8 Factories Jolyon Drury ‘cust 282 une 725.4 The Jolyon Drury Consultancy advises on the design of production, distribution and storage systems and facilities KEY POINTS: Constant change is endemic {© Increasing demand for small units and starer ‘accommodation Contents 1 Introduction 2 Classification of production building types 3 Adaptability 4 Working methods 5 Machine sizes - - 6 Outline specification of a typical multi-strategy factory 1 Non-production accommodation 8 Bibliography 1 INTRODUCTION 1.01 Functions of a factory A factory is a complex network of functions, including materials storage, component manufacture, assembly, interprocess storage, packaging, despatch and transport interface all of which must work together, 8.1 02 History of factory development ‘The history of factory development has been one of continually changing requirements following improvements in production ‘equipment, mechanical handling and motive power associated ‘with shifts of philosophy from individual craftsmanship to soulless production line. The atest innovation is rapidly outdated, snd the buildings designed to accommodate it are often obsolete before they are commissioned. The following will, in the future, probably be considered landmarks in factory development: ‘© Computer factory for IBM, Havant (1968), Arup Associates © Diesel engine factory for Cummins, Darlington, Roche and Dinkeloo, 82 ¢ Cigarette factory for Players, Nottingham, Arup Associates (Car assembly plant for Volvo, Kalmar, 8.3 2 CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION BUILDING ‘TyPrs Factories can be classified as light, medium, heavy or bulk process industry. 2.01 Light industries “These include: ‘© High-precision work in laboratory lke conditions, 8.4, 8.5 and 86. ‘© Small-scale craft workshops as are now being encouraged in both urban and rural areas, 8.7 sete sete n ETE Rasiod | _[menaeet ape scone a eS Ea J ae ae £ « canteen gereon) ‘pre-process buffer store T J ¢—— ry moouon «| oe —p ! cies ee ee Gln Ss =] Teanga }— ES Ta pa _ A fest o@ seers : (Geer [sonore eeessressed | (spear fomersen tov caetion veagched Se Sinn = ak seer sorose. prototype shop product ret ‘ood assert rote’ Tyexe, k—[aecar™ — k— = 81 Relationship diagram for a typical factory8.2 Cummins’ diesel engine factory at Darlington by Roche and Dinkeloo 'b Factory building plan: oer 1 sores rom foranembly itor offnshed producs Tenianee hall and recepaon componente Boreal doce Seater ie tant Seaneen Woot aores BS foodr ow ‘chen Wot ue stows in Sfrevad pout Brain hall byomaer traning room row mew ‘inspection of incoming goods omoctre| E ote sto component ng itor ond one ‘senly Popdoci 84 Typical process flow diagram for light production and assembly such as small electronic components’ manufacture, and similar high-technology processes. "Kit sort’ refers to the ‘making up of kits of components for assemblers aupperievel aa JS yeaa ee eroess 85 Section through typical factories for light, high-technology production; multi-storey construction, as new or conversion of existing building: could be flatted units Te Ter : Q 8.3 Volvo car assembly plant at Kalmar: 86 Light production and assembly: single storey for small-scale Team assembly areas are disposed around the perimeter on each and high-technology assembly. High degree of service freedom level, automatically fed with materials in roof zoneFactors 83. sogzatiom gree vot 1 Sa po tee pocagig check {000 Section through unit conpordh sab-ohenbly 88 Process flow diagram for batch production and assembly. Sometimes involves the assembly and shipping ow of complete Ssub-assemblies, more conmonly the production and despatch of hatches of discrete components SW eizezae area, IP | ‘eestor — Design will depend on circumstances, but will end to approximate 'b Part plan fo ahora roe tne design conforming to Phang BL 2.02 Medium industries ‘The greatest need for careful and thoughtful design isin this fel. ‘These industries can be subdivided into © light-medium smallscale engineering and assembly, clothing factories, paint shops, similar to 8.7 {© General-medium batch production of components for other factories, medium-sized printing, 88 and 8.9. (@-Heavy-medium industries requiring intensive use of buildings and services as in mass production, 8.10 and 8.11. typical units, oggered to ‘rime acer depth ‘¢ Units staggered in plan to reduce ste depth required pees 8.7 Typical ‘nursery’ for light production and assembly, low Industries such as steel-making and ship-building require spaces technology, may be built speculatively (not necessarily enclosed) designed around the work or the 9 | = : 1B 1+ supended off ass nodes 5 gantry crane roo! slang 2400 L | SO ta ase patna Ley 8.9 Section through typical purpose-built atch production building, The