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Abstract
In this review paper, firstly, the magic geometrical shapes together with various types
of magic squares are introduced. Then, the features of natural magic squares and their con-
struction methods are described. Moreover, some of the most important unsolved problems
are mentioned and some physical applications of magic squares are explored.
1 Introduction
Magic squares are one of the beautiful examples of the mathematical objects with several
real-world applications [1]. They have always had a great influence upon mankind’s atti-
tude. Although a definitive judgment of early history of magic squares is not available, it
has been suggested that magic squares probably date back to pre-Islamic Persian origins
[2]. The study of magic squares in medieval Islam in Persia was however common, and
supposedly, came after the introduction of Chess in Persia [3]. For instance in the tenth
century, the Persian mathematician Buzjani has left a manuscript in which there is a magic
square, which are filled by numbers in arithmetic progression [4].
In this paper, initially some types of magic geometrical shapes such as square, rectangle,
cube, tesseract, hypercube, circle, sphere, triangle, star and hexagon are briefly introduced.
Then, the most noticeable types of magic squares and their features are expressed. After
that, construction methods of natural magic squares are described. Finally, some of the
most important unsolved problems are reviewed, and interesting physical applications of
magic squares are analyzed.
Email: rjavadi@cc.iut.ac.ir
1
2.1 Magic square
A natural magic square of order n is a square array of numbers consisting of the distinct
positive integers 1, 2, . . . , n2 arranged such that the sum of the n numbers in any horizontal,
vertical, or main diagonal lines is always the same number, known as the magic constant
(Fig. 1) [5],[6]. One can verify that the magic constant is equal to
n
Mn = (n2 + 1). (1)
2
2
Figure 3: Natural Magic cube of order 3.
Also, magic tesseract and magic hypercube can be defined as higher dimensions of
magic cube. For more study, see [5],[10],[11].
3
Figure 5: Magic circle of order 6.
Also, magic sphere can be defined as higher dimension of magic circle. For more study,
see [5].
It can be proved that Mn should be between a minimum and maximum value. Let t
denote the number of integers in a normal magic triangle, i.e. t = 3(n − 1). The formula for
the minimum and maximum of Mn is computed as follows [13],[14],
1h t i 1
Min Mn = ∑ i + (1 + 2 + 3) = (n − 1)(3n − 2) + 2. (5)
3 i=1 2
4
1h t i 1
Max Mn = ∑ i + t + (t − 1) + (t − 2) = (n − 1)(3n + 4) − 1. (6)
3 i=1 2
So, we have
1 1
(n − 1)(3n − 2) + 2 < Mn < (n − 1)(3n + 4) − 1. (7)
2 2
Figure 7: 7-pointed magic star (left) and 6-pointed magic star (right).
No star polygons with fewer than 5 points exist, and the construction of a normal 5-
pointed magic star turns out to be impossible. Therefore, the smallest instance of normal
magic star is 6-pointed [8],[15].
5
Figure 8: Normal magic hexagon of order 3 (left), abnormal of order 4 (middle) and abnormal
of order 5 (right).
6
3.3 Semi-magic square
A semi-magic square is a square that fails to be a natural magic square only because one or
both of the main diagonals sums are not equal to the magic constant (Fig. 11) [22],[23].
7
complementary pairs are the pairs that sum to n2 + 1. In Fig. 13, pairs such as (6,11) or
(2,15) are at distance 2 on diagonals [26].
Figure 14: Schematic of associative magic squares (left), associative magic square of order 3
(right).
8
Figure 16: Triangular, square and pentagonal numbers (left), Magic square of triangular num-
bers of order 6 (right).
9
is said to be bimagic and the cube is said to be trimagic. The first known bimagic square
(Fig. 19), has order 8 with magic constant 260 for the base square and 11180 after squaring
[36][37],[38].
10
Figure 22: Distributive magic square of order 4.
Figure 23: Reversible magic square, before reversing (left) and after reversing (right).
11
In Fig. 26, not only the magic constant is palindromic, but also all the numbers are
palindromic [44].
Figure 27: Alphamagic square of order 3, first step (left), 2nd step (middle), 3rd step (right).
12
Table 1: General information about natural magic squares of odd order.
2
3. Subtracting the average of the numbers in a natural magic square, n 2+1 , from each
number, yields a skeleton square of normalized numbers, “the bones”, consisting
of positive and negative numbers, and, for odd order squares, 0 (Fig. 28). This is
a convenient way of seeing symmetry in the square. It can also facilitate square
construction, transforms, and analysis [48].
4. In a magic square of order 3, central cell is 5 and magic constant is 15. Thus, for each
line of the array that passes through the central square, the numbers in the two ends
must add up to 10. Also, sum of two numbers from (7,8,9) group is more than 10.
Thus, they cannot be located in a row. Therefore, construction of the square will be
possible for 4 cases (Fig. 29).
Figure 29: Different cases of arranging numbers 7, 8, 9 in a natural magic square of order 3.
If rotations and reflections are not taken into account, then there is just one way to
make a 3 × 3 natural magic square [49].
5. The general magic square of order n can be parameterized in terms of n(n − 2) vari-
ables. This is the number of matrix elements (n2 ), minus twice the number of rows
(columns). The general expression of a magic square of order 3 with magic constant
3C, is as follows,
c+v c−v−u c+u
c + u − v c c + v − u . (9)
c−u c+v+u c−v
Also the parameterization form of the 4th order general magic square is as follows
[50],[51],
13
A−a C+a+c B+b−c D−b
D + a − d B C A − a + d
. (10)
C − b + d A D B + b − d
B+b D−a−c A−b+c C+a
6. There is one distinct 3 × 3 magic square of the first 9 integers, and there are 880
distinct 4 × 4 magic squares of the first 16 integers, and 275,305,224 distinct 5 × 5
squares of the first 25 integers, the latter were first counted by computer in 1973.
Already by order six and other higher orders they have become far too large to count
at present and as a result only statistical estimates are possible. For instance, the
number of 8 × 8 natural magic squares is about (5.2225 ± 0.0018) × 1054 [52],[53].
7. As a conjecture, it seems that the principal eigenvalue of a magic square (as a matrix)
composed of positive elements is its magic constant. If a magic square has some
negative elements, then its magic constant is one of its eigenvalues [54].
14
Figure 30: Siamese method for making the magic square of order 5.
Figure 31: Pyramid method for making the magic square of order 5.
15
5.1.3 Lozenge method
As illustrated in Fig. 33, in this method, the odd numbers are built up along diagonal
lines in the shape of a diamond in the central part of the square. The even numbers that
were missed are then added sequentially along the continuation of the diagonal obtained
by wrapping around the square until the wrapped diagonal reaches its initial point. In the
below square, the first diagonal therefore fills in 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, the second diagonal fills in 7,
9, 6, 8, 10, and so on [6].
Figure 33: Lozenge method for making the magic square of order 5.
16
5.3 Constructing a singly even natural magic square
A very elegant method for constructing magic squares of singly even order n = 4m + 2 with
m ≥ 1, is called the “LUX” method. Create an array consisting of m + 1 rows of Ls, 1 row
of Us, and m − 1 rows of Xs, all of length n/2 = 2m + 1. Interchange the middle U with
the L above it. Now generate the magic square of order 2m + 1 using the Siamese method
centered on the array of letters (starting in the center square of the top row), but fill each set
of four squares surrounding a letter sequentially according to the order prescribed by the
letter. That order is illustrated on the left side of the Fig. 35, and the completed square is
illustrated to the right. The “shapes” of the letters L, U, and X naturally suggest the filling
order, hence the name of the algorithm [6].
Figure 35: LUX method for making the magic square of order 10.
17
Figure 36: Only known example of 3 × 3 magic square using seven distinct squared integers, S
= 541,875.
Figure 37: The nearest answer to unsolved problem of semi magic square of cubes.
5. Construction of a 4×4 magic square using distinct positive cubed integers, or proving
that it is impossible, is unsolved [56].
6. The 3 × 3 and 4 × 4 bi-magic have been mathematically proven to be impossible.
Constructing a 5 × 5 bi-magic square using distinct positive integers, or proving that
it is impossible, is still unsolved. The nearest answer to this problem is as follows
(Fig. 38) [56],
18
1. Mass center of all general magic squares of an arbitrary order is their geometrical
center [57],[59]. It means that the center of general magic squares is the point where
all of the mass of the given magic square is concentrated. Thus when a magic square
is supported at its geometrical center with no net torque acting on it, it will remain in
static equilibrium (Fig. 39).
Figure 39: A 5 × 5 magic square that remained in static equilibrium on its geometrical center.
Of course, someone can create many normal squares that are not magic, but are also
balanced (an n × n normal square is a matrix of the non-repetitive integers from 1 to
n2 with random substitution of numbers which is not magic).
A + B +C = G + H + I = S1
(11)
A + D + G = C + F + I = S2
This illustrates the fact that some normal squares are balanced. Obviously not all are.
For example, it is easy to demonstrate that there are 142 normal squares of order 3
which their mass center and their geometrical center coincide (Table 2) [1].
19
Table 2: Number of 3 × 3 normal squares of the non-repetitive integers from 1 to 9 that are
balanced on their geometrical center, by C Programming
2. Physical moment of inertia of magic squares is constant for all natural magic squares
of a given order. It actually applies to the higher dimensions of these squares. It
means that by investigating the inertial tensor for magic cubes, consequences will be
the same. This fixed value for natural magic squares is equal to
1 2 4
In = n (n − 1), (12)
12
and for magic cubes is equal to [60,61]
1 3 3
In = n (n + 1)(n2 − 1). (13)
12
3. Dipole moment of natural magic squares of any order in relation to center of the
square is zero. If magic square changes to its bone, then dipole moment in relation to
each arbitrary origin will be equal to zero. With the electric multipoles expansion for
magic cubes, it can be perceived that all of the components of the quadrupole moment
vanish and in addition quadrupole of magic squares is non-zero. To conclude, natural
magic squares treat like an electric quadrupole and natural magic cubes behave like
an electric octupole [62].
4. Some of contour plots of natural magic squares electrostatic potential are symmetrical
but analyzing “how such regular contours can be derived directly and why some con-
tour plots are not regular”, needs to be studied in detail. There might be a connection
with sets of singular values of magic squares (Fig. 40).
20
Figure 40: Contour plot of electro-static potential of a sample 4 × 4 natural magic square.
The electrostatic potential at the center of all associative magic squares of an arbitrary
order and also for natural magic squares of order 3 and 4 is constant.
1
ϕ= (n2 + 1) ×C (14)
4πε0
Moreover, Electrostatic potential at the center of associative magic squares is equal
to average of minimum and maximum potential at the center of normal squares. In
conclusion, it seems that potential of these squares are a special case and completely
balanced of non-magic squares [63].
5. Water retention on mathematical surfaces refers to the water caught in ponds on a
surface of cells of various heights on a regular array such as a square lattice, where
water is rained down on every cell in the system. The boundaries of the system are
open and allow water to flow out. Water will be trapped in ponds, and eventually
all ponds will fill to their maximum height, with any additional water flowing over
spillways and out the boundaries of the system. The problem is to find the amount
of water trapped or retained for a given surface. This has been studied extensively
for two mathematical surfaces: magic squares and random surfaces [64],[65]. Phys-
ically, this problem is related to coatings on a random surface and the properties of
landscapes and watersheds. Theoretically, it is related to the topology of random sur-
faces and to invasion percolation (IP), but with some interesting new features. Water
retention problem was previously studied in the context of surfaces created by magic
squares. The application to random surfaces is an example of the deeper connections
of this problem (Fig. 41) [66].
21
Figure 41: Examples of water retention on square systems with an equal distribution of terrain
heights.
6. One of the most deeply investigated concepts in modern physics is that of oscillatory
motion of atoms in the field of molecular physics and solids in the field of solid state
physics [67],[68]. As an idea for future research, suppose a vibrating system with n2
discrete masses and 2(n2 − 1) identical springs which construct a system of particles
of magic squares. For example, we have 9 masses which connect to each other by 16
springs for the first step (Fig. 42). Initially, the conditions of these oscillators may be
as follows,
(a) The coordinate is two dimensional.
(b) Masses are the masses of magic squares.
(c) All of the springs constant are K.
(d) Center of mass and geometrical center of the system coincide and are constant.
(e) The effects of viscous or frictional forces or external gravitational fields are ne-
glected.
Normal frequencies and normal modes can be obtained by determinant method for
3 × 3 magic square and a sample of 4 × 4 magic squares, and then different physical
aspects of the problem can be argued. For magic square of order 3, it is clear that the
system has 3 constants of the motion in minimum, which are angular momentum and
vertical and horizontal linear momentums. This triad says that three of the frequencies
vanish from 18 modes of oscillation. To illustrate, it should be said that these three
zeroes catch from symmetry on shift and transference in two directions at plane of the
system and symmetry on rotation about perpendicular axis of its plane. Ultimately, it
can be said that number of zeroes obtain from number of zero eigenvalues of tensor
K which depend on potential energy [67],[68].
22
Figure 42: System of particles and springs for 3 × 3 natural magic square
8 Conclusion
In this paper, some types of magic geometrical shapes are introduced briefly. Then, the most
important types of magic squares and their features are described. Moreover, construction
methods of natural magic squares together with their important properties are expressed.
Finally, some of the most considerable unsolved problems are reviewed, and interesting
physical applications of magic squares are analyzed. Physical application of magic squares
is still a new topic that needs to be explored more. There are many interesting ideas for
research in this field such as the idea explained in number 6 of section 7.
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