ELEMENTS OFCONTENTS Introduction , 1.1 Food groups 1.2 Nutrients 13 Diet : 14 Balanced diet. 15 Diet and meal Planning Water ... 21 Functions. tonnes: see) 22 Sources of water in the body 2.3 Water loss from the body ... 24 Regulation of water balances 2.5 Quality of water .... 26 Dietary requirements 27 Content in food . Carbohydrates 34 Sugars. 3.2 Oligosaccharides 3.3 Polysaccharides 3.4 Dietary fibre 35 Energy. 3.6 — Sweeteners 37 Dietary requirements... 3.8 Energy and carbohydrate contents of foods . Lipids. 41 ats and oils 4.2 Phospholipids 4.3 Glycolipids .. 44 Sterols and steroids. 4.5 Dietary recommendations .. 4.6 Content in foods 4.7 Fat substitutes Proteins 5.1 Amino acids 5.2 Protein synthesis. 5:3 Distribution of proteins in human body 5.4 Classification of proteins 5.5 Functions of proteins 5.6 Protein requirements 5.7 Quality of proteins 5.8 Content in food.6. . Absorption and metabolism Water-soluble vitamins 61 Thiamine 62 Riboflavil 6.3 Niacin 64 Pyridoxine 65 Folic acid . 6.6 Pantothenic acid 6.7 _ Biotin. 68 Cyano ;obalamin. 69 Other vitamins of the B-group 6.10 Ascorbic acid. 6.11 Content in foods Fat-soluble Vitamins 7.4 Vitamin A 7.2 Vitamin D 7.3 Vitamin E 7.4 Vitamin K Inorganic Materials 8.1 Calcium . 8.2 Chlorine. 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Phosphorus 8.7 Potassium. 8.8 Sodium 8.9 — Sulphu 8.10 Other inorganic materials 8.11 Losses during processing 8.12 Content in food a1. ao . Digestion ne The mouth . The oesophagus. 9.3. The stomach. a4 The small intestine .! The large intestine. 10.1 Absorpti Ption 10.2. Metabolism11.6 49. Die! 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 43.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 t-Related Diseases Sources and Further Readings ion Throughout the Life Cycle 104 Infant nutrition Child nutrition Nutrition in adolescence . Adult nutrition Nutrition of the pregnant and lactatin Nutrition and healthy ageing ..... 9 women Malnutrition... Dental caries Lactose intolerance Over-weight and obesity Osteoporosis .....---++++- Atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases Cancer... Diverticulosis Peptic ulcer.. Gallbladder disease:ELEMENTS OF Foop & NUTRITION AWAN 1 INTRODUCTION —SS Nutrition is the process of consuming, absorbing and using nutrients needed by the body for growth, development and maintenance of life. It is a multidisciplinary subject with community as its practice area. Nutrition Science deals with the role of food (dietary inputs) in the maintenance of health. The essential requisites are: ‘a, Achievement of optimal growth and development, reflecting full } expression of one’s genetic potential. b. Maintenance of structural integrity and functional efficacy of the body tissues necessary for an active and productive life. . Sound mental health. ' d. Ability to withstand the inevitable process of ageing with minimal disability and functional impairment. e. Ability to resist the adverse effects of environmental toxins and pollutants and combat disease. Nutrition Science is, thus, the science of food, nutrients and other Substances therein; their action and interaction in relation to health and disease. It also includes the processes by which individual ingests, digests, absorbs, transports and utilises nutrients and disposes off the end products. It is concerned with all processes of growth, maintenance and repair of the living organisms that depend Upon digestion of food. Food is any solid or liquid which on swallowing can supply one or More of the following: 4. Material from which body can produce movement, heat, or other forms of energy. >. Materials for growth, repair, regeneration and reproduction. ° Substances necessary to regulate the processes of growth and repair.—_t—CS~S~S —— IxtRovUCTION 4.1 FOOD GROUPS The nutritionists use different criteria for classification of foods depending upon the objectives of the exercise. The two criteria most commonly employed are based on the functions and consumption patterns. 4.1.1 Food Groups Based on Function Foods are required in the body to provide energy, promote growth, | repair worn down body tissues and sustain the regulatory processes, | As such all foods consumed by man may be grouped into three categories based on the function they perform: the energy-releasing { foods, foods responsible for growth and repair of body tissues and | those involved in the control of body processes (Table 1.1). j Table 1.1 Nutrients, their functions and sources Function Nutrient Sources Carbohydrates Bread, rice, sugar, honey Energy giving | Fats Butter, vegetable oils Proteins Meat, fish, eggs, pulses Growth & Proteins Meat, legumes, milk Repair Mineral elements Fruits, vegetables, salt Proteins Meat, fish, pulses ee ay | Minera elements | Mik, fits, meat, salt processes Vitamins Fruits, vegetables, meat Water Beverages, milk, fruit juices 1.1.2 Food Groups Based on Consumption Patterns The nutritionists divide foods into different groups to recommend food consumption to the public or assess their food intake. The most popular of such classes is the Food Guide Pyramid, introduced Py 'e United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1992. The Food Guide Pyramia changing dietary habits of li d people, life style and advances food processing, have led the nutritionists, graphic designers &" communications researchers to introduce the Food Guide Pyramid. It 55.2 graphic depiction of a healthful diet, for sedentary adults, 7 his cos _ Segments representing one food group in each. Al the epee are ine recommendations for fats, oils and sweets that should Paringly used. Below this, is the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans: eggs, and 99S, and nuts group on the right side and on the ieft is milk, Yoo! L Jand cheese group. The dietary recommendations are that only 2 to 3 servings of these should be taken in a day. Next, below these groups are two more groups; the fruit group (right) and the vegetable group (left). It is recommended that 2 to 4 servings of the fruit and 3 to. 5 servings of vegetable group should be consumed. The base of the pyramid consists of bread, cereal, and pasta group. This is the major source of energy and quite critical for the sedentary adults. A total of 6 to 11 servings are recommended from this group. 