DEHYDRATION

OF FOODS
 DEHYDRATION OF FOODS

SERIES EDITOR
GUSTAVO V. BARBOSA-CÂNOVAS, WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY

EDITORIAL BOARD

JOSE M. AGUILERA UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA

RICHARD W. HAR TEL UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

JOZEF L. KOKINI RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

MICHAEL J. McCARTHY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

MARTIN R. OKOS PURDUE UNIVERSITY

MICHA PELEG UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

M. ANANDHA RAO CORNELL UNIVERSITY

JORGE WELTI-CHANES UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS AMERICAS

DEHYDRATION
OF FOODS

GUST A VO V. BARBOSA-CĂNOV AS
WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY

HUMBERTO VEGA-MERCADO
MERCK SHARP & DOHME OUIMICA DE PUERTO RICO

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

I(!)F International Thomson Publishing

Cover design: Trudi Gershenov

Copyright © 1996 by Springer Science+Business Media Oordrecht

Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1996

AII righls reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in
any fann or by any means--·graphic, electronic, Of mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
Of information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.

23456789 10 XXX 01 00999897

Library of Congress Catalogil1g-in-Publication Data

Barbosa-Cănovas, Gustavo V.
Dehydration of foods / Guslavo V. Barbosa-Canovas and Humberto
Vega-Mercado.
p. cm.
Includes bibl:ographical references and index.

L Food··Drymg. 1. Vega·Mercado, Humberio. TI. Title.

TP371.5.B365 1996 95-44230
668' .0284--dc20 CIP
ISBN 978-1-4419-4723-9 ISBN 978-1-4757-2456-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-2456-1

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Ta aur families
CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO
DEHYDRATION OF FOOD 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Theoretical Aspects 3
1.2 Dryers 4
1.3 Final Remarks 7
1.4 References 7

CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF AIR-WATER

MIXTURES AND IDEAL DRYERS 9
2.0 Introduction 9
2.1 Fundamentals of Air-Water Mixtures 9
2.1.1 Ideal Gas Relationships 10
2.1.2 Moisture Content of Air 12
2.1.3 Psychrometric Chart 13
2.1.3.1 Dry Bulb Temperature 13
2.1.3.2 Relative Saturation or Relative Humidity 15
2.1.3.3 Percentage Saturation ar Percentage
Absolute Humidity 15
2.1.3.4 Humid Volume ar Specific Volume 15
2.1.3.5 Humid Heat 16
2.1.3.6 Enthalpy of a Vapor-Gas Mixture 16
vii
viii Con ten ts

2.1.3.7 Dew Point 16

2.1.4 The Saturated Condition 17
2.1.5 Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 18
2.1.6 Wet Bulb Temperature 18
2.2 Mixing Two Streams of Air 22
2.3 Reat and Mass Balances in Ideal Dryers 24
2.3.1 Continuous Dryer Without Recirculation 24
2.3.2 Continuous Dryer With Recirculation 26
2.4 Concluding Remarks 27
2.5 References 27

CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND

MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF DEHYDRATED FOODS 29
3.0 Introduction 29
3.1 Water Content of Foods 30
3.2 Determination of Water Content 31
3.3 Water Activity 32
3.3.1 Thermodynamic's of Water Activity 33
3.3.1.1 Raoult's Law 35
3.3.2 Theoretical and Empirical Models
to Predict aw and Applications 36
3.3.2.1 Nonelectrolytic Solutions 37
3.3.2.2 Electrolytic Solutions 40
3.3.2.3 MulticOIuponent Mixtures 44
3.3.3 Measurement ofWater Activity 53
3.3.3.1 Vapor Pressure 54
3.3.3.2 Freezing Point Depression
and Boiling Point Elevation 54
3.3.3.3 Osmotic Pressure 55
3.3.3.4 Dew Point Rygrometer 56
3.3.3.5 Thermocouple Psychrometer 56
3.3.3.6 Isopiestic Methods and
Graphic Interpolation 57
3.3.3.7 Electric and Rair Rygrometers 58
3.3.3.8 Water Potential 59
3.4 Sorption Phenomena and Sorption Isotherms 59
3.4.1 Rysteresis Phenomenon 60
 Con ten ts ix

