provide thermal isolation of the high temperature
region.

Figure 7.17: Design of secondary cold heat exchanger

7.5 Regenerator housing

The regenerator casing material was selected to be mild still material due capacity to
withstand high temperature and it is cost effective than the stainless still. The diameter
of casing is 110 mm and the total length including flanges was 200 mm.
 Figure 7.18: Design of regenerator housing

7.5.1 Expander/ reducer

Two pipe reducer/expander assemblies are utilized above and below the
thermoacoustic core section to provide gradual changes in cross-sectional diameter
and avoid flow separation/transitional losses, shown in figure 7.7 below.

Figure 7.19: Design of Reducer/expander

This component acts as a thermal buffer tube below the hot heat exchanger and is
much longer than the peak-to-peak gas displacement amplitude to maintain thermal
isolation. The internal diameter of the thermal buffer tube is much larger than the
thermal penetration depth and results in minimal heat transfer from acoustic
oscillation between the wall and gas [13]. This stainless-steel reducer/expansion
assembly is 125 mm in length and reduces/expands the cross-sectional diameter from
110 mm to 50 mm.

7.6 Feedback piping

The feedback network is approximately 4.5 m in length and constructed of schedule
50, pipe size 3, PVC piping and fittings. Long 90⁰ elbows are used to avoid abrupt
changes in direction, and PVC joints are glued to minimize leaks. PVC flanges and
gaskets are utilized to attach the feedback piping network to the stainless conical
reducer/expander assemblies. A stub is located in the pipe connecting the large pipe to
small pipe connected to conical reducer/ expander. The stub is installed using a T-
branch fitting as shown in figure 7.1.

8. Design modelling and analysis

This section presents the calculations related to the operation characteristics of the
model using the data obtained from and the analysis simulation results obtained from
DeltaEC software.
8.1 Calculations
Hoop stress and the factor of safety due to the internal pressure of 10 bar subjected to
the regenerator housing wall with thickness of 3 mm and diameter of 110 mm can be
calculated as follows.
A regenerator housing is made up of mild steel material with yield strength of 248
MPa.
Hoop stress,
pd
σ c=
2t
( 1 )( 0.11 )
σ c=
2 ( 0.003 )
σ c =18.33 MPa

Factor of safety,
σy
F s=
σc
248
F s=
18.33
F s=13.53
Th factor of safety is greater than one, therefore, the design of regenerator casing with
thickness of 3 mm is safe.

DeltaEC was used to simulate, the recoded results of the program is attached in
appendix 1. Below is an analysis of the operation characteristics of the proposed
design.

8.2 DeltaEC
Researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory have developed the computer
program called Design environment for Low-amplitude. Thermoacoustic Energy
Conversion (DeltaEC). This program utilizes linear thermoacoustic theory to
numerically integrate a one-dimensional wave equation through user-defined
segments and matches pressures, volumetric flow rates, and temperatures at segment
junctions [31]. Other variables and concepts, such as the energy equation, can also be
implemented and analysed within DeltaEC [32].

After successful execution of a DeltaEC thermoacoustic profile, target and guess pairs
can be incrementally included in the model to predict or model the performance of a
thermoacoustic device. DeltaEC utilizes a “shooting” method in which guesses, and
targets are defined, and the program gradually alters the value of the guess to meet the
specified target value. Guesses must precede a target and the number of guesses and
targets must be equal. The computer model is initialized with a “BEGIN” segment in
which the frequency, temperature, mean pressure, acoustic pressure characteristics
and volumetric velocity characteristics are defined. This initializing segment is
typically located at a region within the feedback network and follows an integration
path from the cold heat exchanger through the regenerator for most thermoacoustic
engines. It is likely that many of these "BEGIN" values will be unknown, and
consequently, the guess/target shooting method must be applied. Reverse polish
notation (RPN) segments may be included to generate non-standard equations and can
also be utilized as a guess or target. For a travelling wave thermoacoustic engine, the
model may end with several RPN targets that match final thermoacoustic properties to
initialized properties in the BEGIN segment. Thus, generating a seamless transition
from the end of the model to the start of the model, representing a continuous
feedback network. This simulation tool can predict the acoustic pressure, volumetric
velocity, acoustic power, total power, temperature, etc. distribution through a
thermoacoustic engine and provide detailed insight into the anticipated experimental
results. Reference [32], describes in detail the functionality of DeltaEC and provides
user tutorials.

