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Classification of Manufacturing
 Casting (Primary Process) (Zero Process) (3200 B.C. A

copper frog, the oldest known casting in existence,
is cast in Mesopotamia.
3000 BC Earliest castings include the 11 cm high
bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro)
 Metal Forming Process (Primary Process) (Zero
Process)(The oldest known industrial metal mining and
working operation has been dated to the discovery of a
copper pendant in northern Iraq from about 8,700 BCE)
Classification of Manufacturing
 Joining Processes (Positive Process) (Arc welding –
1801)
 Powder Metallurgy (Engineers in the 1800s began
utilizing metal powders to create laboratory instruments
with platinum)
 Machining Process (Secondary Process) (First lathe –
1751)
Introduction to Rapid Manufacturing
Contents
 Additive Manufacturing
 Rapid Manufacturing
 Functional Prototyping
 Rapid Tooling
 Indirect and direct Manufacturing
Why Rapid Prototyping?
 Examples of Camera, Adjustable chair, Shoe & Car (These products
are not customized)
We do not have customization, we accept what is available.
Camera, Adjustable chair are manufactured for right hand users, not for
left hand users.
Shoes are manufactured with standard sizes. Using the shoes which are
not suitable for your feet leads to knee pain.
Cars are manufactured with standard sizes. Car manufacturers do not
consider the driver height, weight, right hand user or left hand user,
male or female. But customers spend more money on cars.
Challenge - Quality
Why is it not done?
Because the users are not captured so the product is not made.
What is the challenge?
Produce more in terms of batches, but make it more mass customized. In
mass customization manufacturers cannot sacrifice time and cannot
sacrifice the cost. So, we are still supposed to work to the expectation of
the customer both in terms of economy and in terms of time delivery.
Engineers are pushed from mass production to batch production to mass
customized production.
This mass customized production is termed or is redrafted as Rapid
Manufacturing
Rapid Manufacturing
Why rapid manufacturing?
The industrial 3D printer is at the tipping point, about to go
mainstream in a big way. (Earlier the raw material was plastic,
now it is changed into metal.)
Most executives and many engineers do not realize it, but this
technology has moved well beyond prototyping, rapid tooling
and toys.
“Rapid Manufacturing” is creating durable and safe products

for sale to real customers in moderate to large quantities.
What is Rapid Manufacturing?
Engineers try to take the feedback or requirements from the
customer converted it into a digital form; and that digital
form is given directly to the machine the parts are produced
and directly moved towards an application.
Examples of layer by layer – Rainbow
cake
Examples of layer by layer - Plywood
Rapid Manufacturing
Form, Fit, Function
Seen here attached to the US Navy's M4A1 machine

Seen heregun,
attached to theprototype
an ABS US Navy's stock
M4A1 machine gun, an
was tested onABS
the(Acrylonitrile
firing Butadiene
Styrene) prototype stock was tested on the firing range with live ammunition. Prototype built on
range
FDM system from with live ammunition. Prototype built on FDM
Stratasys
system from Stratasys.
Rapid manufacturing course content
 Major Modules
 Introduction to Rapid Manufacturing
 Product Engineering
 CAD/CAE/CAM and CIM
 Design for modularity
 Reverse Engineering
 Rapid manufacturing processes and technologies
 Rapid manufacturing Digital factory
 Competitiveness in rapid manufacturing
‘Rapid prototyping’ course outcome
 Participate in a discussion with your peers, cater the
interview questions and take an examination on Rapid
Manufacturing.
 Identifying the tangible and intangible elements of Rapid
Manufacturing
 Select a process, tool, material for your product.
 Define broadly the level of Rapid Manufacturing systems
from techniques, production lines, to digital facilities for
the entire enterprise.
Classification of Rapid prototyping
LIQUID-BASED
 Stereo lithography (SLA)
SOLID-BASED
 Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
POWDER-BASED
 3D Printing
 Selective laser sintering (SLS)
 Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
 https://www.thingiverse.com/
Additive Manufacturing also called
layered manufacturing.
 Additive Manufacturing is a layered based automated fabrication
process for making scale 3 dimensional physical objects directly
from a 3D cad data without using part depending tools. (Rapid
Manufacturing is I would like to build the 3 dimensional objects
from fundamentally 2 dimensional layers. I make layer by layer
by layer, I stitch those layer by layer by layer and make it into a 3
D physical object.)
 It was originally called as 3D printing.
 Together with the well-established subtractive manufacturing such
as milling or turning and the formability manufacturing such as
casting and forging, Additive Manufacturing provides the third
supporting pillar of the entire manufacturing technology.
Additive Manufacturing
 When the first approaches to Additive Manufacturing entered the
market in 1987, it is very new it was called as Rapid Prototyping or
it was called as Generative Manufacturing.
 Both terms are still in use and in the past years many different
names have been presented and frequently more are added.
 Although each of the name is perfect from the special viewpoint of
its creator many of these causes confusion.
 Often this is one reason why newcomers to the industry in particular
sometimes feel lost in the field of Additive Manufacturing.
 To obtain a brief overview a small selection of the mostly used
terms are structured according to a few families of keywords.
 Often used terms include
1. Rapid
 Rapid Technology
 Rapid Prototyping
 Rapid Tooling.
2. Additive
 Additive Manufacturing
 Additive Layer Manufacturing
 Additive Digital Manufacturing.
3. Layer:
 layer based manufacturing
 layer oriented manufacturing
 layer manufacturing.
4. Digital
 digital fabrication
 digital mock up.
5. Direct
 Direct Manufacturing
 Direct Tooling.
6. 3D
 3D printing
 3D modelling.
 The principles of layered based technology
The term Additive Manufacturing like generative manufacturing
covers any imaginable way of adding materials in order to create a 3
dimensional physical part.
The technical realization of Additive Manufacturing is based solely on
layers and therefore, it is called as layer based technology or layer
oriented technology or even layer technology.
Consequently today the terms Additive Manufacturing, Generative
Manufacturing and layered based technologies are sometimes used
synonymously.
In the future as new additive technologies may become available they
will need to be classified within the current structure of Rapid
Manufacturing definition.
2D layer to 3D Part
layer to layer (Example)
Difference between machining and
additive manufacturing
 Machining Process – Negative process
 Rapid manufacturing – Positive process
Additive manufacturing
Additive manufacturing – Economical
 Manufacturing is an automated and revolving process developed
from the principle of layer based technology.
 It is characterized by a process chain illustrated in the figure.
 It starts from a 3D CAD dataset that represents the part to be
produced.
 In engineering, the data set is typically obtained by 3D CAD
design or by scanning or other imaging technologies such as
computerized tomography scanning, (CT-Scanning is) also used
for developing the data independent of how it is obtained a 3D
data set is first sliced into layer using a computer and a special
software. (includes)
Process chain of Additive manufacturing
Virtual CAD model using computer
Obtain the contour by slicing the CAD model on the computer
Making of physical layer due to contour information +

merging the physical layer on top of each other
Physical Additive Manufacture part

Additive manufacturing - Process
 As a result a set of contour virtual slices with even
thickness is obtained. (Today, this also has changed. You
can have varying slice thickness.)
 The data set
 Consisting of the contour data (x-y).
 The layer thickness (dz).
 The layer number (in z direction) of each layer, is
submitted to a machine that executes two elementary
process steps per layer in order to create the part.
 First, each layer is proposed is processed according to the
given contour and a layer thickness data.
 This can be done in many ways by using different physical
phenomena. The most simple method is to cut the contour
from a prefabricated sheet or foil.
 In the second step, each layer is bonded to the preceding
layer, now forming the top layer of the partly finished model
 Again, the simplest method is to use a contour foil and glue it
on top of the preceding layer. Layer by layer, the physical
model is growing from the bottom to the top until the final
part is obtained.
 These basic steps, called a process chain, are the same for all of the
approximately hundreds of different AM machines available today. The
machines differ only by the way each layer is processed. So, the starting
material if it is liquid it you can use laser, if it is a wire you can use
passing through a hot nozzle, if it is a powder you can glue that powder
and by the way adjacent layers are joined to form a part.
 The machines differ only by the way each layer is processed and by the
way adjacent layers are joined to form the part
 As a first conclusion Additive Manufacturing is the manufacturing
process:
I. based just on the 3D set, 3-dimensional visual objects called as digital
product model or CAD model
II. Using layers of even thickness contour according to the corresponding
cross section of the product level.
 AM therefore, basically is a 2.5 D process does not
interfere with the design process and therefore, can be
done at any stage of the product development. (X & Y is
2D)
 That mostly uses proprietary materials thus, forms a
strong linkage between machine process and building
material.
 This effect will diminish with increasing number of
machines in the market and the rising attraction of third
party material suppliers enter into the market.
Additive manufacturing – Application
levels
 Most of the peoples interest in Additive Manufacturing preferably
wanted to know how they can use this new technology and what
kind of new and different products they can develop using it.
 In addition, it is advantageous to use the right term during the
discussion in the product development team.
 Many thinks that each of their different AM processes is exclusively
linked to a certain application in the sense that a certain AM process
can only be used for one or a small range of application while the
other processes is solely suitable for another application.
 This opinion encourages people to study all different process first
and to care about a suitable application afterwards.
levels
 In practice identification of the best applicable AM
process starts with the respective application.
 Then, special requirements, such as dimension,
resolution, surface quality, tolerances, temperature etc
lead to the suitability of the material and finally, to a
machine capable of handling all these requirements
properly.
 In general, different Additive Manufacturing process can
use alternative to solve the same problem.
levels
 As can be seen in the illustration AM technology is
characterized by two main application levels
1. Rapid Prototyping and
2. Rapid Manufacturing.
 Rapid Prototyping describes all applications that lead to
prototypes, Samples, models, mock-ups, while Rapid
Manufacturing is used when final parts or even products
are made.
levels
Rapid Manufacturing – Direct
manufacturing
 The data was obtained from the patient by
a dental imprint and then digitized.
 With the use of the professional dental
software 3 shape the dental bridge was
designed and directly manufactured using
SLM process.
 After finishing and geometric testing, the
bridge was ready to be place/d in the
patients mouth.
Cobalt – Chromium alloy
 Regarding traditional process, the directly
manufacture bridge was made quicker,
with a perfect fit and a comparable cost.
Rapid Tooling
 Rapid tooling, involves all AM procedures that lead to a
final product used as core, cavity or insert for tools, dies
and molds.
 Two sub level must be distinguished
 Direct tooling
 Prototype tooling.
 Direct tooling is a technical equivalent to direct
manufacturing, but leads to tool inserts, die, mold in
series quality.
Rapid Manufacturing
Rapid Tooling and Manufacturing
 RP processes have been used as a manufacturing step in production
besides demonstration and visualization tool.
 Two basic methodologies:

1. Direct production of engineering metal, ceramic, polymer components
or parts by rapid prototyping - Rapid Manufacturing
2. Production of tooling by rapid prototyping for use in further

manufacturing process.
Rapid Manufacturing
Characteristics
 RP operations can be used to manufacture parts directly. The

component is generated directly to a near-net shape from a
computer file on part geometry.
Rapid Tooling
Characteristics
 An application of RP is rapid tooling - an automatic
fabrication of machine tools. Tooling is one of the most costly
steps in the manufacturing process.
 Tools are often complex and need to be wear resistant for

production. To meet these requirements, molds and dies are
traditionally made by CNC machining, EDM or other
methods.
Rapid Tooling
Characteristics
 Traditional methods are expensive and time consuming;
making rapid tooling prototyping the desired alternative.
 By using rapid prototyping, tooling and design cost may be

cut by 50% to 70%.
Rapid Tooling
 Rapid prototyping is used in two ways to make tooling:
1. Direct Tooling
- Molds or other tools may be directly fabricated by
RP system
2. Indirect Tooling
◦ RP-generated parts can be used as patterns for
fabricating a mold or tool through so-called
indirect or secondary processes.
Rapid Tooling
 Direct Tooling / Direct Fabrication Processes
 Specialized RP processes have been developed to meet
specific application and material requirements for moulding
and casting.
 These may be forms of basic RP processes, such as SLS, or

may be unique RP methods developed for a specific
application.
Rapid Tooling
 Direct Tooling / Direct Fabrication Processes
 To make metal tooling direct from CAD file through

rapid prototyping process; is the answer to every
production engineers dream.
Rapid Tooling
 Processes
 Rapid tool – A process which uses SLS to sinter poly-coated

steel pellets together to produce metal mould.
 LOM Composite – A method of using ceramic composite

material for Laminated Object Manufacturing.
 Sand Moulding – A rapid prototyping technique that

constructs sand moulds directly from a CAD file.
Rapid Tooling
 Processes
 Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS) – A process that

can create metal tools directly from a CAD file.
- This process is capable of using multiple materials, stainless
steel, HSS, tungsten carbide as well as others.
- A laser beam melts the top layer of the part in areas where
material is to be added until the part is complete.
- Unlike sintering, LENS does produce a solid metal part
since the metal was melted.
Rapid Tooling
 Indirect or Secondary Processes
 Although the properties of rapid prototyping materials

continue to improve and expand, their comparatively small
number and a limitless array of applications
 There will always be a need to transfer parts fabricated in a

material used in an additive fabrication process into yet
another material.
 Consequently, numerous material transfer technologies

have been developed.
Rapid Tooling
 Typically a part made by the RP system is used as a pattern

or model in these processes.
 As in the case of the direct fabrication processes discussed

above, there are many secondary processes in various stages
of development.
 However, of the more than two dozen such methods

available or under investigation, just a few are common and
commercially important today.
Contents
•Product and it is characteristics
•Evolution of a product development
•Sequential product development
•Stages in generic product development process
•Design specification in the process
•Conceptual and detailed designing.
Product Development
 The product life cycle is a sequence of all the required
activities that a company must perform to develop
manufacture and sell a product.
 These activities can include marketing, research,
engineering design, quality assurance, manufacturing and
a whole chain of supplier and vendor
 The process also comprises all strategic planning, capital
investment management decision and task necessary to
create a new product.
Product Development
 An important part of product development is the engineering
design process, which can be designed as a process of
devising a system component or process to meet the desired
requirement.
 Engineering design consists of several sequential or parallel
activities that begin with identifying the need and concluding
with a ready to manufacture product.
 The prototyping is considered to be the first product
completed in the production process.
 It is produced using all manufacturing processes and test
procedures called by the design drawing and specification.
Product Development
 The product development is evolving from a sequential
process carried out primarily by engineers to an
integrated process incorporating a cross functional team.
 Similar steps are followed in either cases, but there are
accomplished concurrently and with the higher speed in
the integrated process environment.
Product Development
Four logical group of activities can be identified in product
development:
 Identifying an opportunity or a demand.
 Creating a technical specification for the new product
idea.
 Developing the manufacturing process to produce the
new product this is also challenge.
 Fabricating the new product
Product Development
 In the first group market or potential markets are analyzed to
generate customer needs, meaning that the customer will
eventually generate the requirements for the desired product
features and functions.
 The market information is usually compiled by marketing
specialists who translate it into a set of product features or
product descriptions that are intended to satisfy a certain
target customer base.
investment management decision and task necessary to create
a new product. So, all these things are part of product life
cycle
Product Development (Pencil,Dosa)
 In the first group market or potential markets are analyzed to
generate customer needs, meaning that the customer will eventually
generate the requirements for the desired product features and
functions.
 The market information is usually compiled by marketing specialists
who translate it into a set of product features or product descriptions
that are intended to satisfy a certain target customer base.
 This process also includes analyzing other products that meets the
target needs offered by competitors to find their point of both
strength and weakness, so that effort can be made to overcome
weaknesses and improve the desired feature.
Product Development
 The price range that also has to be estimated at this point
by analyzing the pricing of a similar product.
 This in addition to a value of desired profit margin will
set the criteria for the economical feasibility of the new
product.
 The data are translated into cost and quality specification.
 The next step is to formulate the product into a concept
based on the product features set identified by marketing
in the previous step that is a first version of how the
product will look and perform is created
Product Development
 Using a initial concept vision the design process proceeds to
a design and test the product until a preliminary design is
completed.
 Then a prototype can be created and tested to make sure that
the product is functioning as it should.
 The prototype is considered as a first finish product in the
sense that it must be produced using all manufacturing
processes, that the actual product will go through prototyping
testing. Thus the design will be redefined and a new
prototype is produced.
 This will continue until no more modifications are required
 The next step is to finalize the product documentation
and then the manufacturing process development may be
initiated.
 The manufacturing process must be created so that the
product can be produced in the production facility.
 After the product design and development of
manufacturing process are completed. The business for
producing and shipping of the product begins.
 The raw materials can be purchased and the production
facility can get into operations.
 During the first two production period some problem may
arise as a result of technical production problem which
will lead to design modifications to resolve these new
problems and reach the expected production rate with the
intended quality.
Definition of product
 In marketing a product is anything that can be offered to a
market that might satisfy a want or a need.
 In business, Products are called as merchandise
 In manufacturing products are brought as raw material
and sold as finished goods.
 A service is another common product type.
Product Design
 Product design deals with conversion of dreams into
reality; in order to fulfill human needs.
 A designer produces the prototype by the way the
designer means it is not an artist designer means you have
a customer asking the customer their need.
 Responsibility of a designer if producer believes that
sufficient number of customers will be satisfied then
mass production may be taken up by the production cell.
 If there is an error in the design he has to reiterate,
designer has to reiterate.
key factor for to a successful product
Distinctiveness
 Distinctiveness for successful product a key factor for to
a successful product is distinctiveness, provide excellent
value for the money spent and enhanced quality
perceived is very important
Customer focuses and market orientation.
 Develop and intensive understanding of the trait of the
market
 recognize the competition
Sharp and early product production
 An outline of the concept and the benefit to be provided
 A list of product attributes and features; attributes,
features are different, attributes good bad feature.
Execution of activity
 Better job across the activity identifies under homework
and market orientation.
 The team should not skip market studies and undertake
trial sells so market study has to be done
The organizational behavior this is one of the key factors
for a successful product the team comprises members of
all basic functions
 research and development
 engineering design
 production quality and
 sale.
Successful Product Development
 Cost : The cost of both producing and developing.
 value : Quality of the product
 time : For assessing market needs to product sales
 technology know how: The actual procedure to follow.
Product characteristics
The major product characteristics are
 Functional or performance aspect.
 Operational or ease to use aspect.
 Ease of maintenance.
 Aesthetic and appearance.
 Customer so price to customer or value added aspects.
Introduction
 Modular design is made with an approach that subdivides
a system into smaller parts called modules or skids, that
can be independently created and then used in different
systems.
 A modular system can be characterized by functionally
partitioning into
 Discrete, scalable, reusable modules.
 Rigorous use of well defined modular interface.
 Making use of industrial standards for interface.
Design for modularity
 Design for modularity, can be advantageous in many
ways.
 Reduction in cost
 Flexibility in design right
 Augmentation
Design for manufacturing
 Before discussing design for modularity the concept of
design for manufacturing and design for assembly has to
be understood.
 Design for manufacturing,
 Design for assembly and
 Design for modularity.
 Definition for design for manufacturing is a design
technique for manufacturing ease of an assortment of
parts that would constitute the final product after
assembly.
 Design for manufacturing focuses on minimizing the
complexity involving the manufacturing was operations
as well as reducing the overall part production cost.
 Design for manufacturing is also the process of proactively
designing the products too.
 Optimize all the manufacturing functions like
 fabrication,
 assembly,
 testing,
 procurement,
 shipping,
 delivery,
 service, and
 repair.
 Assure the best in
 cost,
 quality,
 reliability,
 regulatory
 compliance,
 safety,
 time to market and
 customer satisfaction.(The earlier one was functions of
manufacturing.)
Design review
 Design review the purpose of design review is to provide
systematic and thorough product process analysis.
 The formal record of that analysis
 Feedback to the design team for product and process
improvement is also given out of this design review.
 Some commonly associated problems with the
implementation of the design review processes are.
 unevenly matched skills and knowledge among the
design reviewer team.
 Lack of communication
 No time to make design review based changes so this is a
problem.
 Lack of design review experience.
Stereolithography
Stereolithography
Stereolithography (SLA or SL; also known
as stereolithography apparatus, optical
fabrication, photo-solidification, or resin printing)
is a form of 3D printing technology used for
creating models, prototypes, patterns, and
production parts in a layer by layer fashion
using photochemical processes by which light
causes chemical monomers and oligomers to cross-
link together to form polymers.
Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing
process that, in its most common form, works by
focusing an ultraviolet (UV) laser on to a vat
of photopolymer resin.
UV range: 150nm to 300nm.
Oligomers are low molecular weight polymers
comprising a small number of repeat units whose
physical properties are significantly dependent on
the length of the chain.
Stereolithography
Curing process
 Curing is a chemical process employed in polymer chemistry
and process engineering that produces the toughening or hardening of a
polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains.
Stereolithography
 A base support is positioned on an elevator platform and immersed in a tank of liquid
photosensitive monomer, with only a thin liquid film above it.
 A UV laser locally cross-links the monomer on the thin liquid film above the structure support
base.
 The elevator plate is lowered by a small prescribed step, exposing a fresh layer of liquid
monomer, and the process is repeated
 At the end of the job, the whole part is cured and excess resin and support structures are
removed (Waves)
Stereolithography
Solidification of the monomer can occur in two different
modalities:
 Free surface mode: Solidification occurs at the resin/air
interface. In this mode, care must be taken to avoid waves
or a slant of the liquid surface, which would compromise
the final dimensional resolution. The elevator moves
down at each step (top-down build).
 Fixed surface mode: The resin is stored in a container

