Analyzing Operating Activities: Review

Chapter 06 - Analyzing Operating Activities
Chapter 6
Analyzing Operating Activities
REVIEW
Income is the residual of revenues and gains less expenses and losses. Net income is
measured using the accrual basis of accounting. Accrual accounting recognizes revenues and
gains when earned, and recognizes expenses and losses when incurred. The income statement
(also referred to as statement of operations or earnings) reports net income during a period of
time. This statement also reports income components--revenues, expenses, gains, and losses.
We analyze income and its components to evaluate company performance, assess risk
exposures, and predict amounts, timing, and uncertainty of future cash flows. While "bottom
line" net income frames our analysis, income components provide pieces of a mosaic revealing
the economic portrait of a company. This chapter examines the analysis and interpretation of
income components. We consider current reporting requirements and their implications for our
analysis of income components. We describe how we might usefully apply analytical
adjustments to income components and related disclosures to better our analysis. We direct
special attention to revenue recognition and the recording of major expenses and costs. Further
use and analysis is made of income components in Part Three of the book.
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OUTLINE
• Income Measurement
Concept of Income
Measuring Accounting Income
Alternative Classification and Income Measures
• Non-recurring items
Extraordinary Items
Discontinued Operations
Accounting Changes
Special Items
• Revenue and Gain Recognition
Guidelines for Revenue Recognition
Uncertainty in Revenue Collection
Revenue When Right of Return Exists
Franchise Revenues
Product Financing Arrangements
Revenue under Contracts
Analysis Implications of Revenue Recognition
• Deferred Charges
Research and Development
Computer Software Expenses
Exploration and Development Costs in Extractive Industries
Supplementary Employee Benefits
Employee Stock Options
Interest Costs
Income Taxes
• Appendix 6A Earnings per Share: Computation and Analysis
• Appendix 6B Economics of Employee Stock Options
ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES
• Explain the concepts of income measurement and their implications for analysis
of operating activities.
• Describe and analyze the impact of non-recurring items - including extraordinary

items, discontinued segments, accounting changes, and restructuring charges and
write-offs.
• Analyze revenue and expense recognition and its risks for financial analysis.
• Analyze deferred charges, including expenditures for research, development,

and exploration.
• Explain supplementary employee benefits and analyze disclosures for employee

stock options (ESOs)
• Describe and interpret interest costs and the accounting for income taxes.
• Analyze and interpret earnings per share data (Appendix 6A).
• Understand the economics of employee stock options (appendix 6B).

QUESTIONS
1. The income statement portrays the net results of operations of an enterprise. Since results
are what enterprises are established to achieve and since their value is, in large measure,
determined by the size and quality of these results, it follows that the analyst attaches great
importance to the income statement.
2. Income summarizes in financial terms the operating activities of a company. Income is the
amount of revenues and gains for the period in excess of expenses and losses, all
computed under accrual accounting. Income provides a measure of the change in
shareholder wealth for a period and an indication of a company’s future earning power.
Accounting income differs from cash flows because certain revenues and gains are
recognized in periods before or after cash is received and certain expenses and losses are
recognized in periods before or after cash is paid.
3. Economic income is net cash flows plus the change in the present value of future cash flows.
Another similar concept, the Hicksian concept of income, considers income for the period to
be the amount that can be withdrawn from the company in a period without changing the net
wealth of the company. Hicksian income equals cash flow plus the change in the fair value
of net assets.
4. Accounting income is the excess of revenues and gains over expenses and losses
measured using accrual accounting. As such, revenues (and gains) are recognized when
earned and expenses (losses) are matched against the revenues (and gains).
5. Net income is the excess of the revenues and gains of the company over the expenses and
losses of the company. Net income often is called the “bottom line,” although that is a
misnomer because certain unrealized holding gains and losses are charged directly to
equity and bypass net income. Comprehensive income includes all changes in equity that
result from non-owner transactions (excluding items such as dividends and stock
issuances). Items creating differences between net income and comprehensive income
include unrealized gains and losses on available for sale securities, foreign currency
translation adjustments, minimum pension liability adjustments, and unrealized holding
gains or losses on derivative instruments. Comprehensive income is the ultimate “bottom
line” income number. Continuing income is a measure of net income earned by ongoing
segments of the company. Continuing income differs from net income because continuing
income excludes the income or loss of segments of the company that are to be discontinued
or sold (it also excludes extraordinary items and effects from changes in accounting
principles).
6. Details regarding comprehensive income are reported by the vast majority of companies in
the statement of stockholders’ equity rather than the income statement.
7. Core income is a measure of income that excludes all non-recurring items that are reported
as separate items on the income statement.
8. Operating income is a measure of firm performance from operating activities. Examples of
operating income include product sales, cost of product sales, and selling, general, and
administrative costs. Non-operating income includes all components of income not included
in operating income. Examples of non-operating income include interest revenue and
interest expense.
9. Operating versus non-operating and recurring versus non-recurring are distinct dimensions
of classifying income. While there is overlap across selected items, these dimensions
reflect different characteristics of business activities. For example, the interest income and
interest expense of most companies recur in net income; hence, they are included in
recurring income. However, these items are non-operating in nature. Similarly, non-
recurring items such as restructuring charge are operating in nature.
10. Accounting standards (APB 30) restricted the use of the "extraordinary" category by
requiring that an extraordinary item be both unusual in nature and infrequent in
occurrence. These attributes are defined as follows:
a. Unusual nature of the underlying event or transaction should possess a high degree of
abnormality and be of a type clearly unrelated to, or only incidentally related to, the
ordinary and typical activities of the entity, taking into account the environment in which
the entity operates.
b. Infrequency of occurrence of the underlying event or transaction should be of a type that
would not reasonably be expected to recur in the foreseeable future, taking into account
the environment in which the entity operates.
Three examples of extraordinary items are:
• Major casualty losses from an event such as an earthquake, flood, or fire.
• A gain or loss from expropriation of property.
• A gain or loss from condemnation of land by eminent domain.
11. To qualify as discontinued operations, the assets and business activities of the divested
segment must be clearly distinguishable from the assets and business activities of the
remaining entity. Accounting and reporting for discontinued operations is two-fold. First,
the income statement for the current and prior two years are restated after excluding the
effects of the discontinued operations from the line items that determine continuing income.
Second, gains or losses pertaining to the discontinued operations are reported separately,
net of related tax effects. An analyst should separate and ignore discontinued operations
in predicting future performance and financial condition.
12. To qualify as a prior period adjustment, an item must meet the following requirements:
• Material in amount.
• Specifically identifiable with the business activities of specific prior periods.
• Not attributable to economic events occurring subsequent to the prior period.
• Dependent primarily on determinations by persons other than management.
• Not reasonably estimable prior to such determination.
13. Distortions in revenues (gains) and expenses (losses) can arise from several accounting
sources. These include choices in the timing of transactions (such as revenue recognition
and expense matching), selections from the variety of generally accepted principles and
methods available, the introduction of conservative or aggressive estimates and
assumptions, and choices in how revenues, gains, expenses, and losses are classified and
presented in financial statements. Generally, a company wishing to increase current income
at the expense of future income will engage in one or more of the following practices:
(a) It will choose inventory methods that allow for maximum inventory carrying values and
minimum current charges to cost of goods or services sold.
(b) It will choose depreciation methods and useful lives of property that will result in
minimum current charges as depreciation expense.
(c) It will defer all managed costs to the future such as, for example: pre-operating, moving,
rearrangement and start-up costs, and marketing costs. Such costs would be carried as
deferred charges or included with the costs of other assets such as property, plant, and
equipment.
(d) It will amortize assets and defer costs over the largest possible period. Such assets
include goodwill, leasehold improvements, patents, and copyrights.
(e) It will elect the method requiring the lowest possible pension and other employment
compensation cost accruals.
(f) It will inventory rather than expense administrative costs, taxes, and similar items.
(g) It will choose the most accelerated methods of income recognition such as in the areas
of leasing, franchising, real estate sales, and contracting.
(h) It immediately will recognize as revenue, rather than defer the taking up of benefits,
items such as investment tax credits.
(i) Companies that wish to “manage” the size of accounting income can regulate the flow of
income and expense by means of reserves for future costs and losses.
14. (1) Depreciation

a. Straight Line: This is calculated by taking the salvage value (S) from the original cost
(C) and dividing by the useful life of the asset in question; that is, (C-S)/(Useful
life). Sum-of-Years'-Digits: This depreciation formula is: (C-S) x (X/Y); where C and S
are the same as above, X is the remaining years (that is, if item is being
depreciated over 5 years and this is the first year, then X=5), and Y equals the "sum-
of-years'-digits" (that is, for a 5-year asset, Y=5+4+3+2+1=15).
b. Straight line is easily understood and provides level depreciation and earnings
effects.
The sum-of-the-years'-digits gives heavier weight to earlier years and causes higher
depreciation and lower earnings in the early years and lower depreciation and higher
earnings toward the end of the asset's life.
(2) Inventory
a. LIFO (last-in, first-out) method: The LIFO method assumes the inventory employed
are those most recently acquired. FIFO (first-in, first-out) method: The FIFO
method assumes the first inventory items acquired are used first.
b. The effect on earnings depends on whether the economy is in an inflationary or
deflationary period. In times of inflation (the more usual case), LIFO inventory
accounting would result in lower earnings being reported than would be the case had
FIFO been employed.
c.
(3) Installment sales
a. Accrual method: Assumes income is recognized when the sale is made (earned).
Installment method: Assumes income is recognized only when cash is received as
the various installments come in.
b. The installment method is commonly used for tax purposes while the accrual method
is employed in financial statements. The accrual method would result in a higher
earnings figure being reported than the installment method.
15. Three different types of accounting changes include:

(a) Changes in accounting principle
(b) Changes in accounting estimate
(c) Changes in reporting entity
16. Special items refer to transactions and events that are unusual or infrequent, not both.
These items are reported as separate line items on the income statement before continuing
income. Examples of special items include restructuring charges, impairments of long-lived
assets, and asset write-offs.
17. Special (one-time) charges usually receive less attention by investors because it often is
believed that such charges will not recur in the future. As a result, companies often include
as much operating expense and loss as possible in special charges hoping that investors will
focus on income before special charges that excludes these expenses and losses. If
investors do focus on income before these charges, company value may be erroneously
perceived to be higher than is supported by the fundamentals.
18. Many special charges should be viewed as operating expenses that need to be reflected in
permanent income. Essentially, many special charges are either corrections of understated
past expenses or investments for improved future profitability. As such, analysts should
adjust their income measurements to include special charges in operating income.
19. The following criteria exemplify the rules that have been established to prevent the
premature anticipation of revenue. Realization is deemed to take place only after the
following conditions have been met:
(a) The earning activities undertaken to create revenue are substantially complete; for
example, no significant effort is necessary to complete the transaction.
(b) In the case of a sale, the risk of ownership has effectively passed to the
buyer.
(c) The revenue, as well as the associated expenses, can be measured or estimated with
substantial accuracy.
(d) The revenue recognized should normally result in an increase in cash, receivables, or
marketable securities and, under certain conditions, in an increase in inventories or other
assets, or a decrease in a liability.
(e) The business transactions giving rise to the income should be at arm's-length with
independent parties (that is, not with controlled parties).
(f) The transactions should not be subject to revocation, for example, carrying the right of
return of merchandise sold.
20. SFAS 48 ("Revenue Recognition When Right of Return Exists") specifies that revenue from
sales transactions in which the buyer has a right to return the product should be recognized
at the time of sale only if all of the following conditions are met:
• At the date of sale, the price is substantially fixed or
determinable.
•
• The buyer has paid the seller, or is obligated to pay the seller (not contingent on resale
of the product).
• In the event of theft or physical damage to the product, the buyer's obligation to the
seller would not be changed.
• The buyer acquiring the product for resale has economic substance apart from
that provided by the seller.
• The seller does not have significant obligations for future performance to directly
bring about resale of the product.
• Product returns can be reasonably
estimated.
If these conditions are not met, revenue recognition is postponed; if they are met, sales
revenue and cost of sales should be reduced to reflect estimated returns and expected costs
or losses should be accrued. Note: The Statement does not apply to accounting for revenue
in (a) service industries if part or all of the service revenue may be returned under
cancellation privileges granted to the buyer, (b) transactions involving real estate or leases,
or (c) sales transactions in which a customer may return defective goods such as under
warranty provisions.
21. Some of the factors that might impair the ability to predict returns (when right of return exists
in transactions) are: (1) susceptibility to significant external factors, such as
technological obsolescence or swings in market demand, (2) long return privilege periods,
and (3) absence of appropriate historical return experience.
22. SFAS 49 ("Accounting for Product Financing Arrangements") is concerned with the issue of
whether revenue has been earned. A product financing arrangement is an agreement
involving the transfer or sponsored acquisition of inventory that, although it resembles a
sale, is in substance a means of financing inventory through a second party. For example, if
a company transfers inventory to another company in an apparent sale, and in a related
transaction agrees to repurchase the inventory at a later date, the arrangement may be a
product financing arrangement rather than a sale and subsequent purchase of inventory. If
the party bearing the risks and rewards of ownership transfers inventory to a purchaser, and
in a related transaction agrees to repurchase the product at a specified
price, or guarantees some specified resale price for sales of the product to outside parties,
the arrangement is a product financing arrangement and should be accounted for as such.
23. The percentage-of-completion method is preferred when estimates of costs to complete