4.2 NUTRIENTS Foods exist in nature as simple assimilable materials or as complex mixtures of chemical compounds. These may range from one molecule of sodium chloride in common salt or a molecule each of fructose and glucose in common household sugar to hundreds of molecules of complex compounds in fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes, nuts, meat, milk and eggs. The naturally occurring food components that are utilised by the human body and provide nourishment are called nutrients that perform functions such as energy giving, bodybuilding, etc. Generally, nutrients are divided into two classes: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients, required in large quantities, are water, carbohydrates, fats and proteins. These constitute bulk of the diet and supply energy for body activity and building blocks needed for growth and maintenance. They also provide compounds that regulate body processes. Micronutrients are required in small quantities, milligrams (mg) to micrograms (11g). These are vitamins and mineral elements that catalyse utilisation of macronutrients. 1.3 DIET The Purpose of diet is to supply nutrients required for optimal health. Diet Comprises of foods (solid or liquid), or mixtures of foods in the amounts actually eaten, usually each day. Thus, if a person eats Chapaties’ with a glass of ‘lassi’ in the morning and again in the 3—_— oy this would be his diet. Similarly, wo sandwiches for breakfast, ‘crapatien at aking a cup with ‘dal’ at dinner is having his daily eo" ls must be such that it contributes adequate nutrients he The it required by an individual. If a monotonous diet is consy © amounig long period, it may result in ill health owing to either sera le some nutrients or excess of others. Balanced diet is, there Age of solution to good health. lore, the 1.4 BALANCED DIET Balanced diet is one that contains all nutrients in correct proporti ‘ Pare lion required by an individual to promote and preserve good health, i should help to achieve and maintain desirable body composition and large capacity for physical and mental work. Such diet generally leads to good nutritional status of a person. It is important that dict must contain foods from each group in appropriate proportions so that adequate nourishment is provided to the body. It is safe to assume that most people will accomplish balance if mixed diet from a variety of sources is eaten in moderation. balanced diet consists of two or more taining most protein and three or more tables each day. Selection of protein meat, fish, poultry, pulses and other ten in moderation. Sedentary people d cholesterol in theit evening, tea and t lunch and rice For a normal adult man, a portions from the group con portions of fruits and vegel should be made from lean legumes. Fat should be eal should avoid use of visible fat, saturated fat an diet. Cereals should be eaten to satisfy appetite and maintain @ constant body weight. For good health, adequate nutrient intake should be from dietary sources and not the pills, which can only deliver the selected nutrients. 1.5 DIET AND MEAL PLANNING Diet and maal planning are important aspects for the nutritionist and tse mal er to maintain variety in the diet. Important parameters for aiid Sota the monal needs of the family as well as individual likes influenced by anes te must promote good health. Choice of foods is religious beliefs, geo ealth aspects, social life, cultural background food items. Leaming et otounal onation and availabilty of particule’ show a natural ebllly to salock ieode never s (277 Selection. Infants lost as the child grows up. ods needed by their body. This is Developing good eati \ ating habit it Some i its benefits Guidelines that may be followed in diet and meal preyond ru eal planning are: 4Ul aa ELEMENTS OF Foop & NUTRITION Make selection from all food groups in the recommended quantities. b. Include foods from all the basic food groups every day and provide minimum recommended servings from these. Different foods in each group may be swapped to provide variety and proper nourishment. d._ Include at least one food from milk group in each meal. e. Include ample vegetables, especially leafy. {. Cereals group should not provide more than 75 % total energy requirements. g. Total calories from fat and sugar should not exceed 20 % of the required. Energy from refined carbohydrates like sugar, should be minimized or negligible (below 5%). h. Each meal should have at least three of the six basic food groups. Besides these, a good source of protein should be included in every meal (one serving from the protein-rich group). A good meal plan avoids unwanted, unappetizing and unsatisfying meals, besides saving time, energy and money. Planning should be done with a low budget to ensure sufficient and nutritionally balanced food. Meal plan needs to be flexible to absorb changes in price due to fluctuations. It should also consider seasonal availability of foods, family tastes, desires and health problems. Special planning is required for holidays, religious