Interaction and the Ottoman Empire the Byzantine Empire, located to the west. For over 200 years, the empire expanded, eventually stretching from Eastern Europe, into Southwest Asia, and North Africa. Asa result of expansion into numerous lands, by the 1600s, culture in the Ottoman Empire included diverse religions, ethnicities, and languages. All of these groups could have meant a lot of conflict and disunity in the empire. The Ottoman Empire, however, was very tolerant of different cultures and managed to keep the empire relatively unified. It achieved this unity through the establishment of a system of administrative law and the tolerance of religious diversity. Ts Islamic Ottoman Empire came to power in the early 1300s in Anatolia. It bordered Constantinople Becomes Istanbul As the Ottoman Empire grew in power, it became more and more of a threat to the people of Western Europe. The Byzantine Empire, the western neighbor of the Ottoman Empire, provided protection to Europe from the Ottomans. This protection, however was weakened when in 1453, Mehmet II, the Ottoman sultan, (leader) captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans didn’t conquer the entire Byzantine Empire, just part of it, and it was, unfortunately for Europe, an important part. Constantinople was a critical trading city to Europeans . because it provided access to Asian markets. After Sueymaniye. Camvansenl 100 ¢ conquering the city, the sultan renamed it Istanbul and began restoring the city to increase its greatness and power. Eventually, Istanbul became a great commercial center with a population of more than one million people. New and restored buildings reflected both Islamic and Byzantine architecture. For example, the great Christian cathedral Hagia Sophia was changed into a mosque called Aya Sofya. A Legal Code Conquered lands and cities, like Constantinople, included conquered people with different ethnicities, languages, and religions. Although there were diverse cultures, the empire was ruled centrally by the sultan with local administrators. This meant that all people were expected to follow the same laws, or legal code. The Ottoman legal code was called kanun. These laws covered situations that were not covered by Islamic law. It helped to unify people who had followed different legal systems previously. Mehmet’s successor Suleiman added to these laws to include the rights and responsibilities of those living in the Empire. Education was also an important part of how the sultan united the Empire. The elite Muslims of the Empire were educated in religion, law, language, logic, history, geography, and science. By educating the elite, the sultan developed a group of loyal and capable leaders among the many different lands that were a part of the Ottoman Empire. Religious Diversity One of the other ways the Ottomans managed to keep the Empire unified was through religious tolerance, ‘The Ottomans did not force the people they conquered to convert to Islam. They (©2008 MCPS Social Studies Lesson Sequence 2: Interaction, Conquest, and Change 105allowed religious diversity and some freedom to minority religions such as Christianity and Judaism. Christians and Jews in conquered regions of the Balkans, Armenia, Lebanon, and Eaypt were allowed to organize into their own communities, or millets. They were allowed to worship according to their religious beliefs and send their children to their own schools. They were able to have their own local laws and maintain their traditions. These communities had to acknowledge the authority of the Muslims and pay a special tax called a jizya. Western Interactions Interaction with other cultures brought some changes to the Empire, but the Ottomans generally resisted cultural influences from Western Europe. Conservative religious leaders looked down on outside influences and censored the spread of ideas that might be a threat to the political and religious authority of the Empire. They allowed people to follow other religions but did not want them to convert Islamic believers. Some leaders, however, were more open to ideas. Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim, second in command to the sultan, ruled the Empire from 1718 to 1730. During his rule, he loosened government controls over the social lives of people and allowed the lites to consume luxury goods, including European imports. European clothing and furniture could be found in the homes of Ottoman elites. There was interest in European science and military tactics. This was also a time of growth literary and artistic flourishing. Ottoman presses produced maps and books on science, history, and geography. This time period is known as the Tulip Period because of the large and beautiful gardens that were fashionable at the time. Images of tulips inspired the design of tiles, fabrics, and the decoration of public buildings. Tulips originated in central Asia, but demand for these beautiful flowers spread to Holland and other parts of Europe a century earlier. This brief time of deliberate interaction with Wester thought came to an end when the Grand Vizier was killed in 1730. Interaction and Trade Ottoman expansion and power was possible because of trade. Interaction in the world trade system gave the Ottoman rulers the resources they needed to expand. Although new ocean trade routes were emerging, land based trade routes remained important. The Ottoman Empire was located at one of the crossroads of land-based trade. Routes connecting China and Indian Ocean port cities to the Mediterranean and Europe went right through the center of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire had another advantage as well, a powerful navy. This helped them make it difficult for Europeans to access Asian trade routes. Wherever there is trade, there are taxes, the main source of money for governments. Onoman Pate [en Tukey, nc, With so many trade routes passing through Ottoman lands, Ores Cobes Fees the Empire was able to maintain and grow its wealth. (©2008 MCPS Social Studies Lesson Sequence 2: Interaction, Conquest, and Change 408Interaction in Colonial Spanish-America The interaction of cultures in colonial Spanish-America was