along with estimates of progress toward completion of the contract can be made with
reasonable dependability. A common basis of profit estimation is to record that part of the
estimated total profit that corresponds to the ratio that costs incurred to date bears to
expected total costs. Other methods of estimation of completion can be based on units
completed or on qualified engineering estimates or on units delivered.
The completed-contract method of accounting is preferable where the conditions inherent
in the contract present risks and uncertainties that result in an inability to make reasonable
estimates of costs and completion time. Problems under this method concern the point at
which completion of the contract is deemed to have occurred as well as the kind of
expenses to be deferred. For example, some companies defer all costs to the completion
date, including general and administrative overhead while others consider such costs as
period costs to be expensed as they are incurred.
Under either of the two contract accounting methods, losses (present or anticipated) must
be fully provided for in the period in which the loss first becomes apparent.
24. The recording of revenue is the first step in the process of income determination and is a
step for which the recognition of any and all revenue depends. The analyst should be
particularly inquisitive about revenue recognition policies and procedures. Some specific
aspects include the following: (1) One element that casts doubt on the validity of revenue is
uncertainty about the ability of the seller to collect the resulting receivable. Special collection
problems exist with respect to installment sales, real estate sales, and franchise sales.
Problems of collection exist, however, in the case of all sales and the analyst must be alert to
them. (2) The analyst must also be alert to the problems related to the timing of revenue
recognition. The present rules generally do not allow for recognition of profit in advance of
sale—such as with increases in market value of property such as land or equipment, the
accretion of values in growing timber, or the increase in the value of inventories are not
recognized in the accounts. As a consequence, income will not be recorded before sale and
the timing of sales is a matter that lies within the discretion of management. That, in turn,
gives management a certain degree of discretion in the timing of profit recognition. (3) In the
area of contract accounting, the analyst should recognize that the use of the completed
contract method is justified only in cases where reasonable estimates of costs and the
degree of completion are not possible. Yet, some companies consider the choice of method
a matter of discretion. (4) Other alternative methods of taking up revenue, as in the case of
lessors or finance companies, must be fully understood by the analyst before an evaluation
of a company's earnings or a comparison among companies in the same industry is
undertaken.
25. SFAS 2 ("Accounting for Research and Development Costs") offers a simple solution to the
complex problem of accounting for research and development costs. Namely, it requires
that R&D costs be charged to expense when incurred. It defines research and development
activities as follows:
(a) Research activities are aimed at discovery of new knowledge for the development of a
new product or process or in bringing about a significant improvement to an existing
product or process.
(b) Development activities translate the research findings into a plan or design for a new
product or process or a significant improvement to an existing product or process.
R&D specifically excludes routine or periodic alterations to ongoing operations and market
research and testing activities.
The Board recommended the following accounting treatment for R&D costs:
(a) The majority of expenditures incurred in research and development activities as defined
above constitutes the costs of that activity and should be charged to expense when
incurred.
(b) Costs of materials, equipment, and facilities that have alternative future uses (in
research and development projects or otherwise) should be capitalized as tangible
assets.
(c) Intangibles purchased from an external party for R&D use that have alternative future
uses should also be capitalized.
(d) Indirect costs involved in acquiring patents should be capitalized as well.
Elements of costs that should be identified with R&D activities
are:
(a) Costs of materials, equipment, and facilities that are acquired or constructed for a
particular research and development project and purchased intangibles, that have no
alternative future uses (in research and development projects or otherwise).
(b) Costs of materials consumed in research and development activities, the depreciation of
equipment or facilities, and the amortization of intangible assets used in research and
development activities that have alternative future uses.
(c) Salaries and other related costs of personnel engaged in R&D
activities.
(d) Costs of services performed by
others.
(e) A reasonable allocation of indirect costs. General and administrative costs that are not
clearly related to R&D activities should be excluded.
The specific disclosure requirements as stipulated by SFAS 2 are: (1) for each income
statement presented, the total R&D costs charged to expense is to be disclosed, and (2)
government-regulated companies that defer R&D costs in accordance with the addendum to
SFAS 2 must make certain additional disclosures to that effect.
26. For an analyst to form a reliable opinion on the quality and the future potential value of
research outlays, the analyst needs to know a great deal more than the totals of periodic
research and development outlays. The analyst needs information on (1) the types of
research performed, (2) the outlays by category, (3) the technical feasibility, commercial
viability, and future potential of each project assessed and reevaluated at the time of each
periodic report, and (4) information on a company's success-failure experience in its several
areas of research activity to date. Of course, present disclosure requirements will not give
the analyst such information and it appears that, except in cases of voluntary disclosure, only
the investor or the lender with the necessary clout will be able to obtain such information. In
general, one can assume that the outright expensing of all research and development
outlays will result in more conservative balance sheets and fewer bad-news surprises
stemming from the wholesale write-offs of previously capitalized research and development
outlays. However, the analyst must realize that along with a lack of knowledge about future
potential s/he may also be unaware of the potential disasters that can befall an enterprise
tempted or forced to sink ever greater amounts of funds into research and development
projects whose promise was great but whose failure is nevertheless inevitable.
27. One of the most common solutions applied by analysts to the complex problem of the
analysis of goodwill is to simply ignore it. That is, they ignore the asset shown on the
balance sheet. Unfortunately, by ignoring goodwill, analysts ignore investments of very
substantial resources in what may often be a company's most important asset. Ignoring
the impact of goodwill impairment losses on reported periodic income is no solution to the
analysis of this complex cost. Even considering the limited amount of information available
to the analyst, it is far better that the analyst understand the effects of accounting practices in
this area on accounting income rather than dismiss them altogether.
6-10
28.
Goodwill is measured by the excess of cost over the fair market value of tangible net assets
acquired in a transaction accounted for as a purchase. That is the theory of it. The financial
analyst must be alert to the makeup and the method of valuation of the Goodwill account as
well as to the method of its ultimate disposition. One way of disposing of the Goodwill
account, frequently chosen by management, is to write it off at a time when it would have the
least serious impact on the market's judgment of the company's earnings, for example, at a
time of loss or reduced earnings. Under normal circumstances, goodwill is not indestructible
but is rather an asset with a limited useful life. Still, whatever the advantages of location,
market dominance and competitive stance, sales skill, product acceptance, or other benefits
are, they cannot be unaffected by the passing of time and by changes in the business
environment. Thus, the analyst must assess the carrying amount of goodwill by reference to
such evidence of continuing value as the profitability of units for which the goodwill
consideration was originally paid.
29. The interest cost to a company is the nominal rate paid including, in the case of bonds, the
amortization of any bond discount or premium. A complication arises when companies
issue convertible debt or debt with warrants, thus achieving a nominal debt coupon cost that
is below the cost of similar debt not carrying these features. After trial pronouncements on
the subject and much controversy, APB 14 concluded in the case of convertible debt that the
inseparability of the debt and equity features is such that no portion of the proceeds from the
issuance should be accounted for as attributable to the conversion feature. In the case of
debt issued with stock warrants attached, the proceeds of the debt attributable to the
warrants should be accounted for as paid-in capital. The corresponding charge is to a debt
discount account that must be amortized over the life of the debt issue thus increasing the
effective interest cost.
30. a. SFAS 34 ("Capitalization of Interest Cost") requires capitalization of interest cost as part
of the historical cost of "assets that are constructed or otherwise produced for an
enterprise's own use (including assets constructed or produced for the enterprise by
others for which deposits or progress payments have been made)." Inventory items
that are routinely manufactured or produced in large quantities on a repetitive basis do
not qualify for interest capitalization. The objectives of interest capitalization, according
to the FASB, are (1) to measure more accurately the acquisition cost of an asset, and
(2) to amortize that acquisition cost against revenues generated by the asset.
b. The amount of interest to be capitalized is based on the entity's actual borrowings and
interest payments. The rate to be used for capitalization may be ascertained in this order:
(1) the rate of specific borrowings associated with the assets and (2) if borrowings are
not specific for the asset, or the asset exceeds specific borrowings therefore, a
weighted average of rates applicable to other appropriate borrowings may
be used. Alternatively, a company may use a weighted average of rates of all
appropriate borrowings regardless of specific borrowings incurred to finance the asset.
c. Interest capitalization is not permitted to exceed total interest costs for any period, nor is
imputing interest cost to equity funds permitted. A company without debt will have no
interest to capitalize. The capitalization period begins when three conditions are present:
(1) expenditures for the asset have been made by the entity, (2) work on the asset is in
progress, and (3) interest cost is being incurred. Interest capitalization ceases when the
asset is ready for its intended use.
31. The intrinsic value of an option is the amount by which the market value of the underlying
security exceeds the option exercise price at the time of measurement. The fair value of an
option is the amount that market participants would be willing to pay today to purchase the
option.
32. The fair value of an option is affected by the exercise price, the current market price, the
risk- free rate of interest, the expected life of the option, the expected volatility of the stock
price, and the expected dividend yield.
33. SFAS 123 requires that the company amortize the fair value of employee stock options
(estimated using various option pricing models) at the grant date over the expected life of
the option. The cumulative amortization of all employee stock options granted in the
past is collectively called the option compensation expense. Until recently, option
compensation expense was not charged to income. However, a recent revision of the
standard, SFAS 123R, requires that the option compensation expense be charged to
income. Compensation expense may be included in various expense categories such as
cost of goods sold, SG&A, R&D etc. based on which area of the company the respective
employee works for.
34. The economic cost of issuing options at the prevailing market price are: (1) the interest cost,
which is that the employee is able to pay for the stock purchase many years later using the
current stock price; and (2) cost of providing an option to exercise, which arises because the
employee can share in the potential upside but is protected from sharing in the potential
downside risk.
35. Option overhang refers to the intrinsic value of outstanding options (both exercisable and
otherwise) as a proportion of the company’s market value. It is a measure of the value of
potential dilution that arises from option grants to employees. It measured by aggregating
the intrinsic value of all outstanding employee stock options, using the current stock price,
and dividing it by the current market capitalization of the company’s equity.
35. The net income computed on the basis of generally accepted accounting principles (also
known as "book income") is usually not identical to the "taxable income" computed on the
entity's tax return. This is due to two types of difference. Permanent differences (discussed
here) and temporary, or timing, differences. Permanent differences result from provisions of
the tax law under which:
(a) Certain items may be nontaxable—for example, income on tax exempt obligations and
proceeds of life insurance on an officer
(b)
(c) Certain deductions are not allowed—for example, penalties for filing certain returns,
government fines, and officer life insurance premiums.
(d) Special deductions granted by law—for example, dividend exclusion on dividends from
unconsolidated subsidiaries and from dividends received from other domestic
corporations.
36. The effective tax rate paid by a corporation on its income will vary from the statutory rate
because:
• The basis of carrying property for accounting purposes may differ from that for tax
purposes from reorganizations, business combinations, or other transactions.
• Nonqualified and qualified stock-option plans may result in book-tax
differences.
• Certain industries, such as savings and loan associations, shipping lines, and insurance
companies enjoy special tax privileges.
• Up to $100,000 of corporate income is taxed at lower tax
rates.
• Certain credits may apply, such as R&D credits and foreign tax
credits.
• State and local income taxes, net of federal tax benefit, are included in total tax
expenses. What makes these differences and factors permanent is the fact that they do not
have any future repercussions on a company's taxable income. Thus, they must be taken
into account when reconciling a company's actual (effective) tax rate to the statutory rate.
37. SFAS 109 ("Accounting for Income Taxes") establishes financial accounting and reporting
standards for the effects of income taxes that result from an enterprise's activities during the
current and preceding years, and requires an asset and liability approach. SFAS 109
requires that deferred taxes should be determined separately for each tax-paying
component (an individual entity or group of entities that is consolidated for tax purposes) in
each tax jurisdiction. The determination includes the following procedures:
• Identify the types and amounts of existing temporary differences and the nature and
amount of each type of operating loss and tax credit carry forward, plus the
remaining length of the carry forward period.
• Measure the total deferred tax liability for taxable temporary differences, using
the applicable tax rate.
• Measure the total deferred tax asset for deductible temporary differences and
operating loss carry forwards, using the applicable tax rate.
• Measure deferred tax assets for each type of tax credit carry
forward.
• Reduce deferred tax assets by a valuation allowance if based on the weight of
available evidence. It is more likely than not (a likelihood of more than 50 percent) that
some portion or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. The valuation
allowance should be sufficient to reduce the deferred tax asset to the amount that is
more likely than not to be realized.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities should be adjusted for the effect of a change in tax laws or
rates. The effect should be included in income from continuing operations for the period that
includes the enactment date.
38. (a) Revenues or gains are included in taxable income later than they are included in pretax
accounting income.
(b) Expenses or losses are deducted in determining taxable income later than they are
deducted in determining pretax accounting income.
(c) Revenues or gains are included in taxable income earlier than they are included in
pretax accounting income.
(d) Expenses or losses are deducted in determining taxable income earlier than they are
deducted in determining pretax accounting income.
39. The components of the net deferred tax liability or net deferred tax asset recognized in a
company's balance sheet should be disclosed. These include the:
• Total of all deferred tax liabilities.
• Total of all deferred tax assets.
• Total valuation allowance recognized for deferred tax
assets.
Additional disclosures include the significant components of income tax expense attributable
to continuing operations for each year presented which include, for example:
• Current tax expense or benefit.
• Deferred tax expense or benefit (exclusive of the effects of other
components).
• Investment tax credits.
• Government grants (to the extent recognized as a reduction of income tax
expense).
• The benefits of operating loss carry
forwards.
• Tax expense that results from allocating certain tax benefits either directly to contributed
capital or to reduce goodwill or other noncurrent intangible assets of an acquired entity.
• Adjustments of a deferred tax liability or asset for enacted changes in tax laws or rates
or a change in the tax status of the enterprise.
• Adjustments of the beginning-of-year balance of a valuation allowance because of a
change in circumstances that causes a change in judgment about the realizability of the
related deferred tax asset in future years.
Also to be disclosed is a reconciliation between the effective income tax rate and the
statutory federal income tax rate. In addition, the amounts and expiration dates of operating
loss and tax credit carry forwards for tax purposes must be disclosed.
40. (1) One of the flaws remaining in tax allocation procedures is that no recognition is given to
the fact that a future obligation, or loss of benefits, should be discounted rather than shown
at its entire amount as today's tax deferred accounts actually are. The FASB has reviewed
the issue and decided not to address it because of the conceptual and implementation issues
involved. (2) Another flaw is that the Board allowed parent companies to avoid providing
taxes on unremitted earnings of subsidiaries and other specialized exceptions to the
requirements of deferred tax accounting.
A
41. The determination of the earnings level of an enterprise, which is relevant to the purpose of
the analyst, is a complex analytical process. The earnings figure can be converted into a
per-share amount that is useful in evaluating the price of the common stock, its dividend
coverage, and the potential effects of dilution. As with any measure, there are strengths and
weaknesses associated with its computation. Thus, the analyst must have a thorough
understanding of the principles that govern the computation of earnings per share to
effectively analyze it and use it in decision making.
A
42. Earnings per share data are used in making investment decisions. They are used in
evaluating the past operating performance of a company and in forming an opinion as to its
future potential. They are commonly presented in prospectuses, proxy material, and reports
to stockholders, and is the only financial statement ratio that is audited. They are used in
the compilation of business earnings data for the press, statistical services, and other
publications. When presented with formal financial statements, they assist the investor in
weighing the significance of a corporation's current net income and of changes in its net
income from period to period in relation to the shares an analyst holds or may acquire.
Current GAAP regarding EPS conforms to international standards. The analyst must be
aware that basic EPS does not take into account securities that, although not common
stock, are in substance equivalent to common stock. The analyst must take care to focus on
diluted EPS, which intends to show the maximum extent of potential dilution of current
earnings that conversions of securities could create.
A
43. Diluted earnings per share is the amount of current earnings per share reflecting the
maximum dilution that would result from conversions, exercises, and other contingent
issuances that individually would decreased earnings per share and in the aggregate yield a
dilutive effect. All such issuances are assumed to have taken place at the beginning of the
period (or at the time the contingency arose, if later).
A
44. The amount of any dividends on preferred stock that have been paid (declared) for the
year should be deducted from net income before computing earnings per share.
A
45. Yes, if warrants or options are present, an increase in the market price of the common
stock can increase the number of common equivalent shares by decreasing the number of
shares repurchasable under the treasury stock method.
A
46. SFAS 128 has a number of flaws and inconsistencies that the analyst must consider in
interpreting EPS data:
(a) The computation of basic EPS completely ignores the potentially dilutive effects of
options and warrants.
(b) There is a basic inconsistency in treating certain securities as the equivalent of common
stock for purposes of computing EPS while not considering them as part of the
stockholders' equity in the balance sheet. Consequently, the analyst will have difficulty
in interrelating reported EPS with the debt-leverage position pertaining to the same
earnings.
(c) Generally, EPS are considered to be a factor influencing stock prices. Whether options
and warrants are dilutive or not depends on the price of the common stock. Thus we can
get a circular effect in that the reporting of EPS may influence the market price which, in
turn, influences EPS. Under these rules earnings may depend on market prices of the
stock rather than only on economic factors within the enterprise. In the extreme, this
suggests that the projection of future EPS requires not only the projection of earnings
levels but also the projection of future market prices.
A
47. (a) Earnings per share data are used in making investment decisions. They are used in
evaluating the past operating performance of a company and in forming an opinion as to
its future potential. They are commonly presented in prospectuses, proxy material, and
reports to stockholders. They are used in the compilation of business earnings data for
the press, statistical services, and other publications. When
presented with formal financial statements, they assist the investor in weighing the significance
of a corporation's current net income and of changes in its net income from period to
period in relation to the shares an analyst holds or may acquire.
(b) Earnings per common share are not fully relevant to the valuation of preferred stock. For
purposes of preferred stock evaluation, the earnings coverage ratio of preferred stock is
among the most relevant. It measures the number of times preferred dividends have
been earned and, thus, is a measure of the safety of the dividend as well as the safety
of the preferred issue.
EXERCISES
Exercise 6-1 (25 minutes)
a. Cash xxx
Gain on disposition* xxx
Net assets of discontinued operations xxx
* (A loss on disposition would be recorded as a debit)
b. Income (expense) related to discontinued operations include the operating profit