3.4.2 Temperature Effect on Sorption 62

3.4.3 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Equation 63
3.4.4 Heat of Sorption and Free Energy Change 65
3.4.5 Empirical and Theoretical
Models of Sorption Isotherms 66
3.4.5.1 Henderson Model 66
3.4.5.2 Iglesias-Chirife Model 67
3.4.5.3 Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer
(GAB) Model 67
3.4.5.4 Smith Model 68
3.4.6 Sorption Isotherm and
Water Activity Standards 68
3.5 Food Stability 70
3.5.1 Microbial Spoilage 70
3.5.2 Enzymatic Reactions 72
3.5.3 Nonenzymatic Reactions 75
3.5.4 Lipid Oxidation 78
3.5.5 Physical and Structural Phenomena 78
3.5.5.1 Glass Trasition Temperature 80
3.5.5.2 Techniques to Study Food Structure 89
3.5.6 Destruction of Nutrients, Aroma, and Flavor 90
3.6 Concluding Remarks 94
3.7 References 95

CHAPTER 4. DEHYDRATION MECHANISMS 101

4.0 Introduction 101
4.1 The Drying Process 103
4.1.1 Constant Rate Period 107
4.1.2 Falling Rate Period 111
4.1.2.1 Diffusion Theory 111
4.1.2.2 Capillary Theory 118
4.1.2.3 Evaporation-Condensation Theory 118
4.1.2.4 The Luikov Theory 120
4.1.2.5 The Philip and De Vries Theory 124
4.1.2.6 The Berger and Pei Theory 127
4.1.2.7 The Whitaker Theory 130
4.1.2.8 Strongin-Borde Model 141
4.1.2.9 Regular Regime Theory 143
x Contents

4.2 The Drying Process and Water Activity 148

4.3 Concluding Remarks 150
4.4 Nomenclature 151
4.5 References 153

CHAPTER 5. CABINET AND BED DRYERS 157

5.0 lntroduction 157
5.1 Fundamentals 158
5.1.1 Components of a Dryer 159
5.2 Mass and Heat Balances 160
5.2.1 Batch Dryers 160
5.2.2 Through Circulation Batch Dryer 163
5.2.3 Continuous Dryers 168
5.3 Description of Dryers 170
5.3.1 Batch Dryers 170
5.3.1.1 Kiln Dryer 170
5.3.1.2 Cabinet or Tray Dryer 171
5.3.1.3 Rotary Dryer 172
5.3.2 Continuous Dryers 173
5.3.2.1 Tunnel Dryers 175
5.3.2.2 Belt ar Conveyar Dryers 176
5.3.3 Steam Dryers 181
5.3.4 Heat Pumps 182
5.4 Concluding Remarks 183
5.5 Nomenclature 183
5.6 References 184

CHAPTER 6. SPRAY DRYING 185

6.0 lntroduction 185
6.1 Fundamentals 187
6.1.1 Pressure Nozzles 187
6.1.2 Rotary Atomizers 191
6.1.3 Pneumatic Atomizers-Two Fluids 195
6.2 lnteraction Between Droplets and Drying Air 197
6.3 Heat and Mass Balances 199
6.4 Drying of Droplets 200
6.4.1 Pure Liquid Droplets 201
 Con ten ts xi

6.4.2 Droplets with Dissolved Solids 207

6.4.3 Droplets with Insoluble Solids 208
6.5 Microstructure of Spray Dried Product 209
6.6 Reconstitution of Spray Dried Products 210
6.7 Foam Spray Drying 212
6.8 Applications in the Food Industry 216
6.8.1 Milk Products 216
6.8.2 Instant Coffee 218
6.8.3 Instant Tea 218
6.8.4 Dry Eggs 219
6.8.5 Spray Drying of Enzymes 221
6.8.6 Microorganisms and Yeasts 221
6.8.7 Spray Drying of Whey Proteins 223
6.9 Concluding Remarks 224
6.10 Nomenclature 225
6.11 References 226

CHAPTER 7. FREEZE DEHYDRATION 229

7.0lntroduction 229
7.1 Fundamentals of Freeze Dehydration 231
7.1.1 Freezing Step 233
7.1.2 Drying Steps-Primary and
Secondary Drying 233
7.2 Combined Beat and Mass Transfer 235
7.2.1 Steady-State Model 235
7.2.2 Non-Steady-State Model 243
7.3 Structural Changes and Volatile Retention
During Freeze Drying 245
7.4 Freeze-Dehydration Related Processes 247
7.4.1 Prefreezing 248
7.4.1.1 Direct Contact 248
7.4.1.2 Indirect Contact 249
7.4.2 Pre-Concentration 250
7.4.3 Condensation 250
7.4.4 Defrosting 252
7.5 Industrial Freeze Dryers 252
7.6 Microwave Beating in Freeze Drying 256
7.7 Atmospheric Freeze Drying 260
xii Contents