spans, typically 18 X 12m and trussed roof construction are selected for cheap and rapid adaptation 10 a variety of uses. Floor loading 25 Ninrom Lf iiesiset | ties | \ = component proditign tne poe Snead Hoc sone isan) _// Yrs 2» snes irae YS || pees Aen | {mH eal 8.10 Process low diagram for mass production and assembly. This applies 1 high-volume line assembly asin the motor industry, ‘With some components being built into sub-assemblies before final assembly on the main line vt 8.11 Materials flow for mass production does not have to ‘impose a predominantly linear building form. Group assembly ‘cells’ may feed onto a circulatory route, allowing personnel and services 10 be grouped into specifically equipped zones iL angen] ‘weal conpoent from coher rocene 1 ecient Trecho Lv 812 Process flow diagram for typical heavy engineering, The workpiece is the centre to which sub-assemblies are routed. It is likely 10 be disassembled for shipment loor b> ‘aSection, and IAA | cron ri wock tl ron tl » Part plan of traditional type. Heavy-duty gantry cranes ‘move the workpiece to the appropriate machine tools and ‘assembly areas 813 ‘mechanical plant, 8.12. Traditionally it is difficult to build adaptable structures, 8.13, but modem handling techniques enable "loose fit’ buildings tobe designed 8.14, 3 ADAPTABILITY 301 Design for change ‘The industrial building usually has to change all or part of its use several times during the payback period. Adaptability. must therefore be builtin: a minimal frst cost wll soon be negated by the expense of fiting new processes or working methods into an inherently unsuitable building. Inthe recent past, factories were ether designed rigidly around 4 specific process or speculatively to a mean specification, resulting in buildings that are unsuitable for many of the modem processes,Factores 85 i Fonaripeceon cook Fiske vine eee bor a Neaychcle heavy whe on ry fos stage factory A various option for ofice expansion fest sige ofce Searpark 3 factor exposion ‘hey vehi ree no fied overhead cranoge bitows fre plorning but tpecil flgoe needed workpiece 4 Part plan of recently developed workshop where large workpieces remain static, being built up on special bases that are likely be employed for transport and installation. ‘Machine tools and componenis are brought to the workpiece, air-cushion techniques are widely used a4 Adaptability must allow {© Change of process to avoid obsolescence @ Change of process and product following change of ‘ownership. Changes will normally only be within the broad groupings of building types given in Section 2.02. 3.02 Design for extension ‘Apart from alterations within the envelope, there may also be requirements for extension; and the design should anticipate this, BS and 8.16. 4 WORKING METHODS 4.01 Alternative methods ‘The altemative methods of work organisation are: Linear assembly © Team technology. ‘While the latter is more recent introduction there is no indication that it will completely supplant the formes. Consequently, production buildings must be able to accommodate either or even both in diferent areas, 8.17 and 8.18, 4.02 Linear assembly In this method, machines are arranged along work-travel routes. At each station components are added, until the work has been 8.15 Small or medium-size factory development, with a {free-standing office building. The uneven boundary increases the possibility of conflict when the factory and offices expand simultaneously, and restricts commensurate expansion of car parking ety deo sole pnt flower ay det es ee it eee eT ee canyon Pas 7S qm dre 17 foot See far on | goon ae coe irl] iat falrtowr Bach [admin ‘expansion Cape eat Ra boler house —S cron voce Paieitosten oma lf tron Keterepontfe pitt (-]—vevicle nonce Ipegaisreonise |) EE we al] a=, igecbet vacpot SSAA as mm principt service road 8.16 A large plant with segregated development zones: ‘© The factory and associated car and truck parking. When the factory expands the truck park becomes the expanded car park and a new truck park is constructed adjacent to despatch ‘© The administration block and associated car parking, separated from manufacturing by landscaping (© The ancillary area, incorporating individual growth provision for each element within the zone boundary 8.17 Mass production buildings have 10 accept changes in production technology. This plan shows a conventional line ‘assembly that may be adapted to the form in 8.18$46 Fasten espateh espaten espach 8.18 The factory can change to team assembly due 10 new ‘product. Note localisation of amenity and wet service areas to ‘dentfy with teams. Chance of opening courts adjacent to ‘amenity areas, though these may change position as production demands despatch espoteh despatch | » Hydraulic copying athe | 7 @ 8.20 Lathes © Adjustable multi-dritt bb Twise dri grinding machine 8.19 Driling machines 8.21 Grinding machines8.23 Gear cutting machine ‘completely assembled and finished. Supplies of components and materials are needed at each station; and waste must be removed, 4.03 Team technology ‘This appears to restore t0 the labour force a feeling of responsibilty and achievement. The machines are arranged in Factres 7 8.24 Hydraulic pedal press 8.19 t0 8.24 The majority of machine tools do not exceed 754Nim in loading on the floor groups, and all of a substantial part of the work is assembled ‘within the group. There is a need for storage of materials and components, The main planning requirements are for arestrictive space and strong floors to enable the machines to be relocated at will, with adaptable overhead services. systems. Storage and assembly spaces should be interchangeable. 5 MACHINE SIZE: ‘The sizes of typi machines for Hight and medium duty industries are shown in B19 t0 824, 6 OUTLINE SPECIFICATION OF A TYPICAL MULTI-STRATEGY FACTORY Seope ‘Type of industries for ‘which appropriate Size of project proces industries, ‘Buildings ofthis type are suitable for most manufacturing functions, excluding “light avy’ and ‘Tox area of production space can vary widely. Average size of all projects is 2500m?, so most sre smaller This specification is suitable for projects from about 100m? upwards ‘Type of project Font per cent of industrial projects are adaptations and extensions of existing premises. Ths specification sets out the general requirements of those projects, or puts of projects, free from special restraints, rite ” Performance specification Design notes Requirements of the process Adaptability possible, ¢@. in stores and production ‘warehousing as well asin production space itsell. ‘Should be designed for general-purpose use and not around a paricular process. General-purpose characteristics should be maintained wherever Building positioned on site leaving maximum possible room for extension, preferably in two Airections. Single-storey building designed as a large open space. Standardised, mainly dry construction, easily extended or modified. Framework able (o carry a variety of alternative roof and wall claddings, services and handling equipment ‘Those external walls not on or near site boundaries designed for easy demolition,Criterion Performance specification Requirements of the process (continued) Plan shape Probably not critical except where linear flow-processes employed. Rectangular form ‘maximises usable area, facilitates extension, Physical environment Process requirements will not usually be critica: workplace environment and energy efficiency very important Structural dimensions _Exact plan dimensions rarely critical, except ‘where flow processes employed. Aim should be to optimise convenience for production layouts provided by open space, eg. the convenience of stanchions for locating small equipeaent, switches, etc. balanced against the potential adaptability freedom for service drops and the location of equipment against the cost of greater spans and the loss of overhead craneage. Intemal clear height probably most critical dimension, for once built can only be modified with difficulty. Height needed for high stacking, ‘overhead equipment, possibly facility to install ‘mezzanines (for works offices, lavatories, control ‘gear, extension of production space, etc), ‘overhead conveyors, etc. Space for services needed above clear height level, Structural loadings Within economic restraints, design for heaviest likely Loads, Provision for services Facility 0 take any production service (wate, steam, gas, electrical power, etc.) to any point ‘within production area with minimum disturbance to building, and therefore production. Provision for movement It should be possible for the production engineer of materials and {o use the ype of material-handling equipment equipment best suited to the product and production methods. Use of forklift tucks or similar wheeled materials-handling equipment will be general; overhead conveyors may be used. Cranes ‘more usual in engineering than other industries, Heaviest floor loading is likely to result from wheels of forklift trucks (36 EN) and point loads from stacked storage cages and from pallet racking, Design notes Rectangular plan form with ratio of log to shor sides between 1:1 (minimises intemal ave distances where no paricuae waffie routes are Aictated by process) and say, 3:1 (average 2:1. See under ‘Environmental requirements of labour force’ In general, the production process wil not require special dust-free conditions, nor will i create a dusty or especially dirty atmosphere. If there are toxic or comesive hazards within the ‘general production space, these should be isolated by