(loss) recorded prior to sale and the gain (loss) on sale. These are reported net of
applicable tax.
c. When estimating future earning power, the results from discontinued operations
should not be treated as recurring. This is important for an assessment of the
permanent income of a company.
d. Separately reporting discontinued operations allows the analyst to view the results of
operations without the segment that will not be ongoing. As a result, the analyst can
better assess the permanent component of income, for which results of
discontinuing operations will be excluded.
a. By the use of reserves, a company can allocate costs in excess of actual experience
in the current period, based on estimates of additional costs in the future, or even
based on the simple possibility of further costs in the future. Then, in later periods,
actual costs can be written off against the reserve rather than reported as expenses
in the company's income statement for those periods. The advantage to the
company is that earnings trends can be "smoothed," and a cushion for future
earnings can be built up during good economic years for use during leaner periods.
To the extent that stability and predictability of earnings are market virtues, the
company's common stock might be accorded a higher multiple for these efforts, in
effect lowering the cost of capital to the company. The use of reserves both poses
problems for the analyst and conflicts with some basic accounting principles. These
include:
(1) Use of reserves contradicts the matching principle, by which revenues and
related costs should be recognized in the same period.
(2) Reserving for future events (especially contingencies) is obviously subject to
estimate, and accounting should attempt to record quantifiable value as much as
possible.
Exercise 6-2—continued
(3) The reserving technique makes reported earnings less indicative of fundamental
trends in the company. The effects of the economic cycle are reduced, making
correlation techniques (such as GNP growth vs. EPS growth) invalid. These
reported numbers might mislead the “uninformed” investor. In contrast to the
artificial smoothing referred to earlier, the company's growth rate may be
exaggerated, by over-reserving for losses in a bad year, and subsequent writing
off of the reserve.
It should be noted that a reserve can be properly taken such as when it recognizes a
liability that (1) likely exists in the relatively near future—such as costs of winding up
a plant shutdown with the next year or (2) is subject to quantification—such as the
outright expropriation of net assets in a foreign country.
b. If the analyst is able to discern the impact of reserves, s/he should exclude the
reserves' impact from accounting income when assessing past trends. Only
operating or normal earnings should be compared over the short-term. However,
over a longer period of time, the losses against which reserves have been taken
should be included. In estimating future earnings, the analyst must carefully consider
the impact of reserves and exclude the impact when forecasting normal earnings. By
doing this, the analyst will have a better understanding of the true operations of the
company. In the valuation of common stock, the analyst must focus on the
sustainable earning power of the company. Thus, earnings may have to be adjusted
upward or downward depending on the degree of abuse of reserves.
c. Several examples of reserves are cited in the chapter. Also, students often benefit
from a review of business magazines in attempting to identify such reserves.
(CFA Adapted)
a. A change from the sum-of-the-years'-digits method of depreciation to the straight-

line method for previously recorded assets is a change in accounting principle. Both
the sum-of-the-years'-digits method and the straight-line method are generally
accepted. A change in accounting principle results from adoption of a generally
accepted accounting principle different from the generally accepted accounting
principle used previously for reporting purposes.
Exercise 6-3—continued
b. A change in the expected service life of an asset arising because of more

