8

Chapter

Managing
Change and
Innovation

8-1

1
 Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define organizational change and compare and contrast
views on the change process.
• Explain how to manage resistance to change.
• Describe what managers need to know about employee
stress.
• Discuss techniques for stimulating innovation.

8-2

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define organizational change and compare and contrast views on the change
process.
• Explain how to manage resistance to change.
• Describe what managers need to know about employee stress, and
• Discuss techniques for stimulating innovation.

2
8-3

3
 What Is Organizational Change?

8-4

If it weren’t for change, a manager’s job would be easy. Organization design would be stable because the
environment would be free from uncertainty so there would be no need to adapt. Decision making would be
simplified because the outcome of each alternative could be accurately predicted. A manager’s job would be
much easier if competitors never introduced new products or services, if customers didn’t make new demands, if
government regulations were never modified, if technology never advanced, and if employees’ needs remained
the same.
But change is an organizational reality. Workplace changes are classified as organizational change, which is any
alteration of an organization’s structure, technology, or people, as illustrated here in Exhibit 8-1.
1. Changes in structure includes any alteration in authority relationships, coordination mechanisms,
degree of centralization, job design, or similar variables. For example, restructuring can result in
decentralization, wider spans of control, reduced work specialization, and work teams.
2. Changing technology includes modifications to the way work is done or to the methods and equipment
used. One organizational area where managers deal with changing technology is continuous
improvement initiatives, which focus on developing flexible processes to support better-quality
operations. Employees committed to continuous improvement are constantly looking for things to fix,
so work processes must be adaptable to continual change. This adaptability requires an extensive
commitment to educating and training workers in problem solving, decision making, negotiation,
statistical analysis, and team-building. Workers must also be able to analyze and act on data.
3. Changes in people refer to changes in employee attitudes, expectations, perceptions, or behaviors. To
adapt well to change, the workforce must be committed to quality and continuous improvement, which
stem from proper employee education and training, performance evaluation, and a reward system that
supports and encourages those improvements.

4
 The Need for Change: External Factors
External factors:
• Marketplace
• Government laws and
regulations
• Technology
• Fluctuations in labor markets
• Economic changes

8-5

Both external and internal forces in the environment bring about the need for change.
The external forces that create the need for organizational change come from various
sources, including:
• The marketplace reflects intense competition in recent years.
• Government laws and regulations are another impetus for change. For example,
when the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed into law, thousands of
businesses were required to widen doorways, reconfigure restrooms, and add
ramps.
• Technology also creates the need for organizational change. The Internet has
changed how we get information, how products are sold, and how we get our work
done. Technological advancements have created significant economies of scale for
many organizations.
• Fluctuations in labor markets can force managers to initiate changes. For example,
the shortage of registered nurses in the United States has led hospital administrators
to redesign nursing jobs, alter their rewards and benefits packages for nurses, and
join forces with local universities to address the shortage of nurses.
• Economic changes affect almost all organizations. For example, prior to the
mortgage market meltdown, significant growth in the housing market meant more
jobs, more new hires, and increased sales in other businesses that supported the
building industry. But as the economy soured, the housing industry and other related
industries shrunk as credit markets dried up and businesses couldn’t get the capital
needed to operate.

5
 The Need for Change: Internal Forces
Internal forces:
• Redefined or
modified
organizational
strategy
• Composition of
workforce
• Employee attitudes

8-6

Internal forces can also create the need for organizational change. These internal
forces can originate from the internal operations of the organization or from the
impact of external changes, both of which are a normal part of the organizational life
cycle.

Redefining or modifying an organization’s strategy often introduces a host of changes.

For example, bringing in new equipment is an internal force for change that can result
in employees facing job redesign, undergoing training to operate the new equipment,
or establishing new interaction patterns within their work groups.

Another internal force for change is a shift in the composition of an organization’s

workforce in terms of age, education, gender, nationality, and so forth. A stable
organization in which managers have been in their positions for years might need to
restructure jobs to retain more ambitious employees and to rework the
compensation and benefits systems to reflect the needs of a diverse workforce and to
respond to market forces in which certain skills are in short supply.