local compartmentation and extraction ‘uipment. High standards of cleanliness (eg. very exact avoidance of foreign matter) or hygiene (eg. avoidance of bacterial contamination) for some high-technology factories Span 18m; bay spacing 12m or even 18m (hich would permit production line to be turned a rightangles if needed) These ae proven dimensions in USA but they ae greater than those found in many British factory buildings and (excluding 18m square beys) are unlikely to increase costs significantly over smaller spans ‘Internal clear height minimum 6m. Main vehicle entrance doors (ground level loading) $m. For intensive manufacture, high stacking, overhead hoists or mezzanine floors a minimam height of 75m is recommended, Ideally point loads of 36KN, but 2SKN sufficient for general-purpose use for buildings less than 6m high to eaves. For very dense storage, typically mini-load automated component stores, 30kN/m? distributed loading. Production and building services carried in roof space above level indicated by ‘clear height’, with vertical droppers as required to machine Positions. This eliminates overhead craneage, but allows monorail hoists and conveyors. Roof structure designed appropriately. Drainage used to be below floor level, although altemative more costly but flexible arrangements are preferable, A, permanent grid of drainage runs beneath the floor (a minimum of, say, one run in the middle of cach 18m span) will minimise disturbance. Separate foundations will be provided for any special or heavy equipment, especially that which vibrates. Wherever possible, the upper surface of such foundations will be at or below finished floor level. Much equipment is now ‘stuck-down’ to the floor, Conventionally, an RC floor slab With integral granolithic finish is used, hough deterioration ofthe flooe finish is common problem in industrial buildings. Durable floors can be obtained, but they require a suitable base, ‘good workmanship and close supervision. Particular finishes may be needed to resist attack from acids or oils used in certain processes.Criterion Performance specificati Requirements of the process (continued) Support for production There ere two opposed points of view about Toads supports for such production loads as conveyors, local hoists and other overhead equipment. One is that since production loads cannot be predetermined, they should not be allowed to bear on the building structure, and should be loads carried either on the plant or on a separate Structure, as and when this becomes necessary. This can lead to substructures inhibiting floor area and future flexibility. Although initially more expensive the preferred altemative is to design the roof structure to carry a general minimum of local loads, and to provide the facility co suspend conveyors, etc. at will. Environmental requirements of the labour force Visual environment Practically all visual tasks will be met by illumination levels within the range of 200 to 750 lux; illumination in the middle of the range will be most common. Limiting values of glare index (as IES Code) are likely to be within 22-28. Colour schemes should be designed both to assist the distribution of light and to minimise fatigue [Natural light design levels: warehouse, packing, large assembly, heavy forging, casting, saw mills, Daylight Factor 2% (say 10-15% floor area) 300-500 lux: Bench and machine work, fine ‘casting, motor repair, general flee work, average general purpose lighting, Daylight Factor 4-5% (say 12-15% floor area) $00 lux: Drawing work, medium assembly, weaving, small typesetting, Daylight Factor 6% (say, 15-20% floor area) 500-750 lux: Small inspection and assembly, small bench and machine work, 1000 ux + Daylight Factor 10%, ‘Thermal environment Optimum values of temperature, air movement, ee, will depend largely upon nature of work — whether, for example, it is sedentary or active. ‘Main environmental problem will be to avoid ‘uncomfortable heat in summer. Minimum temperatures: heavy work 10°, light work 1 sedentary 16°C, ‘Acoustic environment Production processes highly variable in noise ‘output. Control by encapsulating machinery and by using interspersed storage stacks. Fire protection Some industries are regarded as having “abnormal fire risk because ofthe process or materials used; building design will be affected by requirements for additional compartmentaton. Generally fre hazard is classed as ‘moderate’ to ow’. The general requizement of fire safety, of a ‘maximum division of the production area into self-contained fire-resisting compartments, is variance with the general production need for ‘open space, and should be carefully considered. Design notes Design assumptions might be that bottom boom ‘of trusses (assumed spaced at 3 to 3.6m centres) carry uniformly distributed load of 8kN/m run, and a point load of 1OKN on any panel point at, say, 3m centres, Structural supports for heavier loads are then provided on an ad hoc basis by the production engineer. Either daylight or ‘windowless’ design. If daylight design, a monitor roof shape is a useful ‘compromise between even light level and energy conservation. View windows in extemal walls, Fluorescent lighting installation aranged in regular pattern over whole production floor to sive 300 to 500 lux consistent illumination level Fn just be at least 0.7 Eo wired in three phases to reduce flicker, and in trunking for simple replacement. Poin luminaires may be wsed in ateas of higher headroom, of 10 provide «high and even intensity. Reflecting Surfaces decorated with colours of high reflectivity (e.g. underside of roofs: Munsell value 9), but eare that glare from surfaces does not disturb machine operators, e.g. forkclif tuck drivers, For 10 per cent and over use PSALI (permaneat supplementary artical lighting installation) For a general purpose building snd for resale the design level should not be below a Daylight Factor of 5 per cent. The method of achieving this mast be checked agaist insulation regulations For most light industry plant should be able to provide air temperature of 18-21°C. Minizoura Valve of thermal insulation for roof and walls U 0-7 Wim=C Mechanical ventilation, at least in factories of average or greater size Ai-change rate (esh air supply) minimum $ lies/second/prson ‘Thermal insulation material can give 8 measure of acoustic control, particularly in providing absorption Fire division walls may be equired to obtain acceptable insurance rate. Areas will depend on process, ete “Fire curtains’ in roof space. Fite ‘ents in roof surface of total area not less than 1 percent of floor area. Avoidance of combustible ‘materials in sheeted cladings. Sprinklers ae aso being increasingly required by insurance companies, both over the process and in the root depth to protect services10 Factores Criterion Performance specification Environmental requirements of the labour force (continued) Explosion hazard Design notes [Not normally considered critical, but can be Building economies accommodated with blowout panels, or placing part of process outside the main building. ‘The cost of using a factory building is an Important element in the long-term cost of manufacturing. Nevertheless, without adequate Jhsification, ew managements ae prepared to ‘ay more than the minimum to obtain their essential specification, one season being that investment in plant, equipment, perhaps labour is likely to show a higher returm than investment in [A “basic” specification: concrete floor slab; exposed structural framework and services; simple finishes, such as painted steelwork, Untreated concrete, farfaced brickwork; selffinished insulating materials forming root lining. buildings (see Sections 3.01, 3.02). 7 NON-PRODUCTION ACCOMMODATION 701 Offices ‘There isa tendency for administrative and production space to be imerchangeable. Two types of offices will be required in close ‘conjunction withthe production space: (© Foreman’s desk space in sight and proximity of work super- vised, This is formed from easily demountable components to allow for rapid relocation. Sometimes to avoid floor obstruc- tions this accommodation is raised to merzanine levels where visibility is improved ‘© executive offices for the local administrative staff, of the ‘company headquarters where these aze not elsewhere. This type ‘of accommodation is designed in accordance with Section 16, tices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, and will depend ‘on the mumbers to be accommodated. As a rough guide, allow 5 per cent of the production oor area, or Sm per person. 7.02 Lavatories For sanitary accommodation see Chapter 3. A first aid facility is normally provided in conjunction with this, 7.03 Canteens Staff are not allowed to eat in diy o dusty surroundings. Ifthe process demands a clean environment the reverse may apply, and the importation of food into the working area may need to be discouraged, Canteens are therefore nearly always now provided. See (Chapter 18 for details of design. 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Drury, Architects’ Journal Handbook of Factory Design, Architectural Press, 1977-8 ©. W. Grube, Industrial Buildings and Factories Pemberton, Plant Layour and Materials Handling, Macmillan Factories Act 1961 Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act, 1963, HMSO Insulation Act 1972 Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, HMSO ‘Health and Safety Bookleis, HMSO ‘Workplace Directive, published as Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations, Approved Code of Practice, HMSO, 1992