8.3 Analysis of results

A DeltaEC simulation was performed for the prototype single-stage travelling wave
thermoacoustic engine to provide an understanding of the various acoustic property
distributions within the system. These segments include a cold heat exchanger, a
regenerator, a hot heat exchanger, a thermal buffer tube, a secondary cold heat
exchanger, a stub, and an acoustic feedback piping network. The total length of the
combined elements with piping in the simulated system was 5.5 m.

A working fluid of air at atmospheric mean pressure and an operational frequency of

oscillation of 52 Hz was initialized for the thermoacoustic model. The cold heat
exchanger was modelled as a shell and tube heat exchanger in which the working
fluid oscillates through the tubes. The hot heat exchanger was modelled as a parallel-
plate heat exchanger. The regenerator was modelled as steel screens. The cross-
sectional area of the thermoacoustic engine core is approximately two times greater
than the feedback network cross-sectional area to reduce viscous losses in the
regenerator by enforcing |𝑍| >> 𝜌𝑚𝑎/𝐴 [18, 22]. A high acoustic impedance in the
regenerator is preferred for travelling wave conditions and leads to high pressure, a
low-velocity region which is desired to keep acoustic losses low [23]. This high
acoustic impedance condition is produced by a large inherent flow resistance of the
regenerator and generates a self-organization mechanism [23]. Additionally, a near
travelling wave in the feedback network is desired to reduce dissipative effects [20].
The feedback network has a constant cross-sectional area. The DeltaEC model is
initialized near the midpoint of the feedback network and progresses towards the
primary cold heat exchanger. The simulation was performed for various input heat
levels. The resulting simulated acoustic pressure amplitude and acoustic power
through the thermoacoustic engine is presented in Figure 9.1 and 9.2 below.
 Figure 8.20: Pressure amplitude along the thermoacoustic engine

Figure 8.21: Acoustic power

The regenerator and stub were located at 3 m and 3.6 m, respectfully. There were
multiple locations of peak pressure amplitude. A steep drop in pressure amplitude was
observed at the regenerator location and resulted from the regenerator’s high
impedance. The standing wave ratio (SWR), comparing the maximum and minimum
pressure amplitude, was approximately eight. An SWR of unity represents an ideal
travelling wave while a larger SWR (as observed in the simulation) reflects acoustic
losses [23]. The drive ratio (DR) compares the pressure amplitude to the mean
pressure. A DR of nearly 4.5% exists at the location of maximum pressure amplitude.
The stub has no effect on pressure amplitude magnitude but rather on the modification
in the rate of pressure amplitude change. A steep change in phase difference was
observed at the location of the stub. The simulated thermoacoustic engine acoustic
pressure and volumetric velocity amplitude distributions are displayed in Figure 9.3.
Two minimums and maximums of velocity amplitude were observed; one minimum
was near the end of the cold heat exchanger just before the regenerator.

Figure 8.22: Pressure amplitude and volumetric velocity

9. Manufacturing analysis
Most of the components selected during the design process were standards
components. Therefore, there are few components that need to be manufactured,
namely; cold heat exchangers, hot heat exchanger and assembly of conical reducer/
expander with flanges. The detailed and full analysis of the manufacturing can be
provided after constructing the prototype.

10.Maintenance analysis
Thermoacoustic systems boast high reliability and reduced maintenance requirements
due to a lack of mechanical components. They do not require lubricating fluids, nor
considerable routine or preventive maintenance efforts. The devices are self-starting,
further improving reliability.

11.Cost analysis
The other components that are already available at the University were not include in
this cost analysis
Table 11.8: Cost analysis
Product Quantity Store Price Total Grand total
Concentric 2 Farmability R699 R1398
reducer
 Regenerator 1 Manica R399 R399
housing
Flanges 4 Farmability R175 R700
Small flanges 4 Farmability R70 R280
Bolts and nuts 10 Active hardware R89 R890
PVC 2 Active hardware R750 R1500
Sealent 2 Shopright R60 R120
R5287

12.Impact of design

12.1 Certification requirements

All designed and developed engineering products must satisfy and meet all necessary
legal standards, acts, laws and requirements to be certified. In terms of the
thermoacoustic engine project, The following standards and Acts must be met;
 Health and Safety Responsibilities – SANS 10366: 2009.[25]
 Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act, No. 181 of 1993.
 Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems Act (OH&S) – ISO
45001: 2018 [25]
 Labour Relations Act, No. 66 of 1995.
 Rotating Electrical Components for Noise Limitation – ISO 4871: 1996.
 Rotating Electrical Machines for Noise Limitation – SANS 60034-9, 3rd
Edition [26].
 Safety of Machinery: Emergency Stop – SANS 13850, 1st Edition [26].

