Dr. Chandra Sekhar Devarapu M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, Department of Engineering Chemistry,

Sagi Ramakrishnam Raju Engineering College,
Bhimavaram, India-534204
chandu1884@srkrec.ac.in
 Definition: Destruction or deterioration of a metal by
chemical or electrochemical attack with its
surrounding environment is called corrosion.

 Why corrosion occurs?

Metallic ore Reduction(extraction of metal) Pure metal
oxidation(Corrosion)

(mineral or metal in Extraction (High energy)

of metal combined form) Unstable
Thermodynamically stable
 Metals made by smelting (reduction of ore or
mineral).
 Mineral is more stable than metal.
 Metals in air want to return to their oxidized state.
 Corrosion is a natural process!!
 Some examples of corrosion:

Differential Failure of electronic

Stress corrosion
aeration corrosion components
 Waste of metals
◦ 25% of annual world production of iron is wasted due
to corrosion
 Decrease in efficiency of machineries
 Metal loses its useful properties because of corrosion.
 Failure of machineries
 Leakage in the process
◦ Health & fire hazard(Bhopal gas tragedy)
 Causes contamination
 Dry or chemical corrosion.
 Wet or electrochemical corrosion.
 It occurs because of direct chemical action of the
environment on the metal surface in the absence of
moisture or a liquid electrolyte.
• Takes place by direct
Oxidation action of oxygen
Corrosion • Absence of
moisture

• CO2, H2, H2S,

Corrosion
Dry by other
Cl2,F2
gases • Extent of corrosion
corrosion varies.