Employee attitudes, such as increased job dissatisfaction, may lead to increased

absenteeism, resignations, and even strikes. Such events will likely lead to changes in

6
organizational policies and practices.

6
 Initiating Change

Organizational change – Any alteration of an

organization’s people, structure, or technology
. 8-7

Organizational changes need a catalyst. People who act as catalysts and assume the
responsibility for managing the change process are called change agents.
A change agent can be a manager, internal staff specialist, or outside consultant with
expertise in change implementation. Consultants who come from the outside offer an
objective perspective that insiders usually lack, but they may not understand the
organization’s history, culture, operating procedures, and personnel. They’re also prone to
initiating more drastic changes than insiders—which can be either a benefit or a
disadvantage—because they don’t have to live with the repercussions after the change is
implemented.
In contrast, internal managers who act as change agents may be more thoughtful—and
possibly more cautious—because they must live with the consequences of their actions.

7
 The Change Process

. 8-8

We often use two metaphors to illustrate the change process. The “calm waters”
metaphor envisions the organization as a large ship crossing a calm sea. Change
appears as the occasional storm, a brief distraction in an otherwise calm and
predictable trip.

In the “white-water rapids” metaphor, the organization is seen as a small raft

navigating a raging river with uninterrupted white-water rapids. Aboard the raft are
half a dozen people who have never worked together before, who are totally
unfamiliar with the river, and who are unsure of their eventual destination. In this
metaphor, change is the status quo and managing change is a continual process.

These two metaphors represent distinctly different approaches to understanding and

responding to change, as we will see.

8
 “Calm Waters” Change

8-9

We often use two metaphors to illustrate the change process. The “calm waters” metaphor envisions the
organization as a large ship crossing a calm sea. Change appears as the occasional storm, a brief distraction in an
otherwise calm and predictable trip.
In the “white-water rapids” metaphor, the organization is seen as a small raft navigating a raging river with
uninterrupted white-water rapids. Aboard the raft are half a dozen people who have never worked together
before, who are totally unfamiliar with the river, and who are unsure of their eventual destination. In this
metaphor, change is the status quo and managing change is a continual process.
Until recently, the “calm waters” metaphor dominated the thinking of practicing managers and academics. The
prevailing model for handling change in such circumstances is best illustrated in Kurt Lewin’s three-step
description of the change process, as seen here in Exhibit 8-2.
According to Lewin, successful change requires unfreezing the status quo, changing to a new state, and freezing
the new change to make it permanent. The status quo can be considered a state of equilibrium. Unfreezing is
necessary to move from this equilibrium and can be achieved in one of three ways:
1. The driving forces, which direct behavior away from the status quo, can be increased.
2. The restraining forces, which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium, can be decreased.
3. The two approaches can be combined.
Once the situation has been unfrozen, the change can be implemented. However, for the change to take hold it
needs to be frozen so it can be sustained over time. Otherwise the change will be short-lived and employees will
revert to the previous state of equilibrium. Therefore, the objective of freezing the new state of equilibrium is to
stabilize the new situation by balancing the driving and restraining forces.
Note how Lewin’s three-step process treats change as a break in the organization’s equilibrium state. This view
might have been appropriate to the relatively calm environment faced by most organizations during the
twentieth century, but it’s it’s an increasingly inaccurate description of the kinds of “seas” that current managers
have to navigate.

9
 “White-Water Rapids” Change

. 8-10

In contrast, the “white-water rapids” metaphor is further described by Susan Whiting, chair of Nielsen
Media Research, the company best known for its television ratings. In an environment of changing
technologies that make data collection more challenging, Whiting describes her job by saying, “If you
look at a typical week I have, it’s a combination of trying to lead a company in change in an industry in
change.”

Whiting aptly describes our white-water rafting metaphor, which is consistent with a world
that’s increasingly dominated by information, ideas, and knowledge.

To get a feeling of what managing change might be like in a white-water rapids environment,
consider attending a college that had the following rules: Courses vary in length. When you
sign up, you don’t know how long a course will run. The instructor can end a course at any
time with no prior warning and the length of the class changes each time it meets.
Additionally, the time of the next class meeting is set by the instructor during this class. Also,
all exams are unannounced, so you have to be ready for a test at any time.