with a transparent window plate for exposure, and
solidification occurs at the stable window/resin interface.
In this mode, the elevator moves up at each step (bottom-
up build).
Stereolithography
Two fundamental process variations exist:
 Scanning stereolithography. The laser beam is rastered onto the

surface. Parts are constructed in a point-by-point and line by-line
fashion, with the sliced shapes written directly from a
computerized design of the cross-sectional shapes.
 Projection stereolithography. A parallel fabrication process in
which all the voxels in a layer are exposed at the same time; the
topology to be printed on each layer is defined by 2D shapes
(masks). These 2D shapes are either a set of real photomasks or
digital masks defined on a DLP projector
Stereolithography
Curing process
 Curing is a chemical process employed in polymer chemistry
and process engineering that produces the toughening or hardening of a
polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains.
Stereolithography
 A base support is positioned on an elevator platform and immersed in a tank of liquid
photosensitive monomer, with only a thin liquid film above it.
 A UV laser locally cross-links the monomer on the thin liquid film above the structure support
base.
 The elevator plate is lowered by a small prescribed step, exposing a fresh layer of liquid
monomer, and the process is repeated
 At the end of the job, the whole part is cured and excess resin and support structures are
removed (Waves)
Photopolymerization
 Photopolymerization makes use of a liquid, radiation
crucible resin or a photopolymer as their primary
material. A photopolymer or a light activated resin is a
polymer that changes it is property when exposed to light,
often in the presence of UV light or visible region of a
electromagnetic spectrum.
Photopolymerization
 Most photopolymers react to radiation in the UV range of
wavelengths, but some visible light systems are also used.
So, predominantly it will be UV based so, you take a UV
light. So, basically you can take a UV lamp or you can
take a UV laser for curing it. We prefer UV laser because
you can have fine resolutions in the developed material.
Upon irradiation, these materials undergo a chemical
reaction to become a solid. This reaction is called as
photopolymerization and is typically complex involving
many chemical participants.
Photopolymerization
Photopolymerization
 So, this is a liquid polymer, this is you can see blue small
dots are called as monomers and along with the
monomers you have this violet one are called as
oligomers and then we have photoinitiators which are
green and when the UV light hits on it you can see these
mers are trying to form a network with oligomer. They
are trying to form a oligomer and the photoinitiator are
used to start the reaction and form this bond between
them. So, because of the bond forming this is the bond
this tries to make it into a solid.
Photopolymerization
 Photo curable resins are also used in dentistry such as for
sealing the top surface of the teeth to fill in deep grooves
and prevent cavities. In these applications, coatings are
cured by radiation that blankets the resin without the need
of patterning either the material or the radiation. This
changed with the introduction of stereolithography.
Photopolymerization
 Stereolithography, lithography is light for making 2D
structures. If want to make a 3D structure. So, I call this
process as stereolithography. Lithography means you
have a light where in which this light is exposed on top of
a mask. So, light exposed on top of a mask. This is a
mask and then you have some material, this material is
getting the mask transferred, you have a photopolymer.
So, because of the light exposure, you get this photo resin
on curing it tries to create this structure
Photopolymerization
 The various types of radiations maybe used to cure
commercial photopolymers including gamma rays, X-ray,
electron beam, UV and in some cases visible light.
 In SL system UV and visible light radiations are used most
commonly.
 In the microelectronic industry photo mask material are often
photopolymers and are relatively irradiated using far UV and
electron beam.
 In contrast the field of dentistry uses a visible light
predominantly, this is used for curing and making the caps.
Photopolymerization - configurations
 vector scan or point wise approaches typically of
commercial SL machines
 Mask projection or layer wise approach that irradiates
entire layer at one time.
 Two-photon approach that are essentially high resolution
point by point approach.
Photopolymerization
Photopolymerization
 This laser predominantly is UV laser. So, that it can go cure
the liquid polymer passes through optics, so this optics is for
beam adjustment in terms of shape, in terms of focus
diameter. So, this optics place a very important role.
 The thing is when we wanted to make an object which is
slightly large and if you want to move this table in a high
speed maybe 100 meters per minute or something like that.
So, then what happens the ball screw mechanism, what is
used or the belt drive mechanism what is used, is not of high
repeatable or it gives you a poor repeatability.
Photopolymerization
 So, in order to avoid this what we do is, nowadays we try
to go for a scanning galvanometer, this galvanometer tries
to sweep in one direction; it is pivoted here in one
direction. So, it tries to hit at layer of polymer and tries to
cure in the x and y plane. So, it hits and moves on the x
and y plane of a single layer. So, this once a single layer
is cured the table is move down by a required layer
thickness or whatever you have assigned layer thickness
it sinks down. So, then once the object which is cured
sinks down now the fresh photopolymer face on top of i
Two photo approach
Two photo approach
 Two-photon approach, scanning laser beam are needed,
while the mask projection approach utilizes a large
radiation beam that is patterned by another device, in this
case it is a digital micromirror device. Which is nothing,
but DMD, DMD stands for digital micromirror device.
 In the Two-photon case photopolymerization occurs at
the interaction of 2 scanning laser beams, although other
configuration uses a single laser at different photoinitiator
chemistry.
Two photo approach
 Another distinction is the need to recoat or apply a new
layer of resin in the vector scan and mask projection
approach while in the 2 photon approach, the path is
fabricated below the resin surface making recoating
unnecessary.
Photopolymerization materials
 These are used as photo resists in the microelectronic
industry.
 This application has a major impact on the development of
epoxy based photopolymers. The photoresists are essentially
one layer stereolithography, but with critical requirements on
accuracy and feature resolution.
 The various types of radiation maybe used to cure
commercial photopolymers include gamma ray which I
discussed earlier, X ray, electron beam, UV and in some
cases visible light, although UV and electron beam are most
commonly used.
 In rapid manufacturing many of these radiation sources
have been utilized in research. However, only UV and
visible light systems are effectively used in real time
product in SL system for example, UV radiation is used
although in principle other types could be also used.
 In SLA 250 from 3 D system, this is a machine which is supplied by
3d system a helium - cadmium laser, helium- cadmium laser with a
wavelength of 325 nanometer which is in UV is used. In contrast,
solid state laser used in the other SL models are Nd YVO4 laser is
also used.
 In mask projection DMD digital micromirror device based system
mask projection system UV and visible light radiations are used.
Thermoplastic polymers that are typically injections molded have a
linear or a branched molecular structure, that allows them to melts
and resolidify repeatedly.
 In contrast SL photopolymers are cross linked thermo sets, and as a
result do not melt and exhibit much less creep and stress relaxation.
UV curable photopolymers
 The epoxy resin produced more accurate harder and stronger
parts than the acrylate parts so poly epoxide composition.
While the polymerization of acrylate composition leads to 5
to 20 percent shrinkage, the ring open polymerization of
epoxy composition only lead to the shrinkage of 1 to 2
percent then people started getting away from this acrylate
based photopolymerization to epoxy composition
photopolymerization. This low level of shrinkage associated
with epoxy chemistry contributes to excellent adhesion and
reduced tendency for flexible substrates to curl during curing.
 The overview of photo polymer chemistry the SL
stereolithography photopolymer are composed of several
types of ingredients, photo initiator, reactive diluents,
flexibilizer, stabilizer, liquid monomer.
 Broadly speaking when UV radiation impinges on SL resin
the photoinitiator undergo a chemical transformation and
becomes reactive with a liquid monomer. So, this fellow will
absorb the UV and start giving energy or start initiating the
bond between the different mers. The reactive photoinitiator
reacts with the monomer molecules to start a polymer chain
 Two main types of photopolymer chemistry are
commercially evident, free radical photopolymerization
which is nothing but an acrylates, cation
photopolymerization which is epoxy and vinyl ether. The
symbol C and H denotes carbon and hydrogen atoms
respectively, while R denotes a molecular group which
typically consists of one or more vinyl groups. A vinyl
group is a molecular structure with a carbon - carbon
double bond, in this vinyl group in the R structure that
enables photopolymers to become cross linked
 The overview of photopolymer chemistry, free - radical
photopolymerization was the first type that can be
commercially developed. Since SL resins were acrylate the
acrylates form long polymer chain once the photoinitiators
becomes ‘reactive’ building the molecular linearly by adding
monomer segments. Cross- linking typically happens after
the polymer chain grows enough so that they become close to
each other. Acrylate photopolymer exhibits high photo speed,
but have a number of disadvantages including significant
shrinkage and the tendency to warp and curl. As a result they
are rarely used now without epoxy or other photopolymer
elements.
 When reacted, these rings open resulting in sites for other
chemical bonds. Ring opening is known as impart
minimal volume change on reaction because the number
and the type of chemical bonds are essentially identical
before and after reaction. This is a very important point
number and the types of chemical bonds are essentially
identical before and after reaction. As a result epoxy SL
resins typically have much smaller shrinkage and much
less tendency to warp and curl almost all commercial
available SL resins have significant amount of epoxies.
 Polymerization of SL monomers is an exothermic
reaction, please understand exothermic heat is generated
during the curing process with heat of reaction around 85
kilo joule mole for an example acrylic monomer does.
Despite high heat of reaction a catalyst is necessary to
initiate the reaction. So, temperature alone does not
initiate we need one more catalyst to initiate such that the
epoxy type SL resins get cured and they form a solid
object.
 The resin formulation and reaction mechanism the basic
raw material such as
 polyoxyl, epoxides and acrylic acid and other esters,
diisocyanates etc..
 are used to produce monomers and oligomers used for the
radiation curing.
 Most of the monomers are multifunctional monomers
MFM or polyol poly acrylates which gives a cross linking
polymerization
 The main chemical families of oligomer are poly ester
acrylate PEA, epoxy acrylate EA, urethane acrylates UA
and amino acrylates used as photo accelerators in the
photo initiator systems and cycloaliphatic epoxies. Resin
supplier creates ready to use formulation by mixing the
oligomers and monomers with the photoinitiators, as well
as the other materials to affect reaction rate and part
properties. In practice photosensitizers are often used in
the combination with the photoinitiator to shift the
absorption towards the longer wavelength
Stereolithography
Maximum build size 1500mm x 750mm