7.8 Concluding Remarks 262

7.9 References 262

CHAPTER 8. OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION 265

8.0 Introduction 265
8.1 Fundamentals 266
8.2 Heat and Mass Balances 268
8.3 Osmotic Solutions 271
8.4 Hurdle Technology and Osmotic Dehydration 271
8.4.1 pH as a Hurdle 273
8.4.2 Antimicrobials as Hurdles 274
8.4.3 Air Drying, Vacuum Drying and
Freeze Drying as Hurdles 275
8.5 Applications of Osmotic Dehydratio
and Hurdle Technology 276
8.5.1 Fruits 279
8.5.2 Vegetables 280
8.5.3 Fish and Meat Products 281
8.5.4 Intermediate Moisture Foods (IMF) 282
8.6 Rehydration of Osmo-Dried Products 283
8.7 Concluding Remarks 284
8.8 References 284

CHAPTER 9. OTHER METHODS OF DEHYDRATION OF

FOODS AND PACKAGING ASPECTS 289
9.0 Introduction 289
9.1 Sun Drying 289
9.1.1 Natural Convection or Direct Type 293
9.1.2 Indirect Natural Convection Dryer 295
9.1.3 Wind-Ventilated ar Farced
Convection Solar Dryer 296
9.2 Vacuum Dryers 297
9.3 Drum Dryers 299
9.4 Microwave Drying 301
9.5 Extrusion Cooking 302
9.5.1 Single-Screw Extruders 303
9.5.2 Twin-Screw Extruders 304
 Con ten ts xiii

9.6 Fluidized Bed Dryers 306

9.6.1 Batch Fluidized Bed 307
9.6.2 Continuous Fluid Bed Dryers 308
9.7 Pneumatic Dryers 310
9.8 Packaging of Dehydrated Foods 311
9.9 Concluding Remarks 318
9.10 References 319

APPENDIXES
Appendix 1. Properties of superheated steam 322
Appendix 2. Properties of saturated steam 323
Appendix 3. Physical properties of water
at the saturation pressure 325
Appendix 4. Physical properties of dry air at
atmospheric pressure 326
Appendix 5. Properties of ice 326

Index 327
PREFACE

Food dehydration is one of the most relevant and chal-

lenging unit operations in food processing, as well as a
topic of continuous interest in food research. Information
on fundamental aspects and applications of food dehy-
dration has been disseminated mainly through research
and review articles, edited books, trade magazines
reports, and symposia presentations. It is apparent that
not many books have been written to cover, in a system-
atic manner, basic and applied engineering aspects of this
unit operation, as well as key issues dealing with physi-
cal and biochemical changes occurring during dehydra-
tion. This book was designed and developed as a useful
reference for those individuals, either in the food indus-
try or in academia, interested in an organized and
updated review, from an engineering perspective, of the
most important aspects of food dehydration. The book,
comprising nine chapters, includes several tables, fig-
ures, diagrams, photographs, and extensive literature
citation, as well as numeric al examples, to facilitate the
understanding of each module. A significant effort was

xv
xvi Preface

ma de to identify, from a broad spectrum of references,

those areas in food dehydration that are of current inter-
est as well as those essential to a better understanding of
the process in general. Some of the fundamental aspects
covered in the book are: air-water mixtures; theory, pre-
diction, and measurement of water activity in foods; glass
transition as applied to food dehydration; the most
accepted theories in food dehydration; and ideal dryers
with and without recirculation. The most popular tech-
niques in food dehydration, such as spray drying, freeze
dehydration, tray drying, cabinet drying, and osmotic
dehydration are extensively covered. Other approaches,
although concisely described, offer the opportunity to
appreciate the many options available to effectively dehy-
drate food products. The last chapter includes an exten-
sive section dealing with the proper selection of packag-
ing materials for dehydrated foods.
We sincerely hope this book will be a valuable addi-
tion to the food literature and will promote additional
interest in food dehydration research, development, and
implementation.

Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas
and Humberto Vega-Mercado