occasions, family functions and guests. While the basic needs of all people are essentially the same, the quantity, taste and texture may be altered for individuals. More milk is needed by children than adults. Small children require less food than adults. Weight watchers need the same basic foods with Necessary modifications such as use of low fat ingredients. They need more fruits and vegetables. Geriatrics, because of digestive disorders or teeth problems, may require light and soft foods. Good meal planning is both a science and an art. Inclusion of Nourishing foods in the diet is part of science, while combining the Needed nutritious foods into meals that are attractive, appetizing and satisfying is an art. The colour of the food must be attractive, with 900d flavour. The meal should be in an acceptable shape and must have satiety value. There should be a variety in the diet. Considerations should be given to religious and social customs. Personal Preferences also need to be watched. Meal planning for Working women must take into consideration the time required for 5Cuarter 1 INTRODUCTION eeded for the purpose. Family eal and energy n al that would save on fuel costs eparing the m preparng be considered. Mei budget must also should be preferred. meal for the family, it is suggested that the b 9 judget od items should be such that it can cater for all items and provide nutritional benefits to the family. It is often suggested that 20% of the allocated budget be spent on cereals and their products, 20% on fruits and vegetables, 25% on meat, fish eggs, poultry, legumes and pulses, 20% on milk and their products, and 15% on fats and sweets. ‘ Exchange list are available that help to substitute one food i i st are ni item with anotier wath similar composition and nutritional benefits. Hence, any rom the given exchange list can be i ; for any other food in that list. substituted or exchanges In plannin: division between various fo2 WATER = Water is essential for life. Without food one can survive for about a month, but in the absence of water for a few days only. The significance of water is evident from the fact that it is the largest constituent of the human body. More than 60% weight of an adult man is water. Women contain about 45 to 55% since they have more fat, which is drier (20% water) than muscle (75% water). Babies contain more water than adults do and the elderly slightly less. Most of it (about 55%) is held inside the cells as intracellular fluid, while the rest (about 45%) is contained in the extracellular fluid. Relatively little, about 7.5% of the total water, is in blood stream that forms part of the extracellular fluid. These fluids are in a dynamic state since they constantly undergo changes in composition. Nutrients and oxygen are taken up by the cells that in turn excrete carbon dioxide and other waste materials. In spite of this, composition of various body fluids remains almost constant. 241 FUNCTIONS Water is required in the body primarily to perform the following important functions: — & It is used as a building material in every cell — fatty tissues Contain 20%, bone 26% and striated muscles 75% water. b. Ihacts as a lubricant in joints and between the internal organs. © Ithelps to regulate body temperature. 4 it Serves as a medium in which nutrients, enzymes and other chemical substances are dispersed or dissolved. re @ medium in which intercellular chemical reactions take ice, sncaticnates in chemical reactions, especially the hydrolytic 8. Itacts asa trans; ing nutrients to cells and Temoving i port medium for carrying ni astes from the body. 7 >Se Carter? IRCES OF WATER IN THE BODY hree major sources of water supply in the body: _ There are! 750 mL to 1000 mL wat: “diet supplies from mi water (about Daly diet er ake) Since all foods (except a few like 2 35% etable oils) contain appreciable quantities I, common salt and veg! it body as a result of metabolic act, later produced in the - a b. thaisation of nutrients) supplies from 10 to 15% of the dat intake. This water comes from oxidation of nutrients. Thus, ry one gram ‘of carbohydrate, fat, and protein are oxidised in the body 0.6, 1.07 and 0.419 water is produced, respectively. Whey one kilocalorie heat energy IS liberated in the body from oxidation of foods, 100 to 440 mL water Is produced. inki bonated, n Water taken as drinking water, beverages (car , non c. carbonated), fruit juices, tea, coffee, milk, ‘lassi’, etc. account for 50% or more of the daily intake. 2.3 WATER LOSS FROM THE BODY Water loss from the body occurs through lungs (with respiration), skin (in the form of insensible perspiration and as sweat), the digestive tract (in faeces), and kidneys (as urine). Insensible loss, also known as transpiration, occurs both through the expired air as well as the skin. It is influenced by temperature and humidity. Almost 400 mL water is lost in respiration, while about the same quantity (400 mL) is lost through the skin under all conditions. Losses vary greatly with perspiration depending upon activity, temperature and humidity. This may range from a minimum of 200 mL in cool climate to about 4 L in hot climate. In hot climates a physical labourer may bey up to 14 L water per day. In case of severe perspiration, sodium lepletion is very likely to occur. Aubseiet 100 to 200 mL occurs through faeces. The major route of volar aims lon i through the kidneys as urine. The kidneys filter fon 1D Ga os ‘ a cay. However, water lost through urine varies drinking of beverages Fane asses are replaced with liberal ersobatl ver . ater losses per i rally drinking water or other beverage: containing throw visable to replenish sodium loss, ges containing common 2.4 REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE When water losses in th are concentrated causin; rise in osmotic pressure 2.2 SOU! a. @ body are great er than gains. a (lecrease in the plasma he mee riggers a thirst response in ‘he fom '@ brain. 