x 550mm
Resolution in (x,y) Spot Dependent
Resolution in z 0.004”
Speed Medium
Cost High
Available materials Thermoset
polymers:
photosensitive
resins
MEMS & NEMS
 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, or MEMS, is a
technology that in its most general form can be defined as
miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical elements
(i.e., devices and structures) that are made using the
techniques of microfabrication.
 Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are a class of
devices integrating electrical and mechanical
functionality on the nanoscales
34
Stereolithography
(SLA)
APPLICATION TO MEMS AND NEMS
• The application of rapid prototyping (RP)

techniques to MEMS and NEMS requires
higher accuracy than what is normally
achievable with commercial RP equipment.
• Laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
fused deposition modeling (FDM), and
selective laser sintering (SLS) all must be
excluded as microfabrication candidates on
that basis.
• Only stereolithography has the potential to
achieve the fabrication tolerances required
to qualify as a MEMS or NEMS tool.
• Latest enhancements that have made it an
attractive option are high-resolution micro-
and nanofabrication methods.
EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland

35
Stereolithography
(SLA) MICROSTEREOLITHOGRAPHY
• Microstereolithography, derived from conventional

stereolithography, was introduced by Ikuta in 1993.
• Whereas in conventional stereolithography the laser

spot size and layer thickness are both in the 100-μm
range, in microstereolithography a UV laser beam is
focused to a 1–2-μm spot size to solidify material in
a thin layer of 1–10 μm.
• The monomers used in RP and micro-

stereolithography are both UV-curable systems, but
the viscosity in the latter case is much lower,
because high surface tension hinders both efficient
crevice filling and flat surface formation at the
microscale.
www.miicraft.com
• In microstereolithography the solidified polymer is

light enough so that it does not require a support as
is required for the heavier pieces made in RP.
36
Stereolithography
(SLA) TWO-PHOTON LITHOGRAPHY
• Two-photon lithography provides a further

enhancement of the SLA resolution.
• Special initiator molecules in the monomer only

start the polymerization reactions if activated by
two photons simultaneously. The laser intensity
field can be tuned so that this event only happens
in a very small region near the focus. The result is
extremely local polymerization, with resolutions in
the tens of nanometers range.
• Two-photon polymerization can occur everywhere

in the monomer bath, as opposed to only at the top
layer, simplifying the hardware requirements
considerably.
www.laser-zentrum-hannover.de
37
Current materials in Additive

Manufacturing
Materials in AM today stereo lithography (SLA)
- Thermoplastics (FDM, SLS) Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
- Thermosets (SLA) Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
- Powder based composites (3DP)
3D Printing
- Metals (EBM, SLS)
- Sealant tapes, paper (LOM) Selective laser sintering (SLS)
- Starch and sugar (3DP) Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
• Functional/structural parts
▫ FDM (ABS and Nylon)
▫ SLS (thermoplastics, metals)
▫ EBM (high strength alloys, Ti, stainless steel, CoCr)
• Non-functional/structural parts
▫ SLA (resins): smoothest surface, good for casting
▫ LOM (paper), 3D Printing (plaster, sand): marketing and concept prototypes, sand castingmolds
• As new materials are introduced, more functional components will be manufactured Importantly
AM is one of the best approaches for complex architectedmaterials.
38
Challenges in AM materials properties

predictions
• Most AM processes introduce anisotropy in mechanical properties (z different from x,y)
• Local differences in laser/EB power (e.g., perimeter vs center) introduce heterogeneity in
mechanical properties
• Laser fluctuations might result in embedded defects that are difficult to identify
• All existing machines are open-loop: temperature sensors have been introduced in some
processes, but the readings are not used to optimize the processing parameters on the fly.
Anisotropy is the property of substances to exhibit variations in physical properties

