LECTURE 3

BINARY (KEYING) MODULATION METHODS

Each analog modulation method leads to its corresponding binary method. The basebands involved are all
digital and the simplest of these is the binary digit 101010. Because this is the one with most frequent voltage
changes and has greatest baseband bandwidth.
Baseband digital signal can either be unipolar (1≡ V ; 0 ≡ 0 ) or bipolar ( 1≡ V; 0 ≡ -V) (Fig 3.1).

Figure 3.1 Baseband digital signal representation

To analyse the modulation methods we need to know the spectrum of each type. Since both are periodic they
are represented as Fourier series. Recall trigonometric form of the Fourier series:
∞
x(t) = ao / 2 + Σ [an cos(n 2π/To t ) +bn sin(n 2π/To t ) ]
n=2

where the coefficients are calculated from :

T
ao = 1 / To 0 ∫ x(t) dt
T
an = 2 / To 0∫ x(t) cos (nωot)dt
T
bn = 2 / To 0∫ x(t) sin (nωot )dt

Thus for unipolar stream (amplitude A = 1) s1 (t) = 1/2 + 2/π [ cosωot - 1/3 cos3ωot + 1/5 cos5ωot - …]

And for a bipolar stream s 3 (t) = 4 / π [ cos ωot - 1/3 cos 3ωot + 1/5 cos 5ωot - …]

where ωo = 2π/ 2T = π/T is the fundamental frequency of the bit stream. Note that s 2(t) = 1- s1(t) which is the
complement of s1(t).

There three basic methods, each corresponding to one of the three analogue modulation methods.
Amplitude shift keying (ASK) using AM
Frequency shift keying (FSK ) using FM
Phase shift keying (PSK) using PM

The term „shift keying” arises historically from the early days of signaling by telegraphy in the 19 th century.
Then symbols were transmitted by sending current pulses down a line by making and breaking a circuit with a
key (switch) which shifted (changed) the value of the current (from 0 to1) to represent a digit.

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3.1 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)

ASK is the binary equivalent of AM and widely used only in optical communications. Modulation is done
by multiplying the carrier vc(t) = cosωct by a baseband unipolar signal s1(t). The amplitude of a carrier
sinusoid is shifted from 0 Volts for a logic 0 to some fixed value, V, for a logic 1 as in Fig 3.2 (or vice versa).

Figure 3.2 Formation of ASK-modulated bit stream.

To generate ASK
carrier
ASK out
unipolar stream

vASK = vc x s1(t) = cos ωct x [ 1/2 + 2/π(cosωot - 1/3 cos3ωot + 1/5 cos 5ωot - …)] =

= 1/2 cosωct + 2/π cosωct cosωot - 2/3π cosωct cos3ωot + …

= 1/2 cosωct +1/π cos(ωc-ωo)t + 1/π cos (ωc+ωo)t - 1/3π cos (ωc -3ωo)t - 1/3π cos (ωc +3ωo) t +…

This is the standard spectrum of a square pulse train frequency translated up to f c (Fig 3.3) The bandwidth
which needs to be transmitted depends on the requirements of the application. Where there is a need to
recover recognizable square pulses at the receiver it may be necessary to include at least the third harmonic
sideband pair (fc ± 3fo) or even the fifth. This leads to the criterion BASK = 3 (bit rate).
ASK is very vulnerable to noise corruption, especially from impulses which upset the start/stop arrangements.
To overcome this the simple solution is to send 1s and 0s at different frequencies, shifting from one to the
other as required. Hence we get FSK which as a form of FM using a fixed deviation and only 2 modulated
frequencies.

Figure 3.3 Formation of ASK spectrum.

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 3.2 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
FSK is the binary equivalent of FM and widely used only in low speed modems. With FSK a binary 0 is
transmitted as an audio frequency tone ω2, while a 1 is transmitted as a tone of frequency ω1. It is convenient
to consider FSK as a sum of two ASK waveforms with different carrier frequencies. Where s 1(t) represents
the 1 s stream, and s2(t) = 1-s1(t) its complement, represents the binary 0s.

