1.1.

Basic Seismology

BASIC SEISMOLOGY

Introduction to the Topic:

Earthquakes refer to the shaking or trembling of the ground caused by a sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the Earth's surface. The
study of earthquakes is covered in seismology through the service of scientists known as seismologists. Bearing in mind that the hazards associated with
seismic events are predominantly due to structural collapse, earthquake engineering becomes an integral field. The goal of this branch of engineering is to
ensure that structures such as buildings and bridges are properly analyzed and designed to resist earthquake forces considering the seismic parameters
specified in the provisions of applicable structural codes (note that this is usually done through the aid of structural design softwares).

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the session the students should be able to:
1. familiarize with earthquake and its causes;
2. review the elastic rebound theory for earthquakes;
3. learn the type of seismic waves and their origin; and
4. understand the process in locating and measuring earthquakes.

Deep-seated internal forces (known as tectonic forces) act on a mass of rock over a period of time.
Rock continuously bends but does not break yet.
Start of Discussion: Rupture occurs and the rock breaks suddenly - releasing energy that causes earthquakes. Energy is released in waves that will radiate outward from
the fault.
EARTHQUAKE AND ITS CAUSES
Rock quickly rebounds to an undeformed shape.
The sudden and violent shaking of the ground (or the earth's crust) is known as an earthquake. In order to understand this phenomenon better, it is
pertinent to understand its causes:
In summary, when a rock breaks, waves of energy are released. These are referred to as seismic waves, also known as the waves generated by an
Earthquakes occur when rocks break and move along a fault, releasing strain that has gradually built up within the rock in the process
earthquake. Note that the longer the energy is stored up without being released, the more likely that a strong earthquake will occur.
Volcanic activity may also lead to earthquakes
Deep quakes may also be caused by mineral transformation

SEISMIC WAVES AND THEIR ORIGIN

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY There are two types of seismic waves and they differ in terms of their point of origin.
The elastic rebound theory serves as a classic explanation as to how earthquakes transpire. It discusses how energy stored in rocks gradually build up
until such time that it is released - causing seismic activities that vary in scale depending on the amount of strain. It is illustrated through the figures below:
Focus and Epicenter
1. The point within the Earth where seismic waves originate is known as the focus or hypocenter.
2. The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus is known as the epicenter.

Seismic Waves
1. Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior spreading outward from the focus in all directions.
2. Surface waves are seismic waves that travel on the Earth's surface away from the epicenter.
Trivia: Surface waves cause more property damage than body waves because the former are slower waves. As such, they produce more ground
movement as they travel more slowly and take longer time to pass.

Types of Body Waves

1. Primary waves (also known as P-waves) are compressional body waves wherein rock vibrates back and forth parallel to the direction of wave Trivia: While both P-waves and S-waves pass easily through solid rock, only P-waves can pass through a fluid such as a liquid or gas.
propagation. It is a fast wave traveling through near-surface rocks at speeds of 4-7 kilometers per second (9000 to more than 15000 miles per hours).

Types of Surface Waves

1. Love waves are like S-waves except that they have no vertical displacement. The ground moves side to side in a horizontal plane that is perpendicular
to the direction the wave is traveling or propagating. Love waves do not travel through liquids and would not be felt on a body of water.

2. Secondary waves (alsoknown as S-waves) are transverse body waves propagated by a shearing motion wherein the rock vibrates perpendicular t the
direction of wave propagation - that is, crosswise to the direction of wave motion. It is slower than a P-wave but it still travels through near-surface
rocks at a quick rate of 2 to 5 kilometers per second.

2. Rayleigh waves are waves that behave like rolling ocean waves. Unlike ocean waves, however, Rayleigh waves cause the ground to move in an
elliptical path opposite to the direction the wave travels.
 Seismic Instruments
1. Seismometer is the instrument used to measure seismic waves. Seismometers are usually placed in clusters of three in order to record motion in three
dimensional space along x, y, and z-axes.
2. Seismograph is a recording device which records the Earth motion detected by the seismometer.
3. Seismogram is the actual paper record of earth vibration from the seismograph. It can be used to measure the strength of an earthquake.

Trivia: Because of the horizontal movement, love waves tend to knock buildings off their foundations and to destroy highway bridge supports.
Meanwhile, because of the rolling motion, Rayleigh waves tend to be incredibly destructive to building because they produce more ground movement Locating an Earthquake
and take longer to pass.
1. First, distance of a seismograph station to an earthquake is determined
Let the seismograph record seismic waves.
From the seismograph record (seismogram), measure time delay or time lag between the first arrivals of P-wave and S-wave.
LOCATION AND MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES Use time travel curve to determine the distance to earthquake as a function of the time delay or time lag between the first arrivals of P-wave and S-
The invention of instruments that could accurately record seismic waves was an important scientific advancement. These instruments can be used to wave.
measure ground motion, as well as to find the location of an earthquake.

2. Repeat the activity for at least three (3) stations to triangulate a point (epicenter of earthquake).
Plot a circle around the given seismograph station with its radius equal to the distance of the station to the earthquake.
 Repeat the process for at least two (2) other stations. The point of intersection of the three circles is taken as the epicenter. 2. Mercalli Scale (for Intensity) was invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. This scale is used to calibrate the observations of people who experienced the
earthquake. In the local scene, an alternate system is also used known as PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale or PEIS. These systems are
tabulated below:

Trivia: The time travel between the first arrivals of P-wave and S-wave becomes larger as the distance of a seismograph station from the source of
an earthquake increases. This said increase in P-S wave interval is considered regular with increasing distance for several thousand kilometers. Do
note, however, that a single station can determine only the distance to a quake but not the direction.

Measuring an Earthquake (in terms of Depth)

Analysis of seismograms also indicate at what depth beneath the Earth's surface the earthquake has occurred. These are classified as follows:
1. Shallow focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes whose focus is at a depth of 0 to 70 kilometers.
2. Intermediate focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes with focal depths of 70 to 350 kilometers.
3. Deep focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes having 350 to 670 kilometers for focal depth.

Measuring an Earthquake (in terms of Size)

In determining the size of an earthquake, two common terms usually come into play - magnitude and intensity. In simpler terms, magnitude is the measure
of the total amount of energy released by an earthquake whereas intensity is the measure of an earthquake's effect as perceived by people or manifested
through building damage. Different scales are used to gauge these parameters as enumerated below:
1. Richter Scale (for Magnitude) was invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. Since the Richter scale is logarithmic, the difference between the two
consecutive whole numbers on this scale means an increase equal to ten times in terms of the amplitude of Earth's vibration. Likewise, some studies
suggest that this tenfold increase is roughly equivalent to 32 times in terms of released energy. This system is tabulated below:
End of Discussion.