along different molecular axes.
PARAMETERS
INVOLVED
Laser power laser power is found to be approximately proportional to the curing degree of the prototype. When
laser power is increased, the curing degree will be increased. This is due to the fact that, by using a high-power
laser, the resin is exposed to high-intensity UV light which leads more cross-linking. At the same time, the depth
and width of the laser-scanned line increase, thus, improving the curing degree of the prototypes.
Layer pitch. Layer pitch was found to have a reverse relationship with the curing degree. For a high layer pitch,
the curing degree will be low and vice versa. This is because the use of a low layer pitch will result is an increase
in overlaps between adjacent layers and decrease in the amount of uncured resin.
Scan pitch. Scan pitch was found to have a similar relationship as the layer pitch. When a large value of scan
pitch is used, the uncured resin will be more, and thus, the curing degree will be lower.
Scanning speed. The scanning speed used affects the curing degree in the laser-curing process. When the laser
scan is fast, the exposure energy in a unit area is less; thus, the curing degree will be low.
Laser stability. Fluctuations in the laser power will lead to different laser exposures, and thus, affect the curing
degree of the prototype.
Absorption rate of the materials. Resins used in the SL process are photo-sensitive. When the wavelength of
the radiation used is suitable for the resin, or the energy distribution is concentrative, the absorption rate will be
high, resulting in large curing degree.
Environment
Some lasers work at very high temperatures and require water to be used to help cool it down (Phillips).
This has a negative impact on the environment as large amounts of water are wasted every year to be
used as a coolant for these lasers (Phillips).
Thermophysical properties
This article reports a systematic study on the effect of laser system parameters and thermo-
physical properties of substrate materials on laser micromachining.
Optical properties
The absorption coefficient describes the intensity attenuation of the light passing through a material.
Absorption index. A measure of the attenuation caused by absorption of energy per unit of distance
that occurs in an electromagnetic wave of given wavelength propagating in a material medium of
given refractive index.
Refractive index: the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in a specified medium.
Stereolithography (SLA)
 Layer thickness (Lt): This is the specified thickness that
the model is sliced in the z direction.
 Orientation (O): This is the position in which the part is
built.
 Post curing time (Pc): This is the time for which the
prototype is placed in a UV oven for complete
solidification
DEFEC
TS
Density Problem
• Scan speed has a significant effect on density .
• At sufficiently low scan speeds, the relative density is almost
independent of the layer thickness for the selected range of the
layer thickness, and a maximum of 99% relative density is
achievable.
• At higher scan speed values, a higher layer thickness results in
less density.
Residual Stress
• Due to localized heating, complex thermal and phase
transformation stresses are generated during the process.
• In addition, frequent thermal expansion and contraction of the
previously solidified layers during the process generates
considerable thermal stresses and stress gradients that can
exceed the yield strength of the material.
• Residual stresses can lead to part distortion, initiate fracture,
and unwanted decrease in strength.
Surface finish
• Parts often require post-processing operations such as
surface machining, polishing and shot peening to attain
final part surface finish.
• Surface roughness is heavily dependent on laser
processing parameters.
Some measures to reduce distortions
 Use high exposure and slow scan speed such that
polymerization is essentially complete under the laser spot.
 Use resin with a faster rate of polymerization
 Decrease laser power to decrease scan speed for a given
exposure.
 Use low-shrinkage resin
 Increase layer thickness to increase the strength
Desirable features of SL resin
 Improved Impact resistance (less brittleness)
 Greater Flexibility
 Improved photospeed
 Increased Strength
 Better overall part accuracy
 Electrical conductivity
 High temperature resistance
 Solvent resistance
Stereolithography (SLA)
Application Range
◦ MEMS/NEMS
◦ Parts used for functional tests
◦ Manufacturing of medical models
◦ Form –fit functions for assembly tests
Advantages
◦ Possibility of manufacturing parts which are impossible to be produced conventionally in a single process
◦ Can be fully atomized and no supervision is required.
◦ High Resolution
◦ No geometric limitations
Disadvantages
◦ Necessity to have a support structure
◦ Require labor for post processing and cleaning
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
 The technology was first developed by Scott Cramp in
1988 and the patent was awarded in the U.S. in 1992.
 FDM uses the extrusion process to build 3D models.
 Stratasys introduced its first rapid prototyping machine,
the 3D modeler in early 1992 and started shipping the
units later that year.
12
Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM) Current market leaders
The fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology - Stratasys, Inc.
was developed by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s
and was commercialized in 1990. The double
material approach was developed by Stratasys in
1999.
"Ribbon Tetrus" (Carlo Séquin)
www.nybro.com.au
Stratasys Dimension SST 1200
Courtesy, Dr. Robin Richards,

University College London, UK
Models Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
 The company’s rapid prototyping systems can be broadly
classified into two categories,
 1. The FDM series and 2. the concept modeler.
 1. The FDM series include models like FDM 3000,
FDM Maxum and FDM Titan.
 The concept modeler series includes models like
Dimension and Prodigy Plus.
Specifications of FDM series
Models FDM 3000 FDM Maxum FDM Titan
Technology FDM
Build size, mm (in) Parts up to Parts up to Parts up to
254 x 254 x 406 600 x 500 x 600 355 x 406 x 406
(10 x 10 x 16) (23 x 19.7 x 23) (14 x 16 x 16)
Accuracy, mm (in) ± 0.127 Up to 127 mm (5 in):
(± 0.005) ± 0.127 (± 0.005)
Greater than 127 mm (5 in)
± 0.038 mm/mm (± 0.0015 in/in)
Layer road width, mm (in) 0.250 to 0.965 (0.010 to 0.038) 0.305 to 0.965 (0.012 to 0.038) Not available
Layer thickness, mm (in) 0.178 to 0.356 (0.007 to 0.014) 0.178 to 0.356 (0.007 to 0.014) 0.25 (0.010)
Support structures Automatically generated with Automatically generated with Insight software; WaterWorks soluble support
SupportWorks software; system
WaterWorks or Break-Away
Support System (BASS)
Size, w x h x d, mm (in) 660 x 1067 x 914 2235 x 1981 x 1118 1270 x 1981 x 876
(26 ´ 42 ´ 36) (88 x 78 x 44) (50 x 78 x 34.5)
Weight, kg (lbs) 160 (350) 1134 (2500) 726 (1600)
Power requirements 208–240 VAC, 208–240 VAC, 230 V, 50/60 Hz,
50/60 Hz, 10 A 50/60 Hz, 32 A 3 phase, 16 A/phase
single phase (min. 50 A dedicated (min. 20 A dedicated service)
service)
Modeling materials ABS (White), ABSi, Investment ABS (white) ABS, Polycarbonate, Polyphenyl-sulfone
Casting Wax, Elastomer, (ABS -
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)
Software QuickSlice® and Support-WorksTM Insight Insight
Specifications of Stratasys’ concept modelers (Courtesy
Stratasys Inc.)
Model Dimension Prodigy Plus
Technology 3D printing base on FDM FDM
Build size, mm (in) 305 x 203 x 203 (12 x 8 x 8) 203 x 203 x 305 (8 x 8 x 12)
Accuracy, mm (in) ± 0.127 (± 0.005) ± 0.127 (± 0.005)
Layer thickness mm (in) “Standard” — 0.245 (0.010) User selectable:

“Draft” — 0.33 mm (0.013) “Fine” — 0.178 mm (0.007)
“Standard” — 0.245 (0.010)
“Draft” — 0.33 mm (0.013)
Automatic operation Easy to use CatalystTM software imports STL files and CatalystTM software automatically imports and slices STL files,
automatically slices the model, creates any orients the part, generates soluble support structures
necessary support structures and generates build files (if necessary), and creates the deposition path to build parts
Size, w x d x h, mm (in) 914 x 686 x 1041 864 x 686 x 1041

(36 x 27 x 41) (34 x 27 x 41)
Weight, kg (lbs) 136 (300 ) 128 (282)
Power requirements 220–240 VAC, 50/60 Hz, 110–120 VAC, 60 Hz,
6 A or 110–120 VAC, 15 A max. or 220–240 VAC,
60 Hz, 12 A 50/60 Hz, 7 A max
Materials ABS plastic in white (standard), blue, yellow, black, red or green. Custom colors available
Material supply One autoload cartridge with 950 cu. cm. (58 cu. in.) ABS One autoload cartridge with 950 cu. cm. (58 cu. in.) ABS
material and one autoload cartridge with material and one autoload cartridge with
950 cu. cm. (58 cu. in.) support material 950 cu. cm. (58 cu. in.) soluble support material
11
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

1. A spool of themoplastic wire (typically
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)) with
a 0.012 in (300 μm) diameter is
continuously supplied to a nozzle
2. The nozzle heats up the wire and extrudes

a hot, viscos strand (like squeezing
toothpaste of of a tube).
3. A computer controls the nozzle movement

along the x- and y-axes, and each cross-
section of the prototype is produced by
melting the plastic wire that solidifies on
cooling.
4. In the newest models, a second nozzle