8Br De TREE ad Evemes ov & NU or results in withdrawal of water from the cells in Hes especially salivary glands and causes one ie ole that stimulates thirst. High osmotic pressure of the blood also simulates kidneys to retain water through two hormonal echanisms: one regulated by antidiuretic hormone and the other by figosterone- Water deficiency or dehydration occurs whenever there is amassive loss of body water, as in kidney malfunction, blood loss, vomiting, diarrhoea, or when water becomes unavailable. Inadequate consumption of water is associated with kidney malfunctioning. abies who cannot ask for water are susceptible to dehydration. In adults, @ loss of 2 L is harmless, but may contribute to confusion in ager, When more than 4 Lis lost, water is withdrawn from cells causing weakness and collapse. Few people would survive a loss of trore than 8 L. Normally desire to drink prevents dehydration when water is freely available. Excess water taken in the body is eliminated by the kidneys as urine. prinking plenty is harmless; rather it may be beneficial. Some types of kidney stones are less likely to form if urine is kept dilute by drinking enough water. Water intoxication may occur when water content of the body increase without proportional increase in the electrolyte. This may result in nausea, headache, in-coordination of movements and muscular cramps: 2.5 DIETARY REQUIREMENTS The intake of water is governed by several factors including diet, age, climate, activity, etc. More water is needed if food intake is more. Water is required in amounts ‘of 1 mL for each kilocalorie of energy expended or about 2,500 mL a day for a person consuming 2,500 kcal. More water is needed when diet is rich in protein and salt. The water requirements of a person increase with age. The need for water during hot weather is much higher than the cold Weather. A minimum of 900 mL water is required in temperate climate to balance water needed by the kidneys for elimination of hintd products in urine. Sedentary man In 4 temperate environment ona about 2 L water per day: Much more is needed in tropical ache, depending upon the temperature, relative humidity and ane It is advisable to drink water more frequently during hot sportsm season prevailing in Pakistan. Similarly, physical labourers, pregnant others engaged in strenuous exercise as well as needs. and lactating women require more water to meet their dailyCuart Meeting the Dietary Requirements after waking up replenishes 2.5.4 Benefits of it the toxins accumulate uae” " immediately inking water imme ie ‘ ong sleep and flushes the night. 2. peakig plenty of water @ also helps treat urinary tr é inate more al enables one to UI bladder. jert and energetic. If dehydratey 4, Water Kee a akes it harder to circulate, As - the ae Fain Becomes: tive and one feels confused any result, fatigued. i ients suffering from diarrho, tion in patients sul r ea, Water prevents dehydral tion and its complications. Too itl, : nts constipal 0 . waior can harden the stool and may lead to hemorrhoids ang diverticulitis. Drinking water and eating vegetables soften the stool. . 7, Water helps reduce fever since the body temperature is lowereq during urination. 8. Drinking a glass or two of water before meals helps reduce . weight by actually reducing the amount of food taken to feel full, 9. Sipping water throughout the day is preferable rather than drinking two glasses all at once. 2.6 QUALITY OF WATER The International Standards for Drinking Water require that ‘water intended for human consumption must be free from organisms and from concentrations of chemical substances that may be a hazard to health. In addition, supplies of drinking water should be as pleasant to drink as circumstances permit’. revents formation of kidney stone, ; ct infection since drinking more wa! nd flush out bacteria from the e to remain al lly thick that m: less acl a Water is the foundation upon which tests hi te ealth of the people. Eee being a useful commodity, it is a transporter of numerous eases. Two chief diseases typhoid and cholera have high water is pure and safe to dri i = nk, i.e., it should be one billon people in the world lack access to safe wate, mater. About For human ; Consumption, two aspects of water quality are important: fant: ical and chemical, Mi i determined chemical. Microbiological water it oon Oy examining the total number of organic. is bacteria (Escherichia coli and Aer gad Obacter 10 ——ELEMEN’ wall TS OF Foon & Nutrition 5) that are normal inhabitants of hu eir presence indicates that water has. bon pane 1a excreta or sewage. This means that other human Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are widely distributed in plants in which they are formed from carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and water from the soil through photosynthesis. The nutritionally important major groups of carbohydrates are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides), oligosaccharides and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, pectic substances and related compounds). Carbohydrates constitute by far the greatest portion of diet in developing countries, as much as 80% in some cases. In industrialised countries 45 to 50% carbohydrates are included in the diet of a person. 