VFSK = cos ω1t x s1(t) + cosω2t x s2(t) = cosω1t x [ 1/2 +2/π( cosωot -1/3 cos3ωot +1/5cos5ωot - …)]+

+ cosω2t x [1/2 - 2/π (cosωot -1/3cos3ωot +1/5cos5ω0t -…)]

that is

VFSK = 1/2 cosω1t +1/π cos (ω1 -ωo)t +1/π cos(ω1 + ωo)t - 1/3π cos (ω1 -3 ωo)t - 1/3π cos(ω1 +3 ωo)t + …

+ 1/2 cosω2t - 1/π cos(ω2 - ωo)t -1/π cos (ω2 + ωo)t + 1/3π(ω2 -3 ωo)t +1/3π cos(ω1 +3 ωo)t - …

which is two ASK spectra centred around ω1 and ω2 and separated by 2∆f (= f2-f1), the frequency shift.

Figure 3.4 shows the spectrum. For its bandwidth we take the third harmonic sideband pair criterion.
Then BW = 3fo +2∆f +3fo = 6fo +2∆f = 6(1/2Tb) + shift.
That is BFSK = 3(1/Tb) + shift = 3(bit rate) + frequency shift ( for 3-rd harmonic).

Where the shift is the difference between the two carrier frequency values (shift = |ω 1 - ω2| ). If the 1-st
harmonic pair only had been taken the bandwidth would be just bit rate + shift.

Figure 3.4 Formation of FSK spectrum

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Figure 3.5 Formation of FSK signal.

3.3 PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

PSK has advantages over ASK and FSK. It has the same bandwidth as ASK, less than that of FSK by the
amount of shift. It is less susceptible to noise corruption than the FSK and better than ASK. PSK distinguishes
types of digits by changing the phase of the carrier. For binary digits (BPSK) there are only two types of
digits (1 and 0) and consequently only 2 phases (0o and 180o) are needed (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 Formation of PSK waveform.

These can also be shown in an informative manner or a phase diagram of the constellation type (Fig 3.7)

Figure 3.7 PSK constellation phase diagram.

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We need a bipolar baseband because one phase is merely- the other (180o phase change ≡ multiplying by -1).
Note how the phases are shown. Bipolar bit stream s3(t) multiplies the carrier

VBPSK = vc x s3(t) = cosωct x 4/π (cosωot - 1/3 cos3ωot + 1/5 cos5ωo - …) =

= 4/π (cosωct x cosωot - 1/3 cosωct x cos3ωot +..) =

= 2/π [ cos(ωc- ωo) t + cos(ωc + ωo)t - 1/3 cos (ωc + 3ωo)t -1/5 cos ( ωc + 5ωo )t +…]

This is the same spectrum as ASK but without the carrier and its bandwidth is calculated the same way.
If the 3rd harmonic pair is included, we get BPSK = 3 (bit rate)

3.4 MULTILEVEL PSK

Multilevel digits occur mostly in PSK but it is possible to have them in ASK and FSK too (Fig 3.8).

Figure 3.8 Multilevel PAM digits

In PSK they have proved to be useful because each of them can be made to convey more than one binary
digit, so increasing the bit rate for a given symbol rate. For example, if 1 symbol is to convey 2 bits, the 4
distinct symbols are needed to cover all possible combinations of 2 bits (00, 01, 11, 10) and 4-PSK (QPSK) is
obtained. The need to provide for all combinations means that useful multilevel systems must have a number
of symbols, which is a power of 2. That is, 3 bits per symbol requires 8 levels, 4 bits needs 16 levels, and so
on, with the general need being that n bits requires M levels where M = 2 n. In PSK multilevel symbols arise
first of all by making smaller changes in the carrier phase. Any phase from 0o to 360o can be used, not just 0o
and 180o, and the most common of these uses 90o differences at 45o, 135o, 225o and 315o to get quadrature
PSK (QPSK) (Fig 3.9a).

Figure 3.9 QPSK and 16-QAM constellations (Binary numbers Gray coded)

Phase can be subdivided further (e.g. in 8-PSK) but there is a limit to how the division can be because they
have to be separated accurately at the receiver. To overcome this restriction, changes of amplitude are used as
well is system and are called phase amplitude modulation (PAM) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
(Fig 3.9b).