carries a support wax that can easily be
removed afterward, allowing construction
of more complex parts. The most common
support material is marketed by Stratasys
under the name WaterWorks
Process
 In this patented process, a geometric model of a conceptual design is
created on a CAD software which uses IGES or STL formatted files
 It can then imported into the workstation where it is processed
through the QuickSlice® and SupportWork propriety software
before loading to FDM 3000 or similar systems
 For FDM Maxum and Titan, a newer software known as Insight is
used
 Within this software, the CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers
after the part is oriented for the optimum build position, and any
necessary support structures are automatically detected and
generated.
 The slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere between 0.172
to 0.356 mm
Process
 Tool paths of the build process are then generated which
are downloaded to the FDM machine.
 The modeling material is in spools — very much like a
fishing line. The filament on the spools is fed into an
extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid state.
 The semi-liquid material is extruded through the head and
then deposited in ultra thin layers from the FDM head,
one layer at a time. Since the air surrounding the head is
maintained at a temperature below the materials’ melting
point, the exiting material quickly solidifies.
Process
 Moving on the X–Y plane, the head follows the tool path
generated by QuickSlice® or Insight generating the
desired layer. When the layer is completed, the head
moves on to create the next layer.
 The horizontal width of the extruded material can vary
between 0.250 to 0.965 mm depending on model. This
feature, called “road width”, can vary from slice to slice.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)-
Principle
 The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry,
thermal energy, and layer manufacturing technology. The
material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially
designed head, which extrudes on the model. As it is
extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the
model. The model is built layer by layer, like the other RP
systems. Parameters which affect performance and
functionalities of the system are material column strength,
material flexural modulus, material viscosity, positioning
accuracy, road widths, deposition speed, volumetric flow
rate, tip diameter, envelope temperature and part geometry.
Software
 Quickslice® and SupportWorks preprocessing software are used to
run with the systems. However, newer systems like the FDM
Maxum and Titan use an improved software, Insight. The newer
software increases building speed, improves efficiency and is easier
to use than its previous QuickSlice® software. Although both
Maxum and Titan have the same achievable accuracy, they differ
from each other in terms of build volume, layer thickness and their
physical size and weight. An advantageous point for selecting Titan
over Maxum is that the former allows users to have a wider
selection of materials (ABS, Polycarbonate and Polyphenylsulfone),
whereas the latter can only build models using ABS.
Advantages
 Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to
fabricate prototypes with materials that are similar to that of
the actual molded product. With ABS, it is able to fabricate
fully functional parts that have 85% of the strength of the
actual molded part. This is especially useful in developing
products that require quick prototypes for functional testing.
 Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by
extruding semi-liquid melt onto the model. Thus only those
material needed to build the part and its support are needed,
and material wastages are kept to a minimum. There is also
little need for cleaning up the model after it has been built.
Advantages
 Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support
System (BASS) and WaterWorks Soluble Support System, support
structures generated during the FDM building process can be easily
broken off or simply washed away. This makes it very convenient
for users to get to their prototypes very quickly and there is very
little or no post-processing necessary.
 Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form
(or cartridge form in the case of the Dimension or Prodigy Plus),
are easy to handle and can be changed readily when the materials in
the system are running low. This keeps the operation of the machine
simple and the maintenance relatively easy.
Disadvantages
 Restricted accuracy. Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted
accuracy due to the shape of the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically, the
filament used has a diameter of 1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit on how
accurately the part can be built.
 Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole cross- sectional area needs
to be filled with building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate
or the flow rate of the build material from the extrusion head. As the build material
used are plastics and their viscosities are relatively high, the build process cannot be
easily speeded up.
 Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its
extrusion head and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid
cooling invariably are introduced into the model. As such, shrinkages and
distortions caused to the model built are a common occurrence and are usually
difficult to predict, though with experience, users may be able to compensate for
these by adjusting the process parameters of the machine.
Applications
 Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can
be marked, sanded, painted and drilled and thus can be
finished to be almost like the actual product.
 Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The
system can produce a fully functional prototype in ABS. The
resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the actual
molded part. Thus actual testing can be carried out, especially
with consumer products.
 Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as
patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding.
13
FDM process
parameters
14
(FDM)
KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES
Maximum build size 20” x 20” x 20” • Economical (inexpensive materials)

• Enables multiple colors
Resolution in (x,y) +/- (0.002” - 0.005”) • Easy to build DIY kits (one of the most
Resolution in z +/- (0.002” - 0.01”) common technologies for home 3D
printing)
Speed Slow • A wide range of materials possible by
Cost Medium loading the polymer
Available materials Thermoplastics

(ABS, PC,
ULTEM…)
KEY APPLICATION AREAS

• Conceptual Models www.redeyeondemand.com
• Engineering Models
• Functional Testing Prototypes DISADVANTAGES
• Materials suite currently limited to
thermoplastics (may be resolved by loading)
15
(FDM)Do it Yourself FDM rapid prototyping systems

FAB@Home RepRap
• First multi-material printer available to the public
• Open-source system
• Open-source system
• Founded in 2005 by Dr. A. Bowyer at the University of
• Project goal: open-source mass-collaboration Bath (UK)
developing personal fabrication technology aimed at
bringing personal fabrication to your home (project • Project goal: Deliver a 3D printer that can print itself!
started by H. Lipson and E. Malone at Cornell in 2006). • 1st machine in 2007 (Darwin)
• Popular Mechanics Breakthrough Award 2007 • Replication achieved in 2008
16
(FDM)Do it Yourself FDM rapid prototyping systems
Cubify Cube
• Commercially available fully built for $1,200
• Resolution 0.2mm
• 16 colors
• Prints in ABS and PLA
• Awarded 2012 Popular Mechanics Breakthrough Award
Multiple choice questions
1. What is Rapid Prototyping?.
Process for making a final product
Process of delivering final product to the customer
Process for rapidly creating a system or part representation before final release or
commercialization
None of these
2. Rapid Manufacturing is creating durable and safe products for sale to real customers in moderate
to large quantities
True
False
3. Additive manufacturing is generally a ________ process.

a) 1D b) 2D c) 2.5D d) 3D
4. Solid imaging or concept modelling defines a family of parts that are applied to verify a basic concept
True
False
5. Which of the following is an Additive Manufacturing process?

Stereolithography
Room temperature vulcanization
Vacuum Casting
Silicon Rubber Molding
6. Direct Tooling is technically equivalent to

Direct Costing
Direct Manufacturing
Indirect Production
None of these
7. All Additive Manufacturing processes are called direct processes in order to indicate that the digital
process model is directly converted into a physical object, called the part, by means of a generative
machine
True
False
8. Which of the following processes can be preferably used for vacuum casting?
1. Indirect Prototyping 2. Direct Prototyping 3. Stereolithography 4. 3D printing
9. The prototyping phase follows after which of the following steps?
Evaluation
Building the application
Understanding users needs
None of the above
10. Why is prototyping essential?

To get quick feedback on the product/application
Experiment with multiple alternatives
It saves money and effort
None of the above
11. Paper and pen based sketches used for prototyping signifies which of the following?
Rapid prototyping
High-fidelity prototyping
Low-resolution prototyping
Low-fidelity prototyping
12. Which of the following statements is/are true?

It is easier to incorporate user feedback during high-fidelity prototyping compared to low-fidelity prototyping
It requires more effort and resources to incorporate user feedback during high-fidelity prototyping
It is easier to incorporate user feedback during low-fidelity prototyping compared to high-fidelity
prototyping
It requires more effort and resources to incorporate user feedback during low-fidelity prototyping
13. For Stereolithography process (SLA), the recommended minimum wall thickness of a part is;
a) 0.508 mm b) 0.408 mm c) 0.308 mm d) 0.208 mm
14. Which of the process is using extrusion concept?

Stereolithography apparatus (SLA)
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Multi-jet Modeling (MJM)
15. What happened a few years ago that helped a number of new firms enter the 3D printing industry?
A new 3D printing technique was discovered
The price of 3D printing materials dropped rapidly.
3D printing became further widespread because of the establishment of a 3D printing university.
The patents for several types of 3D printing technologies started to expire.
16. Which adjective describes what 3D printing’s manufacturing process is like?

exponential
multiplied
additive
Subtractive
17. Considering the current costs of 3D printers, which of the following 3D printing technologies is most expensive?
SLA
SLS
FDM
They all have high costs.
18. At which website can you download design files for free?1 / 1 point
Fusion
TinkerCad
MakerBot
Thingiverse
19. Using the 3D printing typology, “solutions” can be described as:1 point
component and existing
stand alone and new
stand alone and existing
component and new
20. Which of the following characteristics of 3D printing does NOT demonstrate sustainability?
It uses up less material.
Objects can be customized to your needs.
It produces little material waste.
The material costs are low.
21. How does 3D printing change the role of consumers?
It turns consumers into creators.
It does not change the role of consumers.
It turn consumers into skeptics.
It makes consumers more cost conscious
22. Which of the following is NOT important for someone interested in making their own objects with a 3D printer?
a skilled researcher on 3D printing
an idea
some knowledge of a 3D design software program
access to a 3D printer
23. When did the 3D printing industry begin to explode?

2001
2004
2009
2013
1 / 1 point
24. Which of the following fits the best definition of digital manufacturing?
Transformation of an idea into a final product that a consumer can use, including post-use disposal
Integrated, computer-based system to simultaneously create product design and manufacturing process definitions
Software platforms that ensure consistency in data formats
Use of computer programs to design a product
25. In 4.0 industrial revolutions, choose all of the interactions possible from following options:
Human - Human Interaction
Human - Machine Interaction
Machine - Machine Interaction
None of the above
26. What is the difference in terms of feedback of employees between traditional and digital manufacturing?
In traditional manufacturing operators are seen in open loop perspective. Their focus is on machine, material and output. There is
no opportunity for feedback. In digital manufacturing, workforce is highly engaged with the creation of the product. Workers
should know how to use analysis tools and advanced machining to efficiently produce products.
Digital manufacturing is an integrated approach to manufacturing that is centered around a computer system
27. Common benefits of a digitally-enabled supply chain compared to a traditional supply chain include (Select all options that
apply):
Reduce overproduction (and hence inventory costs)
Reduce rework
Consolidation of vendors
Launch products faster
28. Digital manufacturing means using more computers to solve the problem
True
False
1 / 1 point
29. Which of the following factors can affect market in a country?2 / 2 points
Rising Wages.
Lower Productivity Costs.
Turnover
All of the above
30. Digital manufacturing is efficient while manufacturing different products with small batches.
True
False
31. Describe the difference in terms of feedback of employees between traditional and digital manufacturing.
In traditional manufacturing operators are seen in open loop perspective. Their focus is on machine, material and
output. There is no opportunity for feedback. In digital manufacturing, workforce is highly engaged with the creation of
the product. Workers should know how to use analysis tools and advanced machining to efficiently produce products.
32. How would you describe the difference between the usage of computers in the third generation and fourth
generation industrial revolutions?
In the third generation industrial revolution, computers are introduced and are mostly used for basic calculations.
Whereas, in fourth generation, scope of computers is increased. They play an important role in connecting machines
and humans. Business models of many industries are changed due to computers.
33. Which four of the following are stages of Product Lifecycle?0 / 1 point
Planning
Disposal
Simulation
Support
Design
34. In intelligent machining, sensors can only useful for human machine interaction
True False
35. According to IBM survey, in 2014 most of the cyber attacks are originated from China
True False
36. What are some of the components of the Digital Manufacturing and Design paradigm?
Components of Digital Manufacturing and Design paradigm are:
Advanced Analysis
Intelligent Machining
Advanced Manufacturing Enterprise
Digital Manufacturing Security
37. How would you define the term "Digital Thread?"