Welcome to business in the twenty-first century!

Not every manager faces such a world but the number who do is increasing. Disruptions in
the status quo are no longer occasional and temporary, and they are not followed by a return
to calm waters. Many managers never get out of the rapids and face constant forces in the
external and internal environment that bring about the need for organizational change.

10
 Implementing Change

Organization
development – Efforts
that assist members
with a planned
change by focusing on
their attitudes and
values

8-11

Most changes that employees experience in an organization don’t happen by chance.

Often managers make a concerted effort to alter some aspect of the organization —
such as its structure or technology—which ultimately affects organizational members.
Organization development (OD) refers to the organization’s efforts to assist
organizational members with a planned change.

In facilitating long-term, organization-wide changes, OD focuses on constructively

changing the attitudes and values of organization members so that they can more
readily adapt to and be more effective in achieving the new directions of the
organization.

Essentially, organization leaders attempt to change the organization’s culture.

However, OD relies on employee participation to foster an environment of open
communication and trust because change can create stress for employees.

11
 Implementing Change (cont.)

Organizational development
tactics:
• Survey feedback
• Process consultation
• Team-building
• Intergroup development

. 8-12

OD tries to involve organizational members in changes that will affect their jobs and seeks
their input about how the change is affecting them (just as Lewin suggested). The more
popular OD efforts in organizations rely heavily on group interactions and cooperation, and
include survey feedback, process consultation, team-building, and intergroup development.
Survey feedback efforts are designed to assess employee attitudes about, and perceptions
of, the change they are encountering. Employees generally respond to a set of specific
questions regarding how they view such organizational aspects as decision making,
leadership, communication effectiveness, and satisfaction with their jobs, coworkers, and
management. This data is used to clarify problems that employees may be facing and to
initiate action to remedy the problems.
In process consultation, outside consultants help managers to perceive, understand, and act
on organizational processes they face, such as workflow, informal relationships among unit
members, and formal communication channels. Consultants give managers insight into what
is going on and help managers diagnose the interpersonal processes that need improvement.
A primary function of OD is to help organizational members become a team. Team-building
is generally an activity that helps work groups set goals, develop positive interpersonal
relationships, and clarify the roles and responsibilities of each team member. The primary
focus of team-building is to increase members’ trust of and openness toward one another.
Intergroup development focuses on helping different work groups to become more
cohesive. It attempts to change attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that one group may
have toward another in order to improve coordination of efforts among the various groups.

12
 . 8-13

13
 Resistance to Change
• Fear about adaptation
• Habits
• Fear of losing something already
possessed
• Belief that the change is
incompatible with the goals and
interests of the organization

. 8-14

It’s often said that most people hate any change that doesn’t jingle in their pockets. Change is
difficult, disruptive, and sometimes scary—unless the payoff is made appealing. As a result,
organizations and their members often build inertia that causes them to resist any change,
even if this change would be beneficial.
More specifically, employees resist organization change due to uncertainty, habit, concern
over personal loss, and the belief that the change is not in the organization’s best interest.
For example, when quality control methods are introduced into manufacturing plants, many
inspectors have to learn the new methods. Some may fear that they won’t be able to do so
and may develop a negative attitude toward the change or behave poorly if required to use
the new methods.
Another cause of resistance is that we do things out of habit—we don’t want to have to
consider the full range of options for the hundreds of decisions we make every day.
A third cause of resistance is the fear of losing something already possessed. The more that
people have invested in the current system, the more they resist change because they fear
losing status, money, authority, friendships, personal convenience, or other benefits that
they value.
A final cause of resistance is a belief that the change is incompatible with the goals and
interests of the organization. For instance, an employee who believes that a proposed new
job procedure will reduce product quality can be expected to resist the change. This type of
resistance can actually be beneficial to the organization if expressed in a positive way.