3.1 SUGARS Sugars are white, crystalline, water soluble and varyingly sweet in teste (Fig 3.1). They are modified by heating/cooking, i.e., caramelise on heating. They act as preservatives in jams, jellies, marmalades and preserves owing to their water binding capability. When oxidised in the human body, they provide energy (3.75 kcal/g or 16 kJ) which is essential for all body activities. Sugars are building blocks of such complex carbohydrates as starches, celluloses, Pectins and glycogen (polysaccharides). i s ? i Sugars naturally present in the cellular structure of Tulls, some vegetables, Sugars a etc. are intrinsic Fig 3.1 Comparative sweetness of sugars healt SS, NO threat to Sugar) Those extracted, refined, and concentrated (household esi are extrinsic sugars. These can contribute to dental caries, 'Y and other ailments. Comparative Swestness 3s o8 13CARBOHYDRATE, “= CHAPTER. f significance: the Mono— an, i of sugars are of Sit My sae nartes. Tyee appear in many simple ard comple organi ‘ q acid (DNA), the backbone gj molecules, incuding Cece ong 2c Caccharides are simple genetic OS an empirical formula CgH1205 and are of threg sears cose, fructose and galactose. These can pass through walls “of the digestive tract without being changed by the digestive enzymes. The disaccharides together with the el formula is CrzH2011 nutritional significance: converted by the body to monosacc! can absorb them. 3.1.1 Glucose Also called dextrose, it occurs naturally in many fruits (2 to 6%), and honey (25 to cH.oH 37%). Itis the main sugar found in blood of 0. living animals. Normal human blood contains about 80 to 100 mg glucose per 100 mL. itis the repeating unit of starches OM NOK} (found in most plants) and glycogen (the starch found in animal muscle tissues). During digestion, the digestible carbohydrates (starches) are, converted into glucose. It is commercially manufactured by the hydrolysis of starch (maize). It has a sweetness of 74 on a scale of 100 for sucrose, 3.1.2 Fructose contain two monosaccharides condensed Jimination of one molecule of water. Common There are three types of disaccharides of sucrose, maltose and lactose. These must be harides before alimentary tract Fructose is also called levulose or fruit 0. led levulose | ae 7 NI sugar. It occurs naturally in some fruits (2 <4 one to 5%), vegetables, and especially in HON wer“ HoH honey (25 to 45%). An apple, for i example, contains 6% fructose by weight, about 4% sucrose and 1% glucose. The grapes contain about 8% fructose, 2% Sucrose, 7% glucose and 2% maltose. It is the sweetest sugal pritlhck eae and di-saccharides; sweetness 173 on a scale Of « it Is a Component of sucrose and is present in high fructose syrup. It is i patients than lial utilised as a source of energy by diabetic OH 14| ELEMENTS OF Foon & NUTRITION AWAN, 3.4.3 Galactose non Galactose does not occur in free state in gy ture. It is widely distributed in combined hon ale It forms part of lactose and occurs in cerebrosides present in brain and nervous tissues. It has a sweetness of 16 on a scale of 4 ty 400 for sucrose. 3.1.4 Sucrose sucrose is the common household sugar and occurs naturally in m cane (10 to 12%), sugar beet (12 to 18%), honey (0.5 to sugat 3.0%), and to some cia fesser extent in fruits py 5 and some roots like #//# Heron carrots. It is formed by 3. . condensation of one ow 9 4 4 OY sy,00 molecule each of —= glucose and fructose. 4 OH on A This sugar is of major economic and industrial importance owing to its ready availability, acceptability, palatability, generally low cost and putily, It is commercially produced from sugar cane or sugar beet. 3.1.5 Maltose exon cx,ou Maltose consists of two ~o, glucose unils. It is found in" Vid Ss honey (2 to 12%) and is oy LoK oy Vr formed during breakdown o# \.- / of starch by digestion and « 4 oH on during grain germination. It is also created during bread making as a result of starch degradation by enzymes present in flour. Maltose is commercially produced by partial acid or enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Ithas a sweetness of 32 on a scale of 100 for sucrose. 3.1.6 Lactose Lactose occurs in milk of all a“ pomnels, Itis a combination we “ of a molecule each of en glucose and _ galactose. Human milk contains 75%, and cows, mik 4.0m oe 2 seis normally degraded by enzyme lactase in the intestines. It ness of 16 on a scale of 100 for sucrose. 15SS ==! } SACCHARIDES | f a few 3,2 OLIGO! ides, water-soluble polymers of ‘ lycosides, i olgosaccartes 2° Oye harges. Those most commonly found to 10) condensed rally homopolymers Of condensed (malt, foods are seal heteropolymers of D-glucose son 7a oligosaccharides) Or close (faffinose, stachyose, —_frucig, fructose OF 1 ides). . 5 Wn rt ligosaccha § occur as fructo-oligosaccharides (in onions The oligosaccharides galacto-oligosaccharides or soybean, and garth in the form of raffinose and stachyose in soybean, olgosacchart les, composed of xylobiose and xylotriose are o-oligosaccharid i a viuits, honey and milk. ically functional oligosaccharides are short-chain hat meet two specific requirements: found in The physiologi polysaccharides t a. They are not digested by human gastric juice. b. They are preferentially consumed by beneficial intestinal bacteria, the Bifidobacteria, in the colon. | ! Oligosaccharides have become popular functional food components in Japan and some other developed countries. These are consumed as such or as food ingredients. Most common products are beverages, infant milk formulations, confectionery, bakery products, yoghurts and dairy desserts. Two to three grams oligosaccharides per day are recommended in the diet of adults to provide followin beneficial effects: — | a. Help in the proliferation of Bifidobacteria that