experience with the asset is a change in accounting estimate. A change in
accounting estimate occurs because future events and their effects cannot be
perceived with certainty. Estimates are an inherent part of the accounting process.
Therefore, accounting and reporting for certain financial statement elements
requires the exercise of judgment, subject to revision based on experience.
c. 1. The cumulative effect of a change in accounting principle is the difference

between: (1) the amount of retained earnings at the beginning of the period of
change and (2) the amount of retained earnings that would have been reported
at that date if the new accounting principle had been used in prior periods.
2. FASB 2005 Statement “Accounting Changes and Error Corrections” requires that
effective in 2005, companies should apply the “retrospective approach” to
changes in accounting principle. Thus, all presented periods must be restated
as if the change were in effect during those periods, and any cumulative effect
from periods before those presented is an adjustment to beginning retained
earnings of the earliest period presented.
d. Consistent use of accounting principles from one accounting period to another

enhances the usefulness of financial statements in comparative analysis of
accounting data across time.
e. If a change in accounting principle occurs, the nature and effect of a change in

accounting principle should be disclosed to avoid misleading financial statement
users. There is a presumption that an accounting principle, once adopted, should
not be changed in accounting for events and transactions of a similar type.
f. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. Thus, managerial

discretion is not present, or at least is to a lesser degree. One should examine the
motivations for voluntary accounting changes and assess any earnings quality
impact.
g. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. However, there is often

a window of time for a company to adopt a mandatory accounting change. If a
window exists, management has discretion as to the timing of the adoption. Thus,
the timing of adoption and any accounting ramifications should be considered. For
example, if a manager is going to adopt an accounting change that includes a large
charge, the manager might choose to adopt in a relatively poor quarter to attempt to
potentially conceal or downplay the poor operating performance.
Exercise 6-3—concluded
h. Mandatory accounting changes often include the recognition of retroactive earnings

affects. For example, the rules in accounting for other post-employment benefits
require that companies establish a liability for the accrued benefits to date. This
results in a large charge for many companies. Of course, the market potentially
views the charge as largely the fault of accounting rule makers. Thus, managers
have incentive to increase the amount of the charge and use the bloated liability to
increase future earnings.
Comprehensive income computation:*
a. Computation: b. Balance sheet accounts affected:

$1,000,000 Net income (closed to equity)
- 100,000 Unrealized holding loss on available for sale securities
+ 50,000 Foreign currency translation gain
- 25,000 Additional minimum pension liability adjustment
- 12,000 Unrealized holding losses on derivative instruments
$ 913,000 Comprehensive income (component of equity)
* The unexpected return on pension fund assets ($40,000) does not affect net income or stockholders’
equity in the current period.
6-20
a. The point of sale is the most widely used basis for the timing of revenue recognition
because in most cases it provides the degree of objective evidence many consider
necessary to measure reliably periodic business income. That is, sales transactions
with outsiders represent the point in the revenue generating process when most of
the uncertainty about the final outcome of business activity has been alleviated. It is
also at the point of sale in most cases that substantially all of the costs of generating
revenues are known, and they can at this point be matched with the revenues
generated to produce a reliable statement of a firm's effort and accomplishment for
the period. Any attempt to measure business income prior to the point of sale
would, in the vast majority of cases, introduce considerably more subjectivity into
financial reporting than most accountants are willing to accept.
b. 1. Though it is recognized that revenue is earned throughout the entire production

process, generally it is not feasible to measure revenue on the basis of operating
activity. It is not feasible because of the absence of suitable criteria for
consistently and objectively arriving at a periodic determination of the amount of
revenue to take up. Also, in most situations the sale is the most important single
step in the earning process. Prior to the sale the amount of revenue anticipated
from the processes of production is merely prospective revenue; its realization
remains to be validated by actual sales. The accumulation of costs during
production does not alone generate revenue; rather, revenues are earned by the
entire process including the actual sales. Thus, as a general rule the sale
cannot be regarded as being an unduly conservative basis for the timing of
revenue recognition. Except in unusual circumstances, revenue recognition
prior to sale would be anticipatory in nature and unverifiable in amount.
2. To criticize the sales basis as not being sufficiently conservative because

accounts receivable do not represent disposable funds, it is necessary to
assume that collection of receivables is the decisive step in the earning process
and that periodic revenue measurement and, therefore, net income should
depend on the amount of cash generated during the period. This assumption
disregards the fact that the sale usually represents the decisive factor in the
earning process and substitutes for it the administrative function of managing
and collecting receivables. That is, the investment of funds in receivables should
be regarded as a policy designed to increase total revenues, properly
recognized at the point of sale; and the cost of managing receivables (e.g., bad
debts and collection costs) should be matched with the sales in the proper period.
The fact that some revenue adjustments (such as sales returns) and some
expenses (such as bad debts and collection costs) can occur in a period
subsequent to the sale does not detract from the overall usefulness of the sales
basis for the timing of revenue recognition. Both can be estimated with sufficient
accuracy so as not to detract from the reliability
of reported net income. Thus, in the vast majority of cases for which the sales
basis is used, estimating errors, though unavoidable, will be too immaterial in
amount to warrant deferring revenue recognition to a later point in time.
c. 1. During production. This basis of recognizing revenue is frequently used by

companies whose major source of revenue are long-term construction projects.
For these companies the point of sale is far less significant to the earning
process than is production activity because the sale is assured under the
contract, except of course where performance is not substantially in accordance
with the contract terms. To defer revenue recognition until the completion of
long-term construction projects could impair significantly the usefulness of the
intervening annual financial statements because the volume of completed
contracts during a period is likely to bear no relationship to production volume.
During each year that a project is in process a portion of the contract price is
therefore appropriately recognized as that year's revenue. The amount of the
contract price to be recognized should be proportionate to the year's production
progress on the project. It should be noted that the use of the production basis
in lieu of the sales basis for the timing of revenue recognition is justifiable only
when total profit or loss on the contracts can be estimated with reasonable
accuracy and its ultimate realization is reasonably assured.
2. When cash is received. The most common application of this basis for the timing
of revenue recognition is in connection with installment sales contracts. Its use is
justified on the grounds that, due to the length of the collection period, increased
risks of default, and higher collection costs, there is too much uncertainty to
warrant revenue recognition until cash is received. The mere fact that sales are
made on an installment contract basis does not justify using the cash receipts
basis of revenue recognition. The justification for this departure from the sales
depends essentially upon an absence of a reasonably objective basis for
estimating the amount of collection costs and bad debts that will be incurred in
later periods. If these expenses can be estimated with reasonable accuracy, the
sales basis should be used.
(AICPA Adapted)
a. Michael Company should recognize revenue as it performs the work on the contract
(the percentage-of-completion method) given that the right to revenue is established
and collectibility is reasonably assured. Furthermore, the use of the
percentage-of-completion method avoids distortion of income from period to period,
and it provides for better matching of revenues with the related expenses.
b. Progress billings would be accounted for by increasing Accounts Receivable and

increasing Progress Billings on Contract, a contra asset account that is offset
against the Construction Costs in Progress account. If the Construction Costs in
Progress account exceeds the Progress Billings on Contract account, the two
accounts would be shown in the current assets section of the balance sheet. If the
Progress Billings on Contract account exceeds the Construction Costs in Progress
account, the two accounts would be shown, in most cases, in the current liabilities
section of the balance sheet.
c. The income recognized in the second year of the four-year contract would be
determined as follows:
• First, the estimated total income from the contract would be determined by
deducting the estimated total costs of the contract (the actual costs to date plus
the estimated cost to complete) from the contract price.
• Second, the actual costs to date would be divided by the estimated total costs of
the contract to arrive at a percentage completed, which would be multiplied by
the estimated total income from the contract to arrive at the total income
recognized to date.
• Third, the total income recognized in the second year of the contract would be
determined by deducting the income recognized in the first year of the contract
from the total income recognized to date.
d. Earnings in the second year of the four-year contract would be higher using the
percentage-of-completion method instead of the completed-contract method. This is
because income would be recognized in the second year of the contract using the
percentage-of-completion method, whereas no income would be recognized in the
second year of the contract using the completed-contract method.
a. Crime Control's revenue recognition practices, while not the most conservative,
conform to GAAP. The important issue is whether lessees will, in fact, continue for
their eight-year terms. Should large cancellations occur, substantial portions of the
revenue recognized in earlier years might have to be reversed in subsequent years.
This would result in distortions of earning power and earning trends. Thus, a critical
issue of this accounting is whether the company provides adequately for
contingencies such as cancellations. Should the pace of newly written sales-type
leases slow, the company's earnings growth may stop or earnings may even
decline.
b. While the tax accounting does provide the company with significant funds from tax
postponement, it does not affect reported results because under GAAP the company
is required to provide for deferred taxes which it is assumed will be payable in the
future.
c. While it is true that the sale of the receivables without recourse would enable the
company to book profits in the year the lease originated, this practice would at the
same time substantially increase the company's tax bill.
a. This revenue recognition issue stirs controversy. Many believe that it is reasonable
for both companies to record offsetting advertising revenues and advertising
expenses from this contract. This is justified in that the transaction seemingly meets
the usual revenue recognition criteria. Opponents of this treatment worry about
uncertainty and completeness of the earning process.
b. Revenues and revenue growth are considered good indicators of future prospects
for Dot.Com (Internet) companies. Accordingly, Internet companies want to
maximize the amount of reported revenues; even if those revenues are entirely
offset with expenses.
c. An analyst should seek to determine the percent of revenues that come from
advertising in such barter transactions versus revenues from cash-paying (or credit)
customers. Some believe that barter-based revenues should be segregated and
viewed in a different light from that of more normal revenues. This might affect
revenue multiples in determining stock price or decisions in other applications that
rely on financial statements. Analysts should adjust their models according to their
beliefs about the relative merits of such revenues.
a. Some costs are recognized as expenses on the basis of a presumed direct

association with specific revenue. This has been identified both as "associating
cause and effect" and as the "matching concept." Direct cause-and-effect
relations can seldom be conclusively demonstrated, but many costs appear to be
related to particular revenue, and recognizing them as expenses accompanies
recognition of the revenue. Generally, the matching concept requires that the
revenue recognized and the expenses incurred to produce the revenue be given
concurrent periodic recognition in the accounting records. Only if effort is properly
related to accomplishment will the results, called earnings, have useful significance
concerning the efficient utilization of business resources. Thus, applying the
matching principle recognizes the cause-and-effect relationship that exists between
expense and revenue. Examples of expenses that are usually recognized by
associating cause and effect are sales commissions, freight-out on merchandise
sold, and cost of goods sold or services provided.
b. Some costs are assigned as expenses to the current accounting period because (1)
their incurrence during the period provides no discernible future benefits; (2) they
are measures of assets recorded in previous periods from which no future benefits
are expected or can be discerned; (3) they must be incurred each accounting year,
and no buildup of expected future benefits occurs; (4) by their nature they relate to
current revenues even though they cannot be directly associated with any specific
revenues; (5) the amount of cost to be deferred can be measured only in an arbitrary
manner or great uncertainty exists regarding the realization of future benefits, or
both; and (6) uncertainty exists regarding whether allocating them to current and
future periods will serve any useful purpose. Thus, many costs are called "period
costs" and are treated as expenses in the period incurred because neither do they
have a direct relationship with revenue earned nor can their occurrence be directly
shown to give rise to an asset. The application of this principle of expense
recognition results in charging many costs to expense in the period in which they are
paid or accrued for payment. Examples of costs treated as period expenses would
include officers' salaries, advertising, research and development, and auditors' fees.
c. A cost should be capitalized, that is, treated as an asset, when it is expected that the
asset will produce benefits in future periods. The important concept here is that the
incurrence of the cost has resulted in the acquisition of an asset, a future service
potential. If a cost is incurred that resulted in the acquisition of an asset from which
benefits are not expected beyond the current period, the cost may be expensed as a
measure of the service potential that expired in producing the current period's
revenues. Not only should the incurrence of the cost result in the acquisition of an
asset from which future benefits are expected, but also the cost should be
measurable with a reasonable degree of objectivity, and there should be reasonable
grounds for associating it with the asset acquired. Examples of costs that should
be treated as measures of assets are the costs of merchandise
on hand at the end of an accounting period, the costs of insurance coverage relating
to future periods, and the costs of self-constructed plant or equipment.
d. In the absence of a direct basis for associating asset cost with revenue, and if the
asset provides benefits for two or more accounting periods, its cost should be
allocated to these periods (as an expense) in a systematic and rational manner.
When it is impractical, or impossible, to find a close cause-and-effect relationship
between revenue and cost, this relationship is often assumed to exist. Therefore, the
asset cost is allocated to the accounting periods by some method. The allocation
method used should appear reasonable to an unbiased observer and should be
followed consistently from period to period. Examples of systematic and rational
allocation of asset cost would include depreciation of fixed assets, amortization of
intangibles, and allocation of rent and insurance.
e. A cost should be treated as a loss when an unfavorable event results from an

activity other than a normal business activity. The matching of losses to specific
revenue should not be attempted because, by definition, they are expired service
potentials not related to revenue produced. That is, losses resulting from extraneous
and exogenous events that are not recurring or anticipated as necessary in the
process of producing revenue. There is no simple way of identifying a loss, because
ascertaining whether a cost should be a loss is often a matter of judgment. The
accounting distinction between an asset, expense, loss, and prior-period adjustment
is not clear-cut. For example, an expense is usually voluntary, planned, and
expected as necessary in the generation of revenue. But a loss is a measure of the
service potential expired that is considered abnormal, unnecessary, unanticipated,
and possibly nonrecurring and is usually not taken into direct consideration in
planning the size of the revenue stream.
(AICPA Adapted)
a. Research and development costs are expensed in the year that they are incurred.
This means R&D costs impact current income dollar for dollar. Also, to the extent
that research and development efforts lead to future revenues, this is a violation of
the matching principle in relating costs to revenues in determining future income.
b. R&D expenditures at Frontier Biotech decreased substantially in fiscal 2006. As a

result, fiscal 2006 net income is substantially higher. However, this may not be a
good signal for future profitability. To the extent that one has confidence in the
ability of the R&D department at Frontier Biotech, future revenues may be
compromised by management’s decision to curtail research efforts.
a. Theoretically, presentation in the body of the statement or in the footnotes should

have no influence on the analysis of the financial statements. In practice, however,
footnote disclosures are typically insufficient. In addition, information is more difficult
to overlook when presented in the body of the financial statements.
b. An analyst would adjust the analysis of financial statements by recasting expenses

and income computations to include the disclosed stock option expense. In
addition, the analyst would recast retained earnings to reflect the stock option
expense (net of tax).
c. Numerous ratios are affected by the accrual versus non-accrual of compensation

expense related to employee stock options. For example, all ratios that include
operating expense, net income, and equity are affected, such as return on equity,
return on net operating assets, net operating profit margin, and operating expenses
as a percent of sales.
a. The plan will be deemed to be compensatory. This is because the stock option plan
is only offered to certain employees and the life of the option is not short.
b. Incent.Com would offer such a lucrative plan to its employees to attract and retain a
talented work force. Human capital is a key asset in technology companies.
c. The grant date is January 1, 2004; Vesting date is January 1, 2009; First exercise
date is January 1, 2009.
d. No, the employee stock options are not “in-the-money” at the grant date. This is
because at the grant date the exercise price is greater than or equal to (not less
than) the market price of the stock.
e. Total compensation cost should be measured at the date of measurement. The date
of measurement is the earliest date that the number of shares and the stock option
price is known—which is January 1, 2004, in this case.
f. Total compensation cost to be recognized will depend upon the accounting rules
applied. Under APB 25, total compensation cost is $0; computed as the intrinsic
value of the options times the number of shares, or [($20–$20) x 100,000 shares].
Under SFAS 123, the 81,538 options (rounded up) are expected to vest based on
the 4% forfeiture rate. Specifically, 100,000 x 4% = 4,000 options in 2000; 96,000
x 4% =
3,840 options in 2001; 92,160 x 4% = 3,686 options in 2002; 88,474 x 4% = 3,539
options in 2003; and 84,935 x 4% = 3,397 options in 2004. Consequently, $652,304
in total compensation expense should be recognized (81,538 options x $8 fair value
per option).
g. Compensation cost should be allocated over the service period, years 2004 through
2008.
h. The employee stock option plan transfers wealth from stockholders to employees by
granting potential ownership rights to employees with less than “full buy-in” to
acquire these ownership rights. That is, if existing ownership were diluted via a
normal issuance of shares to investors, contributed capital received from the
investors would be much greater than that received from the exercise price of stock
options.
a. Managers often hold, or expect to hold, stock options. As a result, they will increase
their wealth when the market price of the stock increasing exceeds the exercise price
of stock options they hold. By withholding good news and selectively releasing bad
news before the date that the option’s exercise price is established, the managers
allegedly depress the price of the stock (at least temporarily) until the exercise
price is established.
b. In the analysis of company performance and stock valuation, silence before a grant
date might be interpreted as a sign that no significant bad news is known by the
managers (given their incentive to release bad news prior to the date to establish an
exercise price when managers hold stock options). Moreover, an analyst might
expect that good news would be withheld by managers until after the date that the
exercise price of the stock options is established.
a. Some transactions affect the determination of net income for accounting purposes in
one reporting period and the computation of taxable income and income taxes
payable in a different reporting period. In accordance with the matching principle,
the appropriate income tax expense represents the income tax consequences of
revenues and expenses recognized for accounting purposes in the current period,
whether those income taxes are paid or payable in current, future, or past periods.
Accordingly, a deferred income taxes account is setup to reflect such timing
differences.
b. When depreciation expense for machinery purchased this year is reported using the
MACRS for income tax purposes and the straight-line basis for accounting purposes,
a timing difference arises. Because more depreciation expense is reported for income
tax purposes than for accounting purposes this year, pretax accounting income is
more than taxable income. The difference creates a credit to deferred income taxes
equal to the difference in depreciation multiplied by the appropriate income tax rate.
When rent revenues received in advance this year are included in this year's taxable
income but as unearned revenues (a current liability) for accounting purposes, a
timing difference arises. Because rent revenues are reported this year for income
tax purposes but not for accounting purposes, pretax accounting income is less
than taxable income. The difference creates a debit to deferred income taxes equal
to the difference in rent revenues multiplied by the appropriate income tax rate.
c. The income tax effect of the depreciation (timing difference) is classified on the
balance sheet as a noncurrent liability because the asset to which it is related is
noncurrent. The income tax effect of the rent revenues received in advance (timing
difference) is classified on the balance sheet as a current asset because the liability
to which it is related is current. The noncurrent liability and the current asset should
not be netted on the balance sheet because one is current and one is noncurrent.
On the income statement, the income tax effect of the depreciation (timing
difference) and the rent revenues received in advance (timing difference) should be
netted. This amount is classified as a deferred component of income tax expense.
There are at least two earnings targets that are typically relevant for managers and
investors. The first is the consensus earnings expectation of the analyst community.
The second is the earnings in the same quarter of the previous fiscal year. (A third
might be an earnings forecast previously released by management.) Beating these
targets by even a penny is typically viewed as a sign of sustained profit growth and
skilled leadership. This means that companies near these targets will use earnings
management to meet or exceed these targets, even if only by a penny. Accordingly,
earnings increases of $0.01 can be significant when the change pushes earnings equal
to or above relevant earnings targets. Of course, a magnitude or scale issue can be
relevant as well. A $0.01 change in an earnings per share figure that is approximately
$0.05 per share in total can be quite relevant, whereas a $0.01 change for an earnings
per share figure that is approximately
$10.00 per share can be substantially less relevant.
a. The effects of dilutive stock options and warrants are not included in the computation
of the number of shares for basic earnings per share. They are, however, included
in diluted earnings per share computations.
b. The effects of dilutive convertible securities are not included in the computation of
the number of shares for basic earnings per share. They are, however, included in
diluted earnings per share computations.
c. Antidilutive securities are excluded from both basic and diluted earnings per share.
6-30
a. Basic earnings per share is the amount of earnings attributable to common

shareholders (that is, net income less preferred dividends) divided by the weighted
average number of common shares outstanding for that period.
b. Diluted earnings per share is the amount of current earnings per share that reflects
the maximum dilution that would result from the conversion of all convertible
securities and the exercise of all warrants and options. The conversion of these
securities individually would decrease earnings per share and in the aggregate
would have a dilutive effect. The computation of diluted earnings per share should
be based upon the assumption that all such issued and issuable shares are
outstanding from the beginning of the period, or from their inception if after the
beginning of the period. To summarize, whereas basic earnings per share does not
reflect any securities convertible or exercisable into common shares, diluted
earnings per share includes all such securities and considers their dilutive effect
upon earnings per share, taking into account necessary adjustments to income
resulting from the conversion process.
(CFA Adapted)
1. b. Shares outstanding after the stock dividend are 2 million shares outstanding
entire year + 10% of 2 million shares outstanding for 9/12 of year, OR 2 mill + .2
mill(.75) =
2,150,000 shares.
2. a (potentially dilutive securities are not considered in basic earnings per share)
3. a (warrants are antidilutive because more shares are assumed bought back at the
average market price with the proceeds than were issued)
PROBLEMS
Problem 6-1 (30 minutes)
The income statements of Disposo Corp. should be shown as follows

Year 8 Year 7
Sales............................................................................ $775 $600
Costs and expenses ................................................... (657) (576)
Pretax income .............................................................. 118 24
Tax expense ................................................................ (59) (12)
Income from continuing operations ............................. $ 59 $ 12
Discontinued operations:
Operations (net of tax) [a]....................................... (3) 8
Disposal (net of $6 tax) [b]...................................... (6 )
Net Income .................................................................. $ 50 $ 20
[a] Represents net income (loss) from operations for Year 7 and for Year 8 until August
15. [b] Represents:
Loss from operations August 15 to December 31 ............................. $ (1)
Loss on sale of assets (after $5 tax).................................................. (5)
Total ................................................................................................... $ (6 )
The $10 loss and related tax benefit of $5 would still be recorded (anticipated) at
December
31, Year 8 (the asset would be reduced by $10 to market value).
1. a
2 b (40% of revenues and costs are recognized)
3. a
4. d
5 a
6. c
7. d [($120,000/30%) + ($440,000/40%)]
a. (1) Failing to timely record returned credit card purchases and membership
cancellations: An accounts receivable analysis would be the focal point to
identifying this problem. We would examine for either continual growth in
accounts receivable or unusual (unexplained) write-offs of receivables. Ratios
or techniques that compare cash collections to accounts receivable also could
potentially identify a problem area or fraudulent behavior.
(2) Improperly capitalizing and amortizing expenses related to attracting new

members: This behavior would be difficult to uncover. The key is to understand
the growth in reported intangible assets and deferred charges, and to assess its
reasonableness. Unusual increases should be viewed as a potential red flag.
(3) Recording fictitious sales: One key to uncovering fictitious sales is to monitor the
joint behavior of sales and accounts receivable, simultaneously. Increasing sales
should not necessarily lead to slower accounts receivable turnover. Increases in
the accounts receivable turnover ratio should be investigated because this can
be caused by, among other factors, the recognition of fictitious or uncollectible
sales.
b. The external auditor must conduct the audit according to generally accepted
auditing standards. The culpability of auditors in a fraud situation varies on a case
by case basis. It is often difficult to detect a fraud if key client personnel are
colluding and conspiring to cover up. However, in this case the fraud was so
widespread that auditor negligence is part of the problem. From an economic
perspective, this question will ultimately be answered via litigation.
a. Estimation of Depreciation on Tax Returns:

11 10 9
(i) Depreciation expense [162A]................................ $194.5 $184.1 $175.9
(ii) Depreciation timing difference [128] ..................... 5.9 18.6 11.9
(iii) Excess depreciation (divide tax difference
by statutory tax rate [(ii)/34%] ............................ 17.4 54.7 35.0
Depreciation on tax return [(i)+(iii)] ....................... $211.9 $238.8 $210.9
b. Identification of Amounts & Sources (combining federal, state and foreign taxes):
11 10 9
1. Earnings before income taxes [26] ............................. $667.4 $179.4 $106.5
2. Expected income tax @ 34% (confirmed by .... [134]) ... 226.9 61.0 36.2
3. Total income tax expense [27] .................................... 265.9 175.0 93.4
4. Total income tax due * ................................................ 230.4 171.1 161.2
5. Total income tax due and not yet paid [44] ................. 67.7 46.4 30.1
*Includes items [122], [123], and [124].
c. Differences between Effective Tax Rate and Statutory Rate (34%):*

11 % 10 % 9 %
[134] Tax at statutory rate .................................... $226.9 34.0 $ 61.0 34.0 $36.2 34.0
[135] State tax (net of fed benefit) ....................... 20.0 3.0 6.6 3.7 3.8 3.6
[136] Nondeductible divestitures, re-
structuring and unusual charges ................ — — 101.4 56.5 51.9 48.7
[137] Nondeductible amortization of
intangibles .................................................... 4.0 0.6 1.6 0.9 1.2 1.1
[138] Foreign earnings not taxed or taxed
at other than statutory rate ........................... (2.0) (0.3) 2.2 1.2 0.2 0.2
[139] Other ............................................................ 16.7 2.5 2.2 1.2 0.1 0.1
Totals............................................................ $265.6 39.8 $175.0 97.5 $93.4 87.7

*Numbers are computed by multiplying EBIT [26] by applicable percent as given.
d. Campbell can probably deduct for tax purposes only cash actually spent in Year 10
for these charges. If this is so, an estimate of cash spent is (see item [105]):
$339.1 - $301.6 = $37.5; $37.5 / 34% = $110 million
BIG-DEAL CONSTRUCTION CO.