12.2 Healthy and Safety

The following standards and acts aim at promoting the health and safety of on duty
personnel in connection to a thermoacoustic engine. The standards must the followed
in the process of design and be ensured by employers and employees to adhere to in
process of working. Everyone is expected to take responsibility and follow the
precaution measures.
 Health and Safety Responsibilities – SANS 10366: 2009.
 Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act, No. 181 of 1993.
 Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems Act (OH&S) – ISO
45001: 2018 [27]
  Labour Relations Act, No. 66 of 1995.

12.3 Social

One of the issues that are currently faced by society is a lack of access to clean, cost
effective and sustainable energy. Electricity plays a major role in improving the quality of
peoples' lives. Thus, the exponential growth of population results in high demand for
electrical energy. Therefore, alternative solutions for generating power are required,
which is the case for the thermoacoustic engine. Researchers in the field of thermo-
acoustics are working improving the efficiency of the thermoacoustic devices. In near
future, thermoacoustic will be used to generate cost effective, clean, and sustainable
energy. This will impact the lives of people who no access to electricity.
12.4 Environment
The environmental issues are currently connected mainly to the power generation
technologies that are currently in use. Coal and oil have been the world’s primary
source of energy but threating environmental concerns and dwindling fossil fuels are
promoting a shift towards alternative energy sources. Concerns over the adverse
impacts of engine emissions on the environment have motivated researchers to
investigate the alternative approaches of producing clean, cost-effective, and
sustainable energy. Thermoacoustic technology is one of the promising approaches
that have the potential to produce power without negatively impacting the
environment. Thermoacoustic power can play an important role in expanding the
energy source portfolio and aid in the solution of environmentally friendly energy
production.
 13.Conclusion
In this work, an experimental investigation of the effect input power on the onset
temperature difference across the regenerator of travelling wave thermoacoustic
engine was conducted. The effect of increasing the number of stages on onset
temperature was investigated using a two stage thermoacoustic engine. The
experimental results showed single-stage and two-stage engine reached a minimum
onset temperature of 228.24 ℃ and 225.42 ℃ respectively. In conclusion, the
influence of the electrical heating power on the temperature difference across the
regenerator of a single-stage and two-stage engine was investigated. The single-stage
and two-stage engine reached a minimum onset temperature of 228.24 ℃ and 225.42
℃ respectively. It was observed that the onset temperature decreases with an increase
in supply voltage. This means that the engine takes less time to reach the onset
temperature when operating high levels of voltage supply. The increase in the level of
supply voltage resulted to an increase on the sound generated across the regenerator.
The results obtained from the experiment were used to get insight into a design
development of thermoacoustic engine. Two conceptual designs were developed, and
one concept was adopted as a final design. The design process of operational
characteristics and main components of the engine were presented. Thereafter, the
developed model was simulated on DeltaEC software and the results obtained were
analysed. It was found that operation frequency of proposed design is 52 Hz.

13.1 Recommendations
Many improvements can be pursued to improve the design, performance, cost, size, or
other desirable aspects. The following suggested improvements have been generated
from extensive research and intuitive understanding of the system.
 Modify the working fluid to improve performance, such as replacing with
helium and/or increasing the mean pressure.
 Alter heat exchanger design to receive heat from an alternative source, such
as concentrated solar or waste heat (steam).
 Reduce heat streaming effects to increase performance and efficiency
 Develop a prototype of a solar powered thermoacoustic engine for
experimental studies.

14.References / Bibliography
1. H. Ritchie, and M. Roser, "Energy Production & Changing Energy Sources",
Our World In Data, 2018, https://ourworldindata.org/energy-production-and-
changingenergy- sources.
2. L. Doman, "EIA Projects 28% Increase in World Energy Use by 2040", U.S.
Energy Information Administration, 2017,
https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=32912.
3. K. De Blok, “Multi-Stage Traveling Wave Thermoacoustics in Practice,” in
19th International Congress on Sound and Vibration, Vilnius, Lithuania, 2012.
4. Z. Wu, W. Dai, M. Man, and E. Luo, “A Solar-Powered Traveling-Wave
Thermoacoustic Electricity Generator”, Solar Energy, vol. 86, no. 9, pp. 2376-
2382, Sept. 2012.
5. G. W. Swift, “Thermoacoustic Engines”, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, vol. 84, no. 4, pp.1145-1180, June 1988.
6. K. De Blok, P. Owczarek, and M. Francois, “Bi-Directional Turbines for
ConvertingAcoustic Wave Power into Electricity,” in 9th PAMIR
International Conference, pp.433-438, Riga, Latvia, 2014.
7. S. Garret, and S. Backhaus, "The Power of Sound," American Scientist, Sigma
Xi,The Scientific Research Society, 2000,
https://www.americanscientist.org/sites/americanscientist.org/files/200577103
37_306.pdf.
8. Z. Yu, and A. J. Jaworski, "Impact of Acoustic Impedance and Flow
Resistance on the Power Output Capacity of the Regenerators in Traveling-
Wave Thermoacoustic Engines", Energy Conversion and Management, vol.
51, no. 2, pp. 350-359, Feb.2010.
9. Lord Rayleigh, “The Explanation of Certain Acoustical Phenomena”, Nature,
vol. 18,no. 445, pp. 319-321, July 1878.
10. S. Collard, "Design and Assembly of a Thermoacoustic Engine Prototype",
B.S.Thesis, Dept. Env. Eng., Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied
Sciences,Helsinki, Finland, 2012.
11. P. H. M. Wilhelmus, "Mathematical Aspects of Thermoacoustics", PhD
Thesis,
 Dept. Mathematics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven,
Netherlands, 2009.
12. [12] P. L. Rijke,"Notice of a New Method of Causing a Vibration of the Air
Contained In a Tube Open at Both Ends", The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 17, no. 116, pp. 419-422,
1859.
13. M. Telesz, “Design and Testing of a Thermoacoustic Power Converter,” M.S.
Thesis, Dept. Mech. Eng., Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA,
2006.
14. P. H. Ceperley, “A Pistonless Stirling Engine–The Traveling Wave Heat
Engine,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 66, no. 5, pp.
1508–1513, May 1979.
15. T. Yazaki, A. Iwata, T. Maekawa, and A. Tominaga, "Traveling Wave
Thermoacoustic Engine in a Looped Tube", Physical Review Letters, vol. 81,
no. 15, 3128-3131, Oct. 1998.
16. S. Backhaus, and G. W. Swift, "A Thermoacoustic-Stirling Heat Engine:
Detailed Study,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 107, no. 6,
pp. 3148-3166, June 2000.
17. M. E. H. Tijani, and S. Spoelstra, “A High Performance Thermoacoustic
Engine,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 110, no. 9, Nov. 2011, DOI:
10.1063/1.3658872.
18. K. De Blok, "Novel 4-Stage Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic Power
Generator," in ASME 3rd Joint US-European Fluids Engineering Summer
Meeting and 8th International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels,
and Minichannels, pp.73-79, Montreal, Canada, 2010.
19. G. W. Swift, Thermoacoustics: A Unifying Perspective for Some Engines and
Refrigerators, Melville, NY: Acoustical Society of America through the
American Institute of Physics, 2002.
20. Z. Yu, A. J. Jaworski, and S. Backhaus, “Traveling-Wave
ThermoacousticElectricity Generator Using an Ultra-Compliant Alternator for
Utilization of Low-Grade Thermal Energy,” Applied Energy, vol. 99, pp. 135-
145, Nov. 2012. N. Rott, “Thermoacoustics”, Advances in Applied Mechanics,
vol. 20, pp. 135-175, 1980.
21. K. De Blok, private communication, Dec. 2015.
22. A. S. A. Abduljalil, Z. Yu, and A. J. Jaworski, “Design and Experimental
Validation of Looped-Tube Thermoacoustic Engine,” Journal of Thermal
Science, vol. 20, no.5, pp. 423-429, 2011.
23. A. S. A. Abduljalil, Z. Yu, and A. J. Jaworski, “Selection and Experimental
Evaluation of Low-Cost Porous Materials for Regenerator Applications in
Thermoacoustic Engines,” Materials & Design, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 217-228,
Jan.
24. 2011.
25. Z. Yu, Q. Li, X. Chen, F. Guo, and X. Xie, “Experimental Investigation on a
Thermoacoustic Engine Having a Looped Tube and Resonator”. Cryogenics,
vol. 45, no.8, pp. 566-571, Aug. 2005.
26. K. De Blok, private communication, Feb. 2017.
27. M. McGaughy, E. Boessneck, T. Salem, and J. Wagner, “Critical Design
Elements for Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic Engines,” Proceedings of the
ASME 2018 Power and Energy Conference, 2018-7376, Lake Buena Vista,
FL, June 2018.
28. T. Kloprogge, “Turbine Design for Thermo-acoustic Generator”, B.S. Thesis,
Dept. Aeronautical Eng., Hogeschool INHolland, Delft, Netherlands, 2012.
29. E. Boessneck, and T. Salem, “Performance Characterization of Bi-Directional
Turbines for Use in Thermoacoustic Generator Applications,” Proceedings of
the ASME 2016 Power and Energy Conference, ES2016-59372, Charlotte,
NC, 2016.
30. A. M. Fusco, W. C. Ward, and G. W. Swift, “Two-Sensor Power
Measurement in Lossy Ducts”, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
vol. 91, pp. 2229-2235, Dec. 1992, DOI: 10.1121/1.403656.
31. W. C. Ward, and G. W. Swift, “Design Environment for Low-Amplitude
Thermoacoustic Engines,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol.
95, no. 6, pp. 3671-3672, June 1994, 10.1121/1.40993899
32. B. Ward, J. Clark, and G. Swift, “Design Environment for Low-amplitude
Thermoacoustic Energy Conversion Version 6.4b2 User’s Guide”, Los
Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2016.
15.Manufacturing drawings
16.Appendices
16.1 Appendix 1: DeltaEC model parameters
16.2 Appendice 2: Graduate attributes
 16.3 APPENDIX 2.1: Application of scientific and engineering knowledge: Graduate attribute 2 rubrics

Indicators Below Marginal Meets expectations Exceed expectations Student Supervisor

expectations statement on confirmation
fulfilment
Recalls and • Unable to recall • Recalls some of • States most • Explains specifics, Page (1-5)
A NA
defines previously the principles and principles,
information, learned previously theories theories, rules, and Please tick the
first principles information and learned and identifies most methodologies appropriate box
above and initial
and concepts in the information and rules and in the natural sciences below:
concepts in the natural concepts in methodologies in
natural sciences the natural the natural sciences
sciences sciences
• Cannot • Reproduces in • Reproduces • Reproduces solutions
reproduce part solutions to to new
solutions to solutions to previously problems in the natural
Natural Sciences

problems in the problems in the encountered sciences

natural sciences natural sciences problems in the
natural
sciences
Comprehends • Shows minimal • Shows limited • Shows complete • Translates theory into Page (1-5) A NA
information understanding of understanding of understanding of engineering
and applications of applications applications of applications and Please tick the
concepts in the natural of natural natural sciences to accepts limitations of appropriate box
above and initial
natural sciences to the sciences to the the mathematical models of below:
sciences problem problem problem and physical
expects theory to reality
predict
reality
 Recalls and • Unable to recall • Recalls some of • States most • Explains specifics, Page (1-9) A
NA
defines previously the principles and principles,
information, learned previously theories theories, rules, and Please tick the
first principles information and learned and identifies most methodologies in appropriate box
above and initial
and concepts in information and rules and fundamental below:
concepts in fundamental concepts in methodologies in engineering science
fundamental engineering fundamental fundamental
engineering science engineering engineering science
science science
• Cannot • Reproduces in • Reproduces • Reproduces solutions
Fundamental Engineering Science

reproduce part solutions to to new

solutions to solutions to previously problems in
problems in problems in encountered fundamental
fundamental fundamental problems in engineering
engineering engineering fundamental science
science science engineering science
Comprehends • Shows minimal • Shows limited • Shows complete • Makes Page (1-9) A NA
information understanding of understanding of understanding of generalizations,
and applications of applications of applications of inferences,
Please tick the
concepts in fundamental fundamental fundamental and connections appropriate box
fundamental engineering engineering engineering science between above and initial
below:
engineering science to the science to the to the problem mathematics/natural
science problem problem and expects theory sciences and
to predict reality fundamental
engineering science
 Recalls and • Unable to recall Recalls some of • States most • Explains specifics, Page (1-9) A NA
defines previously the principles and principles,
information, learned previously theories theories, rules, and Please tick the
first principles information and learned and methodologies in appropriate box
above and initial
and concepts in information and identifies most rules specialized engineering below:
concepts in specialized concepts in and science
specialized engineering specialized methodologies in
engineering science engineering specialized
science science engineering science
• Cannot • Reproduces in • Reproduces • Reproduces solutions
Specialized Engineering Science

reproduce part solutions to to new

solutions to solutions to previously problems in specialized
problems in problems in encountered engineering
specialized specialized problems in science
engineering engineering specialized
science science engineering science
Comprehends • Shows minimal • Summarizes or • Summarizes and • Extrapolates ideas and Page (1-9) A NA
information understanding of explains explains key ideas content for
and applications of some ideas and and content use in different
concepts in specialized content; • Shows complete specialized
specialized engineering • Shows limited understanding of engineering situations Please tick the
engineering science to real understanding of applications of appropriate box
above and initial
science industry problem applications of specialized below:
specialized engineering science
engineering theory to the
science to the real industry
real industry problem and
problem expects
theory to predict
reality
 16.4 APPENDIX 2.2: Engineering design: Graduate attribute 3 rubrics