14
 Reducing Resistance to Change

. 8-15

There are several strategies for dealing with resistance to change. These approaches include
education and communication, participation, facilitation and support, negotiation,
manipulation and co-optation, and coercion, and are described here in Exhibit 8-3. Managers
should view these techniques as tools and use the most appropriate one depending on the
type and source of the resistance.
• Education and communication can reduce resistance to change by helping
employees see the logic of the change effort. Of course, this technique, assumes that
much of the resistance lies in misinformation or poor communication.
• Participation involves bringing those individuals directly affected by the proposed
change into the decision-making process. It allows these individuals to express their
feelings, increase the quality of the process, and increase employee commitment to
the final decision.
• Facilitation and support involve helping employees deal with the fear and anxiety
associated with the change effort. Such help may include employee counseling,
therapy, new skills training, or a short paid leave of absence.
• Negotiation involves exchanging something of value for an agreement in order to
lessen the resistance to the change effort. This resistance technique may be
particularly useful when the resistance comes from a powerful source.
• Manipulation and co-optation refer to covert attempts to influence others about
the change. These tactics may involve twisting or distorting facts to make the change
appear more attractive.
• Finally, coercion, which involves the use of direct threats or force against the
resisters, can also be used to deal with resistance to change.

15
8-16

16
 Employee Reactions to Change

. 8-17

For many employees, change creates stress. A dynamic and uncertain environment
characterized by restructurings, downsizings, empowerment, and personal-life matters has
caused large numbers of employees to feel overworked and “stressed out.”
Sometimes the stress gets to be so intense that individuals respond in a drastic (and tragic)
way. In the following slides, we’ll review the meaning of the term “stress,” the symptoms of
stres, the causes of stress, and what managers can do to reduce anxiety.

17
 What Is Stress?

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to

excessive pressure placed on them from
extraordinary demands, constraints, or
opportunities.

. 8-18

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure placed on them from extraordinary
demands, constraints, or opportunities. Stress isn’t always bad. Although it’s often discussed in a
negative context, stress can be positive—especially functional stress, which allows an athlete, stage
performer, or employee to perform at his or her highest level at crucial times.

However, stress is more often associated with constraints and demands. A constraint prevents you
from doing what you desire; demands refer to the loss of something desired.

Another thing to understand about stress is that just because the conditions are right for stress to
surface doesn’t always mean it will. Two conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual
stress. First, there must be uncertainty over the outcome, and second, the outcome must be
important.

18
 Symptoms of Stress

Copyright ©2012 Pen, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 8-19

Stress can manifest in different ways. For example, an employee who is experiencing
high stress may become depressed, accident prone, or argumentative; may have
difficulty making routine decisions; or may be easily distracted. As Exhibit 8-4 shows,
stress symptoms can be grouped under three general categories: physical,
psychological, and behavioral. All of these can significantly affect an employee’s work.

Too much stress can also have tragic consequences. In Japan, there’s a stress
phenomenon called karoshi (pronounced kah-roe-she), which is translated literally as
“death from overwork.” During the late 1980s, several high-ranking Japanese
executives in their prime years were reported to have suddenly died without any
previous sign of illness. As public concern increased, even the Japanese Ministry of
Labor got involved and now publishes statistics on the number of karoshi deaths. As
Japanese multinational companies expand operations to China, Korea, and Taiwan,
it’s feared that the karoshi culture may follow.

19
 Causes of Stress

Categories of organizational stressors:

1. Task demands
2. Role demands
3. Interpersonal demands
4. Organization structure
5. Organizational leadership

. 8-20

Stress can be caused by personal factors and by job-related factors called stressors. Clearly,
change of any kind—personal or job-related—has the potential to cause stress because it
involves demands, constraints, or opportunities.
Let’s take a look at five categories of organizational stressors: task, role, and interpersonal
demands; organization structure; and organizational leadership.
1. Task demands are factors related to an employee’s job. They include the design of a
job (which includes autonomy, task variety, and degree of automation); working
conditions; and the physical work layout. Work quotas can put pressure on
employees when “outcomes” are perceived as too large to meet. Additionally, the
more interdependence there is between an employee’s tasks and the tasks of others,
the more potential stress that employee feels. Jobs in which uncomfortable
temperatures, noise, or dangerous or undesirable working conditions exist can
increase anxiety.
2. Role demands are pressures placed on an employee as a function of the particular
role he or she plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may
be hard to reconcile or satisfy. An employee experiences role overload when he or
she is expected to do more than time permits. An employee experiences role
ambiguity when role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is
not sure what he or she is supposed to do.
3. Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees. Lack of social
support from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause considerable
stress, especially among employees with a high social need.
4. Organization structure can increase stress. Excessive rules and an employee’s lack of
opportunity to participate in decisions that affect him or her are examples of
structural variables that might be potential sources of stress.
5. Organizational leadership refers to the supervisory style of the organization’s

