drones
Article
Development of a Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for
Extended Flight Endurance
Yauhei Chu † , Chunleung Ho † , Yoonjo Lee † and Boyang Li *






Citation: Chu, Y.; Ho, C.; Lee, Y.; Li,
B. Development of a Solar-Powered
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for
Extended Flight Endurance. Drones
2021, 5, 44. https://doi.org/
10.3390/drones5020044
Academic Editor:
Abdessattar Abdelkefi
Received: 30 April 2021
Accepted: 21 May 2021
Published: 24 May 2021
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Drones 2021, 5, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones5020044
Department of Aeronautical and Aviation Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom,
Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; yau-hei.chu@connect.polyu.hk (Y.C.); chun-leung.ho@connect.polyu.hk (C.H.);
yoonjo.lee@connect.polyu.hk (Y.L.)
* Correspondence: bo-yang.li@polyu.edu.hk; Tel.: +852-340-082-31
† Authors have contributed equally.
Abstract: Having an exciting array of applications, the scope of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
application could be far wider one if its flight endurance can be prolonged. Solar-powered UAV,
promising notable prolongation in flight endurance, is drawing increasing attention in the industries’
recent research and development. This work arose from a Bachelor’s degree capstone project at Hong
Kong Polytechnic University. The project aims to modify a 2-metre wingspan remote-controlled (RC)
UAV available in the consumer market to be powered by a combination of solar and battery-stored
power. The major objective is to greatly increase the flight endurance of the UAV by the power
generated from the solar panels. The power system is first designed by selecting the suitable system
architecture and then by selecting suitable components related to solar power. The flight control
system is configured to conduct flight tests and validate the power system performance. Under fair
experimental conditions with desirable weather conditions, the solar power system on the aircraft
results in 22.5% savings in the use of battery-stored capacity. The decrease rate of battery voltage
during the stable level flight of the solar-powered UAV built is also much slower than the same
configuration without a solar-power system.
Keywords: solar-powered; UAV; endurance extension; flight experiments
1. Introduction
With widening the application scope of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) as the driving
force, the development of solar-powered UAV recently has attracted more attention in
academia and commercial industries. A critical factor limiting the scope of application
of conventional battery-powered electric UAVs is their energy storage capability. The
conventional UAV is powered by the energy stored in batteries on board to maintain the
propulsion and functioning of flight control electronics. The amount of carried electric
power limits its flight range before takeoff. Although increasing the size of the battery
or installing more batteries can increase the energy storage capacity, the weight of the
aircraft also increases. In turn, more power is consumed to carry the extra weight, resulting
in the flight range being not necessarily prolonged. A possible approach to overcome
this physical limit is the use of solar power as an energy source on UAV. Solar-powered
UAV, using solar cells installed onboard, captures solar energy reaching the aircraft surface
during daylight. Such generated power is supplied to the motor to propel the aircraft and
other electronics or to recharge the battery on board. The battery supplies power when in
darkness or under clouds.
This project is aimed at the development of a small fixed-wing hand-launched solar-
powered UAV. A remote-controlled (RC) model glider for leisure purpose available on
the consumer market, a 759-2 Phoenix 2000 RC plane, is modified to be powered by a
hybrid of solar power and battery-stored power. This project suggested key points for
the modification of an existing conventional RC plane to be solar-powered. The most
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/drones
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Drones 2021, 5, 44 2 of 19

modification of an existing conventional RC plane to be solar-powered. The most signifi-

cant advantage
significant advantageof modifying
of modifying an existing plane
an existing overover
plane building a new
building oneone
a new is the saving
is the on
saving
development
on development time andand
time costcost
on theon airframe, making
the airframe, solar-powered
making solar-poweredUAVUAV available to more
available to
more
usersusers
with with
a more a more straightforward
straightforward design
design and and building
building process.
process. Numerous
Numerous adaptive
adaptive de-
designs
signs areare required
required forfor
such such modification,
modification, for instance,
for instance, modifying
modifying the power
the power system system
archi-
architecture to include
tecture to include solarsolar
cells.cells.
The
The primary
primaryobjective
objectiveof of this
this work
work isis to increase
increase the flight duration
duration of the UAV.UAV. Flight
Flight
tests are conducted to compare the power system performance
tests are conducted to compare the power system performance of the RC plane between of the RC plane between
the
the manufacturer’s
manufacturer’s defaultdefault version
version andand the
the solar-power
solar-powermodified
modifiedversion.
version. Objectives
Objectivesare are
also
also set
set for
for the
the flight
flightcontrol
controlsystem.
system. Flight
Flight tests
tests for
fordetermining
determining thethe flight
flightrange
rangewould
would
last
last for
for an extended period.
an extended period. To Toensure
ensureaafairfaircomparison,
comparison,the theflight
flight control
control system
system shall
shall be
be capable
capable of flying
of flying thethe aircraft
aircraft autonomously
autonomously without
without human
human intervention.
intervention. TheThe finished
finished so-
solar-powered
lar-powered UAV UAVisisshownshownininFigure
Figure1.1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. The
The solar-powered
solar-poweredUAV
UAVbuilt
builtin
inthis
thisproject
projectnamed ‘Sun’.
named‘Sun’.

2.
2. Literature
Literature Review
Review
2.1.
2.1. Examples of
Examples of Solar-Powered
Solar-Powered UAV
UAV Project
Project
The
The first
firstreviewed
reviewedsolar-powered
solar-powered UAV UAVproject is AtlantikSolar,
project whichwhich
is AtlantikSolar, was conducted
was con-
by Oettershagen et al. [1] of the Autonomous Systems Lab,
ducted by Oettershagen et al. [1] of the Autonomous Systems Lab, Swiss FederalSwiss Federal Institute of
Institute
Technology Zurich. Having completed an 81-hour continuous flight that
of Technology Zurich. Having completed an 81-hour continuous flight that covered a dis-covered a distance
of 2338ofkm,
tance thekm,
2,338 UAV established
the a new world
UAV established a newrecord.
worldItrecord.
has a conventional glider configu-
It has a conventional glider
ration, having ahaving
configuration, wingspan of 5.69 mofand
a wingspan 5.69amtotal
andmass of mass
a total 6.93 kg. A new
of 6.93 kg.methodology
A new methodol-was
developed as a result of the project for the design of solar-powered UAVs
ogy was developed as a result of the project for the design of solar-powered UAVs for for energetically
robust perpetual
energetically flight
robust in sub-optimal
perpetual flight inmeteorological conditions. The
sub-optimal meteorological project started
conditions. with
The project
energetic system modelling to consider the variations in operating conditions
started with energetic system modelling to consider the variations in operating conditions and local
meteorological conditions.conditions.
and local meteorological The airframe Theand energyand
airframe generation and storageand
energy generation system wassys-
storage de-
signed according to the parameters obtained from the energetic system
tem was designed according to the parameters obtained from the energetic system mod- modelling. Power
system components,
elling. Power systemsuch as the Maximum
components, such as thePower Point Trackers
Maximum (MPPT)
Power Point and a (MPPT)
Trackers battery
management
and a battery management system, were custom-made and are capable of regulatingand
system, were custom-made and are capable of regulating the energy flow the
providing detailed energy flow information. The flight control system was designed with
energy flow and providing detailed energy flow information. The flight control system
state-space models. With the design of aircraft systems completed, the design of the whole
was designed with state-space models. With the design of aircraft systems completed, the
UAV was preliminarily verified with lab tests and short flight tests.
design of the whole UAV was preliminarily verified with lab tests and short flight tests.
The second solar-powered UAV project reviewed is that conducted by Morton et al. [2]
The second solar-powered UAV project reviewed is that conducted by Morton et al.
at The Centre for Distributed Robotics, University of Minnesota. A 4-metre wingspan
[2] at The Centre for Distributed Robotics, University of Minnesota. A 4-metre wingspan
solar UAV for the objective of low altitude aerial sensing applications was developed.
solar UAV for the objective of low altitude aerial sensing applications was developed. The
The power required for level flight of that UAV was estimated to be below 46 W. It was
power required for level flight of that UAV was estimated to be below 46 W. It was capable
capable of a maximum of 180 W solar power generation. The captured solar power is over
of a maximum of 180 W solar power generation. The captured solar power is over 300%
300% of the power required for level flight. The airframe design aimed at satisfying the
of the power required for level flight. The airframe design aimed at satisfying the appli-
application of low altitude aerial sensing. Then, power required for level flight was derived
cation of low altitude aerial sensing. Then, power required for level flight was derived
from the aerodynamic characteristics of the airframe. After that, the power system was
from the aerodynamic
designed. Some power systemcharacteristics of the
electronics, suchairframe. After were
as the MPPT, that, the power system
custom-built was
to satisfy
project-specific requirements. The solar power system consists of 64 SunPower C60 solar
 designed. Some power system electronics, such as the MPPT, were custom-built to
project-specific requirements. The solar power system consists of 64 SunPower C6
cells and a custom-built MPPT with an average efficiency of 91.59%. For the flight
system, it was designed according to the mission requirements. After the design of
Drones 2021, 5, 44 systems, the weight distribution of the plane was determined. 3 of 19