Dam Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total
Book income 1 $24,000 $ 72,000 $ 24,000 $120,000
Book income 2 37,800 75,600 $ 12,600 126,000
Book income 3 15,000 45,000 75,000 $ 15,000 150,000
a. Total book income $24,000$124,800$144,600 $ 87,600 $ 15,000 $396,000
Taxable income 1 $120,000 $120,000
Taxable income 2 $126,000 126,000
Taxable income 3 $150,000 150,000
b. Total taxable Inc. $120,000 $126,000 $150,000 $396,000
Line 4 less Line 8 $24,000 $124,800 $ 24,600 $(38,400) $(135,000)
c. Incr. in def. tax (cr.) $12,000 $ 62,400 $ 12,300

Decr. in def. tax (dr.) $ 19,200 $ 67,500
STEAD CORPORATION
($ in thousands) Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
a. Income Statement
Sales............................................................... $10,000 $10,000 $10,000
Expenses *...................................................... 9,000 9,000 10,400
Income before tax ........................................... $ 1,000 $ 1,000 $ (400)
Tax expense:
Current ** .................................................... — 300 500
Deferred...................................................... 500 200 (700)
Total tax expense ....................................... $ 500 $ 500 $ (200)
Net income (loss)............................................ $ 500 $ 500 $ (200)
* Includes unusual expense of $1,400 in Year 6.

**Taxable income (loss):
Before loss carryforward ......................................... $ (400) $ 1,000 $
1,000
After deducting loss carryforward............................ — 600 —
Tax due (at 50%)..................................................... — 300 500
Note: The timing difference regarding deferred preoperating costs is $1,400 in Year 4. However,
only
$1,000 of this amount results in a reduction of Year 4 taxable income (the remaining $400
becomes a loss carryforward and reduces taxable income in Year 5). The tax effect (at 50
percent) of these differences is $500 in Year 4 and $200 in Year 5. The entire timing difference
reverses in Year 6.
b. Balance Sheet
Current tax payable ........................................ $ — $ 300 $ 500

Deferred tax payable ...................................... 500 700 —
Income Statement
Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sales ............................................. $50 $80 $120 $100 $200 $400 $500 $600
Cost of sales.................................. 20 30 50 300 50 120 200 250
General and administrative............ 10 15 20 100 20 30 40 50
Net income before tax ................... $20 $35 $50 $(300) $130 $250 $260 $300
Tax expense (refund)*

Current provision ......................... 10 17.5 25 92.5 130 150
Refund from carryback ................ (52.5)
Tax effect of loss carryforward .... 65 32.5
Total tax expense .......................... $10 $17.5 $25 $(52.5) $65 $125 $130 $150
Income before extraordinary items ..... 10 17.5 25 (247.5) 65 125 130 150
Extraordinary gain (reduction)

of taxes due to carryforward ........ 65 32.5
Net income (**) .............................. $10 $17.5 $25 $(247.5) $130 $157.5 $130 $150
b c
* Taxable income...................................... $20 $35 $50 $(300) a $(65) $185 $260 $300
Tax due at 50% rate ............................... 10 17.5 25 (52.5) 0 92.5 130 150
a
Operating loss of $300 carried back to eliminate all taxable income for Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3
and secure refund of $52.5 for total taxes paid during those years.
b
c
Income for Year 5 of $130 less loss carryforward of $195.
Income for Year 6 of $250 less loss carryforward of $65.
** Disclosure: Tax loss carryforwards are $195 at end of Year 4 and $65 at end of Year 5.
Accounting effects [journal entries Dr. (Cr.)]:
Tax expense...................................... 10 17.5 25 (52.5) 65 125 130 150
FIT Receivable .................................. 52.5
FIT Payable ....................................... (10) (17.5) (25) (92.5) (130) (150)
Extraordinary gains ........................... (65) (32.5)
1. c ($6,500,000 net income / 2,500,000 shares = $2.60)

2. b
Diluted EPS = Adjusted net income
wtd. avg. of + wtd. avg. number
common stock of common shares
outstanding issuable from options
and convertibles
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options, the options are
dilutive. Using treasury stock method for options we obtain:
i. 200,000 shares × $15 = $3,000,000 proceeds
ii. $3,000,000 / 20 average price = 150,000 shares purchased in open market
Thus, 50,000 additional shares would be issued.
Are the convertible bonds dilutive? No. Assuming conversion of bonds, 100,000
additional shares would be issued. The net income adjustment would be:
Interest expense related to bonds ................................ $500,000
Less taxes ..................................................................... (200,000)
Increase in net income.................................................. $300,000
Consequently:
EPS = ($6,500,000+$300,000)/(2,500,000+100,000) = $2.62
Diluted EPS = $6,500,000/(2,500,000+50,000) = $2.55

a. Basic EPS Computations:
Basic EPS = $4,000,000 / 3,000,000 shares = $1.33
Diluted EPS Computations:
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options and warrants,
the options and warrants are dilutive. Using treasury stock method:
i. 1,000,000 shares × $15 = $15,000,000 proceeds
ii. $15,000,000 / $20 = 750,000 shares purchased in open market
Diluted EPS = $4,000,000 / 3,250,000 shares = $1.23
b. Basic EPS Computations:

Basic EPS = $3,000,000 / 3,000,000 shares = $1.00
Diluted EPS Computations:
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options and warrants,
the options and warrants are dilutive. Using treasury stock method:
i. 1,000,000 shares × $15 = $15,000,000 proceeds
ii. $15,000,000 / $18 = 833,333 shares purchased in open market
Diluted EPS = $3,000,000 / 3,166,667 shares = $0.95

Analyzing Operating Activities: Review

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Analyzing Operating Activities: Review

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Chapter 06 - Analyzing Operating Activities

• Describe and analyze the impact of non-recurring items - including extraordinary

• Analyze deferred charges, including expenditures for research, development,

• Explain supplementary employee benefits and analyze disclosures for employee

• Analyze and interpret earnings per share data (Appendix 6A).

• Understand the economics of employee stock options (appendix 6B).

14. (1) Depreciation

15. Three different types of accounting changes include:

23. The percentage-of-completion method is preferred when estimates of costs to complete

Exercise 6-1 (25 minutes)

b. Income (expense) related to discontinued operations include the operating profit

Exercise 6-2 (30 minutes)

Exercise 6-3 (35 minutes)

a. A change from the sum-of-the-years'-digits method of depreciation to the straight-

b. A change in the expected service life of an asset arising because of more

c. 1. The cumulative effect of a change in accounting principle is the difference

d. Consistent use of accounting principles from one accounting period to another

e. If a change in accounting principle occurs, the nature and effect of a change in

f. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. Thus, managerial

g. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. However, there is often

h. Mandatory accounting changes often include the recognition of retroactive earnings

Exercise 6-4 (20 minutes)

Comprehensive income computation:*

a. Computation: b. Balance sheet accounts affected:

b. 1. Though it is recognized that revenue is earned throughout the entire production

2. To criticize the sales basis as not being sufficiently conservative because

c. 1. During production. This basis of recognizing revenue is frequently used by

b. Progress billings would be accounted for by increasing Accounts Receivable and

Exercise 6-8 (20 minutes)

a. Some costs are recognized as expenses on the basis of a presumed direct

e. A cost should be treated as a loss when an unfavorable event results from an

Exercise 6-10 (15 minutes)

b. R&D expenditures at Frontier Biotech decreased substantially in fiscal 2006. As a

a. Theoretically, presentation in the body of the statement or in the footnotes should

b. An analyst would adjust the analysis of financial statements by recasting expenses

c. Numerous ratios are affected by the accrual versus non-accrual of compensation

Exercise 6-12 (40 minutes)

Exercise 6-13 (15 minutes)

Exercise 6-16 (20 minutes)

a. Basic earnings per share is the amount of earnings attributable to common

Exercise 6-18 (15 minutes)

Problem 6-1 (30 minutes)

The income statements of Disposo Corp. should be shown as follows

Problem 6-2 (30 minutes)

(2) Improperly capitalizing and amortizing expenses related to attracting new

a. Estimation of Depreciation on Tax Returns:

Depreciation on tax return [(i)+(iii)] ....................... $211.9 $238.8 $210.9

*Includes items [122], [123], and [124].

c. Differences between Effective Tax Rate and Statutory Rate (34%):*

Totals............................................................ $265.6 39.8 $175.0 97.5 $93.4 87.7

BIG-DEAL CONSTRUCTION CO.

Book income 1 $24,000 $ 72,000 $ 24,000 $120,000

Book income 2 37,800 75,600 $ 12,600 126,000

Book income 3 15,000 45,000 75,000 $ 15,000 150,000

a. Total book income $24,000$124,800$144,600 $ 87,600 $ 15,000 $396,000

Taxable income 1 $120,000 $120,000

Taxable income 2 $126,000 126,000

Taxable income 3 $150,000 150,000

b. Total taxable Inc. $120,000 $126,000 $150,000 $396,000

Line 4 less Line 8 $24,000 $124,800 $ 24,600 $(38,400) $(135,000)

c. Incr. in def. tax (cr.) $12,000 $ 62,400 $ 12,300

* Includes unusual expense of $1,400 in Year 6.

Current tax payable ........................................ $ — $ 300 $ 500