Indicators Below Marginal Meets Exceed Student Supervisor

expectations expectations expectations statement on confirmation
fulfilment
Understands • Does not • Has an • Understands the • Understands Page 6
Problem

A NA
Define

the problem understand incomplete nature of the nature of the

(i.e., the problem nor understanding of complex/open‐ complex/open‐
context and the the nature ended ended engineering
need •objectives
Does not define •ofDefines
the some •engineering
Defines most of •problems andthe
Defines all Please tick the
appropriate box
for a design the of the the technical objectives
ObjectivesDefine

above and initial

solution) and objectives technical objectives and including below:

defines objectives some of health & technical and safety

objectives safety, standard, and
and economics and environmental, etc.
constraints environments
objectives
• Does not • Identifies some • Identifies most of • Identifies all Page 6
Constraint

identify the of the the constraints imposed

constraints constraints constraints by
imposed by imposed by factors factors such as
•factors such as •such as health and •health andbig
safety,
Design Understandin

Develops • Has no concept Understands Decomposes the Sees the Page (24-32) A NA
design of the the need of problem into picture as well as
process process as a sum breaking down sub‐problems each
g

of its the problem part

parts into sub‐
process

• No design plan problems

• Creates a • Develops a • Develops a design Please tick the
Develop

appropriate box
design process design process plan that includes above and initial
below:
 processDesign
components and with extensive with minimum economic, safety,
processes guidance guidance environmental and
without help other realistic
constraints

• Does not • Considers some • Considers most • Considers all Page 6

Constraints
Design

consider design of design constraints: health

design constraints: constraints: health and
constraints: health and and safety safety risks,
Develops •health
Proposes only •safety risks,
Specifies •risks, engineering
Conceives •engineering
Generate several Page (24-32) A NA
alternative one several several alternative novel design
Develop Alternative

solutions (limited) design incomplete design solutions alternatives that

Please tick the
and designs, that meet most meet the desired
solution

appropriate box
recommends including those of the desired and above and initial
below:
and justifies a that fail to functions and objectives, subject
final meet the desired objectives to the constraints
design objectives
and/or
constraints
• Cannot • Identifies and • Designs account • Understands and Page (24-34)
Justificatio

recommend justifies the for some of anticipates the

n

and/or justify an design with the constraints implications of

appropriate difficulty • Systematically future changes in
Evaluates and •design
Design is • Design is done, •identifies anddesign
A detailed •constraints
Recognizesand life Page (24-32) A NA
Implementation

implements a incomplete but does is done and practical

final No consideration not validate the the final design is significance of
design of practicality implemented design outcome Please tick the
appropriate box
economics, of the design • The design above and initial
safety, and validates against below:
environment the objectives and • Designs show
some of clearly the impact
constraints and
limitations imposed
by the constraints
 16.5 APPENDIX 2.3: Investigations, experiments and data analysis: Graduate attribute 4 rubrics

Indicators Below expectations Marginal Meets Exceed Student statement on Supervisor

expectations expectations fulfilment confirmation
ntMeasureme

Conducts • Unable to • Measures • Measures and • Includes Page (10-16) A NA

planned determine some but not controls all additional tests to
activities which variables to all correct variables study
(experiments, measure or control of the correct necessary to related and
measurement, • Unable to carry and relevant
• Uses solve problem
• Utilizes valid relevant processes
• Develops novel Please tick the
appropriate box
laboratories, out methods that methods methods above and initial
literature planned activity are Conducts • Improves below:

review, ...) • Unaware of basic ineffective, or methods well existing methods,

and analyses tools inefficient and e.g.,
Method

data necessary for the with sufficient reduces error

job, accuracy • Troubleshoots
• Cannot conceive
of practical
implementation.

• Documentation of • Documents • Documents the • Objectively Page (33-36)

calculations Documentation

data some of the relevant data documents all Refer to appendix A

and information is data and and information data and for DeltaEC results
poor information Information.

• Unable to use • Performs • Uses data to • Calculates non‐

data to some basic calculate obvious
calculate additional calculations additional information
information and plots data information (e.g.
and results, • Shows dimensionless
 • Unable to grasp • Shows • Demonstrates • Demonstrates
limitationError / Analysis relationships familiarity the ability to the ability to
between with analyse the analyse
data basic data collected data the collected data
Interprets • Unfamiliar with
Is unaware of analysis
• Is awaretools
of adequately
• Acknowledges skilfully
• Acknowledges Page (33-36) A NA
results and measurement error measurement most of the limitations of data
reaches error but does limitations of and measurement
valid not account data and takes error and accounts
conclusions for them some
• Plotsinto for them
presentationData