Digital Thread is the concept of seamlessly integrating information through the value chain from requirements gathering
through feasibility reviews, design, manufacturing, testing, and on to final sustainment and disposal phases.
Production development process
 Product life cycle is a sequence of all the required
activities that a company must perform to develop
manufacture and sell a product.
 These activities can include marketing, research,
engineering design, quality assurance, manufacturing and
a whole chain of supplier and vendor.
investment management decision and task necessary to
create a new product.
 An important part of product development is the engineering
design process, which can be designed as a process of
devising a system component or process to meet the desired
requirement.
 Engineering design consists of several sequential or parallel
activities that begin with identifying the need and concluding
with a ready to manufacture product.
 The prototyping is considered to be the first product
completed in the production process.
 It is produced using all manufacturing processes and test
procedures called by the design drawing and specification.
 The product development is evolving from a sequential
process carried out primarily by engineers to an integrated
process incorporating a cross functional team.
 Similar steps are followed in either cases, but there are
accomplished concurrently and with the higher speed in the
integrated process environment.
 4 logical group of activities can be identified in product
development:
 Identifying an opportunity or a demand for a new product.
 Creating a technical specification for the new product idea.
 Developing the manufacturing process to produce the new
product.
 In the first group market or potential markets are
analyzed to generate customer needs, meaning that the
customer will eventually generate the requirements for
the desired product features and functions.
 The market information is usually compiled by marketing
specialists who translate it into a set of product features
or product descriptions that are intended to satisfy a
certain target customer base.
 This process also includes analyzing other products that
meets the target needs offered by competitors to find their
point of both strength and weakness, so that effort can be
made to overcome weaknesses and improve the desired
 Using a initial concept vision the design process proceeds
to a design and test the product until a preliminary design
is completed.
 Then a prototype can be created and tested to make sure
that the product is functioning as it should
 The prototype is considered as a first finish product in the
sense that it must be produced using all manufacturing
processes, that the actual product will go through
prototyping testing. Thus the design will be redefined and
a new prototype is produced.
 This will continue until no more modifications are
 The next step is to finalize the product documentation
and then the manufacturing process development may be
initiated.
 The manufacturing process must be created so that the
product can be produced in the production facility.
Purchasing new equipment and training worker may be
required if new technology is to be used.
 Tool fixtures and the sequence of steps in manufacturing
processes must all be developed to allow rapid high
quality cost effective production.
 Also it must be necessary to rearrange the production
 After the product design and development of
manufacturing process are completed. The business for
producing and shipping of the product begins.
 the raw materials can be purchased and the production
facility can get into operations.
 During the first two production period some problem may
arise as a result of technical production problem which
will lead to design modifications to resolve these new
problems and reach the expected production rate with the
intended quality.
Define a Product
 In marketing a product is anything that can be offered to a
market that might satisfy a want or a need.
 In business, Products are called as merchandise.
 In manufacturing products are brought as raw material
and sold as finished goods
 A service is another common product type right.
Product Design
Product Design
 Product design deals with conversion of dreams into
reality; in order to fulfill human needs.
 A designer produces the prototype which is used as a
sample for reproducing the particular goods in order to
satisfy customer need.
Responsibility
if producer believes that sufficient number of customers
will be satisfied then mass production may be taken up by
the production cell.
 Distinctiveness: Provide excellent value for the money
spent and enhanced quality perceived.
 Customer focuses and market orientation: 1. Develop and
intensive understanding of the trait of the market. 2.
recognize the competition.
 Preparedness: work proceeding actual product design is
critical in determining if a product will be successful
 Sharp and early product definition: 1. An outline of the concept and
the benefit to be provided. 2. A list of product attributes and
features; attributes, features, in the order ‘essential’ to desirable
 Execution of activities: 1. product development team that succeeds
to a better job across the activity identifies under homework and
market orientation. 2. The team should not skip market studies and
undertake trial sells.
 The organizational behavior: Teams comprise members from all
basic functions:
Research and development
engineering design
production
quality
sales
 Project selection: Involvement of multiple projects
scatters valuable resources among many candidate
projects.
 However, not all projects are likely to materialize.
successful product development
attributes
 Product that sell well and make a healthy profit
1. Cost: Cost includes the cost of both producing and
developing.
2. Value: The quality of the product.
3. Time: from assessing market needs to product sales
4. Technical knowhow: the actual procedure to follow that also
should be one of the attribute for producing a successful
product.
Rapid Tooling
 Most rapid tooling today is indirect tooling. Rapid prototyping parts are
used as patterns for making moulds and dies.
 These models can be in the following manufacturing processes:

1. Investment Casting – Some rapid prototyping can be used as investment
casting patterns. Patterns must retain size when heated and not crack during
the finishing process.
Investment
Casting
The investment-casting
process, also called the lost-
wax process, was first used
during the period 4000-3500
B.C. The pattern is made of
wax or a plastic such as
polystyrene. The sequences
involved in investment casting
are shown in Figure 11.18. The
pattern is made by injecting
molten wax or plastic into a
metal die in the shape of the
object.
Rapid Tooling
 …. manufacturing processes
2. Injection Modeling
– A stereolithography machine is used to make a match-plate pattern of the
desired molding. To form this mold it is plated with metal material such as
nickel; then reinforced with ceramic.
- The two halves are separated to remove the pattern, leaving a perfect
model capable to producing thousands of injection models.
Process & machine schematics
*
Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm
Rapid Tooling
 …. manufacturing processes
3. Sand Casting
– A rapid prototyping model is used as a pattern which sand mold or
“casting” is built.
- Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) machines can be used for this
process. A LOM model can produce nearly 100 sand molds.
Rapid Manufacturing
.. Competition & challenging
 Increased competition from the global economy,
 challenge of delivering new customized products
 to meet customer demands.
 A delayed development or delivery can mean business failure.
 Several technologies collectively known as Rapid Manufacturing (RM)
have been developed to shorten the design and production cycle, and
promise to revolutionize many traditional manufacturing procedures.
Rapid Manufacturing
 Before production of a product begins, a sample or prototype is often

required as part of the design cycle, to allow demonstration, evaluation, or
testing of the proposed product.
 The fast creation of a prototype is known as Rapid Prototyping (RP), and is

generally carried out before specialized moulds, tools, or jigs are designed.
Rapid Manufacturing
 Prototyping traditionally required considerable skilled hand labour, time, and

expense, typically applied to cutting, bending, shaping, and assembling a part
from standard stock material.
 The procedure was often iterative, with a series of prototypes being built to test
various options.
Rapid Manufacturing
 For many applications, this process has been revolutionized by a

relatively recent technology known as layer manufacturing or Solid
Freeform Fabrication (SFF), in which a part of an arbitrary shape can
be produced in a single process by adding successive layers of
material.
 Increased competition from the global

Rapid Manufacturing
 RM also includes the fast fabrication of the tools required for mass
production, such as specially-shaped moulds, dies, and jigs.
 Many different layer manufacturing processes have now been developed,

using an increasing range of materials.
Rapid Manufacturing
 The parts produced have been of steadily increasing size and

durability, and as the quality has improved layer manufacturing is
being used more and more frequently to fabricate the parts both for
production tools and functional prototypes.
 The application of layer manufacturing to make the components used

in production is termed Rapid Tooling (RT). It has been applied to
injection molding, investment casting, and mold casting processes.
Rapid Manufacturing
.... Advantages
 For some products, it can be economical to use layer manufacturing to
produce the final products themselves, sometimes in a matter of days
instead of weeks or months.
 Although the layer fabrication process itself is typically not as fast as

traditional mass production techniques, it eliminates tooling, setup, and
assembly processes, can produce parts of superior quality and complexity,
and can be ideal for making custom parts based on a customer's special
requirements.
Rapid Manufacturing
.... Advantages
 More manufacturers are taking advantages of these techniques.
 Layer manufacturing allows parts of completely arbitrary 3-dimensional
(3D) geometry to be fabricated, offering designers a new freedom to shape
parts optimally without the constraints imposed by forming, machining, or
joining.
Rapid Manufacturing
.... Advantages
 Another important advantage is that the process utilizes the computer
description of the part shape directly, and allows integration of the
Computer Aided Design (CAD) with the Computer Aided Manufacture
(CAM) of the part.
 It therefore allows a manufacturing cycle with a seamless transition

