Understanding the Earth Science and Biology

Why Earth Science and Biology are important? It is an integrated study of the Earth's history,
composition, and structure, its atmosphere and oceans, and its environment in space. Knowledge of
Earth Science is important because most human activities are related to interaction with the planet
Earth. Basic knowledge about the Earth, then, is the key to development of an informed citizenry .
Weather, climate and natural hazards, all controlled by the Earth system, play key roles in everyone's day to
day life. 

The primary goal of Earth sciences are the fields of study concerned with the solid Earth, its waters, and the
air that envelops it. They include the geologic, hydrologic, and atmospheric sciences with the broad aim of
understanding Earth's present features and past evolution and using this knowledge to benefit humankind.

Week 1 - Topic: Origin and Structure of Earth

 There many different hypothesis and theories:
 Creationism
 Big Bang Theory
 Steady state universe
 Eternal inflation
 Oscillating Universe
 Plasma

 Origin of the Solar System

-There are two general hypotheses on the origin of the solar system, classified based on how it happened:
 Catastrophic or unnatural events
 Natural and continuous processes

 different hypothesis on the origin of the solar system:

-Under the type of catastrophic and unnatural events
 Random Capture Hypothesis
 Fission theory
 Collision Theory
 Encounter Hypothesis

 Under the type of natural and continuous process

 Nebular Hypothesis
 Solar Nebular Disc Model
 Protoplanet Hypothesis

 Earth’s Systems
-Earth is composed of four basic subsystems: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Week 2 - Topic: Rocks and Minerals

Rock- the solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other similar planets, exposed
on the surface or underlying the soil or oceans.

 There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each of these rocks are
formed by physical change such as melting, cooling, eroding, compacting, or deforming that are part
of the rock cycle.
Minerals- are solid substances that are present in nature and can be made of one element or more elements
combined together (chemical compounds).
Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth.
 There are three types of weathering
 Physical/mechanical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Organic or biological weathering
Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural
forces such as wind or water.

Week 3 - Topic: Source of Earth’s Internal Heat

The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at 47±2 terawatts (TW) and comes from
two main sources in roughly equal amounts.
Earth's eternal heat are divided into two which are the primordial heat and radioactive decay.
Primordial heat - refers to the heat accumulated at the earth’s internal layers after its first years of
evolution. This heat was converted from accretional energy and differentiation energy.
Radioactive Decay - second source of the Earth’s internal heat. It is the process wherein nucleus of
unstable isotopes is removed.The most abundant unstable isotopes are of Uranium, Thorium and
Potassium. The decay of these isotopes contributes largely to Earth’s Internal heat.
Magma - is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma
can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into Earth's cold crust. As the liquid rock solidifies, it
loses its heat to the surrounding crust
 Types of magma:
Magma formation - can occur in three different methods depending on the temperature, pressure, and
material property of the Earth’s mantle and crust.
 These methods are:
Decompression melting - involves the upward movement of Earth's mostly-solid mantle. This hot material
rises to an area of lower pressure through the process of convection.
Heat transfer - when hot liquid rocks from beneath the Earth’s surface rises and comes in contact with the
Crust layer, these liquid rocks solidify.
Flux melting - since the mantle has a high temperature, when volatile compounds, like water and carbon
dioxide are added, it will melt at lower temperature.

Week 4 - Topic: Metamorphism

Metamorphism - is the transformation of rocks and minerals due to changing temperature, pressure, and
chemical conditions. When rocks are exposed to conditions that deviates from its normal conditions, it
results to formation of new minerals that can withstand the new conditions.
 three agents for metamorphism: Temperature, Pressure and Water.
 There are five different types of metamorphism are:
 Contact metamorphism - occurs at shallow depths where there is temperature difference.
Factors: low pressure and high temp. Rocks formed : schist and gneiss
 Regional Metamorphism - It is the most common type of metamorphism.
Factors: both high pressure and temp. Rocks formed : quartzite and marble.
 Burial Metamorphism - occurs when rocks are buried in layers in sedimentary basins
Factors: both high pressure and temp. Rock formed : zeolite
 Hydrothermal Metamorphism - a process where there is a change in chemical composition of a rock
due to its reaction with hot water.
Factors: both low pressure and temp. Rocks formed : pegamatites and soapstone
 Dynamic Metamorphism - also called Cataclastic Metamorphism. Usually occurs along the Earth’s
fault lines where rocks are scrape together
Factors: high pressure and low temp. Rock formed: mylonite

Week 5 - Topic: Plate movement

Plate movement - It is the movement of plates away or towards each other. It can cause displacement of
rocks or crustal deformation especially when strong forces are applied.
 Different kind of stress in plate movement
 Tensional Stress - stress that tends to pull something apart.
 Shear stress - is force tending to cause deformation of a material by slippage along a plane.
 Compressional stress - occurs when layers of rocks squeeze inward.
 Folds can be described into two anticline and syncline.
 Anticline - upfold or convexing up of rock layers
 Syncline - downfold or warping downward of rock layers.
Faults are formed when compressional stress overcomes the internal strengths of rocks.
 Faults can be classified in normal faults and reverse faults.
 Normal faults - opposite direction
 Reverse faults - block of rock to be pushed over the block.
Stratified Rocks
There are two classifications of rocks. First is the stratified rocks - that show distinct layers that can be
easily split. Second is the unstratified rocks - that do not show any sign of layering.
 4 stages of Stratification
 Sedimentation
 Compaction
 Addition of layers
 Cementation

Week 6 - Topic : Geologic Time Scale

 Relative and Absolute Dating
-Relative and absolute dating are methods used in developing the geologic time scale.
 Relative dating determines the order o past events without needing to identify their definite age.
 Absolute dating determines the actual dates of events.
-Stratigraphy studies the order of the layering of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, volcanic and metamorphic.
 Principles of relative chronology
 Superposition
 Cross-cutting relationship
 Original horizontally
 Uniformitarianism
-Geologic Time Scale is a classification system that organizes the changes that occurred during the Earth’s
evolution.
 Eon – the largest of the geologic time scale. It is subdivided into two divisions, the Precambrian eon,
which refers to the formation of earth, and the Phanerozoic Eon, which refers to the eon where most
macroscopic organisms diversified.
 Era – this division has three major subdivisions, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The divisions of
the Era pertain to the evolution of animal life on Earth.
 Period – this division of the time scale is more detailed compared to the other divisions. Periods are
subdivisions of the three eras.
 Paleozoic – 7 periods
 Mesozoic – 3 periods
 Cenozoic – 2 periods

Week 7 - Topic: Natural Processes and Hazards

 Natural Disasters and its Hazards
-The earth has many geologic processes, many of which may cause natural disasters such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
-Earthquakes are hazardous because they are spontaneous. There are many hazards associated with
earthquakes. It could be primary or secondary.
 Primary Hazards:
Ground Shaking - It is the main hazard of earthquake. Depending on the intensity, an earthquake can
destroy buildings and their structures due to ground shaking.
Ground Subsidence - Happens when an area moves lower due to the collapse of bedrock or structures
beneath the ground (depleted aquifers or oil deposits).
Ground Displacement - This usually happens in areas closest to the fault. It can tear up a building or
destroy structures.
Surface Rupture – like ground displacement, surface rupture usually happens in areas closest to the fault.
Landslides – a geological process characterized by ground movement such as rock fall and failure of
slopes.
Liquefaction - is the mixing of sand and groundwater due to moderate or strong earthquakes.
 Secondary Hazards:
Tsunamis – abnormal, tall waves that happens in oceans or seas due to ground shaking and lifting of the
sea floor.
Seiches, on the other hand, are smaller that tsunamis that happen in lakes.
Volcanic Eruptions – geological process where in gases and materials are discharged from a volcano. It
can be explosive or effusive depending on the type of volcano.

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic
ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

 Main Hazards
volcanic gases are emitted during eruptions. The main volcanic gases are water vapor, sulfur dioxide and
carbon dioxide. Smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, helium, hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen chloride
are also released.
pyroclastic flows – highly dense materials, including rock fragments and gases that flow rapidly. Usually,
they are fluidized since they contain water and air.
Pyroclastic surge - are like pyroclastic flows but are less dense. There are three main types of pyroclastic
surges: the base surge that forms initially after eruption, the ground surge that forms at the base of
pyroclastic flow and the ash cloud surge that flows upward due to convection.
Lahar - are like pyroclastic flow that contains more water due to precipitation, flood, or bodies of water.
tephra - is a general term for rock fragments or solid materials that were blasted or flown way during
eruption.
volcanic earthquake - happen due to the pressure caused by the volcanic eruption.
lava flow - is the least dangerous of all the hazards. It consists of molten rocks that flows slowly,
depending on its silica content, temperature, and slope of the land.
Landslide – is a geological process characterizes by ground movement such as rock fall and failure of
slopes.
 Landslides are hazardous. Some of its hazards are the debris and rock fall and debris flow.
 Main Hazards
Debris and Rock Fall - pertains to minimal movement or falling of rocks and soil along the slope. It poses
minimum danger or risk such as blockage of tributaries and roads or trails. Debris flow pertains to the fast
flow of soil, rocks and debris due to intense rainfall.

Active Volcano – have erupted at least once in the past 10,000 years. These volcanoes are more likely to
erupt sooner, and pose more threats and hazards.
Dormant volcano – have not erupted in the past 10,000 years. These volcanoes may still erupt but pose
less threat and hazards.
Erupting – having eruptions. These volcanoes pose threat and hazards.
Extinct Volcano – not expected to erupt anymore because there have been blocked and solidified.
 Mining – is the process of extracting minerals and/or metals from the earth.
-Two types of Mining:
 Large-scale Mining
 Small-scale Mining
How does mining trigger landslides?
-In fact, it is one of the major causes of deforestation. Before establishing mine sites, trees and other
vegetation are cleared and burned.

Week 8 - Topic: Natural Processes and Hazards

Hazard maps shows the probability of the occurrence of a disaster in a particular area. It describes the areas
at risk of a natural disaster. 
Flood Hazard Map - Hazard maps are classified into what disaster they are showing. A flood hazard map
shows the flood prone areas.
Landslide Hazard Map - A landslide hazard map shows the areas prone to landslide.
Tropical Cyclone - It is a system rotating winds developing in a low-pressure area which sufficiently
intense to produce sustained gale force winds of at least 63 km/hr. on average. It is moving clockwise
direction as it is in the Southern hemisphere. Tropical cyclones are also known as hurricanes or typhoons.
 Hazards:
 Storm Surge – a water that is pushed towards the shore caused by swirling around the storm.
 Strong Winds – these are winds caused by cyclones of strong typhoons.
 Mini-swirl – also known as micro-tornadoes, eyewall mesovortices, or spin-up vortices.
Inland Flooding – it is a rise in inland water level caused by heavy rainfall.
 There are different kinds of Floods:
 flash floods, river floods, and sewer floods.  
Flash Floods – fast moving and unexpected floods occurring in a short period of time. Flash floods can
destroy houses, buildings and other infrastructures, crops and other vegetation and may even cause loss of
lives. 
River Floods – occur when water overflows from river banks.
Sewer Foods – occur when water overflows from sewages. 
Floods - occur even when there are no cyclones. Sometimes frequent heavy rainfall during the wet season
is enough to cause floods. 
 Hazards:
Landslide – it is a massive movement of a large area of soil down a slope. Floods in elevated areas or the
rushing of waters in rivers carry away soils, thus resulting to landslides. In other instances, a landslide
occurs after a heavy rainfall or flood. 
Health Hazard – sewer floods may carry along various diseases. One good example is Leptospirosis. An
infectious bacterial disease caused by contaminated animal urine. 
Monsoon - is a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction. In the tropics, monsoons are usually
characterized by a season of heavy rainfall. 
 Hazards: 
 Cyclones
 Floods
 Landslides
 Strong Winds
Coast formation is highly influenced by wave activities and tidal conditions. The different coastal
processes are broadly observed to be erosion, transportation, and deposition. The main causes of coastal
formation, as influence by coastal processes, are the activities of waves ad tides. Waves are product of
ocean or sea activities influenced by the duration, intensity, and distance travelled by wind.
Tides are created due to Earth’s lithosphere reacting to the gravitational pull of the sun, moon and other
planets. Tidal force is affected by the mass of the attracting body and the distance between the Earth and
these bodies.
Waves as mentioned earlier are formed due to wind activity. A wave is described by its crest, trough,
wavelength and wave height. Wavelength is the distance between crest to crest or trough to trough. A crest
is the wave’s highest point while the lowest point is called a trough. Wave height is the vertical distance of
a wave from crest to trough. 
The movement of the water towards the shore is called a swash and the retraction of water from the shores
back to the sea is called backwash.

 Two types of waves:

 Constructive
 Distructive
Constructive – observed during calm weather. It has greater swash than a backwash.
Destructive – waves are prevalent when there are vigorous sea or ocean activities.
 Coastal formation processes 
Erosion – is the coastal formation processes that involves the wearing away of rocks and other materials
due to destructive waves along the coast. 
 There are four causes of erosion
 Hydraulic action – trapped air reacts to the action of waves. Trapped air compressed due to
penetration of water.
 abrasion (corrasion) – due to the grinding of sea materials like rock, sand and other with materials
on the cliff.
 Attrition - these materials interact with each other resulting to breaking down or smoothing out of the
material.
 Solution (corrosion) – the activity due to solution or corrosion cannot be readily observed because it
involves chemical activities in the seas.
Transportation – material movement in the sea and along the coastline is called transportation.
Disposition – happens due to the reduced energy of waves as it hits the shores.
Coastal Erosion – happens when the surface area for erosion is increased due to coastal processes.
Submersion – the complete flooding of previously dry areas due to natural and human activities.
Saltwater Intrusion – contamination of freshwater aquifer with saltwater.

Conclusions:
how us humans, can improve and protect the environment as our natural habitat?
The environment is simply the surroundings where all non-living and also living things are there and form a
sort of relationship between one another. The components of the environment include soil, water, air,
animals and human beings. All of the gifts provided through the natural environment are wonderful for the
entire living organism most especially mankind.All natural resources are very important to life so much
that there would be no life without them. We can saved our environment by keeping planting more trees,
recycling, reusing, reducing pollution, creating awareness through environmental programs, etc.The
environment needs to be saved because it is the source of life and living things are dependent on it.