• Plots without • Plots data for data as a • Compares Please tick the
appropriate box
units some of the function of results and above and initial
and/or correct correct variables conclusions below:

identification of variables with previous

variables works
• Misinterprets • Makes little • Reaches valid • Presents far
HypothesesFormulate Conclusion

trends and attempt to conclusions reaching

correlations relate data to justified by the conclusions
• Provides theory data • Extends results
physically • Interprets • Relates to other general
Formulates • Unable to • Hypotheses • Hypotheses is • Hypotheses are Page (22-23) A NA
hypotheses construct is defined defined clearly well specified
and hypotheses somewhat
independently clearly
designs
planDevelop investigation

• unable to develop • Develops • Develops • Develops Please tick the

suitable appropriate box
investigation plans investigation investigation investigation above and initial
investigative below:
plans that are plan plans that
approaches
incomplete adequately shows thought
processes based
on an
advanced
understanding of
the system
 Understands • Safety concerns • Unsafe lab • Follows safety • Observes and During the A NA
and / or may procedures protocols of follows standard experiment, I wore
demonstrates become apparent observed the lab safety codes as personal protective
Please tick the
appropriate during infrequently well as lab's equipment as per lab
Safety

appropriate box
safety an activity safety rules and regulations above and initial
below:
protocols • Practices unsafe, protocols
risky
behaviours in lab
16.6 APPENDIX 2.3: Sustainability and Impact of Engineering Activity: Graduate attribute 7 rubrics

Indicators Below Marginal Meets expectations Exceed Student Supervisor

expectations expectations statement on confirmation
fulfilment
Understands the • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Considers and Page (38-39) A NA
social, minimal some understanding evaluates diverse
environmental, understanding of understanding of of diverse interactions of interactions of
economic, diverse diverse engineering on society engineering on Please tick the
appropriate box
health, interactions of interactions of and society above and initial
safety, legal engineering on engineering on the environment. and the below:
and/or society society and environment.
cultural aspects and the the environment.
of environment.
engineering
activities
Able to analyse • Does not know • Understands • Uses methods to • Fully integrates A NA
the uncertainties how that measure measures of
in sustainability is sustainability uncertainty and knows uncertainty in the
the prediction of linked to entails how sustainability Please tick the
interactions uncertainty designing for the they can apply in the evaluation of appropriate box
above and initial
between future context of engineering designs below:
the different which is sustainability and
aspects of uncertain projects
engineering
activities
Conducts social • Is incapable of • Identifies a list • Identifies • Fully quantifies Page (38-39) A NA
and/or identifying of potential environmental the environmental
environmental potential environmental impacts and knows and social impacts
impact analyses environmental impacts of a different associated with
impacts of project in his/her methods to estimate engineering project
a specific project branch of environmental impacts alternatives
in engineering but of • Uses a diversity
Please tick the
his/her branch of cannot engineering designs in of approaches to appropriate box
engineering estimate them his/her "measure" the above and initial
below:
• Is not familiar • Knows the branch of engineering sustainability of
with difference • Uses a learned designs
different between single approach to (e.g., life cycle
methods to objective measure the analysis, multi‐
quantify the and multiple sustainability of criteria
sustainability objective designs (e.g., life cycle analysis, or
of different measures for analysis, monetary
designs sustainability multi‐criteria analysis, valuation)
evaluation of or
designs monetary valuation)
Understands • Cannot define • Understands • Demonstrates a good • Formulates A NA
and/or applies sustainable the three grasp of sustainable
the development dimensions of the three pillars of development
concepts of or sustainable sustainable sustainable into a set of design
environmental design development development as well as objectives as well Please tick the
stewardship, (social justice, the as into evaluation appropriate box
sustainable environmental trade‐offs between them criteria for above and initial
below:
design and preservation, • Knows how they affect engineering project
sustainable economic engineering alternatives
development growth) but does design/implementation • Develops novel
not know how methods for
they relate to evaluating the
engineering sustainability of
engineering designs
16.7 APPENDIX 2.4: Independent Learning: Graduate attribute 9 rubrics

Indicators Below Marginal Meets Exceed Student statement on fulfilment Supervisor

expectations expectations expectations confirmation
Sets goals • Not focused • Student's goal • Aims to place • Is driven to I have taken extra curriculum A NA
on studies is to pass in top 20% of perform; excels courses such as African Insight,
• Has no career course/exam, the class; is a in several Artificial intelligence in 4IR and
goal makes little or member of other areas currently tutoring workshop Please tick the
appropriate box
• Does not no effort in some (sports, music), practice as a part of career and above and initial
engage in other aspects teams or extra‐ taking a educational development at the below:
extracurricular academic life curricular minor University of Johannesburg.
activities • Has no clear groups • Plans for the Outside of engineering and
career goal • Has career career goals, academics, I am football player. I
goals plans on like to spend time with my friends
future studies and family.
(e.g. graduate
school)
Applies • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates A NA
appropriate no some an ability to a skilful ability
knowledge independent independent explore a to
and skills to ability to ability to subject/topic explore a Please tick the
learning explore a explore a independently subject/topic appropriate box
above and initial
activities subject/topic subject/topic • Relates independently below:
• Unable to • Relates academic • Relates and
relate academic learning to applies
academic learning practical issues academic
learning to to some in his/her own learning to a
practical issues practical issues field variety range of
in practical
his/her own issues
field
Engages in • Lacks basic • Focuses on • Is unsatisfied • Strives for the A NA
self- understanding memorization, with superficial deepest possible
direction in many learns explanations or understanding
and self- areas but mechanical understanding; • Identifies Please tick the
appropriate box
evaluation makes no procedures Questions limitations in above and initial
attempt remedy • Does not look assumptions traditional below:
situation outside the • Engages in understanding
course content self‐study on in an area
topics • Attempts
of interest rigorous
solutions to
problems
Locates • Refers only to • Resents • Student • Performs very A NA
required course having to find accepts that deep search;
information textbook or extra sources some finds
class notes for and performs information highly detailed
information only the most must be found or advanced
(i.e., data, cursory • Finds information;
methods, searches information in discovers Please tick the
solutions); fails • Does not the valid esoteric (but appropriate box
above and initial
to realize their follow sources and valid) sources below:
information is references; uses checks relevant • Uses advanced
incomplete; first source references information to
abandons found • Finds all approach
 problem or regardless of required problem from a
deems problem validity; information, new
unsolvable due continually assesses its direction
to lack of asks professor credibility, • Seeks out non‐
required to refers to course books for
information explain course or additional
concepts recommended clarification
textbook(s) for
details
Adapts • Unable to • Realizes a • Recognizes • Generates a A NA
learning identify new problem parallels, solution to a
strategies to analogies or relates to a analogies new
new parallels familiar or similarities to problem by
conditions between situation, but a more familiar drawing from Please tick the
appropriate box
problems; fails to make situation numerous above and initial
slight the all • Is able to situations; below:

variations make necessary adapt from similarities are

familiar adaptations known found with
problems approach significantly
unsolvable • Is able to different
generate few situations; final
new solution is
tactics as highly novel,
needed adept and/or
elegant
 16.8 APPENDIX 2.5: Engineering Professionalism: Graduate attribute 10 rubrics

Indicators Below Marginal Meets expectations Exceed expectations Student Supervisor

expectations statement confirmation
on
fulfilment
Appreciates • Unable to • Appreciates some • Appreciates and • Appreciates and A NA
and identify issues issues articulates articulates
articulates and dilemmas and dilemmas in issues and dilemmas sophisticated issues and
Please tick the
issues and related to following in dilemmas in appropriate box
dilemmas ethics and equity the requirements of following the following the above and initial
below:
related to professional ethics requirements of requirements of
Knowledge

ethics and and professional ethics professional ethics and

equity equity equity, and in
relation to larger,
substantive issues
Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates • Demonstrates complete Page (38- A NA
knowledge of minimal some understanding understanding of the 39)
ethical understanding of understanding of of the ECSA Code of ECSA Code of
standards (i.e. the the Ethics Ethics
Code of ECSA Code of ECSA Code of
Ethics) Ethics Ethics
• Cannot analyse • Analyses the • Analyses the ethical • Analyses the ethical Please tick the
appropriate box
Analysis

the ethical issues issues issues involved above and initial

ethical issues involved in some involved in most in different situation and below:

involved in situation situation and applies

 different situations but cannot apply applies ethical ethical standards
ethical standards
standards

Resolves • Cannot generate • Generates • Generates and •Generates and A NA

ethical approaches to approaches for understands understands
issues and/or address nor resolving some approaches for approaches for resolving Please tick the
issues of resolve ethical aspects of resolving ethical ethical appropriate box
above and initial
equity issues and ethical/equity issues dilemmas and issues dilemmas and issues of below:
issues of equity and of equity equity in
dilemmas in relation to relation to both
professional ethics professional and
substantive ethics
Demonstrates • Cannot • Infrequently • Recommends • Recommends actions A NA
individual recommend recommends actions that are that
accountabilit actions that are actions that are not accountable demonstrate Please tick the
appropriate box
y accountable accountable accountability and that above and initial
have broader below:
implications