Liquid • Flowing liquid

metal metal at high
corrosion temp.
 It is brought about by the direct action of oxygen on the
metal surface at high or low temperature in absence of
moisture.
 At low temperature, alkali and alkaline earth metals are
oxidized and at high temperatures except Ag, Au and Pt, all
other metals are oxidized.
 The extent of corrosion of a particular metal depends on the
chemical affinity of the metal towards reactive gas.
 The metal surface reacts directly with oxygen forming
an oxide layer. Metal undergoes oxidation to metal ion
and oxygen undergoes reduction to oxide ion.
 This oxide layer acts as a barrier and prevents further
oxidation of the metal.
 For further oxidation to take place, either the metal
must diffuse outward through the oxide layer or
oxygen must diffuse inward.
 Both the transfers occur, but the outward diffusion of
the metal ion is faster as the size of the metal ion is
smaller than that of the oxygen atom or the O2– ion.
Chemical reactions
involved:
 For corrosion to continue further, the nature of the oxide
film is very important. They are of four types
 Stable and non porous: It is fine grained, tightly sticking
and impervious, for example, Al, Sn, Pb and Cu. It acts as
a protective layer and prevents further corrosion.
 Unstable: The oxide formed decomposes back into metal
and oxygen, for example, Ag, Pt and Au. As a result,
there is no corrosion.
Metal oxide Metal + Oxygen
 Volatile: The oxide layer formed volatilizes as soon as it
is formed. Fresh metal surface is exposed for further
attack. This causes rapid and continuous corrosion, for
example, molybdenum.
2Mo + 3O2 2MoO3
 Porous The oxide film is porous, that is, having pores or cracks.
Here the O2 penetrates inside and attacks the underlying metal
and hence continuous corrosion occurs, for example, iron.
 The extent of protection given by the oxide film or the corrosion
product to the underlying metal is governed by the Pilling–
Bedworth Rule.
 Definition The ratio of the volume of metal oxide to the volume
of the underlying metal is called the Pilling–Bedworth ratio
 If the volume of the oxide film is less than the volume of metal
laying underneath then the oxide layer is porous, contains cracks
and hence is nonprotective.
 If the volume is equal to or greater than the volume of the
underlying metal, the oxide film is continuous, nonporous and
protective, that is, further corrosion does not take place.
For example, Case I Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Sr, etc.
Case II Al, Cu, etc.
 Corrosion by other gases: In this, dry gases like H2,
Cl2, F2, SO2 and CO2 directly attack the metal surface.
Rate of corrosion depends upon the chemical affinity
between the metal and gas and also on the nature of
the film formed.
 For example: 2Ag + Cl2 2AgCl
Sn + 2Cl 2SnCl4
H2S attacks steel forming FeS layer,
which is porous in nature.
Steel attacked by H2 gas undergoes
decarbonisation.
C + 2H2 CH4
 It occurs when an anhydrous liquid attacks the
metal surface.
 When a liquid metal flows over a solid metal at high
temperature it weakens the solid metal because of
• Its dissolution in liquid metal.
• Penetration of liquid metal into solid metal. For
example, sodium metal (coolant) leads to the corrosion
of cadmium in a nuclear reactor.
 This type of corrosion occurs under wet or moist
conditions, and is more common than dry corrosion.
 It occurs when
(i) A metal is in contact with a conducting liquid or
(ii) When metals of different reactivity's are in contact with
a solution.
 The following conditions must be fulfilled for the
formation of electrochemical cell.
(i) There must be separate anodic and cathodic areas.
(ii) There must be electrode potential between the anode
and cathode.
(iii) There must be a metal path connecting the anode and
cathode.
(iv) Conducting liquid should be present between the two
electrodes.
 Anodic reactions: Oxidation occurs at the anode;
the metal loses electrons and passes them into the
solution. Thus, the metal at anode is destroyed by
dissolving or by changing into metal ions. Hence,
corrosion always occurs at the anodic areas.
M Mn+ + ne–
(Metal) Metal ion
Mn+ Dissolves in solution.
 Cathodic reactions: The electrons released at the
anodic areas are consumed in the reactions at the
cathode. Depending on the nature of the
environment, the cathodic reactions are of two
types
 Hydrogen evolution
 Oxygen absorption
 anodic areas are large and cathodic areas are small and
oxygen is absent.
 When the environment is acidic, H+ ions of the acid
take up electrons and hydrogen gas is evolved.
2H+ + 2e– H2
 For example, rusting of iron takes place in acidic
medium in the absence of oxygen as follows
Anodic reaction Fe Fe2+ + 2e–
Cathodic reaction 2H+ + 2 e– H2
Overall reaction Fe + 2H+ Fe2+ + H2
The Fe2+ ions react with the anion of the acid to form
the corrosion product
 Oxygen absorption corrosion
Hydrogen evolution corrosion
 Anodic areas are small and cathodic areas are large.
 Oxygen is present and the environment is neutral or
alkaline.
½ O2 + H2O + 2e– 2OH–
 Example The above mechanism occurs in neutral aqueous
solution in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. The
surface of iron is always coated with a thin layer of iron
oxide. When the film cracks, small anodic areas are
formed, while the metal coated with the oxide layer acts as
the cathode.
 The following reactions occur:
Anodic reaction Fe Fe2+ + 2e–
Cathodic reaction
O2 + H2O + 2e– 2OH–
 The Fe2+ ions (at anode) and OH– ions (at cathode) diffuse,
and when they meet, ferrous hydroxide is precipitated.
Fe2+ + 2OH– Fe(OH)2

 Fe(OH)2 is not stable, and in the presence of oxygen and

moisture, it oxidizes as follows:
4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 4Fe(OH)3 or 2 Fe2O3. 3H2O
(Rust)
 Fe(OH)3 corresponds to rust, which is hydrated iron(III)
oxide of variable composition Fe2O3.nH2O. The degree of
hydration of iron (III) oxide affects the color of rust that may
vary from black (Fe3O4) anhydrous magnetite to yellow
reddish brown (Fe2O3.H2O).
 It is important to note that, although corrosion occurs at
anode, the corrosion product is formed closer to the cathode.
This is because the smaller Fe2+ ions produced at anode
diffuse rapidly toward cathode as compared with the
diffusion of larger OH– ions toward the anode.
 Types of
electrochemical
corrosion

Concentration cell
Differential metallic
corrosion or differential
corrosion
aeration corrosion

• Pitting corrosion
• Waterline corrosion
• Stress corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
• Corrosion under a drop of water,
leaf, stone, block of wood, etc.
• Caustic embrittlement, etc.
 Galvanic corrosion: It is also called bimetallic
corrosion or differential metallic corrosion.
 It occurs when two dissimilar metals (for example, Zn
and Cu) are electrically connected and exposed to an
electrolyte and then the metal higher in the
electrochemical series undergoes corrosion.
 For example, if Zn and Cu are connected, Zn acts as
anode and undergoes corrosion, whereas Cu acts as
cathode.
 Mechanism: In a Zn – Cu couple
(At anode) Zn Zn2+ + 2e–
 The reaction at the cathode depends upon the
environment.
 Acidic environment 2H+ + 2e– H2 (evolution of hydrogen)
 Alkaline or neutral environment
½O2 + H2O + 2e– 2OH– (absorption of oxygen)
 Zn2+ and 2OH– ions interact to form Zn(OH)2. Hence, Zn
dissolves and Cu is protected.
 The common examples of galvanic corrosion are as follows
• Use of Cu pipes in conjunction with iron pipes in water distribution
system.
• A steel propeller shaft in a bronze bearing.
• Steel screw in brass marine hardware.
• Lead–antimony solder around Cu wire.
 Concentration cell: corrosion Concentration cell corrosion
takes place when different areas of a metal surface are in
contact with an electrolyte of different concentration
(caustic embrittlement) or varying aeration (pitting
corrosion, waterline corrosion, corrosion under a block of
wood or a drop of water, etc). The difference in
electrolyte/air concentration may be because of local
temperature differences or inadequate stirring or slow
diffusion of metal ions.
 Differential aeration corrosion (DAC): This is the most
common type of concentration cell corrosion. It occurs
when one part of the metal is exposed to a different air
concentration than the other. There will be a difference of
potential between differently aerated areas.
 Experimental observations have shown that
• Poorly oxygenated areas become anodic and
• Highly oxygenated areas become cathodic.
 Waterline corrosion:

 Pitting corrosion:
 Corrosion under a block of wood, leaf, metal,
stone, etc:
Stress corrosion Crevice corrosion

Intergranular corrosion
 a more reliable series for predicting the corrosion
behaviour in different environments is the galvanic
series.
 It has been prepared by studying the corrosion of
metals and alloys in a given environment like sea water.
 Thus, the galvanic series gives real and useful information for studying
the corrosion of metals and alloys.
 The rate and extent of corrosion depend on the following
• Nature of the metal
• Nature of the corroding environment.
 Nature of metal
• Position in the galvanic series: When two metals or alloys are in
contact in the presence of an electrolyte, the metal that is higher in the
galvanic series undergoes corrosion. The rate and severity of corrosion
depends on the difference in their position. Greater the difference in
the position of the two metals greater is the corrosion of the anodic
metal.
• Purity of the metal :Pure metals are less prone to corrosion.
Impurities in a metal cause ‘heterogeneity’ and forms minute/tiny
electrochemical cells, where the anodic part gets corroded. For
example, very pure and smooth zinc metal will not corrode in very pure
hydrochloric acid. However, zinc metal containing impurities of Fe and
Pb corrodes rapidly.
The figures below show the effect of impurities on corrosion of
aluminium by hydrochloric acid.
% Aluminium 99.998 99.97 99.2
Relative corrosion rate 1 1000 30,000
 Physical state of the metal: Rate of corrosion is
greatly influenced by the physical state of the metal like
particle size, orientation of grains, localised stresses,
smooth or rough surface, etc. Smaller the grain size
greater will be the corrosion; similarly, areas under
stress, even in a pure metal, are likely to be anodic and
corrosion takes place at these areas.
 Nature of surface film: In the presence of air, all
metals are covered with a thin film of metal oxide. If the
specific volume ratio of the metal is greater than one the
metal will be protected from corrosion, and if the
specific volume ratio is less than unity the film will be
unstable and the underlying metal will be corroded
(Pilling–Bedworth rule). The specific volume ratios of
Ni, Cr and W are 1.7, 2.0 and 3.6, respectively.
 Relative areas of anodic and cathodic parts : Rate of corrosion is
high if anodic areas are small and cathodic areas are large. If the
cathodic areas are large, then it will demand more electrons, which will
be met by the brisk and rapid corrosion of the anodic area. For example,
in copper plates (cathode) with steel (anode) rivets, the steel rivets are
almost completely corroded because the smaller steel rivets are coupled
to larger copper cathodic area.
 Solubility of corrosion products: Corrosion is faster if the corrosion
product is soluble in the corroding medium. If the corrosion product is
insoluble in the corroding medium, or it reacts with the corroding
medium to form insoluble product; the product acts as a physical barrier
and suppresses further corrosion. For example, the corrosion of Pb in
H2SO4 proceeds at a much slower rate due to the formation of insoluble
PbSO4.
 Volatility of the corrosion product: If the corrosion product is
volatile, it leaves the surface as soon as it is formed, leaving the
underlying metal surface exposed for further attack. This causes rapid,
continuous and excessive corrosion. MoO3 is the volatile corrosion
product formed on the oxidation of Mo. It volatilizes, causing extensive
corrosion of the underlying metal.
 Temperature: As the rate of all chemical reactions
increases with the rise in temperature, rate of
corrosion also increases as temperature rises. At higher
temperatures, even the passive metal can become
active and get corroded. However, differential aeration
corrosion slows down at higher temperatures. This is
because of the faster diffusion of O2 into pits and
crevices. Moreover, corrosion also occurs due to the
formation of differential temperature cells.
 Humidity: Corrosion increases with the increase in
humidity of the atmosphere. The effect of humidity on
corrosion of enameled steel is given in the table below.
This is due to the fact that moisture acts as a solvent for
O2, H2S, SO2, NaCl, and so on to furnish the
electrolyte for setting up a corrosion cell.
 Presence of impurities in atmosphere: Gases like
H2S, SO2 and CO2 increase acidity of the liquid
closer to the metal surface and hence increases the
rate of corrosion. Salts like NaCl present in marine
environment increase the conductivity of the
electrolyte, thus speeding up the corrosion process.
Presence of even trace amount of H2S in atmosphere
tarnishes silver (due to formation of Ag2S) and
copper (due to formation of a mixture of Cu2S + CuS
+ Cu2O).
 Effect of pH: Generally, acidic media (pH < 7 ) are
more corrosive than alkaline or neutral media.
However, amphoteric metals like Al, Zn, Pb form
complexes in alkaline medium.
 Conductance of the corroding medium:
Conductance of the corroding medium has a vital
role in corrosion. Dry sandy soils have lower
conductance compared with clay or mineralized
soils. Hence, metallic structures buried under clay or
mineralized soils undergo corrosion faster than
under dry sandy soils.
 Formation of oxygen concentration cell: Owing
to differential aeration “oxygen concentration cell” is
set up and the anodic parts having less oxygen
concentration suffers corrosion. The corrosion by
differential aeration has already been discussed in
detail.
 Material selection and design
 Cathodic protection
 Corrosion inhibitors
 Protective Coatings
metallic coatings
paints
 Use of pure metals or alloys
 Select metal with low reactivity.
 When two dissimilar metals in direct contact are to be
used then, they should be as close as possible in the
galvanic series.
 Avoid direct contact of two dissimilar metals in a
corroding medium.
 Joints should be welded with same metal/alloy
 Sharp corners should be avoided
 Wherever possible, equipment should be supported on
legs to allow free circulation of air
 The anodic metal should not be painted or coated.
 The principle involved is that the metal to be
protected is made to behave like a cathode.
 Alloys/metals like steel, brass, copper and lead can be
protected in all types of soils and almost all sorts of
aqueous media by cathodic protection method.
 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Method
(SACP): In this method, the metal structure to be protected is
connected to a more reactive metal. For example, if an iron
structure is to be protected it is connected to a more reactive
metal like Zn or Mg. The more reactive metal behaves as an
anode and the iron structure becomes cathodic. Thus, the iron
structure is protected and the anode undergoes corrosion. After
sometime, the anode is corroded completely and is replaced with
a fresh anode. This type of protection method is used in industry
to protect buried pipelines, underground cables, ship hulls and
even in railway tracks.
 In this method direct current from an external source is
impressed (applied in opposite direction) to nullify the corrosion
current and convert the corroding metal from anode to cathode.
e positive terminal of the direct current source is connected to
the anode and the negative terminal to the structure to be
protected. Anode is made of inert material like graphite, carbon,
stainless steel and is buried in a backfill like gypsum to increase
electrical contact between itself and the surrounding soil
 PROTECTIVE
COATINGS