reduce the numbers of detrimental bacteria including pathogenic organisms., Reduce toxic metabolites and deleterious enzymes and increase, the production of useful nutrients, | } é d. 8 Prevent constipation and Protect liver functions. Reduce serum cholesterol level and blood pressure. Have an anticancer effect. Bifidob; ia lactic ae roduce short chain fatty acids, mainly acetic and, antagonistic fe antibiotic material, These bacteria possess Pathogenic bacteria WY, SUPPreSs the activity of putrefactive and ‘acleria and reduce formation of toxic fermentation Products, in add group. on, Bifidobacteria produce some vitamins of the 8° 16‘Raat ELEMENTS OF Foon & Nutrition 3.3 POLYSACCHARIDES 3.3.1 Starch Starch is a polysaccharide, non-crystalline, white, tasteless powder. It is a homoglycan and consists of a-(14) linkage large numbers of ro ‘ono exo ane glucose units WA " An A ‘i (4000 to 15,000) ~*\m_wfe\m from yon y/o~ condensed to form hoe tom a both straight (amylose) and Portion of an amylose molecule branched chains (amylopectin). In amylose the condensed D- . glucose units ‘ - ory i ee occur as Ke LK oa (1-96) a-(1> 4) linked Ls Th] *— linkage pyranose rings. ‘guon te ‘cmon Most linkages WAN AN : between the D- Ap Du oy on »/te- glucose units of Ye ras PG amylopectin are of the a—(1 — 4) type, as in amylose. In addition, 45% glucose units are combined in a—(1 > 6) linkages. Portion of an amylocpectin molecule Starch provides major source of energy in the diet of man. It occurs naturally in plants. Cereal grains (wheat, rice, maize, barley) and tubers (potatoes, sweet potatoes) are excellent sources, while beans and pulses are also rich. It exists in granules of a size and shape characteristic of each plant. When heated, the granules rupture and liberate the starch. It is insoluble in water, but the granules swell and eventually gelatinise on cooking. In this state these are more easily digested than in raw form. Starch is hydrolysed in the stomach to Provide energy (3.75 kcal or 16 kJ/g). When consumed in excess to body requirements, it is stored as glycogen or converted to fat. This May give rise to several diseases such as obesity and coronary heart disease (see also Chapter 12). 3.3.2 Glycogen Biyeogen is also a polysaccharide, similar to starch in composition. It sg inade from 3,000 to 60,000 glucose units built up in branching 'ains by animals and not plants. Small amounts are stored in liver 17a Cuarrer3 CARBOHYDRATES (3 to 7%) and muscles (0.5 to 1.0%) as energy reserve. It breaks down again to glucose after death of an animal. 3.3.3 Celluloses and Related Compounds Cellulose consists of thousands of glucose units joined together in the 1,4-B position as distinct from the 1,4-a bond in maltose. It is main structural component of plant cell wall, and is insoluble in water. Man and other monogastric animals cannot digest jt, However, it is used as food by ruminants that possess the necessary cellulytic enzymes to convert it into simpler molecules. Good sources of cellulose in human diet are fruits, vegetables, whole cereals and legumes. These should be consumed in appreciable quantities since they assist in the passage of wastes and digestible materials through the intestines. A number of cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) are used as thickening and bulking agents. These are water-soluble and behave like gums in the stomach. Cellulose and certain other indigestible polysaccharides (lignins, hemicelluloses) are collectively known as dietary fibre or roughage (Section 3.4). They are reported to possess several physiological effects depending upon physical and chemical properties of the individual fibre source. They add bulk to faeces because of their water binding capacity and greatly assist in passage of digestible materials and wastes through intestines. They decrease nutrient availability, reduce levels of plasma cholesterol and reduce glycemic response to a meal. 3.3.4 Pectins These are complex polysaccharides present in many fruits (guava, apple) and in roots such as tumips. They are composed of rhamnogalacturonans (D-galacturonic acid and rhamnose) and contain other carbohydrate moieties as side chains. Water-soluble pectins and insoluble protopectins are found as part of plant cell walls and middle lamella. Pectin forms a stiff gel in the presence of sucrose and citric acid and is important in jelly making. Plant tissues contain protopectin (hemicelluloses) cementing the cell wall together. Like cellulose, Pectins are not digested by man but assist in the passage of digestible materials and wastes through the intestines. These are acted upon by bacteria present in the large intestine, with the formation of carbon dioxide, alcohols and organic acids. 18ELEMENTS oF Foon & NUTRITION yay teers or Foon & Nurarmion 3.3.5 Gums and Mucilages There are numerous gums found in plants and cet i have no common structure, but are noljsaconariie® ere, several sugars with alternating monomer structures. They rey oF may not contain uronic acid. Guar and locust bean gums are galactomannans, while gum Arabic is an acidic polymer of galactose and rhamnose. Oat and barley gums contain p—glucan which is a linear polysaccharide composed of B-1, 3 and B-1, 4linked glucopyranosy! units. Like cellulose and other related compounds, gums and mucilages pass unaltered through the digestive tract. These compounds, however, possess other favourable physiological effects. 3.3.6 Agar Agar is also called agar agar, macassar gum and vegetable gelatine. Itis dried and purified stems of seaweed, Gelidium algae, Gracilaria and other genera. Agar is a galactose, i.e., a complex of galactose units, but is not digested by man. It is partly soluble and swells with water to form a gel. It has a wide temperature range between gelling and melting points. It is used in soups, jellies, ice creams, meat and fish pastes, in bacteriological media, as an adhesive and as a stabiliser for emulsions. Like cellulose, it assists in the passage of digestible materials and wastes through the intestines. 3.4 DIETARY FIBRE Dietary fibre is the name given to what used to be called bulk, roughage, bran, fibre or unavailable carbohydrates. It includes endogenous components of plant materials in the diet that are resistant to digestive enzymes in the stomach or small intestine of man and other monogastric animals. It primarily consists of. polysaccharides (celluloses, hemicelluloses, lignins, pectins and gums). Pectins, gums and mucilages constitute the water-soluble fraction of the dietary fibre. These form gel in the intestinal tract and slow the passage of food. They also delay gastric emptying time, contribute to satiety, decrease glucose absorption and reduce plasma cholesterol concentration. Hence, presence of this fraction in the diet is of particularbenefit for the diabetics and those suffering from hypertension. The water-insoluble fraction of the dietary fibre consists of celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignins. This fraction absorbs large amounts of water while passing through the digestive tract. This increases the faecal bulk, accelerates transit time, slows Starch hydrolysis and delays glucose absorption. Hence, this fraction is equally beneficial for the diabetics. 19‘ae CHAPTER 3 Carnonynates The dietary fibre, therefore, possesses several favourable physiological effects depending upon physical and chemical properties of the individual fibre source. It is considered a factor in the control of diverticulitis (inflammation of the curvatures of intestines), appendicitis, haemorrhoids, cancer of the colon and also possibly coronary heart diseases — the diseases of the affluence. |t binds extra bile and excretes it from the body thus lowering the cholesterol level. In diabetics, dietary fibre is reported to improve control of blood glucose level, delay glucose absorption, reduce insulin requirements and lower the levels of urinary glucose (see also Chapter 12). Excessive intake of dietary fibre, as sometimes recommended for the bioavailability. Thus, consumption of diabetics, decreases nutrient! too much fibre can have an adverse effect on the bioavailability of mineral elements especially if it is high in oxalic acid or phytic acid Contents. Inorganic materials such as calcium and iron become unavailable and are excreted as salts. There are as yet no official recommended intakes for fibre. It is suggested that an average intake of about 20 g/day would be adequate. 3.5 ENERGY Energy is obtained by the oxidation of carbohydrates, oils, fats and proteins contained in the diet as well as from chemical reactions in the body. Many people consider energy as good and calories as bad or fattening. Both are actually the same. Calorie (Cal) or kilocalorie (keal) is the unit of measurement of energy. Joule (J) or kiloJoule (kJ) is the equivalent international (S.1.) unit Calorie (Cal or kcal) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1°C. ‘About half of the daily intake of energy is obtained from controlled oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the diet. It Is used for self-maintenance, including: — Liberation of energy from glucose and fatty acids reactions. Synthesis of new proteins for growth and repair. Elimination of wastes from blood by kidney. Maintenance of body temperature at 37°C. Maintenance of electrolyte concentration in the cells. Contraction of muscles in breathing. Contraction of heart muscles. Rest half of the energy is used for muscular activity during the day tnd for special purposes such as growth, pregnancy and lactation. 20 are eaooDpAWAN ELEMENTS OF Foop & NUTRITION Over short term, diet too high or too low in energy-yielding nutrients is harmless. Excess energy is stored as fat or glycogen in the body. When less energy is consumed, it is drawn from the body fat or glycogen. During periods of starvation, body proteins are utilised to provide energy. 3.5.1 Energy Expenditure Human body requires energy for the performance of all functions. It is needed for maintenance of body temperature, continuous activities of the heart, lungs, kidneys, etc. as well as breakdown, repair and building of tissues. The rate at which these functions are carried out while the body is completely at rest is termed as basal metabolic rate (BMR). This is defined as the energy expended when the body is completely relaxed and at rest in a comfortable position in a temperature within the zone of thermal neutrality and after digestion and absorption of the last food ingested has ceased. The BMR varies with age, weight, sex, disease and other factors. It is related to muscle mass and surface area of the body from which heat is lost. Children have a higher BMR (53 kcal or 220 kJ for one year old infant) than adults (34 kcal or 140 kd for 70 years old man) per m’, BMR decreases approximately 1 per cent per year after 25 years of age. This decline is a major reason why losing weight becomes more of a struggle in later life and gaining weight seems to be easy. This is due to the fact that thyroid secretions that have greatest influence on the metabolic rate decrease with age. The BMR rises with an increase in weight. In females, due to the presence of more fatty tissues, BMR is slightly lower than in males. In adult male the BMR is about 1700 kcal (7 MJ), while in a female it is 1500 kcal (6.3 MJ). The BMR in diseased condition is often higher. For example, during fever, it increases by about 10% for every degree Centigrade rise in body temperature. 