20
managers. Some managers create a culture characterized by tension, fear, and
anxiety. They establish unrealistic pressures to perform in the short run, impose
excessively tight controls, and routinely fire employees who don’t measure up. This
style of leadership filters down through the organization and affects all employees.

20
 Personal Factors that Create Stress

. 8-21

Personal factors can also create stress. These include family issues, personal
economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics. Because employees
bring their personal problems to work, a manager must understand and address
these personal factors. Evidence also indicates that employees’ personalities have an
effect on how susceptible they are to stress. The most commonly used labels for
these personality traits are Type A and Type B.

The Type A personality is characterized by a chronic feeling of time urgency, an

excessive competitive drive, and difficulty accepting and enjoying leisure time. In
contrast, Type B personalities never suffer from time urgency or impatience. Recent
research shows that both Type As and Type Bs are susceptible to the same anxiety-
producing elements, and studies show that the hostility and anger associated with
Type A behavior are actually associated with the negative effects of stress.

Therefore, it’s important for managers to recognize that Type A employees are more
likely to show symptoms of stress, even if organizational and personal stressors are
low.

21
 Reducing Stress

• Match employee skills

to job requirements
• Redesign jobs
• Offer employee
assistance programs

. 8-22

As mentioned earlier, not all stress is dysfunctional. Even though stress can never be
totally eliminated, managers want to reduce the stress that leads to dysfunctional
work behavior by controlling certain organizational factors that can reduce job-
related stress, and, to a more limited extent, offering help for personal stress.

To reduce job-related stress, managers begin with employee selection —making sure
that an employee’s abilities match the job requirements. A realistic job preview
during the selection process can help minimize stress by clarifying job expectations.
Ongoing organizational communications keep ambiguity-induced stress to a
minimum. Similarly, a performance planning program (such as MBO) states job
responsibilities clearly, provides clear performance goals, and reduces ambiguity
through feedback.

Job redesign can also reduce stress by increasing challenge, including employees in
decision making, or reducing the workload.

Stress from an employee’s personal life may be mitigated by his or her involvement in
an employee assistance or wellness programs. The rationale for employee assistance
programs is to get a productive employee back on the job as quickly as possible.
Wellness programs are designed to help cut employer health costs and to lower
absenteeism and turnover by preventing health-related problems.

22
. 8-23

23
 Encouraging Innovation

. 8-24

Success in business today demands innovation. In the dynamic, chaotic world of global
competition, organizations must create new products and services and adopt state-of-the-art
technology if they’re going to compete successfully.

Creativity refers to the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual
associations between ideas. A creative organization develops unique ways of working or
novel solutions to problems. For instance, at Mattel, company officials introduced “Project
Platypus,” a special group that includes people from a variety of disciplines such as
engineering, marketing, design, and sales, and tries to get them to “think outside the box” to
understand the sociology and psychology behind children’s play patterns. To fuel this kind of
thinking, team members embarked on imagination exercises, group crying, and juggling with
a stuffed-bunny to learn to “let go.”

Thus, innovation the process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product,
service, or method of operation. The innovative organization is characterized by its ability to
channel creativity into useful outcomes. When managers talk about changing an organization
to make it more creative, they usually mean they want to stimulate and nurture innovation.

24
 Encouraging Innovation (cont.)

. 8-25

Some people believe that creativity is inborn; others believe that with training, anyone can
be creative. The latter group views creativity as a fourfold process consisting of perception,
incubation, inspiration, and innovation.
Perception involves the way you see things; being creative means seeing things from a
unique perspective. While employees sit on their ideas to incubate, they should collect
massive amounts of data that can be stored, retrieved, studied, reshaped, and finally molded
into something new.
Inspiration, that is the moment when all your efforts successfully come together in the
creative process, is similar. Innovation takes inspiration and turns it into a useful product,
service, or way of doing things.
The systems model helps us understand how organizations become more innovative. If an
organization wants innovative products and work methods (outputs), it has to take its inputs
(creative people and groups) and transform them into those outputs.
The transformation process requires the right environment to turn those inputs into
innovative products or work methods. This “right” environment—that is, an environment
that stimulates innovation—includes three variables: the organization’s structure, culture,
and human resource practices, as seen in Exhibit 8-5.

25
 Structural Variables and Innovation

. 8-26

Research into the effect of structural variables on innovation shows five things:
1. An organic-type structure positively influences innovation. Because this
structure is low in formalization, centralization, and work specialization, it
facilitates the flexibility and sharing of ideas that are critical to innovation.
2. The availability of plentiful resources is a key building block for innovation.
With an abundance of resources, managers can afford to purchase
innovations, can afford the cost of instituting innovations, and can absorb
failures.
3. Frequent communication between organizational units helps break down
barriers to innovation. Cross-functional teams, task forces, and other such
organizational designs facilitate interaction across departmental lines and are
widely used in innovative organizations.
4. Innovative organizations try to minimize extreme time pressures on creative
activities despite the demands of white-water rapids-type environments.
Although time pressures may spur people to work harder and may make them
feel more creative, studies show that it actually causes them to be less
creative.
5. Studies have shown that when an organization’s structure explicitly supports
creativity, employees’ creative performance can be enhanced. Beneficial
kinds of support include encouragement, open communication, readiness to
listen, and useful feedback.

26
 Culture and Innovation

Innovative
organizations:
• Encourage
experimentation
• Reward both
successes and
failures
• Celebrate
mistakes

. 8-27

Innovative organizations tend to have similar cultures that encourage experimentation;

reward both successes and failures; and celebrate mistakes. An innovative organization is
likely to have the following characteristics:

1. It accepts ambiguity. Too much emphasis on objectivity and specificity constrains

creativity.
2. It tolerates the impractical. Individuals who offer impractical, even foolish, answers
to “what-if” questions are not stifled. What at first seems impractical might lead to
innovative solutions.
3. It keeps external controls minimal. Rules, regulations, policies, and similar
organizational controls are kept to a minimum.
4. It tolerates risk. Employees are encouraged to experiment without fear of
consequences should they fail. Mistakes are treated as learning opportunities.
5. It tolerates conflict. Diversity of opinions is encouraged. Harmony and agreement
among individuals or units are not assumed to be evidence of high performance.
6. It focuses on ends rather than means. Goals are made clear, and individuals are
encouraged to consider alternative routes to reach these goals. Focusing on ends
suggests that there might be several right answers to any given problem.
7. It uses an open-system focus. Managers closely monitor the environment and
respond to changes as they occur, and
8. It provides positive feedback. Managers provide positive feedback, encouragement,
and support so employees feel that their creative ideas receive attention.

27
 HR and Innovation

HR aids innovation by:

• Promoting training and development
• Offering high job security
• Encouraging individuals to become idea champions
• Supporting new ideas
• Overcoming resistance
• Implementing innovations

. 8-28

Are there any human resource variables that affect innovation? Yes—innovative
organizations actively promote the training and development of their members so the
members’ knowledge remains current. They offer their employees high job security
to reduce the fear of getting fired for making mistakes, and they encourage
individuals to become idea champions by actively and enthusiastically supporting
new ideas, building support, overcoming resistance, and ensuring that innovations
are implemented.

Research finds that idea champions have certain personality characteristics in

common: extremely high self-confidence, persistence, energy, and a tendency toward
risk taking. They also display characteristics associated with dynamic leadership: They
inspire and energize others with their vision of the potential of an innovation and
through their strong personal conviction in their mission. They’re also good at gaining
the commitment of others to support their mission.

Idea champions also have jobs that provide considerable decision-making discretion.
This autonomy helps them introduce and implement innovations in organizations.

28