Inorganic
Organic Coatings
Coatings

Non-
Metallic Paints
Metallic

Electroless Chromate/ Special Varnishe

Galvanizing Tinning Electroplating Anodizing
plating Phosphate Paints s
coating
 Anodic coatings: These coatings are sacrificial coatings in
which the base metal (metal to be protected) is coated with a more
reactive metal so that the coating metal behaves as an anode and
undergoes corrosion in preference to the base metal. For example,
coating of Zn on Fe (galvanisation). The advantage of anodic coating is
that if a scratch or pore appears on the coating metal then a galvanic
cell is formed between the coating metal and the base metal, and the
coating metal is corroded and the base metal is protected. The rate of
corrosion is lower comparatively because the area of anode is much
larger as compared with the area of the cathode.
 Cathodic coating: It is coating of a noble or less reactive
metal on the base metal. The coating metal is corrosion-resistant
and hence provides only barrier protection to the base metal.
What is important to note is that if the coating metal develops a
crack or develops pores then the base metal being more reactive
will undergo corrosion. For example, coating of Sn on iron
(tinning). The rate of corrosion here is high because the anodic
area is small and the cathodic area is large. Therefore, such
coatings are effective only when the coating is continuous and free
from pits and cracks.
 This technique is widely used to coat zinc over the iron
and steel.
Process:
 The base metal sheet of iron or steel is cleaned by acid pickling
method with dilute sulphuric acid at 60-900C, washed and dried.
It is then dipped in a bath of molten zinc and after taking out of
bath it is passed between hot rollers to remove excess zinc and
annealed (slow cooling). Galvanized utensils cannot be used for
storing foods as zinc dissolves and forms toxic substances.
The process of coating metallic tin over the iron or steel articles is
called tinning.
Process:
The surface the base metal i.e., iron sheet is cleaned by acid pickling with dilute
sulphuric acid and passed through a bath of zinc chloride flux. The flue helps the
molten metal to adhere to the iron metal sheet surface. Then the sheet is passed
through the molten tin bath and pressed between two rollers with a layer of palm
oil. The oil will help to protect the tin coated layer from any oxidation. The rollers
also remove excess tin and produce a thin film of coating with uniform
concentration. The tinned metal possesses good resistance against atmospheric
corrosion and tin is nontoxic. Hence such containers can be safely used for storing
food material.
Electro plating: The process of depositing or coating a metal on the
surface of base metal/ non metal by electrolysis is called electro plating. It
is widely adopted to coat base metals with protective metallic coatings of
Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Sn, Au and Ag.
Process: The metal surface is cleaned thoroughly. The article to be
electroplated is made as cathode. The anode is made of pure metal, which
is to be coated on the article. The electrolyte is the salt of the metal to be
coated on the article. A direct current is passed through the electrolyte.
The anode dissolves, depositing the metal ions from the solution on the
article at cathode in the form of a fine thin metallic coating.
Factors affecting electroplating:
•Cleaning of the article is essential for strong adherent
electroplating.
•Concentration of the electrolyte is a major factor in electroplating.
•Low concentration of metal Ions produces uniform, coherent
metal deposition. Thickness of the deposit should be minimized in
order to get a strong adherent coating.
•Additives such as glue, boric acid etc. should be added to the
electrolyte bath to get a strong adherent and smooth coating.
•The electrolyte selected should be highly soluble and should not
undergo any chemical reaction.
•pH of the electrolytic bath must be properly maintained to get the
deposition effectively.
Applications: It is widely used technique in industries and
consumer goods. It can be used for both metals and non metals. In
metals it prevents corrosion and in non metals it increases the
strength
 Electro less plating: The deposition of a metal form its salt solution
on catalytically active surface by a suitable reducing agent without use
of electrical energy is called electro less plating or chemical plating.
 The metal ions are reduced to the metal which gets plated over the
catalytic surface the metal surface is treated with acid (etching) and
treated with reducing agent like formaldehyde. Heat treatment may be
adopted. Electro less plating can be done for non conducting surfaces
like plastic or printed circuit boards. Some times complexing agents
stabilizers and buffer solutions may also be necessary this technique is
widely used in electronic decorative equipment, automobile industry
etc
 Metal ions + reducing agent catalyst Metal + oxidized product
 This technique has been used for manufacturing
mirrors by the reduction of a complexed metal with
the help of a mild reducing agent like formaldehyde.
RCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]OH 2Ag(s) + RCOONH4 + H2O + 3NH3
Silver mirror
 A shining coating of elemental silver deposits on the
metal surface.
 Nickel coating on base metal.
NiSO4 + NaH2PO2 + H2O Ni + NaH2PO3 + H2SO4
 Metal ion solution
 Reducing agent
 Buffer
 Complexing agent
 Stabilizers
 exallants
Advantages of electroless plating
 Electrical energy is not used.
 It helps in coating nonconducting objects, nonmetallic
surfaces like plastics, semiconductors.
 The throwing power is unlimited.
 No excess deposit at joints.
 Edges, inside holes, irregular objects and objects of
complex geometries and shapes can easily be coated evenly.
It is difficult to coat these surfaces by electroplating.
 Hydrogen gas is not trapped in the blind holes.
 Resulting deposits have unique physical, chemical,
mechanical and magnetic properties.
 Coating is harder and less porous than regular coating.
 The use of levellers is eliminated.
 ANODIZING

 Anodizing is a process of deposition of oxide film on a metal surface with the

help of an anode and oxidation.
Process
 The process involves cleaning of workpiece either in a hot soak cleaner or in a
solvent bath. After cleaning the workpiece is dipped in an electrolyte and made
anode. The electrolyte used should give up oxygen on electrolysis. There is no
any deposition from outside. When current passes through electrolyte a
chemical reaction takes place and oxygen is librated which reacts with the
metal surface to convert it into an oxide. In this process, the reaction progress
inwards into the metal. The coating deposited is the integral part of the metal
itself. Deeper the penetration of the chemical reaction the thicker will be the
oxide film formed. After the formation of oxide layer into third stage of the
process is providing desired colour and stability to anodizing film.
➢ Chromic acid can also be used as electrolyte and it provides milky white colour
to the surface
➢ Oxalic acid bath can provide a oxide film of light yellow colour.
➢ Thickness of the coating depends upon concentration of the bath, intensity
of current passing through electrolyte, and its temperature
 Anodizing of different type of metals are possible. Some of
the useful commercial examples are discussed here.
(a) Anodizing of steel is done to make it wear and corrosion
resistant. It appears as a block film over different types of
steels.
(b) Several galvanized machine parts are anodized to improve
their resistance for rusting and corrosion.

Applications of anodizing are listed bellow :

(a) It provides protective coating on the metal surface which is
corrosion resistant and wear resistant up to some extent.
(b) To provide decorative appearance to the surface.
(c) It can provide a specific colour base to a surface that can
be a substitute of painting.
(d) Aluminium provides very good surface properties after
anodizing.
Organic coatings (Paints)
Organic coatings are inert barriers applied on metallic surfaces
and other construction material for both corrosion protection
and decoration. The most important organic surface coating is
paint.
Definition : Paint is a mechanical dispersion of mixture of
one or more pigments in a vehicle. This vehicle is a liquid
consisting of non-volatile film forming material, and a volatile
solvent (thinner).

Paint

Pigment

Vehicle/
Thinner Drier Additives
Binder
 Requisites of a good paint:
A good paint should the following properties, it should
 have a high hiding power
 form a good and uniform film on the metal surface
 the film should not crack on drying
 give a glossy film
 the film produced should be washable
 give a stable and decent colour on the metal surface
 have good resistance to the atmospheric conditions
 be fluid enough to spread easily over the surface
 possess high adhesion capacity to the material over which it
is intended to be used
 dry quickly or in a reasonable duration.
 the colour of the paint should not fade
 Constituents of paint:
a) Pigment
b) Vehicle or medium or drying oil
c) Thinner
d) Driers
e) Fillers or Extenders
f) Plasticizers
g) Antiskinning agents

 Pigment: It is a solid substance, which provide colour to

the paint. It is also used to improve the strength and
adhesion of the paint, protect against corrosion. It imparts
impermeability to moisture and increases weather-resistance.
Vehicle (or) drying oil: It is a film forming constituent of paint. These are
the glyceryl esters of high molecular-weight fatty acids. This vehicle or binder
provides desired chemical and physical properties. It determines the adhesion,
cohesion and flexibility of the paint.
The most widely used drying oils are linseed oil, soybean oil, and dehydrate
castor oil.

Thinner: It reduces the viscosity of the paint to a suitable consistency,

suspends the pigments, dissolves the vehicle and other additives. It increases
the penetration power of vehicle and elasticity of the paint film. It also helps
in drying of the paint as it evaporates easily.
Eg: The common thinners are turpentine, mineral spirits, benzene, naphtha,
toulol, xylol, kerosene, methylated naphthalene

Driers: These are the oxygen carrier catalysts. They accelerate the drying of
the oil-film through oxidation, polymerization and condensation. The main
function of the drier is to improve the drying quality of the oil film.
Eg: Resinates, linoleates, tungstates and naphthenates of Co, Mn, Pb and Zn.
Extenders or fillers: These are low refractive indices
materials. These are added to reduce the cost, increase
durability, to provide negligible covering power to the paint
and to reduce the cracking of dry paint film. These fill the
voids in the film, increase random arrangement of pigment
and acts as the carrier for pigment color.
Eg: Barytes (BaSO4), talc, asbestos, ground silica, gypsum
ground mica, slate powder, china-clay, calcium sulphate.
Plasticizers: Plasticizers are added to the paint to provide
elasticity to the film and to minimize its cracking.
Eg: Tricresyl phosphate, tri phenyl phosphate, tri butyl
phthalate.
Anti skinning agents: These are added to prevent gelling and
skinning of the paint film.
Eg: Poly hydroxy phenols.
 VARNISHES

Varnishes are used to give a transparent film to a surface.

These are of two kinds Varnishes

OIL Spirit
Varnish Varnish
OIL VARNISH:
• They contain linseed oil or other drying oils, dryers, synthetic or natural resins and
solvents such as white spirit or turpentine.
• They dry by evaporation of the solvent and oxidation of the oil.
• The relative proportions of the oil and the resins control the usage, if the oil is
predominant a more elastic varnish reserved for external work.
• If the solvent is the major ingredient a high gloss, which dries out rapidly, is obtained for
internal work.
• Copal varnish is a good quality type.
SPIRIT VARNISH
• Spirit varnish is a solutions of shellac and spirit resins dissolved in commercial
alcohol(methylated spirits).
• The are only suitable for internals surfaces like furniture(e.g. in French
polishing).
• Polyurethane varnish is a type of resin varnish producing a very durable finish.
• Its cost is RS- 230/kg
 Thank you
chandu1884@gmail.com