2.2. Power System Components

cells and a custom-built MPPT with an average efficiency of 91.59%. For the flight control
The primary objective of integrating a solar power system into a UAV is to i
system, it was designed according to the mission requirements. After the design of aircraft
the rangethebyweight
systems, providing an extra
distribution of thepower source
plane was during flight. In addition to the pow
determined.
tem components in conventional UAV, extra components are required. The review
2.2. Power
about powerSystem Components
devices for solar-powered aircraft applications by Safyanu et al. [3] is
The primary objective
referred to in understanding of integrating a solar power
and determining thesystem into a UAV
components is to increase
needed for the solar
the range by providing an extra power source during flight. In addition to the power
system. It is also shown in reputable solar-powered UAV projects
system components in conventional UAV, extra components are required. The review
[1,2,4] that photo
(PV)
articlecells
about and Maximum
power devices for Power Point Tracker
solar-powered (MPPT) are
aircraft applications by required
Safyanu etfor the solar
al. [3]
system.
is mainlyThe PV to
referred cells collect solarand
in understanding energy and convert
determining it into needed
the components electricforenergy;
the the
solar power system. It is also shown in reputable solar-powered UAV
tracks the maximum power point of the PV cells and extracts the maximum pow projects [1,2,4] that
photovoltaic (PV) cells and Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) are required for the
the PV cells.
solar power system. The PV cells collect solar energy and convert it into electric energy; the
MPPT tracks the maximum power point of the PV cells and extracts the maximum power
2.3.
fromPhotovoltaic
the PV cells. (PV) Cells
Voltage and current are produced by the PV cell when the light hits its surfa
2.3. Photovoltaic (PV) Cells
relationship between insolation—the amount of energy from the sun that reac
Voltage and current are produced by the PV cell when the light hits its surface. The
Earth—and the amount
relationship between of produced
insolation—the voltage
amount and from
of energy currentthe of
suna that
PV cell is represente
reaches the
I-V curve (Current–Voltage
Earth—and the amount of produced Curve). I-V
voltage curves
and currentvary among
of a PV cell is different kinds
represented by an and mo
I-V cells
PV curve but
(Current–Voltage
are mainly Curve).
similarI-V curves
[5]. varycurve
An I-V amongrepresents
different kindstheand models of
voltage–current re
PV cells but are mainly similar [5]. An I-V curve represents the voltage–current relationship
ship at particular insolation, and multiple I-V curves are included in a diagram t
at particular insolation, and multiple I-V curves are included in a diagram to illustrate the
trate the performance
performance of a PV cell atofdifferent
a PV cell at different
insolation, insolation,
as shown in Figure 2.as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. I-V curve of a typical PV cell.

Figure 2. I-V curve of a typical PV cell.
Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 54) created by Green et al. [6] are referenced
during this project’s
Solar solar cell model
Cell Efficiency Tables selection process.
(Version 54)The Efficiency
created byTables
Green listet
theal.
current
[6] are refe
PV cell models of the highest confirmed energy conversion efficiency in their respective
during this project’s solar cell model selection process. The Efficiency Tables list t
classifications. Common types of PV cells, such as silicon crystalline cells, silicon thin-film
rent
cells,PV cell models
gallium of the highest
arsenide (GaAs) cells, andconfirmed
copper indium energy conversion
gallium efficiency
selenide (CIGS) cells [7],in their
tive classifications.
are included Common
in the Efficiency types
Tables. The of PV cells,
highest suchefficiency
achievable as siliconof crystalline
each categorycells,
of silico
PV cell
film can gallium
cells, be compared. The selection
arsenide (GaAs)ofcells,
PV cell
andmodel for this
copper project gallium
indium will be discussed
selenide (CIG
in detail in the following section. When multiple PV cells are connected in series, they
[7], are included in the Efficiency Tables. The highest achievable efficiency of eac
form a PV array (or solar array). The nominal total voltage of the PV array is defined by
gory of PV voltage
the nominal cell canperbecellcompared.
and the number The ofselection of PV
cells. Usually, thecell
samemodel
model forof PVthis
cellproject
discussed
is installed ininan
detail
array,in
so the
that:following section.
PV array nominal When
total voltagemultiple PV cells
= the nominal areper
voltage connecte
cell ×they
ries, numberform a PV
of cells [2].array (or solar array). The nominal total voltage of the PV a
defined by the nominal voltage per cell and the number of cells. Usually, the same
2.4. Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)
of PVAncell is installed in an array, so that: PV array nominal total voltage = the n
MPPT is to extract maximum power from the PV cells. The maximum power
voltage per cell
points PMPP (P × number of cells [2].
MPP = IMPP × VMPP ) on I-V curves are where I = IMPP and V = VMPP . The
Drones 2021, 5, 44 4 of 19

output power of a PV array varies with insolation. As insolation changes from time to
time, the MPPT is needed to continuously track the fluctuating PMP on the I-V curves of
the respective insolation [3].
For UAV applications in which PV arrays are installed on the aircraft at different
angles, each solar array should be connected to its dedicated MPPT. PV arrays at different
angles capture different cross-sections of solar radiation and experience different levels of
insolation, such that the PV arrays can operate on the optimal point on their respective I-V
curve [2].
The primary performance indicator of MPPT is power conversion efficiency, which
reflects the ratio between the input power from PV cells and the output power of the MPPT.
There exist many algorithms for MPPT of which the operation principles and performance
vary. MPPT methods can be classified into indirect and direct methods or intelligent and
conventional methods. Indirect methods obtain PV characteristics based on mathematical
relationships, and no meteorological conditions are required; direct methods take meteo-
rological conditions into account. Intelligent methods are more complex, expensive, and
efficient than conventional methods [8]. Solar-powered UAV projects that are centred in
such areas and have sufficient resources and expertise in electronic engineering involve
custom-made MPPTs for optimised performance [1,2].

2.5. Power Management for Solar-Powered UAV

Research is conducted for the design of the power system of the solar-powered plane
of this project. A battery, PV cells, and an MPPT, as the foregoing describes, constitute the
major components of the power system. The motor is the main consumer of power inflight,
while the battery and PV cells are the power sources. It is investigated how components in
the power system should be arranged and connected to supply a combination of electric
power from that stored in the battery and that generated by the PV cells in-flight.
The research on power management for hybrid power UAV by Strele [9] is reviewed.
The two categories of power management for hybrid power UAV are Passive Power Man-
agement (PPM) and Active Power Management (APM). In PPM systems, the alternative
power source and the battery are directly connected in parallel. The voltage of both power
sources should be roughly the same. The combined power is transmitted to the ESC, thus
enabling the motor to propel the aircraft. The advantage of the PPM system is that it is
weight saving, as no extra electronic components are needed to control the power flow.
The demerits include compromising power system safety and efficiency, since the power
flow in the system is not controlled.
For APM systems, supervisory electronic components are employed to control power
flow. The complexity of APM systems greatly varies. In an example of a simple APM system
design, a relay is used to control which source (fuel cell or battery) delivers power to the
motor. The switching between power sources is controlled manually by the remote operator
engaging the battery and disengaging the fuel cell during high power consumption flight
phases (takeoff and initial climb), disengaging the battery and engaging the fuel cell during
low power consumption flight phases (cruising). However, it is doubted that if this power
system architecture can be applied to a solar-powered UAV. It requires further testing on
whether the MPPT can directly supply power to the ESC without a battery connected in
the circuit [9].
In more complex APM system designs, a microprocessor controls multiple DC-to-DC
converters that are connected to the power sources. The more electronics employed in an
APM system, the more precise the power flow can be controlled, meanwhile and the more
weight, cost, and power consumption are induced to the aircraft [9].

2.6. Unmanned Aerial System

A UAV consists of the airframe, sensors, payload, ground control station, and wire-
less communication system [10]. The implementation of autopilot with support from
the ground control station allows the aircraft to be flown autonomously or be controlled
Drones 2021, 5, 44 5 of 19

Drones 2021, 5, 44 5 of 19
2.6. Unmanned Aerial System
A UAV consists of the airframe, sensors, payload, ground control station, and wireless
communication system [10]. The implementation of autopilot with support from the ground
remotely.
control A UAV
station allowssystem is composed
the aircraft of several
to be flown sub-systems
autonomously or beincontrolled
a single aircraft.
remotely.Experimen-
A UAV
tal results show correlation between charging voltage and capacity, yet
system is composed of several sub-systems in a single aircraft. Experimental results show cor- some sub-systems
are optional
relation between depending on the type
charging voltage of the UAV
and capacity, [11]. sub-systems
yet some However, these sub-systems
are optional can be
depending
categorised into three main features: unmanned aircraft, communication,
on the type of the UAV [11]. However, these sub-systems can be categorised into three main and Ground
Controlunmanned
features: Station [12]. aircraft, communication, and Ground Control Station [12].
To receive the
To receive the signalsignal and
and toto apply
apply thethe autonomous
autonomous features
features forfor
thethe flight,
flight, an autopilot
an autopilot is
is necessary to implement on a UAV. During the flight computer
necessary to implement on a UAV. During the flight computer selection, a UAV must selection, a UAVfulfil
must
fulfil the following criteria in relation to the targeted mission: small dimensions and
the following criteria in relation to the targeted mission: small dimensions and weight, low
weight, low price, waypoint following capabilities, auto takeoff and landing capabilities,
price, waypoint following capabilities, auto takeoff and landing capabilities, and configurable.
and configurable. Open-source autopilots are preferred over sophisticated commercial
Open-source autopilots are preferred over sophisticated commercial autopilots, as the differ-
autopilots, as the difference in price is enormous. Figueredo [11] has shown the work of
ence in price is enormous. Figueredo [11] has shown the work of comparing the autopilot so-
comparing the autopilot solutions in the market by categorising the evaluation points of
lutions in the market by categorising the evaluation points of physical specifications, sensors,
physical specifications, sensors, and autopilot function.
and autopilot function.
Sensors provide the functionality to maintain the flight without human input. The
Sensors provide the functionality to maintain the flight without human input. The selec-
selection of sensors may depend on the mission required by the UAV. The greater the
tion of sensors may depend on the mission required by the UAV. The greater the number of
number of sensors, the greater the possibility that the UAV could gain stable control. Yet,
sensors, the greater the possibility that the UAV could gain stable control. Yet, it could increase
it could increase the burden of setting up the components on the airframe and covering
the burden of setting up the components on the airframe and covering the excessive loads.
the excessive loads. The suggested sensors from André et al. [13] are a GPS receiver,
The suggested
gyro, sensors
acceleration, from André
magnetic, et al. [13]
pressure, are a GPS
ultrasonic receiver,
sensor gyro,infrared
or sonar, acceleration,
sensormagnetic,
and RGB
pressure, ultrasonic sensor
camera or another image sensor. or sonar, infrared sensor and RGB camera or another image sensor.
Based
Basedononthethelevel
levelofofautonomy
autonomyfor forflight
flightcontrol,
control,the theforms
formscancanbebedivided
dividedinto
intothree
three
levels. The level of autonomy may apply in relation to the UAV
levels. The level of autonomy may apply in relation to the UAV mission; however, mission; however, in recentin
days,
recentthedays,
UAS thesystem
UASgenerally utilises part
system generally or whole
utilises partautonomous to gain control
or whole autonomous for steady
to gain control
flight. Semi-autonomous is a guidance system having both ground
for steady flight. Semi-autonomous is a guidance system having both ground control control and autonomous
feature for the flight feature
and autonomous control system. Duringcontrol
for the flight the critical portions
system. of the
During thepre-flight flight, takeoff,
critical portions of the
and landing,flight,
pre-flight the control
takeoff,input
andfrom the ground
landing, are required.
the control input from the ground are required.

3.3.Power
PowerSystem
SystemDesign
Design
3.1.
3.1.Selection
SelectionofofPV
PVCell
Cell
The
Thecategory
categoryofofmonocrystalline
monocrystallinesilicon
siliconcell
cellisisdeemed
deemedsuitable
suitableforforthis
thisproject.
project.TheThe
PVPVcell
cellmodel
modelSunPower
SunPowerC60 C60(Figure
(Figure3),3),which
whichisisa amonocrystalline
monocrystallinesilicon
siliconcell,
cell,isischosen
chosen
for
forthis
thisproject
projectconsidering
consideringcost,
cost,accessibility,
accessibility,energy
energy efficiency, size, and
efficiency, weight, size, and flexibility.
flexibil-
ity.
TheThe following
following sections
sections willwill explain
explain the the reason
reason for such
for such selection
selection in detail.
in detail. The specifi-
The specifications
cations
of the of the SunPower
SunPower C60cell
C60 solar solar cell is shown
is shown in 1.
in Table Table 1.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3.3.PV
PVcell
cellmodel
modelused
usedininthis
thiswork
workand
anditsitsinstallation.
installation.(a)
(a)SunPower
SunPowerC60
C60PV
PVcell;
cell;(b)
(b)Instal-
Installa-
lation of PV
tion of PV cell
cell with
with hot
hot shrink
shrink plastic
plastic wrap.
wrap.
 Size 0.125 × 0.125 m
Thickness 1.65 × 10−4 m

From the Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 54) created by Green et al. [6], the sili-
Drones 2021, 5,con
44crystalline cell manufactured by Kaneka has an efficiency of 26.7 ± 0.5%, which is the 6 of 19
second highest. The monocrystalline silicon cell is a mature technology that has a theoretical
efficiency of 29% [14]. It is also easily accessible from the consumer market at an affordable
cost to this project.Table
Silicon cells are selected
1. Specifications widely
of SunPower C60as thecell
solar PV(extracted
cells for from
solar-powered
manufactureraircraft
datasheet).
[15], such that the monocrystalline silicon PV cell is chosen for this project. The SunPower
C60 solar cell has an efficiency between Parameter 21.8% and 22.5%, which is higher than Valuethe typical
efficiency of the existing monocrystalline Mass silicon cell of 15% to 20% [3]. 0.008 kg
Considering the shape and areaSize of the wings, a total of 22 PV cells 0.125 were×installed
0.125 m
on
Thickness 1.65 × 10−4 m
the aircraft, with 11 on each wing (six on the upper side and five on the lower side), as
shown in Figure 4. TheFrom totalthe
weight
Solarthe CellPV cells is 0.176
Efficiency Tables kg.(Version
All 22 PV 54) cells
createdwere byconnected
Green et al. [6], the
in series and formsilicon
a single PV array.
crystalline cell According
manufactured to the manufacturer
by Kaneka datasheet,
has an efficiency of one
26.7 Sun-
± 0.5%, which
Power C60 solar cell outputs
is the second around
highest. 0.5TheVmonocrystalline
under the solarsilicon radiation
cell isofa 300
matureto 1000 W/m2. that has a
technology
Considering that theoretical
some PV cells efficiency
wereof 29% [14].
installed at Ittheis also easilyof
backside accessible
the wings, from the consumer
it was antici- market
at an affordable cost to this project.
pated that the PV array would have a total output of less than 11 V. Silicon cells are selected widely as the PV cells for
solar-powered aircraft [15], such that the monocrystalline
A single PV array is used on the plane. Considering that there is very little difference silicon PV cell is chosen for this
project. The SunPower C60 solar cell has an efficiency between 21.8% and 22.5%, which
in angle of the installation position of the PV cells on the wings, the effect of optimising
is higher than the typical efficiency of the existing monocrystalline silicon cell of 15% to
the amount of sunlight
20% [3].captured by separating into several PV arrays is very small. Indi-
vidual MPPTs are also needed for
Considering the each
shape PV and array.
area of theHaving
wings,aasingle
total of PV
22 PV array
cells saves the
were installed on the
weight of the MPPT. The
aircraft, PV11cells
with are wing
on each stuck(six
onto
on thetheupper
wings with
side and double-sided
five on the lower tape.
side),Toas shown in
protect the cells and to 4.
Figure ensure more
The total secure
weight theinstallation,
PV cells is 0.176 a protective
kg. All 22 PV film is added.
cells It is a in series
were connected
transparent plastic book wrap that shrinks when heat is applied. The plastic film is SunPower
and form a single PV array. According to the manufacturer datasheet, one first C60
solar cellsuper
outputs around 0.5 V all
under 2
fixed on the wings with glue covering PV the solar
cells; radiation
then, of 300 to
it is blown with1000a W/m
hot wind . Considering
that some PV cells were installed
gun such that it shrinks to follow the curvature of the wings. at the backside of the wings, it was anticipated that the
PV array would have a total output of less than 11 V.

Figure 4. PV array connection in power system.

Figure 4. PV array connection in power system.
A single PV array is used on the plane. Considering that there is very little difference
3.2. Selection of Maximum Power
in angle of Point Tracker
the installation (MPPT)
position of the PV cells on the wings, the effect of optimising the
amount of sunlight captured by separating into several PV arrays is very small. Individual
Most importantly, the MPPT model that suits the output voltage of the PV array and
MPPTs are also needed for each PV array. Having a single PV array saves the weight of
the charging voltage of the battery should be selected. The total output voltage of the PV
the MPPT. The PV cells are stuck onto the wings with double-sided tape. To protect the
array was anticipated to be
cells and belowmore
to ensure 11 V,secure
and installation,
the charging voltage of
a protective 3SisLiPo
film battery
added. It is a is
transparent
between 12 and 12.6plastic book wrap that shrinks when heat is applied. The plastic film is firstthe
V. Since the total voltage of the PV array is not sufficient to meet fixed on the
minimum charging voltage
wings of theglue
with super battery, the MPPT
covering should
all PV cells; include
then, the with
it is blown function
a hotof boost-
wind gun such that
ing the voltage. Another
it shrinkscriterion
to followfor
theMPPT selection
curvature is power conversion efficiency. The
of the wings.
higher the MPPT efficiency, the more power captured by the PV array can be transferred
3.2. Selection of Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)
to the power system.
Most importantly, the MPPT model that suits the output voltage of the PV array and
the charging voltage of the battery should be selected. The total output voltage of the PV
array was anticipated to be below 11 V, and the charging voltage of 3S LiPo battery is
between 12 and 12.6 V. Since the total voltage of the PV array is not sufficient to meet the
minimum charging voltage of the battery, the MPPT should include the function of boosting
the voltage. Another criterion for MPPT selection is power conversion efficiency. The
Drones 2021, 5, 44 7
Drones 2021, 5, 44 7 of 19

higherConsidering the above

the MPPT efficiency, criteria,
the more the MPPT
power captured model
by the PV arrayGenasun GVB-8-Li-14.2V
can be transferred to B
MPPT
the powerwas selected for this project, as shown in Figure 5. With a ‘Minimum Panel Vo
system.
for Charging’
Consideringofthe 5 Vabove
and acriteria,
‘Maximumthe MPPTRecommended
model Genasun Panel Vmp’ of 13 V,
GVB-8-Li-14.2V this MPPT
Boost
MPPT was selected for this project, as shown in Figure 5. With a ‘Minimum
accept a supply of 5–13 V from the PV array. The voltage input from the PV array int Panel Voltage
for
MPPTCharging’ of 5 V and ato
was estimated ‘Maximum
be < 11 V, Recommended
such that thePanel Vmp’ was
MPPT of 13 considered
V, this MPPT suitable
can fo
accept a supply of 5–13 V from the PV array. The voltage input from the PV array into
designed PV array of this project. The ‘Minimum Panel Voltage
the MPPT was estimated to be <11 V, such that the MPPT was considered suitable for
for Charging’ has t
metdesigned
the such that PVthe
arrayMPPT
of thisstarts to The
project. charge the battery.
‘Minimum For thefor
Panel Voltage battery side,has
Charging’ thetoMPPT g
a constant
be met such 14.2 V toMPPT
that the charge thetobattery,
starts as long
charge the as the
battery. For minimum charging
the battery side, voltage of 5
the MPPT
supplied
gives at the14.2
a constant panelV toterminal.
charge theThe MPPT
battery, stepsasup
as long thethe voltagecharging
minimum supplied by the PV a
voltage
of 5 V is supplied at the panel terminal. The MPPT steps up the
to give an output of 14.2 V, which slightly exceeds the charging voltage for voltage supplied by the the 3S
PV array to give an output of 14.2 V, which slightly exceeds the charging voltage for the
battery of 12–12.6 V. Though that being given, Genasun GVB-8-Li-14.2V Boost MPPT
3S LiPo battery of 12–12.6 V. Though that being given, Genasun GVB-8-Li-14.2V Boost
the closest
MPPT has thespecifications with the
closest specifications withrequirements
the requirementsof of
this
thisproject
project among
among the theMPPTs
MPPTs avai
on the consumer
available market.
on the consumer ThisThis
market. MPPTMPPT also
alsohas
has a highelectrical
a high electrical efficiency
efficiency of 95–97% c
of 95–97%
pared to to
compared other
otherMPPTs
MPPTs available
available ononthethe market.
market.

Figure5.5.Genasun
Figure Genasun GVB-8-Li-14.2V
GVB-8-Li-14.2V Boost Boost
MPPT.MPPT.

3.3. Design of Power System Architecture

3.3. Design of Power System Architecture
A PPM system with one PV array, one MPPT, and one battery was considered suitable
for theApower
PPM system
system of with one PV
the UAV. Thearray,
majorone MPPT,ofand
advantage the one
PPMbattery
system was considered
is that it is s
ble forsaving,
weight the power systemno
as it requires ofextra
the UAV. The
electrical major advantage
component of the
to control the PPM
power system
flow. The is tha
effect
weight of weight
saving,saving is prominent
as it requires on theelectrical
no extra plane of this project, the
component toweight
controlofthe
which is flow
power
relatively small. The additional electrical component would add significant weight to the
effect of weight saving is prominent on the plane of this project, the weight of whi
plane. Moreover, the PPM system has lower complexity. It does not involve the customisa-
relatively
tion small.components
of electronic The additionalfor theelectrical
purpose ofcomponent would in
power distribution, add significant
which advanced weight to
plane. Moreover,
knowledge theand
in electrical PPM systemengineering
electronic has lower andcomplexity. It does
more research andnot involve the cust
development
sation
time of electronic
would be required. components for the purpose of power distribution, in which adva
The disadvantages
knowledge in electrical of a PPM
and system included
electronic the compromise
engineering on power
and more systemand
research safety
developm
since the power flow
time would be required. in the system is not controlled. However, as the solar-powered plane
in this project is only for research purposes but not designed for regular and frequent use,
The disadvantages of a PPM system included the compromise on power sy
power system safety was not considered a prioritised concern.
safety since the power flow in the system is not controlled. However, as the solar-pow
plane
3.4. in System
Power this project
Design is only for research purposes but not designed for regular and
Verification
quent use, power
Preliminary testssystem safety was
were conducted not considered
to verify the viabilityaof
prioritised concern.
the whole power system
design. Firstly, it was verified that the power system functioned. The power system is set
up
3.4.according to the Design
Power System connection shown in Figure 6, and the whole setup was brought to
Verification
open space. The LED light on the MPPT indicated that it was in ‘Low Current Charging’
mode.Preliminary
Secondly, it wastestsverified
were conducted
that the solartopower
verifysystem
the viability of the the
could recharge whole power sy
battery.
The power system setup was left in an open space with the throttle of the motor switchedsystem i
design. Firstly, it was verified that the power system functioned. The power
up The
off. according to the connection
battery voltage shown
increased after in Figure
40 minutes. 6, andthat
This shows thethe
whole setup
energy was
stored in broug
the battery increased after being charged by the MPPT, which means the
open space. The LED light on the MPPT indicated that it was in ‘Low Current Charg power system
worked properly. Thirdly, it was tested that the power flow in the parallel connection
mode. Secondly, it was verified that the solar power system could recharge the bat
The power system setup was left in an open space with the throttle of the motor swit
off. The battery voltage increased after 40 minutes. This shows that the energy store
the battery increased after being charged by the MPPT, which means the power sy
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 8 of 19

Drones 2021, 5, 44 8 of 1

between the MPPT, the battery, and the ESC was as expected. The battery charging current
is 0 with the motor switched on and is greater than 0 with the motor switched off. When
the motor is on, all current from the MPPT is drawn by the ESC, and there is no curren
the motor is on, all current from the MPPT is drawn by the ESC, and there is no current for
for charging
charging the battery.
the battery. Therefore,
Therefore, thesystem
the power power system
design wasdesign wasto
concluded concluded to be viable
be viable, and
and
no no significant
significant modification
modification wasThe
was needed. needed. Theprocess
building building process
of the of the solar-powere
solar-powered UAV
UAV could be
could be commenced.commenced.

Figure6.6.Power
Figure Power system
system topological
topological overview.
overview.

To
Tocalculate the the
calculate power contribution
power distribution
contribution from thefrom
distribution battery orbattery
the PV cells,or
a voltage–
PV cells, a volt
current sensor FrSky FAS40S was connected to the main lead of the battery to measure
age–current sensor FrSky FAS40S was connected to the main lead of the battery to meas
the output from the onboard battery; and a power module was connected to the ESC to
ure the output from the onboard battery; and a power module was connected to the ESC
measure the power consumption of the whole aircraft. The data were delivered directly by
to measure
the theand
RC data link power consumption
could of the
be saved as log datawhole
by theaircraft. The data were delivered directl
transmitter.
by the RC data link and could be saved as log data by the transmitter.
4. Flight Control System Configuration
4. Flight
As theControl
project System
is set forConfiguration
solar-powered UAV, the flight performance is aimed for
low-altitude long-endurance (LALE) flight, which
As the project is set for solar-powered UAV, is not
thelimited by takeoff andislanding
flight performance aimed for low
conditions. The objective for auto flight is to provide a fixed circular route so that the flight
altitude long-endurance (LALE) flight, which is not limited by takeoff and landing cond
performance of the solar power system can be analysed under fair comparison. The flight
tions. The objective for auto flight is to provide a fixed circular route so that the fligh
control objective is to perform as much auto flight as possible during the flight test. Taranis
performance
X9D was the RCofmodel
the solar power
selected forsystem can be
this project, asanalysed
it overridesunder fair comparison.
the minimum The flight con
requirements.
trol objective is to perform as much auto flight as possible during the flight test. Taranis X9D
4.1.
wasAutopilot System selected for this project, as it overrides the minimum requirements.
the RC model
Based on the autopilot requirements, several autopilot models from the market were
compared. TheSystem
4.1. Autopilot open-source autopilot models were selected as it has a comparatively
cheap price and accessibility to modify the feature for designing the UAV flight control
Based on the autopilot requirements, several autopilot models from the market wer
system. The specifications were compared with the method set by Figuerido [11]. As
compared. The open-source autopilot models were selected as it has a comparativel
a result, Pixhawk legacy was selected, as it has features suitable for the project with
cheap price
reasonable and accessibility to modify the feature for designing the UAV flight contro
price.
system. The specifications
The RC plane bought fromwere compared
the market comes with the servos
with four method andset by Figuerido
a motor with DF13[11]. As
result,toPixhawk
cables legacyto
directly connect was
theselected, as itSeveral
RC receiver. has features
componentssuitable
werefor the project
added with reason
to the flight
control system to enable the autopilot function. To ensure the safety of the plane during
able price.
flight,The
more sensors
RC planewere added
bought from forthe
data monitoring.
market comes Forwiththe operation,
four eachatelemetry
servos and motor with DF1
was connected to a 6-pin DF13 connector for autopilot within
cables to directly connect to the RC receiver. Several components were the UAV and a micro-USB
added to the fligh
cable to connect with the PC from GCS.
control system to enable the autopilot function. To ensure the safety of the plane durin
Pixhawk has sensors and an interface that supports the global navigation satellite
flight, more sensors were added for data monitoring. For the operation, each telemetr
system (GNSS) and receive those signals to communicate via the u-box. The real-time
was connected
kinematic (RTK) GPSto areceiver
6-pin DF13 connector
is available. for autopilot
However, within
it still requires an the UAV
external and
GPS a micro-US
sensor
cable to connect with the PC from GCS.
to collect and transmit the GPS data to the flight computer. Therefore, M8N GPS (Galileo-
ready Pixhawk has sensorsmodule
E1B/C (NEO–M8N)) and anwas interface
selected.that supports
To tune the control
the flight global surface
navigation
and satellit
system (GNSS) and receive those signals to communicate via the u-box. The real-time kin
ematic (RTK) GPS receiver is available. However, it still requires an external GPS senso
to collect and transmit the GPS data to the flight computer. Therefore, M8N GPS (Galileo
ready E1B/C (NEO–M8N)) module was selected. To tune the flight control surface and t
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 9 of 19
5, 44 9 of 19

to ensure the safety of the actuators, a switch was added as a safety element. Whenever
the UAV
finished Autopilot is powered
System Diagramon,is the switch
shown must be7.pressed
in Figure All the to move the servos
components and motor. The
are powered
finished Autopilot System Diagram is shown in Figure 7. All the components
through the battery elimination circuit of the power module. This setup allows the plane are powered
through the battery elimination circuit
to be fully controlled by the pilot as well as the GCS. of the power module. This setup allows the plane to
be fully controlled by the pilot as well as the GCS.

Figure 7. Diagram of the autopilot

Figure system
7. Diagram connections.
of the autopilot system connections.

The power module The power

frommodule from thesystem
the autopilot autopilot system Pixhawk
Pixhawk is the primary
is the primary sensorsensor to extract
to ex-
the voltage and current data; however, there could be few methods to add the sensor that
tract the voltage and current data; however, there could be few methods to add the sensor
will generate the same function. The power module transmits the data to the GCS by
that will generate the same function. The power module transmits the data to the GCS by
telemetry. As there are two different sources (RC and GCS) to extract the data, it requires
telemetry. As there
extraare two
effort to different sources
synchronise (RC
the data and GCS)
in order tointo
of time extract
one the data,
single it requires
datasheet.
extra effort to synchronise the data in order of time into one single datasheet.
4.2. Flight Modes
4.2. Flight Modes Using semi-autonomous control for this project, pilot input from the ground would
be given
Using semi-autonomous for takeoff and landing,
control for this while auto-pilot
project, would
pilot input takethe
from control
groundfor undergoing
would the
mission. Setting the mission to fly in a fixed route and altitude would help maintain a
be given for takeoff and landing, while auto-pilot would take control for undergoing the
controlled environment to compare the power consumption of the two UAVs. A total of five
mission. Settingmodes
the mission to flytoinbeaapplied
were selected fixed route and
for this altitude
project. Manualwould
mode, help maintain
FBWA mode,astabilise
controlled environment to compare the power consumption of the two UAVs.
mode, auto mode, and RTL mode are settled on both the RC controller and Mission A total of fiveplanner.
modes were selectedThe to besetting
appliedwasforset
this
byproject. Manual
initialising mode,switches
the logical FBWA mode, stabilise
and mixer, mode, for the
especially
auto mode, andflight
RTL mode
modes.are settled
The on both
frequency the RC controller
boundary for channeland Mission
5, which wasplanner.
assigned for the flight
The settingmode,
was was carefully
set by distributed
initialising for fiveswitches
the logical different modes to make
and mixer, sure thatfor
especially the the
signals are
flight modes. Thenot overlapping each other. for channel 5, which was assigned for the flight
frequency boundary
mode, was carefully distributedscreen
The display for fiveof different
the RC transmitter
modes towas make setsure
up to read
that thethe data more
signals are easily
during the flight test. Data of battery voltage, current, timer, and another timer for counting
not overlapping each other.
the duration of the flight was selected. Nonetheless, ‘special functions’ were set up for
The display screen of the RC transmitter was set up to read the data more easily dur-
the voice indicator as well as the timer and log. Although not necessary, a voice indicator
ing the flight test.
wouldData of the
help battery voltage,
pilot to identifycurrent, timer,
the selection of and
flightanother timer for
mode without counting
checking through the
the duration of display
the flight was selected. Nonetheless, ‘special functions’ were set up for the
screen.
voice indicator as well as the timer and log. Although not necessary, a voice indicator
would help the4.3. Ground
pilot Controlthe
to identify Station Setup of flight mode without checking through the
selection
display screen. The radio connection between the “Mission Planner” and UAV was simply done by
connecting the micro-USB cable to the computer. All the necessary drivers needed are
automatically
4.3. Ground Control installed during the process when carefully following the steps recommended
Station Setup
The radio connection between the “Mission Planner” and UAV was simply done by
connecting the micro-USB cable to the computer. All the necessary drivers needed are
automatically installed during the process when carefully following the steps recom-
Drones 2021, 5, 44 10
Drones 2021, 5, 44 10 of 19

Miscellaneous settings shall be taken care to support the flight and avoid any
from the Ardupilot website. With appropriate telemetry hardware, monitoring the data
leading
of vehicleerrors
status that
during could result in arecording,
the operation, failsafe mode. The flight
and analysing mode could
of telemetry logs be
andcalibrate
setting the
operating themode
vehicleallocation the view
in first-person sameisas the RC in Mission Planner. On the other hand
available.
calibration shall be
Miscellaneous checked
settings shallunder
be taken thecare
“Mandatory
to support the Hardware”
flight and for acceleration,
avoid any mis- com
leading
radio frequency, and servo output. Moreover, checking the data flow fromby
errors that could result in a failsafe mode. The flight mode could be calibrated the senso
setting the mode allocation the same as the RC in Mission Planner.
telemetry, GPS, and flight data in the heads-up area from the Mission Planner main On the other hand, the
calibration shall be checked under the “Mandatory Hardware” for acceleration, compass,
were also important. These calibrations shall be checked every time before any fligh
radio frequency, and servo output. Moreover, checking the data flow from the sensors of
as the signal
telemetry, GPS, efficiency varyinby
and flight data theweather,
heads-up location,
area from the etc.Mission Planner main page
Lastly,
were also collecting
important. Thesethe most accurate
calibrations shall bedata of power
checked consumption,
every time voltage,
before any flight test and cu
measured
as the signal by powervary
efficiency module requires
by weather, manual
location, etc. calibration to minimise the error. Com
ing Lastly,
data from collecting the most
different accurate
sensors (onedatafrom
of power consumption,
the power module voltage,
and andonecurrent
from the volt
measured by power module requires manual calibration to minimise the error. Comparing
current sensor) and analysing the difference in data measurement could be utilised t
data from different sensors (one from the power module and one from the voltage–current
up a manual calibration unit.
sensor) and analysing the difference in data measurement could be utilised to set up a
manual It calibration
was determinedunit. that the RC plane has optimal flight performance at a gro
speed of 15
It was m/s, which
determined thatisthe
measured
RC planeby hasthe onboard
optimal flightGPS. It was also
performance at a recommended
ground
speed of 15 m/s, which is measured by the onboard GPS.
subsequent flight tests should be conducted at an altitude of around 100 m.It was also recommended that
subsequent flight tests should be conducted at an altitude of
Figure 8 shows the maximum boundary of flight marked by overlapping thearound 100 m.
Figure 8 shows the maximum boundary of flight marked by overlapping the path
recorded in Mission Planner when the ‘Sun’ UAV was flown. The boundary mark
recorded in Mission Planner when the ‘Sun’ UAV was flown. The boundary marked in the
the yellow
yellow line toshows
line shows be the to be boundary
safety the safetywhereboundary whereand
the RC signals theGCS
RC connections
signals and areGCS con
steady and strong. In addition, the minimum altitudes for avoiding any obstacles duringany obst
tions are steady and strong. In addition, the minimum altitudes for avoiding
during
the flight the flighttofor
for UAV UAVwere
be flown to bemarked
flown as were
well.marked as well.

Figure8. 8.
Figure Available
Available airspace
airspace marked
marked in the map.
in the map.

The primary role of autopilot is to make the UAV loiter over a certain time or have a
The primary role of autopilot is to make the UAV loiter over a certain time or h
certain number of turns in the same circular route. Based on the marking of airspace in the
certain
first number
two flight tests,of
theturns in the route
fundamental samewas circular route.
set up to Basedonce
have control on the marking
the UAV of airspa
reaches
athe firstaltitude.
certain two flight
The tests, the fundamental
waypoints were marked on route waswith
the map set up to have
desired control
altitudes. once the
Based
reaches
on a certain
this factor, altitude.
the distance andThe waypoints
altitude were set were marked
according to theon the mapascending
calculated with desired
or altitu
descending angle between the waypoints. The waypoint radius was set to
Based on this factor, the distance and altitude were set according to the calculated asc be 30 m. The
UAV
ing orstarts to make a turn
descending once
angle it reachesthe
between thewaypoints.
waypoint boundary. The loiterradius
The waypoint radius was
was set
set to be 3
as 30 m on waypoint 4.
TheThe UAV starts to make a turn once it reaches the waypoint boundary.
first waypoint was set on the right top, allowing the pilot to have 325.5 m to
The loiter ra
was set
reach the as 30 m of
altitude on100waypoint
m after 4.takeoff, as shown in Figure 9. After a big turn from
waypointThe(Wp)
first waypoint wasUAV
2 to Wp 3, the set on
wasthe right top,
assigned allowing
to have theturns
10 loiter pilotontoWp4.
haveWp4
325.5 m to r
the altitude of 100 m after takeoff, as shown in Figure 9. After a big turn from wayp
(Wp) 2 to Wp 3, the UAV was assigned to have 10 loiter turns on Wp4. Wp4 was i
tionally set away from the runway to avoid any crash with other UAV flights. Onc
loitering is finished, the flight would perform a round turn over the runway and s
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 11 of 19

was intentionally set away from the runway to avoid any crash with other UAV flights.
Drones 2021, 5, 44 Once the loitering is finished, the flight would perform a round turn over the runway 11
and some forest area to gradually descend and to be ready for landing. When the UAV
is flying parallel with the runway ay a low altitude of around 10 m, the pilot would take
back control from auto mode to either FBWA, stabilise, or manual mode. The flight data
to power
related consumption
to power data
consumption will
data bebelogged
will logged only duringloitering
only during loitering to ensure
to ensure that the ex
that the
imental environment
experimental environment was
wasas
assimilar aspossible.
similar as possible.

Figure9.9.Waypoints
Figure Waypoints marked
marked on for
on map map for auto-mode.
auto-mode.

5. Experiment Results and Discussion

5. Experiment Results and Discussion
5.1. Power System Performance Parameters
5.1. Power System Performance Parameters
The MPPT, battery, and ESC are connected in parallel. The symbols used to represent
The system
the power MPPT,performance
battery, and areESC
listedare connected
in Table in parallel.
2. The ESC is powered Thebysymbols used to repre
both the MPPT
and power V
the battery. system ISC are PV array
OC and performance performance
are indicators
listed in Table 2. The and ESCare is
measured
powered whenby the
both the M
PV array is
and battery. not connected
and to the rest of the power system. V , I , and
are PV array performance indicators and are measured w
s s P s are the PV array
outputs when the PV array is connected to the MPPT. All aircraft systems draw power from
the PV array is not connected to the rest of the power system. , , and are th
the ESC: the propulsion system (i.e., motor) is connected to the ESC, and the flight control
array outputs when the PV array is connected to the MPPT.
system is connected to the battery elimination circuit of the ESC. Such that, the ESC inputs All aircraft systems d
power the
indicate from the consumption
power ESC: the propulsion
of the whole system (i.e.,MPPT
UAV. The motor) is connected
outputs indicate the topower
the ESC, an
flight control
generation of thesystem is connected
solar power system (i.e.,toPV the battery
array elimination
and MPPT) circuit
as it is the of thepoint
connection ESC. Such
between
the ESCthe solar power
inputs system
indicate the and powerthe UAV’s power system.
consumption of the whole UAV. The MPPT out
To determine
indicate the powerthe extent to which
generation of solar powerpower
the solar assists system
in the power (i.e.,supply
PV arrayof the UAV,
and MPPT) a
the output of the MPPT should be examined. If the solar power system works and does
the connection point between the solar power system and the UAV’s power system.
supply power to the UAV, the MPPT outputs should be greater than 0. Alternatively, the
effectiveness of the solar power system can also be indicated by the state of the battery.
VTable 2. The symbol representation used in power system analysis.
b corresponds to a percentage of battery stored capacity. Under the same test conditions,
the decrease in Vb when the solar power system is present (on ‘Sun’) should be smaller
Symbol Representation
than that when it is absent (on ‘Eclipse’). Less power should be drawn from the battery
when the MPPT is connected, as the MPPT Voltage of PV
supplies part array
of the power(orrequired
voltageby input of MPPT)
the ESC.
The MPPT shall not be connected directly Current tooutput
any kind ofof PVsensors,
array (or voltage
as they of MPPT)
would
interfere, and the MPPT would stop working. Thus,
Power output V , I
s of , I
s PV p , and V
array cannot be measured
p (or power input of MPP
directly with sensors. Alternatively, I p can be calculated when Ib and Im are known:
Voltage output of MPPT
I p = Im − Ib , when Im > Current output of MPPT (1)


Ip .
Power output of MPPT
Voltage of battery
Current output of battery
Voltage of ESC
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 12 of 19
Drones 2021, 5, 44 12 o

Table 2. The symbol representation used in power system analysis.

effectiveness of the solar power system can also be indicated by the state of the batte
Symbol Representation
corresponds to a percentage of battery stored capacity. Under the same test conditio
V Voltage of PV array (or voltage input of MPPT)
the decrease in I s when the solar power system is present (on ‘Sun’) should be sma
Current output of PV array (or voltage of MPPT)
s
than that when itPsis absent (on ‘Eclipse’).
PowerLess power
output should
of PV array (or be drawn
power inputfrom the battery wh
of MPPT)
V Voltage output of MPPT
the MPPT is connected, as the MPPT supplies part of the power required by the ESC.
p
Ip Current output of MPPT
The MPPTPshall p
not be connected directlyPower to any kind
output of sensors, as they would
of MPPT
terfere, and the VMPPT
b would stop working. Thus, Voltage, of ,battery
, and cannot be measur
I
directly with sensors.
b Alternatively, Current output
can be calculated when of battery and are known:
Vm Voltage of ESC
Im = − , (when input of).ESC
Current
Pm Power input of ESC
VOC PV array open-circuit voltage
ISC PV array short-circuit current
5.2. Power System Tests
5.2. Tests
Power on the Tests
System power system were conducted to investigate the performance of the so
powerTests
system (i.e.,
on the PV array
power systemandwereMPPT) under
conducted different solar
to investigate radiation levels
the performance of the and to
vestigate the relationship between the input and output power of the MPPT.
solar power system (i.e., PV array and MPPT) under different solar radiation levels and to
The performance
investigate of the
the relationship PV array
between thatand
the input consists
output of 22 PV
power cells
of the installed on both win
MPPT.
The
was tested. performance
and of the PV array that consists of 22 PV cells installed
of the PV array were measured under different on both wings
solar radiat
was tested. VOC and ISC of the PV array were measured under different solar radiation at
at different times of day, with no load (i.e., the MPPT) connected. To determine the MP
different times of day, with no load (i.e., the MPPT) connected. To determine the MPPT
performance,
performance, ititwas
wasconnected
connected to whole
to the the wholepowerpower
system,system, and its electrical
and its electrical outputs (Vpoutputs
and I p)) were
and measured
were measured with
with results
results shownshown in Figure
in Figure 10. 10.

Figure10.
Figure Results ofofpower
10. Results powersystem tests,tests,
system showing the MPPT
showing the output
MPPTpower
output and the product
power of short-
and the product of
circuit current and open-circuit voltage of the PV array under different solar radiation intensities.
short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage of the PV array under different solar radiation intensiti
Under the solar radiation level of 500 to 900 W/m2 , the MPPT has satisfactory perfor-
Under
mance, thean
having solar radiation
output level of 87.2%
power between 500 toand
90092.8%
W/mof 2, the MPPT has satisfactory perf
VOC × ISC of the PV array.
mance,
The PVhaving anthe
array and output
MPPTpower between
could supply 3.7487.2%
to 4.83 and 92.8%
W under theof VOC × ISCcondition
stationary of the PV of array. T
PVthearray
UAV. However,
and the MPPTthe MPPT performance
could is unsatisfactory
supply 3.74 under the
to 4.83 W under thesolar radiationcondition
stationary inten- of
sity of 100 to 300 W/m 2 , having output power between 0% and 26.5% of V × I . The
UAV. However, the MPPT performance is unsatisfactory under the solar radiation OC SC int
MPPT is not activated (at2‘standby’ mode) when the solar radiation level is at 100 W/m2
sity of 100 to 300 W/m , having output power between 0% and 26.5%2 of VOC × ISC. T
and started charging the battery (at ‘low current charging’ mode) at 300 W/m of solar
MPPT is not
radiation activated (at ‘standby’ mode) when the solar radiation level is at 100 W/
intensity.
and started charging the battery (at ‘low current charging’ mode) at 300 W/m2 of so
radiation intensity.

5.3. Flight Experiments

5.3.1. Flight Test Overview
Drones 2021, 5, 44 13 of 19

5.3. Flight Experiments

5.3.1. Flight Test Overview
The primary objective of this project is to increase the flight endurance of the RC plane
Drones 2021, 5, 44 13 of 19
by modifying it with a solar power system. To reduce drag and save weight, we fixed all
the avionics system and sensors into the fuselage of the 759-2 Phoenix 2000 RC plane. The
finished interior diagram is shown in Figure 11. To validate if the modified solar-powered
solar-powered
UAV ‘Sun’ meets UAVthis‘Sun’ meets
primary this primary
objective, a fairobjective,
experimenta fair experiment
should be doneshould be done
to compare its
to compare its performance with an unmodified same type RC
performance with an unmodified same type RC plane named ‘Eclipse’. plane named ‘Eclipse’.

Figure 11. Diagram of fuselage interior for solar-powered UAV

UAV ‘Sun’.
‘Sun’.

Flight experiments
Flight experiments were
were conducted
conducted to
to compare
compare the
the power
power system
system performance
performance of
of the
the
two aircrafts. Two approaches were used to validate if the modified aircraft can meet the
two aircrafts. Two approaches were used to validate if the modified aircraft can meet the
project
project objective:
objective:
•• Comparing
Comparing thethe change
change inin the
the battery
battery stored
stored capacity
capacity before
before and
and after
after aa period
period inin
which ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ are under the same flight
which ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ are under the same flight path; path;
• Observing the MPPT output power during the flight of ‘Sun’.
• Observing the MPPT output power during the flight of ‘Sun’.
Both ‘Sun’
Both ‘Sun’ and
and ‘Eclipse’
‘Eclipse’ followed
followed the
the same
same flight
flight plan
plan in
in the
the flight
flight test.
test. During
During thethe
period when data are logged, ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ are completely controlled
period when data are logged, ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ are completely controlled by the flight by the flight
computer under loiter mode, which controls the plane to perform circuits around a point.
computer under loiter mode, which controls the plane to perform circuits around a point.
Both ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ were flown on the same day immediately after the other one. This
Both ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ were flown on the same day immediately after the other one. This
is to minimise the difference in weather condition, especially solar radiation.
is to minimise the difference in weather condition, especially solar radiation.
Two flight experiments were conducted, as shown in Table 3. In each experiment,
Two flight experiments were conducted, as shown in Table 3. In each experiment,
‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ were flown to compare the change in battery stored capacity (flight #1.1
‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ were flown to compare the change in battery stored capacity (flight
vs. #2.1 and flight #1.2 vs. #2.2). In each flight, the initial battery voltage Vb,i was taken
#1.1 vs. #2.1 and flight #1.2 vs. #2.2). In each flight, the initial battery voltage , was taken
at an instant t , and the final battery voltage V was taken at t , as shown in Table 4.
at an instant 1 , and the final battery voltage b,, f was taken at 2, as shown in Table 4.
Both instants were within the period when the aircraft was performing circuiting in a
Both instants were within the period when the aircraft was performing circuiting in a reg-
regular and stable manner. This ensures that the ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’ were performing
ular and stable
the same manner.
manoeuvre This
when ensures
voltage that
data arethe ‘Sun’ and
logged. The ‘Eclipse’
durationwere(∆t =performing the
t2 − t1 ) is the
same
same manoeuvre
for logging when voltage
voltage data are
data from logged.
each flight.The
Theduration
change (∆in V=b in−each) isflight
the same
can for
be
logging voltage
fairly compared. data from each flight. The change in in each flight can be fairly com-
pared.
Table 3. Overview of flights conducted and experimental comparisons.
Table 3. Overview of flights conducted and experimental comparisons.
Flight Experiment
Flight UAV Model Mission Obtained Data
Number Experiment
Number UAV
Mission Obtained Data
Number Number Model Change of stored battery
#1.1
#1.1 #1 #1 Circle flight Change
capacityofand
stored bat-
output
#1.2 #2
‘Sun’ Circle flight for for
10
‘Sun’ 10 turns with tery capacity
from MPPT and out-
#1.2 #2 turns with 80 m
80 m height and
#2.1 #1 put from
Change of MPPT
stored
‘Eclipse’ height 80
andm 80 m ra-
radius
#2.1
#2.2 #1 #2 battery
Change ofcapacity
stored bat-
‘Eclipse’ dius
#2.2 #2 tery capacity
Drones 2021, 5, 44 14

Drones 2021, 5, 44 14 of 19

Table 4. Flight plan of the UAVs for flight test.

Flight
Table Stage
4. Flight plan of theTakeoff
UAVs for flight Climb
test. Circling Descend Landin
Flight mode Stabilise Auto Loiter Auto Stabilis
Flight Stage Takeoff Climb Circling Descend Landing
Time t1 t2
Flight mode Stabilise Auto Loiter Auto Stabilise
Logged Data Vb,i Vb,f
Time t1 t2
Logged Data Vb,i Vb,f
The independent variable of this experiment is the solar power system and othe
torsThe
remained unchanged
independent variableor of maintained
this experimentas similar as possible.
is the solar ‘Eclipse’
power system is built by u
and other
stalling
factors all the solar
remained power
unchanged or system
maintainedcomponents from
as similar as ‘Sun’.‘Eclipse’
possible. The wings with
is built by PV cel
stalled areall
uninstalling replaced
the solarby unmodified
power wings offrom
system components the ‘Sun’.
sameThemodel
wingsofwith
the PV
RCcells
plane, and
installed
MPPT isare replaced by
removed. unmodified
This ensures that wingsthe
of the
twosame
UAVs model
usedof the RC plane,
in this and theare iden
experiment
MPPT
exceptisfor
removed. This ensures
the presence of the that the two
solar powerUAVs used in this experiment are identical
system.
except for the presence of the solar power system.
The flight test was conducted on 12 April 2021 in Hong Kong Model Enginee
The flight test was conducted on 12 April 2021 in Hong Kong Model Engineering
Club,
Club, NewNew Territories,
Territories, HongHongKong,Kong,betweenbetween 2 PM
2 p.m. and 3:30and
p.m. 3:30 PM. radiation
The solar The solar wasradiation
between750
between 750andand
900900
W/m W/m 2
2 , and , and
it wasitmostly
was mostly
sunny. sunny.
One of theOne of theflight
finished finished
paths flight
is pat
showninin
shown Figure
Figure 12. 12.

Figure12.12.
Figure Flight
Flight path
path record
record of flight
of flight #2.2 of#2.2 of ‘Eclipse’.
‘Eclipse’.

5.3.2. Measurement of Power System Performance in the Flight Test

5.3.2. Measurement of Power System Performance in the Flight Test
MPPT output current I p was measured in real time during flight with onboard sensors.
MPPT output
I p is indirectly obtained current
from Ib and wasImmeasured
(Equation in real
(1)). A time during flight
voltage–current with
sensor wasonboard
sors.
connected is
to indirectly
the main lead obtained fromwhich
of the battery, andmeasures(Equation
Vb and Ib(1)). A voltage–current
. A power module is se
connected to the ESC, which measures
was connected to the main lead of the V and I
m battery,
m . which measures and . A power m
When the UAVs were performing
ule is connected to the ESC, which measures circuiting, the battery
and . voltage Vb was measured
(initial battery voltage Vb,i and final battery voltage Vb, f ). At each battery voltage, the
When the UAVs were performing circuiting, the battery voltage V was meas
respective battery stored capacity can be determined. The changes in battery voltage
(initial
(∆V battery voltage V , and between
b = V b, f − Vb,i ) were compared
final battery voltage
the flights V , and
of ‘Sun’ ). At‘Eclipse’.
each battery voltage, th
Therefore,
spective
the battery
performance of stored
the solarcapacity can becould
power system determined. The changes in battery voltage (∆
be determined.
V , − V , ) were compared between the flights of ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’. Therefore, the
5.3.3. Flight Test Results
formance of the solar power system could be determined.
In all of the four test flights, the initial (t1 ) and final (t2 ) time points when the battery
voltages were taken were of the same duration: 4 min 45 s apart. In these periods, the UAVs
5.3.3. Flight Test Results
were under stable circuiting condition. The actual duration in which the UAVs entered
‘loiter’In all of the
mode theflight
fourcomputer
test flights,
and the initial
circuited for(t10
1) turns
and final (t2)than
is longer time4 min
points
45 s,when
such the ba
that the period
voltages werebetween t1 and of
taken were t2 isthe
completely within the
same duration: 4 period
min 45when the UAVs
s apart. were periods
In these
circuiting.
UAVs were Theunder
circuiting durations
stable vary condition.
circuiting in each flight The (the shortest
actual being 6 in
duration min 5 s and
which the UAV
the longest being 7 min 27 s), which was probably caused by difference in wind direction
tered ‘loiter’ mode of the flight computer and circuited for 10 turns is longer than 4
and speed. Shown in Table 5, it was concluded that less battery capacity was consumed
45 s, such that the period between t1 and t2 is completely within the period when the U
were circuiting. The circuiting durations vary in each flight (the shortest being 6 mi
and the longest being 7 min 27 s), which was probably caused by difference in win
rection and speed. Shown in Table 5, it was concluded that less battery capacity was
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 15 of 19

Drones 2021, 5, 44 15 of 19
by ‘Sun’ with solar power system. Flight #2.1 and #2.2 of ‘Eclipse’ demonstrated that
during stable circuiting without a solar power system, an average of 38% of battery-stored
capacity was required. Under largely similar experimental conditions, flight #1.1 and #1.2
stored capacity
of ‘Sun’ was the
performed required. Under
same stable largelybut
circuiting, similar
part ofexperimental conditions,
the power required flight #1.1
was supplied
by the solar power system. An average of 15.5% of battery stored capacity was
and #1.2 of ‘Sun’ performed the same stable circuiting, but part of the power required wasrequired.
Therefore,
supplied by the
the solar
solarpower
power system
system.is capable of saving
An average an average
of 15.5% of 22.5%
of battery of thecapacity
stored battery was
stored capacity in 4 min 45 s of flight.
required. Therefore, the solar power system is capable of saving an average of 22.5% of
the battery stored capacity in 4 min 45 s of flight.
Table 5. Results of the comparison of battery stored capacity change in flights.

Parameters Table 5. Results of the comparison

#1.1 ‘Sun’ #1.2of‘Sun’
battery stored capacity change in flights.
#2.1 ‘Eclipse’ #2.2 ‘Eclipse’
Initial Battery Voltage Vb,i at t1 11.81 V 11.56 V 12.02 V 11.50 V
Parameters 11.50 V
Final Battery Voltage Vb, f at t2
#1.1 ‘Sun’ #1.2
11.42 V
‘Sun’ #2.1 ‘Eclipse’
11.40 V
#2.2 ‘Eclipse’
11.04 V
Initial
Voltage Battery
Drop ∆V b Voltage 0.31
, at
V t1 11.81 V0.14 V11.56
0.62 V V 12.02 V0.46 V 11.50 V
Final
Initial Battery Battery Voltage , at t2
Percentage 11.50 V 11.42 V 11.40 V 11.04 V
68% 55% 78% 49%
Capacity at Voltage
t1 Drop ∆ 0.31 V 0.14 V 0.62 V 0.46 V
Final Battery Percentage
Initial Battery
Capacity at t2 Percentage Capacity at t1
49% 43% 68% 55%
41% 78% 10% 49%
Drop in Final Battery
Battery Percentage Capacity at t2
Percentage 49% 43% 41% 10%
19% 12% 37% 39%
Capacity
Drop in Battery Percentage Capacity 19% 12% 37% 39%
Average Drop in Battery
Average Drop in Battery Percentage Capacity 15.5% 38%
15.5% 38%
Percentage Capacity
Battery Percentage Capacity Saved by Solar Power System 22.5%
Battery Percentage Capacity
22.5%
Saved by Solar Power System
Apart from quantitatively determining the solar power system performance, graphical
comparisons werequantitatively
Apart from also done. Figure 13 shows
determining thepower
the solar change in battery
system voltages
performance, during the
graphical
flights. The battery
comparisons voltages
were also done.should
Figure 13 show
showsa constant
the change decreasing trend during
in battery voltages duringflights
the of
flights.and
‘Eclipse’ The during
battery flights
voltagesofshould
‘Sun’ show
(if thea power
constant decreasing
supplied by trend during
the solar flights
power of
system is
‘Eclipse’ and during flights of ‘Sun’ (if the power supplied by the solar power
less than the power required by the ESC). By observing the rate of decrease in battery system is less
than the
voltage powerthe
during required
flightsbyofthe ESC).and
‘Sun’ By observing
‘Eclipse’, the rate be
it can of decrease
compared in battery
if the voltage
solar power
during the flights of ‘Sun’ and ‘Eclipse’, it can be compared if the solar power system on
system on ‘Sun’ could help decrease the battery stored capacity use.
‘Sun’ could help decrease the battery stored capacity use.

Figure 13. Moving average of change in battery voltages recorded in the all of the four test flights. The moving average of
Figure 13. Moving average of change in battery voltages recorded in the all of the four test flights. The moving average of
the voltage’s raw data is taken with a window of 20 s; hence, the moving average curves start at the 20th second. The initial
the voltage’s raw data is taken with a window of 20 s; hence, the moving average curves start at the 20th second. The
and final time points taken for the calculation of battery capacity change are indicated as t1 and t2 , respectively.
initial and final time points taken for the calculation of battery capacity change are indicated as t1 and t2, respectively.
The current curves shown in Figure 14 illustrate that the ESC input current was higher
Thethecurrent
than battery curves shown for
output current in most
Figure 14 illustrate
of the time. Part that
of thethe
ESCESC input
input current
current was was
higher than the battery output current for most of the time. Part of the ESC input current
was supplied by the MPPT. Given that the MPPT output current equals subtracting bat-
tery output current from ESC input current (Equation (1)), the MPPT output current was
greater than 0 most of the time in the period between t1 and t2.
 Drones 2021, 5, 44 16 of 19

Drones 2021, 5, 44 16 of 19
16 of 19battery
supplied by the MPPT. Given that the MPPT output current equals subtracting
output current from ESC input current (Equation (1)), the MPPT output current was greater
than 0 most of the time in the period between t1 and t2 .

Figure 14. ESC input current and battery output current comparison of flight #1.2 ‘Sun’ by moving
Figure 14. ESCaverage
Figure 14. ESC input current
inputandwith aand
window
battery
current of output
10 comparison
output current
battery s. currentof flight #1.2 ‘Sun’ by moving average with a window
comparison of flight #1.2 ‘Sun’ by moving
of 10 s.
average with a window of 10 s.
Figure 15 shows the difference between the current consumed by the ESC and output
Figure 15 shows the difference between the current consumed by the ESC and output
from
Figure 15 shows thethe
from battery. TheThe
thedifference
battery. MPPT output
between
MPPT current
the current
output isis greater
consumed
current than
by
greater than 00most
the mostand
ESC ofofthe
the time.
output
time. It It
waswas con-
cluded
from the battery. The that
MPPT
concluded thethat
solar
the power
output system
current
solar supplied
is greater
power system than 0electrical
supplied most power
of the
electrical totoItthe
time.
power was
the UAV in most
con-in
UAV most flight
periods.
cluded that the flightpower
solar periods.system supplied electrical power to the UAV in most flight
periods.

Figure
Figure 15. MPPT MPPT output
15. output current
current for flight
for flight testtest ‘Sun’
‘Sun’ #1.2obtained
#1.2 obtained byby subtracting
subtractingthethe
battery output
battery current
output from the
current ESCthe ESC
from
input input
current current
(a small(a small part
part of of the
the‘Sun’ calculated
calculated MPPT
MPPT outputoutput current is
current is negative
negativeand converted into 0).
MPPT output current for flight test #1.2 obtained by subtracting the battery and
outputconverted
currentinto
from0).the ESC
ent (a small part of the calculated MPPT
5.4. output current is negative and converted into 0).
Results Discussion
5.4. Results Discussion
From the power system tests results, the solar power system works satisfactorily under
5.4. Results Discussion
From
high theradiation.
solar power system
This meansteststheresults, the solar
solar power system power system
can only extendworksbatterysatisfactorily
life on the un-
UAVsystem
flight performance at solar radiation intensities above 300 W/m 2 and extend
works
From theder high
power solar radiation.
tests results,This means
the solar the solar
power power
system system
works can only
satisfactorily un- more
2 . The poor MPPT performance at
battery life
efficiently at solar radiation intensities above 500 W/m
der high solaronradiation.
the UAVThis flight performance
the solaratpower solar radiation intensities above 300 W/mlife and works
2
means system can only extend
low solar radiation is likely to be caused by an incompatible MPPT model
battery
more efficiently at solar radiation intensities above 500 W/m 2.2 Thewithpoor
the battery.
on the UAV flightDue performance at solar radiation
to budget restriction, the MPPT intensities above
selected in this worksMPPT perfor-
300 W/m andGVB-8-Li-14.2V
project—Genasun
mance
more efficiently at at low
solar
Boost solar radiation
radiation
MPPT—satisfies intensitiesis likely
above
the requirements toofbePVcaused
500 W/m .by
The
array 2input an incompatible
poor
voltage, MPPT MPPT
PV arrayperfor-
input model with
current,
mance at lowthe battery.
solarandradiation
batteryDue istolikely
budget
charging restriction,
to be
voltage, caused
but it doesbythe
anMPPT
not selected
incompatible
satisfy the in
batteryMPPTthisItmodel
type. project—Genasun
with
is recommended to GVB-
8-Li-14.2V Boost MPPT—satisfies the requirements
the battery. Due to budget restriction, the MPPT selected in this project—Genasun GVB- of PV array input voltage, PV array
input
8-Li-14.2V Boost current, and battery
MPPT—satisfies charging voltage,
the requirements of PVbut it does
array inputnot satisfyPV
voltage, thearray
battery type. It is
input current,recommended
and battery chargingto be used with abut
voltage, 12Vit 4Sdoeslithium–iron–phosphate
not satisfy the batterybattery, type. It butis the battery
used in the power system is an 11.1V 3S lithium–polymer
recommended to be used with a 12V 4S lithium–iron–phosphate battery, but the battery battery. The MPPT internal
Drones 2021, 5, 44 17 of 19

be used with a 12V 4S lithium–iron–phosphate battery, but the battery used in the power
system is an 11.1V 3S lithium–polymer battery. The MPPT internal sensing algorithm may
not work efficiently with an incompatible battery model.
Although the comparison of the change in battery stored capacity shows that the
solar power system is capable of saving battery stored capacity, the values of change in
battery voltage determined from the two flight experiments exhibit some difference. A
possible explanation would be the difference in wind speed in the two flight experiments.
During the second flight experiment, the wind speed was higher at between 9 and 12 knots,
compared to 3 to 6 knots during the first flight experiment. During circuiting in the second
flight experiment, the aircraft required more power when it flew against the wind. As
shown in Figure 13, the battery voltages fluctuated during circuiting. The periods when the
voltages increase to reach small peaks are those when the aircraft was in the section of the
circle that it faced head wind. As a result of higher windspeed, the fluctuation in battery
voltage in the second flight experiment is greater than that in the first flight experiment.
The battery voltage curves for the second flight experiment fluctuate more than those for
the first flight experiment, so that the battery voltages taken during the data logging period
could have greater error.
In conclusion of the experimental data of changes in battery stored capacity, the use
of solar power on this UAV does decrease the use of battery stored capacity during flight.
From Figure 13, the battery voltage curves show that the rate of decrease in battery voltage
in the test flights of ‘Sun’ is slower than that in the test flights of ‘Eclipse’. Therefore,
from the graphical interpretation of battery voltage experiment data, it is concluded that
the use of solar power system on the UAV leads to a slower rate of decrease in battery
voltage during flights, hence extending the battery life during flights and extending the
flight duration.
The MPPT electrical output values determined from the flight test are slightly larger
than those determined in the power system test. In the flight test, the MPPT output current
can be as high as 1.2 to 1.4 A. A possible explanation would be the PV cells on the back
side of the wings were exposed to more reflected sunlight when the aircraft was flying
than they were tested on ground; hence, higher power was generated by the PV array. The
relative angles of the PV cells attached to the wing change continuously during flight. This
may result in fluctuating MPPT electrical output.
In Table 6, the average values of the experiment raw data of ESC input current Im ,
battery output current Ib , and battery voltage Vb between t1 and t2 of 4 min 45 s in three of
the test flights are calculated. Data for flight #1.1 of ‘Sun’ are not included as they exhibit
significant anomaly—the exact same current value repeating for abnormally long period.
Therefore, the average MPPT output power and average electrical power required for
circuiting during the period is obtained. The data obtained from flight #1.2 of ‘Sun’ show
that having an average MPPT output power of 6.27 W, the solar power system can supply
15.4% of the electrical power required for circuiting.

Table 6. Average values of electrical parameters between t1 and t2 .

Electrical Parameters #1.2 ‘Sun’ #2.2 ‘Eclipse’

Average ESC Input Current Im 3.51 A 4.34 A
Average Battery Output Current Ib 2.97 A 4.34 A
Average MPPT Voltage Vp (=Vb )
11.59 V Nil
Average ESC Voltage Vm = Vb = Vp 11.59 V 11.26 V
Average MPPT Output Current
0.54 A Nil
I p (=Im − Ib )
Average MPPT Output Power
6.27 W Nil
Pp (= Vp × I p )
Average Power Required for Circuiting
40.68 W 48.87 W
(= Vm × Im )
Drones 2021, 5, 44 18 of 19

6. Conclusions
The integration of solar power onto UAVs can extend the flight duration; hence, it
has the potential of enabling a wider scope of application of UAVs. The main objective
of this project is, by installing a solar power system on it, to extend the flight duration
of 759-2 Phoenix 2000—a leisure purpose RC glider. The flight test ultimately verified
that the project objective was met. Under fair experimental conditions with desirable
weather conditions (solar radiation level over 700 W/m2 ), the installation of the solar
power system on the aircraft results in a 22.5% of saving in the use of battery stored
capacity. By comparisons of the battery voltage graphs during circuiting, the rate of
decrease in battery voltage of the solar-powered UAV (‘Sun’) is much slower. When the
solar power system is present, the possible flight duration supported by the same battery
is increased. Therefore, the final flight test verified that the project objective is met.
It is verified that the power system performance in an actual flight is largely consistent
with the power system tests by comparing the flight test results and the power system tests.
Discrepancies are in a reasonable range. In the final flight test, the output power of the
solar power system (i.e., MPPT output power) has an average of 6.27 W under 800 W/m2
of solar radiation, which is higher than that measured in the power system tests but within
a reasonable deviation.
The following are suggested for future works on the development of low-cost solar-
powered UAV. Firstly, an active power management technique can be tested with low-cost
off-the-shelf components. Programmable microprocessors, such as Arduino, together with
relays can be used in the connection between the solar power source and the battery power
source. The power flow can be controlled, such as switching between which power source
is used to power the UAV or cutting off all power sources from the load to let the solar
power source recharge the battery. Furthermore, the overall efficiency of the systems with
active power management and passive management can be compared. Secondly, more
investigation on what autopilot settings (such as airspeed, altitude, turning radius) are
optimal for extending the flight endurance can be done.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, Y.C., C.H. and Y.L.; methodology, Y.C., C.H. and Y.L.;
validation, Y.C., C.H., Y.L. and B.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.C., C.H. and Y.L.; writing—
review and editing, B.L.; visualisation, Y.C.; supervision and project administration, B.L. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Undergraduate Capstone Project and Start-up Fund
(P0034164) from the Department of Aeronautical and Aviation Engineering, The Hong Kong Poly-
technic University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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