3.5.2 Energy Needs Energy is primarily provided in the body through the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Minimum energy must be supplied for the BMR and body activities. The daily requirements for different age groups are given in Table 3.1. The energy needs of an pavidual, however, depend upon several factors such as the BMR, ody weight, age, pregnancy and lactation, climate, and activity.r ener: Table 3.1 Recommended daily dietary allowances fol ‘gy - Height Energy Age Weight (enn) (kg) (cm) (kcal) 60 kg x 117 Infants a 3 71 kg x 108 1300 Children 1-3 13 ia 1200 46 20 i 7-10 30 135 2400 Males m4 44 158 3000 15-18 61 i 3000 19-22 67 2 3000 23-50 70 M2 2700 a 70 172 2400 Females 11-14 44 155 2400 15-18 54 162 2100 19-22 58 162 2100 23-50 58 162 2000 51+ 58 162 1800 Pregnant +300 Lactating +500 i. Body weight - Obese Persons use less energy at rest, as fat cells are relatively inactive. During activity, use of energy is proportional to body weight. For example, a 65 kg man uses 3.7 kcal (15.5 kJ) per minute when walking at 4.5 km/h, but a 75 kg man uses 4.0 kcal (16.7 kJ) per minute. Women use less energy at rest. ii, Age - Children and adolescents require more energy in Proportion to their weight than adults do, Elderly generally use less energy than young and adults since the activity and number of active cells reduce with increasing age. iii. Pregnancy and Lactation — Extra energy is required by women during pregnancy and breast-feeding to fulfil the needs of the growing baby. Extra 200 kcal (840 kJ) is recommended daily in the last 6 months of Pregnancy (i.e., 300 mL milk containing 3.2% fat). Extra 500 kcal (2.1 MJ) are required daily when breast-feeding (i.e., 750 mL milk containing 3.2% fat). iv. Climate — Human beings maintain their body temperature at or around 37°C. This is best suited to the activity of enzymes with heat continually dissipating during metabolism. Normally heat 22 |ELEMENTS OF Foop & NUT! Awa’ loss occurs by radiation from the skin to the surrounding cool air. In hot climates less heat needs to be generated to maintain body temperature, hence food intake is reduced. Very cold climate does not always increase the needs for energy to maintain body temperature since the amount of heat lost from the skin is reduced by increased clothing and home heating. y. Activity - More energy is required during muscular activity than when the body is at rest. This is evident from Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Energy used in various activities by an average man (65 kg) and average woman (55 kg). ‘Approximate energy used per min Nature of activity By man By woman KI Keal kJ kcal Asleep in bed 45 14 38 09 Sitting quietly (TV watch) 58 14 48 1.2 Standing quietly 73 18 57 14 Cooking 88 24 7 17 Light cleaning 13.0 3.1 10.5 2.5 Moderate cleaning 18.0 43 146 35 Sedentary work office 75 18 67 1.6 Sedentary work driving 67 1.6 Light industry (repair, laundry) 17.2 4d 13.4 3.2 Walking 4.5 km/h 15.5 3.7 12.6 3.0 Walking up down stairs 38.0 92.0 Recreations: Seated like knitting 10.5 25 8.3 2.0 Light, golf 105-21 25-5 83-165 20-40 Moderate, tennis, dancing 21-315 5-75 165-25 46 Heavy, + 7.5+ 25+ 6+ thletics, football 3 3.6 SWEETENERS Sweeteners have been used since prehistoric times, following the discovery of honey. The earlier reference to sugar and sugar cane med in a scroll from 375 A.D. Arabs were the first to develop a ee Process by the 14th century A.D. Several sweeteners are Sean, for various purposes. Each available sweetener has Oe eeneation as a result of certain advantages and limitations. individuet one is not appropriate to the requirements of every ‘avour It is essential to use different sweeteners to satisfy taste, ur, texture and energy needs. 23CARBOHYDRATES CHAPTER 3 There are two types of sweeteners, bulk and alternative. 3.6.1 Bulk Sweeteners The bulk sweeteners or nutritive sweeteners are patties that Provide food energy. Sugars (mono- ne ball sone ‘corn, high fructose), molasses, sugar alcol 5 ei ae all classified as nutritive sweeteners: ably to ores, rose and other traditional sweeteners is it Gulch burst of energy. Owing to sedentary lifestyle, this has become a disadvantage now. These sweeteners also promote tooth decay, However, these are useful in many respects: — a. Provide energy for body activity, 3.75 kcal or 16kJ/g. b. Serve as sweetening agents. c. Satisfy natural human desire for sweet tasting foods. d. Make other foods more palatable: e.g., when sprinkled on grapefruit, sour taste is reduced; when used with tomato juice, astringency is removed. @. Used as preservatives in foods, e.g, jams, jellies, etc., f Act as food for yeasts and other microorganisms in fermentations. 9. Provide body, bulk (mouth feel) in syrups, candies and baked goods. h. Possess some useful freezing point of liquids. 3.6.2 Alternate Sweeteners functional Properties, e.g., lowering Considering the inherent disadvantages of bulk sw eeteners (provide energy and cause tooth decay), alternate sweeteners have been insignificant number of Calories in the especially advantageous for persons on diets requiring calorie restriction (diabetes, or over-weigh), Neohesperidin, Acesulfame K, Trichlorogalactosucrose (TGS. su alternate Sweeteners that have decades. Each available sweeter result of it composition. Aiso each and limitations in various products. L-sugars, Neosugar, saccharin, gar), and cyclamates are some been developed in the past few ner has specific applications as a Sweetener has certain advantages 24