unique, however, in that the interaction occurred among cultures from three different continents; cultures that had not had regular contact with one another previously. Colonial Spanish- ‘America brought together Spanish, Native American, and African cultures to create new cultures in Latin America. This cultural interaction, however, was not equal. The Spanish, as conquerors of the region, imposed their culture by force. One of the most significant cultural transformations was in the establishment of a rigid social system based on race. This system gave power to some groups and limited opportunities for others. Despite the imposed dominance of the Spanish culture, elements of native and African culture were not entirely lost and can be seen in the religious traditions and architecture that emerged during this time. I nteraction of cultures has been part of human society since its earliest beginnings. A New Social Hierarchy Spanish belief about race shaped the system of social hierarchy that developed in the ‘Americas. Because of colonization and forced migration, the racial makeup of the ‘Americas began to change. Spanish soldiers took native women as wives. Others groups mixed as well. The Spanish created new racial categories to describe the results of this mixing. The social hierarchy reflected the dominance of the Spanish. There were many classes, but the most well known included peninsulare, creole, mestizo, mulatto, native (indigenous), and enslaved Africans. The peninsulares were at the top of the hierarchy because they had been born in Spain. ‘They were the only class allowed to hold high government positions or handle Spanish trade. Beneath the peninsulares were the creoles, who were Spanish but bom in the ‘Americas. They owned many of the plantations, ranches, and mines. They resented the mercantilist policies that gave better opportunities to those bom in Spain. The mestizos were people of native and European descent, and the mulattoes were people of African and European descent. These two groups were denied many economic opportunities. ‘Native Americans and Africans were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Many of them were enslaved, but whether free or slave, they had limited opportunities. Casta paintings from the 1700s showed the intermixing of these racial groups. They provide an interesting perspective of what the upper class Spanish thought about race and social hierarchy during the colonial period in Latin America. Merging Cultures: Colonial Architecture Spanish authorities deliberately tried to eliminate the culture of the native people of the Americas to’ reinforce their own power and control. Architecture is one way conquering powers try to create powerful visual symbols of their dominance. The Spanish were no different, They built government buildings, churches, monuments, aed and other large buildings in traditional Spanish architectural styles. Symbol of the Sun, They did this not only because this was familiar to them, but it also orate Cites reinforced their own belief in having a superior culture. oe[Although the Spanish sought to erase symbols of other culture, native people were able to preserve some of their own culture within the architecture, An example of this can be Seen in many churches built at this time. The Spanish deliberately built Catholic cathedrals on top of native sites of worship. They did this to destroy native beliefs and to fuake a statement about where and how the natives should now be worshipping. These European style churches were meant to show the power of the Spanish, but the laborers who built them were natives, As a result, native symbols and religious images were Safed alongside those of the Spanish. The natives found ways to negotiate between the apparent destruction of their religion and the imposing of a new one. ‘They could attend the Catholic churches but continue to see and honor their own gods within the same building. Merging Cultures: Hybrid Religions and Shared Beliefs Catholic missionaries in the Americas worked aggressively to convert the natives and Africans to Christianity. In many cases they used Spanish political and military resources to force them to abandon their own gods and beliefs and convert to Roman Catholicism. However, many natives and Africans did not accept Catholicism exactly as it was. They found common characteristics, practices, or beliefs and so merged past beliefs with new ones. New hybrid, or mixed, religions were also formed. These religions were distinct from Christianity and Native American or African beliefs. Hybrid religions have roots in Catholicism, native Aztec and Inca religions, native African and Islamic beliefs, and Judaism. Examples of hybrid religions include Santeria, Candomblé, voodoo, and Macumba. ‘Although Catholicism was the dominant religion, it too was changed asa An Aztec statue of result of cultural interactions. Some native beliefs were similar to beliefs Mictantecuhtl or practices of Catholicism, and so a merging of these beliefs was able to occur. For instance, both the Catholic Spanish and Native Americans had traditions regarding honoring the dead and beliefs about life after death. In Mexico today, there is a holiday known as The Day of the Dead or El Dia de los Muertos. The roots of this holiday can be traced back to both Catholic and Aztec rituals and beliefs. The Aztecs honored Mictecacihuatl, the “Lady of the Dead,” during the month of Miccailhuitontli and decorated the graves of their ancestors with bright marigold flowers. The Spanish also honored their dead on All Saints! Day and All Souls’ Day on November 1" and 2°* . These two beliefs were merged when the Spanish moved Miccailhuitontli to coincide with their religious days. The result was a unique religious tradition of both native and Spanish origins. Today, many families in Mexico observe El Dia de los Muertos to honor their deceased relatives. They decorate the graves with flowers and things the dead relative enjoyed and share fond memories. Picnics near the gravesite are common and feature cookies and candy in skull shapes. Candy Skulls ©2008 MCPS Social Studies Lesson Sequence 2: Interaction, Conquest, and Change 108