through the computer design, simulation, modeling, and fabrication
procedures.
Rapid Manufacturing
.... How is Rapid Manufacturing Performed?
 The first commercial layer manufacturing system intended primarily for

rapid prototyping application. Several other processes were
subsequently developed through the 1980s and 1990s.
 The technologies now available include a variety of different processes,

such as Stereolithography, Selective Laser Sintering, Shape Deposition
Manufacturing, and Laminated Object Manufacturing.
Rapid Manufacturing
Rapid Manufacturing
 Basically, all layer manufacturing systems consist of a combination of a

computer CAD system with an operation machine to perform the
fabrication of a layer under computer control.
 First, a 3D CAD representation of the part is created by a computer

software package such as ProEngineer, SolidWorks, or Autocad.
Rapid Manufacturing
 The computer representation of the part is then sliced into layers of a

certain thickness, typically 0.1 to 0.25 mm, and their two-dimensional
(2D) profiles stored in a triangulated (tessellated) format as a .STL file.
 Second, the software converts the .STL data to machine data, which are
sent to the operation machine to generate each layer of the part by the
specific fabrication process.
Rapid Manufacturing
 The process is repeated many times, building the part layer by layer.
 The final step is finishing, removing the part from the machine, detaching
support materials, and performing any necessary cleaning or surface
finishing.
 Polishing, sealing, or painting the parts can improve their appearance.

Rapid Manufacturing
 In some respects, layer manufacturing is related to Computer Numerical

Control (CNC) manufacture, in which a cutting machine such as a lathe or
milling machine is controlled by computer to cut a specified shape, often
with many different steps and cutting tool changes.
Rapid Manufacturing
 However, in layer manufacturing the fabrication process builds the part

systematically by adding material instead of cutting it away, and a much
wider range of shapes can be achieved, including cavities or intricate
geometries that would be difficult or impossible to machine.
 Also, an experienced machinist may be required to design or assist the CNC

sequence, whereas layer manufacturing can be more highly automated.
Rapid Tooling
 In addition to, for data inversion a tool construction is
needed, including scaling to compensate shrinkage, part
line definitions, draft angle, ejectors, sliders and so on.
 Tooling mostly requires a metal process and machines
that are designed to run.
 It is important to understand that ‘Direct tooling’ does not
mean that the entire tool is made. In fact, only tool
components such as cavities, sliders are generated.
 The entire tool is made using these cavities and standard
components or inserts within a traditional tool making
process.
Rapid Tooling
 The layer-based technology of all AM

processes allows the fabrication of interior
hollow structure.
 Last because the shaping of cooling channels
follows the contour of the mold, the method
is also called as conformal cooling.
 Due to the increase in heat extraction, the
productivity of a plastic injection mold can be
increased significantly.
 in addition cooling and heating channels can
be designed to obtain an integrated heat
Rapid Tooling
Direct Processes
 Direct processes all AM processes are called as direct
processes. In order to indicate that the digital process model
is directly converted into a physical object called the part by
means of generative machine.
 In contrast to this, some procedures are called as indirect
process or indirect Rapid Prototyping process. They do not
apply the principle of layered manufacturing and
consequently they are not Additive Manufacturing process.
 Actually indirect processing are copying techniques mostly
based on silicon rubber casting such as RTV.
 Since AM parts are used as masters, the term indirect Rapid
Prototyping process was established because it sounds more
innovative.
Application level – indirect processes
The AM process directly delivers a geometrical extract and
scaled physical facsimile of the virtual data set. But, this
process also called comes with the disadvantage (at least
with regards to most of today’s AM processes).
 AM processes work with process and consequently with
machine-depending material and restriction in terms of
color, transparency, and flexibility.
 Shows almost no cost reduction with an increasing
production volume
 Are rather expensive when used for making many copies
and especially for series application.
 To overcome these problems AM parts can be regarded as
master mold and then used for subsequent copying or
reproduction process.
 The principle behind this is often called “the splitting of
capability.”
 The geometrical exact part is quickly obtained from AM
process, while the desired quantity, and property such as
color and so on, comes from the subsequent copying
processes.
 A copying or a follow-up process is not a layered based
process and therefore, it is not AM process. It is called as
 Because of the marketing reasons and in order to indicate
the manufacturing speed, some call it indirect Rapid
Prototyping process as well.
 For the same reason in literature sometimes the term
secondary Rapid Prototyping process is also used.
Indirect Prototyping
 Indirect prototyping is applicable to improve the AM
parts property in order to fulfil the applicators
requirement, if the AM part is not capable to do so
 for example
a flexible part is needed, but due to material restriction it
cannot be built directly by an AM process.
 As the detailed surface is required and the parts are
mechanically loaded during the copying procedure,
mainly functional prototypes, preferably made by
stereolithography or polymer jet are used as masters.
 They can be manually finished by copy before copying.
The majority of the part made by indirect processes are
functional prototype and consequently have to fulfil the
same requirement.
 The solid images or concept model are rarely made by
indirect processes because the higher efforts in terms of
time and cost can be can typically be not justified.
 Indirect prototyping many different secondary processes can
be used.
 The most prominent one is also called as Room Temperature
Vulcanization (RTV in short. It is also called as vacuum
casting or it is called as silicon rubber mold.
 Like silicon rubber molding most of the secondary processes
are completely or partially manual processes; with long cycle
time and therefore, only used for small series or one of a kind
production.
 For instance a plug system requires plug housing of different
colours and transparency.
 Based on two part additive manufacturing master of a
housing, a silicon rubber mold is to be made.
 As they are prototypes made from prototyping materials,
the system elements are no series products. Even if they
are they function very well.
 Prototype parts from soft materials for example, gaskets
that is rubber often have a very complex shapes.
 This is especially true for gaskets for car mirror or
fixation that must fulfil many functions such as sealing
against water, fixation of the mirror and parts of the
window, replacement of placement of cables, attractive
optical appearance and integration of adjacent extruded
sealing.
Indirect Tooling
 Indirect tooling is based on the same copying procedure
as indirect processes.
 It is not that goal to obtain a final part, but a tool that
provides the basis for a small or medium size batch
production of final parts or products.
 In contrast to series tools made from the tool steel it can
be made quickly and inexpensively.
 Like indirect prototyping, indirect tooling uses additive
manufactured masters thus avoiding milling grinding and
other EDM processes

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Classification of Manufacturing

 Casting (Primary Process) (Zero Process) (3200 B.C. A

“Rapid Manufacturing” is creating durable and safe products

Seen here attached to the US Navy's M4A1 machine

Virtual CAD model using computer

Obtain the contour by slicing the CAD model on the computer

Making of physical layer due to contour information +

Physical Additive Manufacture part

 Two basic methodologies:

2. Production of tooling by rapid prototyping for use in further

 RP operations can be used to manufacture parts directly. The

 Tools are often complex and need to be wear resistant for

 By using rapid prototyping, tooling and design cost may be

 These may be forms of basic RP processes, such as SLS, or

 Direct Tooling / Direct Fabrication Processes

 To make metal tooling direct from CAD file through

 Rapid tool – A process which uses SLS to sinter poly-coated

 LOM Composite – A method of using ceramic composite

 Sand Moulding – A rapid prototyping technique that

 Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS) – A process that

 Although the properties of rapid prototyping materials

 There will always be a need to transfer parts fabricated in a

 Consequently, numerous material transfer technologies

 Typically a part made by the RP system is used as a pattern

 As in the case of the direct fabrication processes discussed

 However, of the more than two dozen such methods

 Fixed surface mode: The resin is stored in a container

 Scanning stereolithography. The laser beam is rastered onto the

Maximum build size 1500mm x 750mm

• The application of rapid prototyping (RP)

EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland

• Microstereolithography, derived from conventional

• Whereas in conventional stereolithography the laser

• The monomers used in RP and micro-

• In microstereolithography the solidified polymer is

• Two-photon lithography provides a further

• Special initiator molecules in the monomer only

• Two-photon polymerization can occur everywhere

Current materials in Additive

Challenges in AM materials properties

Anisotropy is the property of substances to exhibit variations in physical properties

Stratasys Dimension SST 1200

Courtesy, Dr. Robin Richards,

Accuracy, mm (in) ± 0.127 (± 0.005) ± 0.127 (± 0.005)

Layer thickness mm (in) “Standard” — 0.245 (0.010) User selectable:

Size, w x d x h, mm (in) 914 x 686 x 1041 864 x 686 x 1041

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

2. The nozzle heats up the wire and extrudes

3. A computer controls the nozzle movement

4. In the newest models, a second nozzle

Maximum build size 20” x 20” x 20” • Economical (inexpensive materials)

Available materials Thermoplastics

KEY APPLICATION AREAS

(FDM)Do it Yourself FDM rapid prototyping systems

3. Additive manufacturing is generally a ________ process.

5. Which of the following is an Additive Manufacturing process?

6. Direct Tooling is technically equivalent to

10. Why is prototyping essential?

12. Which of the following statements is/are true?

14. Which of the process is using extrusion concept?

16. Which adjective describes what 3D printing’s manufacturing process is like?

23. When did the 3D printing industry begin to explode?

37. How would you define the term "Digital Thread?"

 These models can be in the following manufacturing processes: