t-

LOntents

-, Acknowledgements iv
Introduction 1
_i
Section 1 Section 8
Society, culture and the Contribution of sports to
_' individuat 3 development in the Caribbean 154

- Section 2 . Section 9

_ Geography, society and cutture 19 Regional integration and

devetopment 159

r i Section 3
Section 10
History, society and culture 42
Factors promoting or hindering
devetopment 168
- Section 4
Cuttural diversity in Caribbean
Section 11
- society and culture 73
I ntellectuaI traditions 179

-
Section 5
Section 12
- , lmpact of societal institutions on
i i
Caribbean peopte 97 The mass media 198

-l
I
I

Section 6 Section 13

Caribbean-gtobal interaction 122 Social justice 204

, Section 7 Section 14
ri
I Concepts and indicators Investigating issues in the
of devetopment 142 Caribbean " 209
Acknowledgements I

The authors and publisher are grateful to the following for permission to
reproduce copyright material:
-l
T
p49: Bartolom6 de las Casas, History of the Indies, uanslated and edited by Andr€e
Collard (NewYork Harper &Row, l97l). Copyright @ 197I byfurdreeM. Collard, -Ct((
renewed @ 1999 by Joyce J. Contrucci. Reprinted by permission of |oyce J. Contrucci.
Excerptonpp 192-193. C
a.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders, and we apologise il -((
any have been overlooked. Should @pyright have been unwittingly infringed in t(
this book, the owners should contact the publishers, who will make corrections at lt
reprint.
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I
Introduction
I Purpose
The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXCOI, irr
collaboration with the Commonwedth of Iearning
(COLI, has developed self-snrdy guides for a number of
Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC@I
and Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination
(CAPE@I subjects. The main purpose of the guides is
to provide both in-school and out-of-school candidates
with resource materids that should help them in
preparing for CXC examinations. Each section is
student-centered and its language is student-friendly.
The Caribbean Studies course is designed for persons
over the age of 16 who wish to further their studies.
The course is equally useful to persons who are
pursuing part-time shrdy and those enrolled full time
in an educational institution.
You may have completed ftve years of secondary
education, or you may be a mature student with work
ocperience. The course is based on the assumption
that you are already able to:
r interpret accurately, materid intended for the
informed layperson
t express persond opinions and factual information
clearly, demonstrating logical sequencing and
appropriate English registers up to the level of the
CSEC General Proficiency or its equivalent.
I course aims
This course aims to help students:
r dwelop an understanding of the factors that
influence the evolution of Caribbean society and
culture
develop an awareness of how current global trends
affect, and are affected by, the Caribbean region
analyse issues that are important to the dwelopment
of the Caribbean region
reflect on how factors that have shaped the
Caribbean region have influenced the lives of the
people of the Caribbean
dwelop a respect for other cultures and for their
contribution to the region's dwelopment
develop an appreciation of the importance of
dealing justly and equitably with other groups and
individuals
dwelop the capability to investrgate and report on
issues that promote a better understanding of the
Caribbean region
dorelop the capacity to acquire skills and abilities
in making decisions and responding to challenges
in their personal lives.
I Course structure
The course consists of 14 sections, which are all based
on the CAPE Caribbean Studies syllabus. Each section
addresses the skills and cnntent of a specific Module
of the syllabus. The Module on which the section is
based is always indicated at the beginning of the secrion.
Florrever, the sequence of the sections does not mirror
that of the syllabus Modules since the syllabus Modules
ale not bound by a ngd sequence. The sequence of
topics in this course is designed to facilitate shrdy by
leading you through topics in a way that will enable ybu
to build on prwiously learnt skills.
I Wtrat resources wi[|, you need?
Remember that these sections will not be all that
you need to complete the syllabus and prepare for
your examination. You are erpected to make use of
the resources listed at the end of the course book as
well as engage in other wide, general reading, which
will improve your general knowledge, vocabulary and
structural competence.
You will dso need basic study equipment, for example,
paper, pens, pencils and highlighters for marking
important parts of the text. A good dictionary and a
thesaurus are also essential to this programme.
I Managing your time
Remember to put aside special time each day for
general reading in addition to your study time.
I Section structure
Each section is dMded into eight areas to facilitate
your stud, as indicated below.
Introduction This places what you are about to study
in the context of your everyday life and
relates it to what You have done in
prwious sections.
Content This lists the topics that are to be
covered in the section. .
Objectives These help you to identify the speciffc
skills that you should have acquired
by the end of the secrion. You should
read these carefully to acquaint yourself
with what you are meant to be learning
during the section.
Activities Instructions are provided at the start
of each activity. Read all instructions
carefully before you attempt the activity.
Some activities require you to think
about something before you read any
further. You should take the necessary
time to do so. The thinking acriviry is
designed to help you focus your thoughts
in the directions that will facilitate your
ability to complete the activiries that
follow.
Feedback Each activity has a feedback section that
allows you to determine how well you
have done in the activity. If you have nor
completed the activity successfully, you
should re-read the preceding examples
or information carefully.
Examptes These are meant to guide you to an
understanding of the concept being
taught. All examples should be read
carefully before you attempt any
activities that follow.
tr
End test This comes at the end of each section
and is designed to ensure that you have
acquired those skills identi.fied in the
objectives. There is feedback following
the End test that allows you to measure
the accurary of your answers to the gest
so that you will know whether or not
you have acquired the competencies. If
there are questions in the End test that
you have not answered satisfactorily,
ensure that you return to the relevant
area of. the section and review the
information until you are satisffed that
you have understood the concept.
Key points These summarise impoftant concepts
that you need to remember and pay
special attention to as you work through
tle course.
I Assignments
Course assignments are included in order to allowyou to
check your progress through the @urse. The assignments
enable you to determine your areas of weakness and to
check your understanding of the conc€pts.
I Examinations
You must ensure that you have access to the version
of the syllabus that outlines the structure of the
examination for the year in which you intend to write it.
-1 Society, culture and the individual
At the end of this section, you
should:
understand the factors that
have shaped Caribbean society
and culture
appreciate how cutturaI traits
evident throughout the region
have resulted from Caribbean
people's experiences.
Specific objectives
You shoutd be able to:
exptain the terms 'society' and
'cu[ture'
describe some of the common
and diverse features of
Caribbean society and culture
use sociotogicaI concepts such
as 'vatues', 'norms', 'latent and
manifest functions' to explain
behaviour
anatyse some of the factors
shaping Caribbean society and
cutture
appty a knowtedge of
sociologicaI concepts to your
own choices, roles, values and
behaviours
describe the effects of cuttural
erasure, retention and renewaI
on Car ibbean [ife.
Introduction
Many Caribbean people may not know much about society and culture in
Caribbean territories other than their own. Some may think that society
and culture are very similar in all Caribbean countries. Some of us may
also think that some aspects of our society and culture are unique and
that no other Caribbean territory is quite like ours.
This section should help you get an understanding of Caribbean society
and culture. You will learn about the ways of life that we share and how
we differ from people in other Caribbean countries.
This section should also help you becorne aware of the part that you play
in shaping society.and culture.
Content
I The concept'society'
I The concept'culture'
I Society and culture - where do they overlap?
I Values, norms and behaviours
I What lies behind values?
I How do people learn values?
t Latent and manifest functions
The concept'society'
The largest unit or goup to which you belong is called'society'.
It is a term taken largely for granted. Flowwer, there are different
understandings of the term, especially when we compare those of
lal4rersons and those of sociologists. While the views of lay"persons may
not be necessarily wrong, the way the sociologist understands society
gives us further insights into how society works.
Activity 1J
My understanding of society
In this exercise, you wilt be exptoring your own use of the term 'society'.
Write three sentences using the word 'society' in a different sense each time.
Feedback
Here are some different ways in which the term 'society' is used - comPare
these with your sentences.
1 Any group of people living in a country makes up its society.
2 High society describes the lives of the rich and famous.
3 The society in which we live tolerates the drinking of alcohol but not the
smoking of marijuana.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 1.2
Myself and society
This activity should strengthen
your awareness of how deepty you
are tied to the society in which you
tive. lt may cause you to reflect on
individuaI characteristics.
ldentify as many groups as
possible to which you belong.
Feedback
We all betong to targe groups
that are defined by our gender,
socioeconomic status, raciaI or
ethnic .heritage, retigious affitiation
and nationatity. In addition, we
belong to smatler groups such as
our famity, our circle of friends
and our school or work mates. We
atso belong to clubs, associations
and other organisations. What we
notice from this is that we do not
lead a single, solitary tife but almost
a[[ of our living takes place as we
participate in groups. This is why the
sociotogist focuses on the ,group,
nature of social tife.
Activity 1J hightights some ideas about society tisted betow.
1 Society is a coltection of people living in the same geographical area over
time. This is a typical understanding of the term.
2 Society is atso used to describe the tifestytes of the weatthy. This shows
that 'society' is a term with a specialised meaning having to do with
the rich and powerful and the kinds of lifestytes they enjoy. This is atso
a common understanding of the term 'society'. We speak of individuats
mingting in high society.
3 society is a guide to behaviour. white the two understandings above are
common to the layperson, the notion that society acts as a 'moral police'
of our behaviours is the view of the sociotogist. The layperson is atso aware
of this when he or she says '...society witt not a[[ow that'. By focusing on
what the sociotogist means by this statement, we witl come to a better
understanding about how society works.
The sociologist and society
To the sociologist who is involved in the systematic study of society, the
important aspect in defining tfre term is its group structure. Sociery is
possibly the largest group to which an individual belongs but he or she is
also a member of different groups that comprise relationships within the
overall unit, society. so, a famaican belongs to a society that is usually
limited by the narural borders of the island. within that large group tre
or she may belong to a specific socioeconomic group, religious-affiliation,
racial group, ethnic group, geographic area, such as-the p"tistt of portland,
be an alumunus of Titchfield High school, have family
"t "*t"ttd"d
nenvork, a group of close friends and work associates.
The sociologist and sociaI groups
sociologists describe society as having a framework that is not visible but
provides a frame of reference for understanding that groups
are necessary
for our existence and that society influences h6w welehave.
social institutions are thelargest possible groups in society. They are not
tang'ble. Examples of social instinrtions
politics, religionand-family. sociologists "te
- the *ot o*y, education,
regard them as a group of
cherished ideas and beliefs that we liave as a society and a6out how
we
want our lives organised. The family is a social insiitution, in that we
believe the family unit is the best and most functional *"i io socialise
new members of society. we also have a set of cherished ideas and
beliefs
about how the social instirution of the family should *orr.
social organisations
1re tangible. They are the groups that are formed
in-a society because of the cherished ideas and ueters we hold about
different aspects of social lrfe. They are the groups ot orgnisaaons we
form to reflect the ideas and beliefi of our sociaiinstitot]orrr. Thus,
the
extended flTity tlpe (organisation) is common in the caribbean
because
we do not believe that growing up and even getting married necessarily
m:ans leaving home. we also have strong beliefs iir"t us to invite
"".,rittrem going to
relatives to stay with us for long periods ir it witt facilitate
school or to work. These cherished beliefs and ideas p"rt or the social
institution of the family in the caribbean and give,ir" "i.ti --'
,p."ific types o1
family organisation or'rrangements sociar oti"rrir"tlo;J.
(
social institutions and social organisations represent the
framework
of society. If we understand the way our cheriihed beliJs
grorrp.a
"r.
 Section 1 Society, culture and the individuat I
in terms of socid institutions then we will make sense of the kinds
of
organisations that we have and that we take largely for granted. Activity 1.3
The ideas-that people-in a society share about what is a good education Does society influence my
or even what-is a good school come out of our history. d. h"rr. inherited behaviour?
a-set of beliefs and philosophies about education thai trave
b""o-. To what extent am I a unique
cherished uaditions, for example: individuat? Am l inftuenced by
society's vatues? These questions
I importance is placed on classicd and traditional disciplines
- are important for any person trying
mathematics, sciences, arts, and literatue; nowadays business and to understand how society works.
computer technologies are similarly valued
I schooling should be rigorous and should aim at high standards
1 List the reasons why you are
doing a post-secondary course
r education and religion go hand in hand to inculcate discipline and of studies.
acceptable mords in the young.
2 Put a tick next to the reasons
The ideas and beliefs about education that we have inherited have shaped you betieve are solety
the social institutions, Caribbean education and related organisations and influenced by your personality
arangements, such as the curriculum, examination practices and types and not those that may have
of schools. to do with society's vatues and
expectations.
At the beginning of this section, it was suggested that gr6ups are
necessary for our existence and that through these groups, society
influences our behaviour. Now we understand that ih" idear and beliefs Feedback
we cherish are not ours alone but are those typical or dominant in
society. Those ideas were inherited and today form our traditions and The reasons that may have
belong to the institutional framervork of society. From them tangible inftuenced your choice of study
groups, socid organisations, are derived. may have been that you:

We belong to all these groups, even if we are unaware of our membership.

I do not want to go out and
Our behaviours are influenced by the preferences and values impoftant work at this time
in our institutions. Thus, drinking alcohol has been a widespread socid I want to combine work and
practice associated with leisure and relaxation and has been accepted continued pursuit of studies
historically, unlike, for example, the smoking of mariiuana. I want to quatify to enter
university

Summary I are unsure about whatyou

want to do.
Society is a collection of people living in the same geographical area over
a long period of time.
Most of these reasons are retated to
societyt expectations about how
Sociologists understand society to have a group structure of social the young shoutd seek to quatify
institutions and social organisations. themselves to earn the rewards of
Social institutions (such as education and religion) are the ideas and the society. We go through a rite of
beliefs that society has about how we want aspects of our lives organised. passage calted schooling, and then
we go out to work, probabty get
Social organisations are the tangible arrangements made to translate manied and have children. These
those ideas and beliefs into practice, for orample, schools, curricula, are exPectations that society has
churches, dogma, riaral. for us. lf we stray, for exampte, if
The ideas and beliefs of our social institutions constrain our behaviou4, we do not look for a job, or do not
for example, we are rewarded if we conform and we may be punished want to get married, we feel the
in various ways if we come up with different forms of organisation or censure from those conforming to
arrangemenG. society's expectations. Whenever
we want to truly exert our
personati$r on decision-making, we
The concept'culture'
often find oursetves opposing some
Having studied society, we nour turn to a familiar and related concept, of the choices society expects of
'culture'. Culture, too, means different things to different people. For us. The last reason above describes
example, the lalpersonls weryday understandings are quite different from someone who is unsure and
those of the sociologist. conforms by being in schoot.

[f
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 1.4
The different senses of culture
Sometimes, the terms 'culture' and
'society' are used as if they mean
the same thing. While at times
that is acceptable, we must be
able to distinguish between them
as we[t.
Reflect on ONE way in which you
use the term 'culture'. Describe
one everyday sense of the term.
Activity 1.5
The culture of my societlr
In doing this activity, you may
be reftecting on aspects ofyour
cuttural life - aspects that you may
have often taken for granted.
1 Choose TWO types of
material cutture giving
specific examptes from your
own country. For example,
in Barbados an example
of an artistic creation is
the cetebration known as
'Kadooment'.
2 Using betiefs as an example
of non-material culture, show
how a specific belief in your
country gives rise to materia[
forms of culture.
tr
F'eedback
The layperson, when using the term, is often referring to aspects of popular
cutture:
painting Iiterature sculpture celebrations
craft drama Poetry aft
fitm dance design festivats
You may have described this sense of cutture, oryou may have chosen the
meaning described below. Both are conect as everyday understandings of culture.
You may atso use culture to define and characterise aspects of a tifestyte that
may be peculiar to a particutar society.
However, the sociologistl understanding of cutture is wider ranging. The concept
of culture is convenientty divided into materia[ culture and non-material
culture. The quote betow defines cutture in the tanguage of the sociotogist.
'Culture istheaccumulated storeof symbols, ideas, and mateial productsassociated
with a social system, whether it be an entire society or a famity.'
fiohnson, 1995, p.6g).
Everyday uses of the term, for exampte, the artistic expressions of a peopte and
their tifestyle seem to be inctuded in the quote. However, the meaning that
sociologists attribute to culture, and that may not be evident from the quote,
is the understanding that symbots and ideas inftuence behaviour. The diagram
below hetps to clarify this.
CUTTURE
Material culture Non-material culture
. Artefacts, artistic creations . Values
. Culinary ski[[s, processes . Beliefs
. Architecture, technologies . ldeas
. Family rearing practices
Feedback
The foltowing is a guide foryour answer, which may differ in the specific
content.
1 i culinary skilts and products of caribbean countries include crab and
caltaloo (Trinidad and Tobago), ackee and sattfish (Jamaica), fish cakes
(Barbados).
ii Family-rearing practices can include examples of gender socialisation
where boys are given different chores to doaroun-cJ the home (cteaning the
yard) from girts (cooking).
2 strong betiefs in kinship bonds and the importance of the family, particutarty
the elderty, make it very difficutt for caribbean peopte to put their aged and
infirm relatives in a home. consequentty, famity organisaiion tends to be
of
the extended kind in many caribbean territories. Homes for the aged are,
therefore, tess common in the caribbean than in metropolitan societies.
Society and culture - where do they overlap?
we have seen that society and culture have separate meanings.
il commpn-wgvdal use, the terms are often-used as r^oil*, Howwer,
because
they are linked very closely.
 Section 1 Society, culture and the individuat S
In the caribbean studies syllabus you will see both terms frequently
expressed together, as for example:
Describe Two ways in which volcanoes affect caribbean society and
culture.'
while the syllabus requires you to know the differences in meaning
between the trpo terms, it expects that when they are written like tlat,
you will treat them as linked closely together. Thus, you would not need
to-glye two ways in which volcanoes alfect socieq and then &vo ways in
which volcanoes affect culture.
But what oractly is the relation between the naro? where is the overlap?
The activity below may help you find answers to these questions.

Feedback Activity 1.6

The relationship between sociegr
Your review of the retevant sections shoutd hetp you to conclude that and cutture
sociologists understand society to have structure. The targest units or groups There is onty one area of overlap
within society were catted sociaI institutions. Yet these were intangibtei: ideas, between the terms'society' and
beliefs and values. From these, tangibte organisations were cieateJ. so, too, 'cutture'. What is it?
we should be aware that the material products of a society are derived from
You may need to re-read the
the dominant undertying values and betiefs of that society. Thus, the overlap
sections on society and cutture
between the two terms occurs at the tevel of the importance of values. A in order to identify the area of
society and its cutture are rooted in the same vatues. overtap.

At this point we should clarify our understanding of the term ,values,.

our values represent how strongly we feel about certain qualities and how
we rank the importance of these qualities. In most societies, values are
cultural values, meaning that they are collectively held by people in that
society. For instance, there are dominant ideas in a society about what
should-count as physical beauty. The members of that society come to
value these attributes, that is, they rank them highly (and, consequently,
devdue others). Having these values will, thus, influence how *Jbeh"rr",
whom we admire and what qualities we look for in a mate.
Now you should be able to identify some of the values influencing
behaviour in your society and culture. The following activity should help
a you think about this more deeply.

Summary
The overlap in meaning between society and culture occurs in the realm
of values and beliefs.
It is difftcult to separate the concept of society from the values and beliefs
in which cultwe is embedded. To keep the concepts separate, some
may emphasise that society is a collection of people inhabiting an area
continuously and who feel certain bonds of belongingness. yet, such
bonds bet'ween people must necessarily spring from having a set of shared
beliefs and values (culture).
The sociologist's understanding of society involves values and beliefs.
Social institutions, the major structures of society, are made up of the
cherished values and beliefs of a people.
This section has dealt with society and culture, how they differ and
where they overlap . lt rnay be helpful to think of society as a group of
people occupying a certain defined geographic space continuously who
tr Caribbean Studies
Activity 1.7
Cuttural values and behaviour
Our behaviours are supposed to
reflect the values we hold. This
exercise will encourage you to
think about the extent to which
yourvalues are shared by others.
ldentifyTWO values typicat of
the groups to which you betong.
Describe how those values affect
behaviour.
Feedback
Compare this answer with yours to
get a sense of how you are thinking
about these issues.
In one of the groups to which a
person belongs, appreciation of the
past is an important vatue. One of
the behaviours it elicits is becoming
involved in activities to preserve the
architecture of a bygone era.
Another vatue common among a
person's famity, friends and work
associates is patriotism. In its
extreme form, patriotism may border
on insularity and may contribute
to people devatuing the integration
movement and CARICOM.
Other vatues you may have
mentioned are:
I the importance of celebrations
in Caribbean life; hospitality;
kinship bonds and family ties
r foreign products and ways of [ife;
honesty; fidetity; truthfulness;
loyatty.
feel a sense of belongingness because they have daneloped a common
culture. culture here refers to underlying values and biliefs. It can also
be described as '... the way of life of a people'. In the caribbean studies
syllabus, the term 'society and culture' is preferred to show how closely ,
the concepts are related.
Values, norms and behaviours
society and culture are group phenomena, both produced by groups of
people. Both concepts can be understood best by studyrng titJbehaviorrrs
of people in those groups. underlying those behavionrs m"y be a set of
intangibles - ideas, beliefs, or vdues. In this section, we will focus on how
invisible qualities such as values can give rise to equally invisible norms
which in turn are realised through the behaviours of people in groups.
The group nature of social life is important for this process to take pl""e,
that is, from having a value to acting in accordance with that value.
we are also putting a focus on the caribbean. we want to relate the
characteristic behaviours of caribbean people to underhing values and
norms. Nthough we may have our insular and territorial understandings
of society and culture, we also note that the region has a caribbean-wide
society and culture. This becomes apparent especially when we leave
the region and obsenre the lives of caribbean people in cities such as
London, Toronto and New York. caribbean people there congregate and
interact with each other with relative ease because they share a set of
common values.
Norms spring from the values that are cherished in society and culture.
values represent a ranking of certain qualities that a goup of people feel
strongly about. Thus, if society regards highly the use of internationally
accepted English as spoken language, then it will devalue other forms of
language. The norm that will then arise in that society, with regard to
language, will be the ogectation that persons will prefer internationally
accepted English. Tb support this expectation, rewards and punishmenis
(sanctions) are deemed necessary. Rewards will include praise
"cceptance,
and, possibly, paths to advancement. Persons who habitualty use dialects
or patois will then find themselves disadvantaged, excluded and open
to criticism and ridicule. Punishments are, therefore, associated with
actions that go against norrns.
The behaviours of people demonstrate whether or not they have accepted
values and norms. However, we see clearly that the dominant values and
norms of the goup influence behaviour.
An example of howvalues influence behaviour is shown below
Behaviours
values and norms ranking hospitality highly give rise to the following
behaviours:
I Cook more than is needed ,just in case,.
r Have relatives come to stay for extended periods, to be closer to school
orwork.
Norms
Norms are expected behaviours that are associated with sanctions
rewards or punishments. Thus, being hospitable as a rule ensures -
that
you are well thought of in your circle of fri,ends and family.
The norm is
the expectation that you will be hospitable.
 Section 1 Society, cutture and the individuat I
Values
Hospitality is held in great esteem all over the caribbean. we can
say
that it is a value held by caribbean people. rt is ranked-highly as a
disposition or quality that people in-sociiety should porr"ri. '
You must realise that
1ot er/eryone shares all of the values of the society
and individuals, therefore, may not conform to society,s norms. such
peoplg are usually prepared to endure or undergo many slights or
punishments that others mete out. The following activityirill help you to
check your understanding of values, norms and behaviours.

Feedback
Activity 1.8
Parents usuatly consider the reputation of the school in terms of successfuI Making choices
graduates or the school's academic record. The norm or expectation is
Understanding vatues, norms and
that society and, therefore, parents have good ideas aboutwhich schoots
behaviours shows us how deepty
are considered successfuI and which are not. other norms that you might connected we are to the society
have chosen may be related to retigious or denominationaI sghoots for their and cutture of which we are a part.
reputation for good disciptine or because of their retigious programme. Our decision-making processes
What to wear to a function is based on an understanding of the type of must take into account dominant
ideas and betiefs of the social
occasion and, therefore, what would be appropriate dress for that occasion.
wortd.
Appropriateness in this context usuatly means dressing in a very simitar fashion
to others attending the function. The norm here is the expectation that you Below is a list of three decisions
would not took outtandish or improperly dressed but that you woutd maintain that people usuatty have to make.
order in society by conforming to dress codes. ldentify in each case the norms
that they will usualty take into
Preparing for an interview usuatty entails making decisions of what would consideration in making those
be considered appropriate wear and what woutd be intettigent answers to decisions.
questions that woutd be put to you. The norm here is the expectation that you I Choosingasecondaryschool
make yoursetf took respectabte and that you give a good account of yourself in for a chitd
fietding questions.
r What to wear to a function
White you would not have given these specific examptes, the above
exptanations should act as a guide in helping you decide how we[[you have
I Preparing for a job interview
understood norms and behaviours.

Activity 1.8 gave you some understanding that many of the personal
and individud decisions we make in our lives are not very personal or
individual at all. Many of us choose behaviours from a range of options
that conform to what society or our socid groups will allow us to do. While
conlorming behaviows help to maintain order and cohesion in society, they
also sometimes help to perpetuate undesirable or inequitable practices.
Some values and norms may be changed if our behaviours become less
conformist. For example, when we:
r give women who seek political office our support

: I vote differendy from the traditions of our family or ethnic groups

t voice positive arguments for the integration movement
r choose to spend our vacations in Caribbean destinations
t buy clothing designed by Caribbean fashion houses
r become more aware of how, as individuals, we also have a responsibility
' to take care of tfre environment
I attend PTA meetings and actively ask about child-centred learning,
experiential leaming and prograrnmes for enhancing multiple intelligences.
All values and norms are not in the best interests of weryone.

E
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 1.9
Characteristic Caribbean
behaviours
Generalising about behaviour
may give rise to stereotypes and
inaccuracies. However, reflecting
on one's society and trying to
make connections with undertying
assumptions and vatues can help
you continue to devetop critical
thinking skitts.
1 Describe ONE behaviour that
you think tends to characterise
Caribbean peopte.
2 ldentify a value associated with
this behaviour.
3 Exptain the inftuence of norms
on this behaviour.
Feedback
1 You may have chosen behaviours
springing from some of the
following values, for example:
r making fun of others
I camaraderie
I celebrations
r insularity
t religion
I preference for white, western
culture
I kinship bonds/famity ties
r informality.
2 and 3lf we use the vatuing of
white Western culture as an
example, we can show how
peer group approval may be
instrumentaI in some individuals
continuing to show a preference
for North American designer
clothing and music, as welt as the
shared understanding that other
places coutd not be as interesting
to visit as metropolitan countries.
What lies behind values?
Activity 1.9 gives us some insight into what may lie behind our
behaviour. Our norms are those in which we have been socidised.
Norms, or rules for living, are associated with rewards and punishments.
These norms are shaped by the values that the society holds dear. But,
how do values come about?
They probably spring from the common experiences shared by a group.
Caribbean people share a corrmon history and geography and these
factors are undoubtedly important in fostering some of the vdues that
have come to shape society and culture in the Caribbean.
How has geography shaped some of the values important in the society
and culture of the Caribbean?
I Its archipelagic nature - islands strung out in a chain as the Greater
and Lesser Antilles. This has helped to foster some degree of
insularity and a sense of separateness.
* Mainland territories - the inclusion of Guyana, Suriname, Cayenne
and Belize, in the Caribbean region, adds even greater variety among
Caribbean peoples.
I Problems of definition - the label, 'Caribbean', is also applied ro some
countries without a Caribbean coastline, such as Guyana, Suriname,
Cayenne and the Bahamas.
I Mountainous terrain - the inhospitable interior (e.g. the Windwards)
has encouraged an outward-looking culture, developing strong ties
with people of the coasts in nearby islands through inter-marriage and
commerce, helping to foster kinship across national boundaries.
r Human activity - agriculture, settlement patterns, fishing - springs
out of a conunon physical environment with similar nanrral
resources.
What are some values associated with these activities? perhaps,
independence could be one value attributed to peasant farmers.
similarly, we can now turn to the historical experience in the caribbean
and try to isolate some of the factors that have impacted on caribbean
people in such away as to influence values.
Activity 1.10
Historical influences on values in the Caribbean
Remember that we are trying to trace the roots of our behaviour by
scrutinising our historical record in an attempt to isotate values thit continue
to inftuence us today.
Give brief exptanatory notes on THREE historical factors that you betieve have
shaped values reftected in Caribbean society and culture today.
Feedback
We have had a retativety short recorded history in the caribbean so it is fairty
easy to isolate some of the main events and processes that have shaped
oui
values. For exampte:
r stavery - an experience of both the indigenous inhabitants and Africans
who were forcibty brought to the caribbean. one vatue that is thought
 Section 1 Society, culture and the individuat I
to have come out of this experience
is an emphasis on resistance, for
exampte, much of caribbean music, in different ways, reftects themes that
deal with tiberation.
I cotoniatism - an extended period of European rule, experienced
throughout the Caribbean. A vatue that is attributed to cotoniat rute is a
preference for foreign products, ways of governing, technotogy, ctothes
and lifestytes, as these are generatly betieved to be superior to their [oca[
counterparts.
I Indentureship- the importation of East lndians and Chinese in targe
numbers mainly into Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname, as tabourers. Many of
the descendants of these labourers continue to value their orientaI origins,
customs, [anguage and retigions.
You should note that several vatues can stem from any one of the above
factors. Other historicaI factors you coutd have mentioned are:
r independence
I chronic economic depression
r the development of ptural societies
I gtobalisation.
Each of the above is associated with values that hetp to shape norms and
inftuence behaviours.

When you reflect on the historical and geogtaphical factors and how
they shape vdues, norms and, consequently, behaviours, you will begin
to appreciate the choices and decisions that Caribbean people make on
a daily basis.

How do people learn values?

Up to now we have learned that our behaviours tend to be largely
inlluenced by the rewards and sanctions associated with norms.
Norms are fashioned from the underlying values that a culture holds as
important, while our values are shaped a great deal by the historical and
geographicd framework within which our society and culture dweloped.
An example of how history shapes our values is seen in the fact that was
fairly widespread in the Caribbean fot f.atu skin colour to be held in high
regard.
This value has spawned norms and associated rewards contingent upon
having fair skin, such as expecting to be always included, to be popular
and to be given preferential treatment. A history of slavery indentureship
and colonialism, where being white was privileged, lies at the root of this
value.
You may be thinking thatyour choices and reactions do not conform
precisely to what you have been reading. While there may be general
p"tt.tni
-of
of behaviour, some of them do not reflectyour understanding
yorrt role in Caribbean society and culture. This brings us to how
people actually learn values. We know that amid the general patterns
if Uitr"nio*s and values displayed by Caribbean people, there is wide
variation in responses. This means that even with the same values and
norms in operation, some people are capable of behaviours quite different
from others. Activity 1.1 I helps you to explore your own choices and
values.
I Caribbean Studies
)

Activity 1J1
Choices and values
To what extent are your choices
similar to those of your social
groups? lf you fee[ that you are
different, how did this difference
come about? Did you learn vatues
differently from how your friends
tearned them? This activity helps
you to reflect on how people learn
va[ues.
Think of any value that is dominant
in your society and cutture, for
example, a tiking for the products
and artifacts of white, Western
culture.
Do you accept this vatue? Justify
your position.
The important question here is, how do peopte growing up in the same society
come to embrace values that are not dominant?
'Feedback
While you would have chosen to reftect on any value that seems important
to you, the foltowing discussion shoutd generatty hetp you to assess your own
specific response.
Let us consider the vatue associated with preference for an academic type of
education as one that promises white-coltar occupations and perhaps a high-
status lifestyte. we may reftect on our acceptance of this value and whether
we feel that we are abte to meet atl the requirements retated to this vatue.
We may accept this value and not be abte to achieve the required
quatifications so that whatever course of studies and work we subsequentty
get invotved in woutd always seem somewhat inferior. lf we accept such
values and are able to achieve them, one possible consequence is that we
may assess choices others make that are different, for example, technicat-
vocationaI education as inferior.
On the other hand, we may be abte, through exposure to peopte who are
profitabty employed in manual and technical occupations, to criticatty appraise
the prevailing vatues associated with preference for white-cotlar jobs. choosing
such a technicaI or vocationaI course of studies may find you continuatty being
called upon to justify your choice to persons who are steeped in the dominani
vatues of society.

we are now going to look at some sociological conc€pts that will help us
to understand better how individuals leam the values of their society and
culnrre and how they are able at times to adopt different or contesting values.

SociaIisation
socialisation is the process through which we learn the values, norms
and behaviours that are acceptable in our society and culture.
we learn
through various means - sometimes things are icaught,, sometimes
taught - folmally, informally, by imitation or reflecti-on. Socialisation
pegrns in the home, where through primary socialisation we learn
language, relatiofiships and concepti, and uborrt o,rrr.frr., in
reration to
others. when we begin schooling, secondary socialisation-rr"*,
and goes
on all our lives. We are being soCiahsed wery day.

Active sociatisation
variations in attitudes, dispositions and convictions produce
a range of
behaviours and come about because individuals d;";;;;;ivery
adopt
values and norms, and the circumstances of their
social'ir",io" are varied.
socialisation is an active process where an individu"r
uri"g, rris or her
own dispositions and attitudes to bear on decision
sometimes
deliberately, sometimes unconsciously. -lcr,g'-
Learnirrg a set of values throughsociarisation- from
home, the media,
school, peer groups and th9 ctiurch, does not necessarily
mqrn that these
values will remain intacl throughout one,s life. persons'can
l-socialise
themselves and leam other vahies. This is an
o<ampre of.
active socialisation.
Education plays a major role in helping individuars
to discern values that
influence their behaviours. Havingiorie through
p"rai"J", course of

E "
 Section 1 Society, culture and the individuat I
study, individuals may be better able to understand why, for example,
they used to think differently of persons of another:
t race (racismf
I religion (creedism)
. gender (sexism]
I generation {ageism).
Often people are not aware of their vdIiiES. Courses of study where
discussion is paramount (or pafticipating in groups, formal and informal,
where different points of view are freely orpressed) help the individual to
discern his or her vdue positions. If one is nwer challenged about one's
vdues and never has to iustify them, chances are the most fundamental
things about one's life will go unexamined.
Many people say that thery are not prejudiced against the disabled. Yet,
the very buildings we occupy pose problems for the physically challenged,
who may argue that this reflects an expectation that they would not be
independent or socially actl4. They say that the value position we hold
about them is really that they should be set apart from tlfe rest of society.

Beliefs and values

It must be noted that a similar set of beliefs in a society may give rise
to different vdues. There may be a fundamental belief about God in a
society. Howwer, there may be marked variations in how people value
their relationship with God and choose to erq)ress it. Some may choose
a personal, informal mode while others may prefer communal worship
complete with rituals.

Hierarchy of vatues
Another variation apparent in society and culture is the different ways
in which individuals rank values. Patriotism, for example, may be very
highly valued, but for some individuals or groups other values may be
ranked higher. For example:
I uppennost in other people's hierarchy of values will-be the
development of an overall national consciousness where patriotism
becomes more important than small-group affiliation
rl others value the Personal highlY
r directiy opposite to such a value position, will be a G_andhi, Mandela or
Martin Luther King perspective, where what is good for mankind takes
precedence.
Interestingly, many of us tend to shuffle around our value positions'
With the oi th" September l1 2001 terrorist disaster, many felt
"'4"."t
a sense of outrage and a global concern for mankind, yet the bombing
of
Xgh"ttistan did-not ,""* to be at odds with such a value or principle'
values, then, are the most important building blocks for our decisions
and our behaviours. We have ieen that norms of behaviour spring from
values. In exploring where values come from, we noted that the common
geographicallnd hlstorical experience of Caribbean people helped to
Ift"i. teliefs and values. We also saw that there may be much variation
in'both values and behaviours.
We go on now to an examination of certain acts and behaviours to show
that"surface and hidden consequences can result. what is acknowledged as
surface or maniJest and what ii deemed hidden or latent, often highlights "
which value positions gloups or individuals want to reveal or conceal'
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 1J2
Anatysing culturaI acts
Becoming proficient with the toots
of latent and manifest functions
can hetp you to deepen your
understanding of sociegl and
culture.
Briefty describe a scenario in
Caribbean life where it is possibte
to identify latent and manifest
functions.
Latent and manifest functions
To assist you in reflecting on behaviour, norms, values and beliefs, we
can use two conceptual tools of the sociologist. They are latent functions
and manifest functions. They arise because, as the-sociologist says, every
social situation or social act can have more than one conse[uence. In
this section, you will use these conceptual tools to analyse behaviour and
values.
Latent functions refer to the unintended, hidden or unexpected
consequences of an act.
Manifest functions, on the other hand, refer to the anticipated, open or
stated goals of an act.
Latent- meanings or consequences provide explanations at a deeper
lwel
of analysis. In observing social situations, yor, *ill be able to go below
the
lwel of cultural acts to the hidden meanings that may give clues about
the cultural values upon which the acts arJbased.
For example:
r a manifest function of streaming ability levels in schools
is an
organisational one where teaching and learning is thought
to be
facilitated by having homogeneo.r-, gro.rp,
I a latent function_of this practice is that students in rower-ability
streams become labelled as hot bright, and feer loss
of Jf-"rt.r*.
The following activity will help you ro reflect on actions your
in
society and culture, among your friends and relatives
school or worglace. Thesi actions *"y t
*iliyo",
niJd;;;;;nticipated
consequences. "n
Feedback
You may have chosen any type of interaction
in social rife. However, the
discussion around the scenario below witt hetp
you to g;rg"';;; effectivety
you understood the two concepts.
People often tend to make statements
that ptace the nuctear famity unit in a
priviteged position in our caribbean
society and cutture. However, we have an
array of famity forms:
r Visiting I Extended
r Singte parent r Sibting
People say that the nuctear famity
unit:
r hetps to foster ctose-knit retationships
and bonds between members
r encourages the devetopment of setf-sufficienry
and interdependence
r means both parents provide mate and female
rote modets for chitdren.
These are the manifest functions
of the nuctear famity.
sociotogists point out, however, that the
tatent functions associated with the
nuclear family are:
r that it becomes isorated from kinship bonds
and networks that coutd offer
support in times of s1res1.o10n a dai'ty
support, the nuclear falitV becomesirone
. rortin" *"y. wi,hor, ar,i,
basis in
to rote overtoad (usuatty for the
mother) causing stress, frustration and
even violence
 Section 1 Society, cutture and the individuat ! 1
I that what goes on in the famity can remain very private and less open to pubtic
scrutiny. Thus some forms of abuse may not be readity disctosed and may
continue for a long time, as it is easy for them to be hidden from pubtic slrutiny.

Cuttural erasure, retention and renewal - the role

of values
Early in this section, we saw that culhrre vras a dynamic entity based on
beliefs and values. We also saw that values could give rise to different
behaviours because they could be re-targeted and not held in the same
way by all. In this section, we will be examining how culture changes. We
will see that cultural change is dependent on deep-seated processes, such
as change in values. Because no society and culture today stand separate
and apart from others, it is reasonable to assume that much of the
cultural change we experience stems from interaction with other cultures.
T}re eruswe of culnrral practices is often a gradual process and usually
stems from an on-going conflict between traditional wayspf accomplishing
tasks in the society and newer methods. The latter may be more efffcient
and cost-effective and may save time and enerry. The adoption of
appliances, such as refrigerators, washing machines, dishwashers and
microwaves, has contributed to the loss of cultural practices.
For example, refrigerators dlowed people to buy perishable goods in larger
quantities. Therefore, they did not have to go to the shop or parlour close
by on a daily basis. Their daily contact with people in the neighbourhood
dwindled and small retail outlets closed down, to be replaced by large,
centrally situated supermarkets. You should be able to see manifest and
latent functions in ttris example of cultural erasure.
Cultural rctention results from a deliberate desire to keep traditions Activity 1J3
alive so that some groups would be able to presen/e their sense of Examining cutturaI renewaI
identity. Small groups, especially within larger communities, tend to
This activity hetps you to continue
feel alienated. You may be able to think of distinct social groups in your
to reflect on society and culture
country where retention of cultural practices is emphasised because it is
and to examine your rote in
thought that the very existence of the group depends on these practices. shaping culture.
In the above examples, we see that change in the underlying values of Having read about cuttural
a society over time influences changes in the material culture. Hence,
erasure and cultural retention,
valuing a modern way of life on the Western model has opened our describe your understanding of
society to the wide range of consumer products that go hand in hand the term 'cultural renewat'. Cive
with an urbanised, industrialised culture, where emphasis is put on ONE exampte to illustrate this
individualism and a strong work ethic. The adoption of these practices understanding.
and techniques effectively changes the culture - some Caribbean practices
may be erased, some retained and some lenewed in this process.
Feedback

Key points CutturaI renewal refers to efforts

The following is a summary of some of the key points and maior to satvage parts of our Past bY
concepts discussed in this section. fashioning new practices based on
the old. Such efforts stem from a
Er A sociery is a gloup that occupies a specific land area for a long time,
feeting that there is much vatue in
building up a common culture.
what we have neglected.
i,* A culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms and behaviours of
. a society that define its roles and way of life. Atso, in incorporating new vatues and
norms into our societY and cutture
r The meanings of society and culture overlap where values are we find that traditionaI practices are
concerned. Values (inherent in culture! are represented in society by
re-cast and appear in different forms.
the structure and interrelationships between the different groups in
society - social institutions and social organisations'
f Caribbean Studies

k values are the bedrock from which our behaviours spring both collec-
-
tively as a society and individually as members. values represent the
ranking or preference given to certain qualities, attinrdes and dispositions.
ts To*t spring from the values we hold. Norms are standards of behaviour
that are reinforced through sanctions - rewards and punishments.
t values differ in different societies and cultures. They arise from
the common experiences of a people. we saw that th" co--o'
geographicd environment and historical oqrerience helped to fashion
the values important today in caribbqa' sotiety and culture.
x socialisation is the major process through which the values of one,s
culture and society are learned. Howeveq, socialisation is an active
pro-Tsg glving rise to an afiay of responses. Hence,
we find that norms
and behaviours are not rigid and static.
r values themselves also give rise to variations in social behaviour.
The
fact that they are held in a hierarchy signifies that groups may hold
a
certain value differently to others. The Jact that we-seem to be able
to
hold conflicting values simultaneously gives us, on irrair.iarral and
personal level, much food for thought. ".r
tr The latent and manifest functions of an act herp to e:rprain
social
behaviour meaningfully to show that there u" rriJi!"
operating in our actions. -"y values

: culture is a dynamic entiry shaped by the underlying values we

hold.
The degree to which we shift our values o.,r., ,-i-*.
cultural erasure, retention and,/or renewal. -?yie reflected in

Conclusion
In this section, the major concepts related to a
basic understanding of
the caribbean, namery, society and culture, were
exprored. In subsequent
sections you will learn aborrt more specifi"'corrc"pts-to-.*1erd
knowledge and understanding or caritrlean society
yor'
and cultwe.
Although the Caribbean is a diverse region, geographically
geologically, the common historical exierience and
has influenced the
formation of a culture of common valJes, norms
and behaviours.
we have seen thar arthough there may be broad patterns
in behaviour at the m""to lw"l, when ii comes of similarity
to individuals and the
choices they make, there is much.t"J"iiorr.
This fact acilowredges the
agency or free will at the core of individual
behaviour. Coill.-irrg o,
opting for different varues reflecrs the will
individual is unaware of the power he or "i;i; ;Jd;"T, "rr.r, if that
she rr", ir, ,o"i"iJrr.rrg".
Much of the above discrrssion should alert
us to the possibilities inherent
in our roles and the behavioy: *.e disflay.
once we become aware of
our own values, we are more likerv to *"Le
whether we want ,o continue to hord such
i"f";;J;;;;ri-oo,
value p;;d;; to "uo,rt
change
Therein may lie,the future pro.p."* of society
*rrt
caribbean. It is through interrogaiinj-o"rr.r""r-"uori.l"i and curture in the
relation to some of the important issues piririons in
in caribbean rife that we can
change as indMduals andlnfl"."""
in our societies.
"rt""g"
New norms can result i1fliff-ere-nt, positive
behaviours. As we have seen
above, improvement in social rir. I
can come about through a deliberate
i"litirrd"r, d;;ririo.rrr'u.t aviours _
re-targeting oi rralrres- it is up to
as-caritbeal pgonle to decide which us
oi o.rr-rrarri, *. hfi.r*g the road
that we would like to travel.
 Section 1 Society, cutture and the individuat I

Suggested further readings

Distance Education centre. lr997l, Introduction to sociologr - social
Sciences Study Guide.IJWI: DEC, Barbados.
Haralambos, M., &, Holborn, M. (19951 , Sociologr Themes and
a. london: Collins Educationd.
Perspectiv

|ohnson, A. G. (1995), The BIackweII Dicrtonary of Sociologr: Auser's

guide to sociological language. Malden, MA: Blaclaarell.
Mohammed, |. (ed.|, (2001), Readings in Caribbean Studies. Kingston,
|amaica: CXC.
Palacio, J. (1995), Aboriginal People - Their struggfe with cultural identity in
the Caricom region-. Bulletin of Eastem Caribbean Affatus,20(41, pp. 25-40.

End test
Answer ait guestions.
1 Summarise the sociotogist's understanding <if the term 'lociety'.
2 List FOUR concepts retated to the term 'culture'.
3 Briefly examine the retationship between society and cutture.
1 a ldentify THREE examptes of behaviours that you think tend to characterise
tCaribbean peopte.
b Exptain how these behaviours are tied to certain values that are imPortant in
I
Caribbean socie$t and cutture.

5 List FIVE factors that have been paft of the experience of Caribbean people that may
exptain the vatues, roles and patterns of behaviour in Caribbean societlt and culture today.

G ldentify ONE vatue that you hotd that tends to be characteristic of Caribbean society
and cuiture. Describe how you came to [earn this vatue'

Describe ONE exampte that iltustrates the difference between latent and
manifest
7
functions in sociat tife.
8 .Describe oNE examPte of cultural retention in caribbean society and cutture'

Feedback for end test

1 Sociotogists understand society in terms of its 4 a Examptes of characteristic Caribbean behaviours:

grouP siructure. The basic and targest grouP, social
institutions, consists of intangibte entities such as
betiefs and vatues, on which a[[ other groups, for
exampte, social organisations, are Patterned'
2 Four concePts of the term 'culture' are:
I as forms of PoPutar cutture
I as the waYs of life of a PeoPte
I as non-materia[ cutture
r Being friendty, especialty to strangers and atso
caring for and nurturing friends and famity
I Exhibiting national pride over regional
identification
I Having many relatives and friends living abroad
and entertaining thoughts of going onesetf
I Giving 'nicknames', satirising some aspect of a
Person's aPPearance or exPtoits

r as materiat cutture (inctudes poputar cutture)'

r Emphasis on race and cotour in sociat retations

r Society and cutture are retated with respect to vatues'

b The values:

R society is thought of as a specific group occupying r Friendty-shows a vatuing of hospitatity

an area ior a tong time with shared customs and I NationaI Pride-insutaritY
those shared customs add up to the cutture of the
society (and are based on values)'
I Going abroad-a migration ethic
I Caribbean Studies

r Nicknames-informatity/humbur (being abteto
laugh at oneself)
t Race/colour-valuing what race and colour say
about social status.
Factors that form common Caribbean experiences:
t The near complete genocide of our aboriginal
peoples
I Stavery, indentureship and the ptantation system
I CulturaI diversity, sociaI stratification and
hybridisation of our people
I Cotoniat rute and the tegacy of a pervasive
colonial mentality
r Continuous resistance realised in efforts to establish
emancipation, enfranchisement and independence
I A fragmented existence as an archipelago and
isotated mainland states
I Dependent economies and efforts to diversify
lf you ever had to make conscious decisions retated
to this vatue, you would have been engaging in the
process of active socialisation. ll for exampte, you
decided to consciousty seek new learning, such as.
training for a job, or to ignore otd habits and cronies
and adopt other habits, you woutd be re-sociatising
yoursetf and re-orienting your values.
Any exampleyou choose shoutd have certain
characteristics as shown in the exampte betow.
Education is normatly thought of and promoted as
hetping individuats to acquire ski[s and competencies,
in particutar criticat thinking skitts. Many of those who
experience schooling, however, may hotd a different
view. They say that practices such as streaming, abuse
from teachers, unfair rutes and stress associated with
examinations, lead to a hidden curriculum that va]ues
docitiry obedience and conformity. There is, thus, the
manifest or public stated goatof an act and a hidden
or latent aspect of it.

Any value. you identify you must have learned
initiatty
through the process of sociatisation, Reftecting
on
this vatue, however, wilt tett you if you passivety
adopted it and never thought aborjt examining
it.
Examptes of cutturaI retention coutd be keeping
traditions ative because there are no effective
modern substitutes for patterns of basket weaving
and hammock designs, the making of pirogues,
CarnivaI traditions and artifacts.

Tutor-marked assignment
write an essay of nor more than r,000 words
on the following topic.
'cultural erasure, retention and renewal are processes
societies a-s they evolve.'Discuss the found in a'
ways in which each of these
processes has helped to shape
Caribbean society.

30 marks
Criteria for marking:
The award of mirks is based on the following.

Content E:plication of conceprs:

l0 marks
Analysis of concepts:
l0 marks
Synthesis:
l0 marks
Structure
You are required to assess the present
you can perceive and come status of caribbean society as far
as
ro some conclusion;t;;rh.,,Lrficance
erasure, retention or renewal in of
our q{perrence.
A discussion about
r3:
and the possibility of : negessl{r
erasurg
to_
retention andthow
its susceptibility to change
renewar
provided from
vour territory;r *x;;fr;m the wider
- examples should be
caribbean.
Style
interpretation shourd be well dweroped
*lt::r,]d mina tion' c onclu s ions drawn
and relevant to the
lffi:":?S"fff rtro-,riJ u" i"tiin.a, logi cal
 Geography, society and culture
At the end of this section,
learners shoutd be able to:
appreciate the impact of
geographicaI factors in shaping
the socio-culturaI environment
of the Caribbean.
Specific objectives
You should be abte to:
tocate the Caribbean, its main
territories and water bodies on
a maP
distinguish between the
geotogicat, geographical and
historicaI Caribbean
describe the discipline of
geography and its sub-
disciplines: geomorphotogy and
human ecotogy
explain how Caribbean societY
and cutture have been shaped
9Y s:1s'"Phl.
Ph:*
exptain how different
conceptions of man-[and
interaction have shaPed
different sociaI arrd cutturat
responses to the environment.
t
r
iL,-
Introduction
In this section we will be looking closely at the relationships between
the physical environment and our perceptions, beliefs and values.
It is not often that we think about the environment in those terms.
It may surprise some of us that physical landscape could be shaped
by beliefs and perceptions inherent in our society and culture. One
of the sub-disciplines of geography, human ecolory, focuses on thb
interrelationships that are forged between a people and their environment
according to how nature and people are perceived - it tells us, for
example, how space and place are understood.
A more familiar yiew is the notion that the physical landscape
determines *"tr! of our activities and, thus, influences our iocial and
cultural life. In Section l, we saw that the peculiar nature of being
an archipelago was thought to be responsible for prompting values of
insularity and dilference among Caribbean people, especially among
territories situated far apart. The nature of the physical landmass was
thought to influence values and attitudes towards interaction and
identity. The study of the physicd environment, geomorpholory, is
another sub-field of the discipline of geography.
In this section, we will examine insights from the discipline of geography
and some of its sub-disciplines, such as geomorpholory and human
ecolory, in order to understand relationships between society, culture
and the physical features of the Caribbean. Howwe4 both vierars of
man-land relationships are influenced by history. For example, the land
surfaces that early settlels found suitable to cultivate are largely still
cultivated today, sometimes with the same crops. Thus, in this section
there will be an internvining of human ecology, geography and history in
explaining aspects of Caribbean society and culture.
Content
I Location of the Caribbean - the concept of 'Caribbean'
r The studyofgeograPhY
I Cultural resPonses to:
r geomorphic phenomena, such as plate tectonics, landforms
and soils
r meteorological phenomena, such as hurricanes
ll The study of human ecologY
rl Cultural responses to geographic phenomena, such as:
r winds and ocean currents
. coral reefs
Location of the Caribbean
The Caribbean region is a relativelylatge area with TP:h diversity.from
mainland territories to islands and archipelagoes. This diverstty
ts
attributing
often masked by people both outside and inside the region,
I Caribbean Studies

'a caribbeal
way of life to the enrire region. studyrng the location of the
caribbean helps us to better appreciate the diversiry"that cl-exists
with,
and underlies, common Caribbean experiences.
An understanding that there are conflicting conceptions of ,caribbean, .

introduces us to how_diverse the region is.-rhe

u"iow is a first
step in developing a definition of thi Caribbean. ""ii"irv
t
I

Activity 2J i
I

Defining the Caribbean I

I
ls the term 'Caribbean, a loosety used i
I

concept?.Many Caribbean peopte hardty t

l
ever ponder on this term that is used to i
describe us al[. In this exercise, we try I

to come to a rationale to justify our t

definition of Caribbean. I

Using Map 1 provided, define the I

t
t
Caribbean. Justify your answer.
j
The Caribbean can be defined t

as I
I
I
I have chosen this definition I
I

because _ l

Feedback i

Let us begin with your definitions. you i

have probabty taken one of three
positions
and you have.probabty opted for
the one that identifies most
commonatities across the region. I

The geographicat caribbean this

- describes the area washed by the
caribbean
sea and is often described as the
caribbean Basin. rt woutd, therefore,
most of the isrands of the Lesser and inctude
Greater Antittes as
wett as maintand i
territories in centrar A.merica (costa Rica,
Belize, panama, ioi-Jrras; .na
I

Northern south Arirerica, ,r.h ., cororii"

and Venezueta. The common [ink
here is the Caribbean Sea.
I
I
The historical caribbean this I

- describes the area that saw the impact

of
European colonisation, stavery,
inaentuieit ip and the prantation system.
This refers to attthe territorie;;
,o tf.,"ioi" way of definingthe Caribbean
isto identify those countries that experienced.
the rute of specific European
countries. Thus, the caribbean
may be defined as being broken up
English-, French-, Drt:f.- and spariish-tp.rt into the
ing countries and territories. This
then is a cutturatdefinition. i

The geologicat caribbean

- this is not used as frequentty as the definitions
to the Caribbean. However, it shows
::::" 'l:ferring
oeep-seated structurat features of caribbean geotogr
that there are I

commonalities. rt is the area that trrat atso iJentiry

is defined bf tr,. i.riuuu."
experiences simitar tectonic, ira-te ano which
seismic ana votcanic f;rr*
;;; i.."rr"r.

I
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
It-is quite likely that you can point out flaws in each of these descriptions
of the caribbean when compared with the commonly accepted
understandings of 'caribbean'with which you have gto*tr we are
"p.
beginning to understand that the term'caribbean'cin be complex.
Activity 2.2 asks you to identify some of the flaws in these definitions.

Activity 2.2
Problems in definingthe Caribbean

A sound knowtedge of the istands, countries and water bodies of the

Caribbean region hetps in pointing out anomaties in the definitions given
previously. For this exercise, you are required to be famiUar with the countries
and bodies of water of the Caribbean area as shown on Map 1.
ldentify any errors or probtems in the three ways of defining the Caribbean
discussed above. Draw a tabte as shown betow foryour answers.

- Feedback

Geotogical

Guyana and the Bahamas do not
have coasttines on the Caribbean
Sea. Yet both countries are
commonty accepted as part of the
Caribbean.
The probtem with defining the Caribbean
according to [inguistic or European
heritage, is that it tends to ignore the
commonatities of Caribbean experience at
the hands of these coloniat powers.
The western edge ofthe Caribbean
Plate is located in the Pacific and
inctudes Honduras, Costa Rica,
Nicaragua and Panama in the
Caribbean.

This definition inctudes countries
not normatty associated with the
Caribbean - Panama, Colombia,
and other countries of Central
America.
r This definition would inctude Guyana and
i the gahamas. lt shoutd also inctude the
French-, Dutch- and Spanish-speaking
countries of the Caribbean and Central
America.
The northern edge of the Caribbean
Plate defines much of Betize, Cuba
and the Bahamas as extra-regional.
This is atso true of Guyana in the
south.

By now you are probably redising that the definition of the Caribbean we
have been accustomed io is that of the historical or cultural Caribbean'
That we usually ignore the Spanish, French and Dutch territories, could
be because of convenience. Iicould also reflect the'colonial' dMsion of
the region that still persists in our inability to recognise each other as
equally important to the Caribbean.
The Caribbean Studies syllabus attempts to strike a balance in deffning
the Caribbean. The syllabus deals mainly with the geographical and
historical Caribbean and includes the French-, Spanish- and Dutch-
speaking territories.

The discipline of geograPhy

Geography is the study of our landscape and of how people use and
intelci with it. It examines a range of issues and phenomena that
often comprise specific disciplineJin their own right. The tatle overleaf
shows accepted ,rtrderstanding of the di-fferent branches
" "o-tttoily
of geography, and the arJas of study that we are interested in, namely
geomorpholory and human ecolory.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 2.3
The study of geomorphology
Most of us have actuatty studied
geomorphology in our earlyyears
of schooting.
G.eomorphology is the study of the
physica[ [andscape.
1 Choose F|VE of the physical
features that are studied in
geomorphology (e.g. ctiff,
plateau).
2 Drawthefeaturesthatyou
choose.
Physicat geography Human geography PracticaI geography
Geomorphology oo Poputation geography j Map reading
Io Urban studies
o
c
at Economic geography Statistics
E
Biogeography t
- Potitical geography Surveying
Hydrotoglr RegionaI studies
Geomorpholory focuses on the physical environment. It is the study of:
I the formation of physical features, rocks and soils
x the dwelopment of landforms, rocks and soils over time
I how these features and landforms affect the physical landscape.
while geomorpholory deals exclusivelywith the physical and strucrural
aspects of the environment, human geography focuies on man,s impact
on the environment,-in terms of populaiion density, in the buildinglf
towns_and cities, and the economic activities in specific areas or regions.
The physical environment is the context for thes6 activities.
Jhele is scope for an area of srudy where the man-land continuum is
further explored. As suggested earlier, we will take:
t a close look at how the physical environment constrains
and
influences man,s use of the landscape
r a stance from human ecolory, which, as the table
above sugges6,
crosses some disciplinary borders. It investigates
how ,'"rrI", sLaped
the natural environment through the beliefs""rra rra.r",
characteristic
of human society and culture. r' tttir view the
beliefs and varues of
a people are imprinted on the landscape and
influence how land is
perceived and used.
2:3 wiJl begin to build your understanding
lctivitr
the view that the physical
of geomorphology and
landscape influences man,s use of it.
Feedback
The most commbn geomorphotogicat features
on the Earth,s surface are atso
the ones you probabty met before-in the study y;;
or g"ogr.pr,y. may be abte
qr,.: readity recognise them in your area o,' ,egion
::
shape the landscape into distinctive forms,
Lf ihe cariuuean. They
areas where altitude (height above sea
target! ;;;;;ihy represent
tevel) d,.
tand) changes, that is,,theland may change ir"ai"ii f,i. irop" of the
stoping, to ftat. Attitude and gradie-nt are
r.r-rt""pto liJui.ring, to gentty
the retief of the surface (shape, height and
lwo of the most important aspects of
stope).
It is atmost certain that mountains, ptateaus,
ptains, vatleys and coasts
among the features you mentioned. They -' were
are drawn opporit..
coasts have simitar features but they may
be given different names. For
example' a cliff is a steep slope and couti
ue a hitt or mountain near the sea.
Lowlands are catted coastal prains and
projections of to* t.ia into the sea
called peninsulas. are
Volcanoeg while structuralty different from
mountains, the retief is the same
as that of mountains.
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
Earthquakes, white an intermittent occurrence, tend to leave retief features Mountain. hit[
such as fautts where the rocks have shifted. These may look like steep slopes
(catted fautt scarps).

The diagrams above atl show the differences in retief that distinguish the A
features from each other. I
E
.9p
o
-
Activity 2.3 focused on some of the rrrl;ia ;Ut"aant landforms on the
Earth's surface. Howwer, the study of landforms dso includes *re study of
rocks, which make up the landforms, and soils derived from rocks.
Vattey

Cultural responses to geomorphic phenomena

A
Landforms, rocks and soils
I
While the geomorphologist will study these features of the physical .E
.so
Iandscape as important in themselves, we are redly interested in how o,
they determin@ man's use of the land. . -

Activity 2.4
The influence of landscape in shaping human society and culture

The landscape can constrain man's use of the tand. This exercise is intended to A
increase your awareness of man-land interactions. I

Fitt in the missing information in the diagram betow to show how the retief of
E
.9p
o
the landscape inftuences man's use of it. T

Mountain lPr Lowlands, i

I
plains
i
Ptateau
lmpact on barrier to
man communications, High tand, steep
e.g. road/raiI sides, flat top
A
I
difficutt to grow
crops or build
E
.so
OJ
I
How man tourism:
uses the scenery
[and nature
reserve

This activity shoutd take you about 25 minutes.

Feedback

Lowlands, ptains
I rypeof
Mountain
I

retief
flooding and difficutt to settte the steep sides, an environment friendlY to man and
lmpact barrier to
[andstides makes the buitding of houses his activities:
on man communications,
e.g. road/rait in times of and roads costty, the ftat toP fresh water in rivers
heavy rain may have no rivers, inhibiting gentle or ftat sloPe for buitding
difficutt to grow settlement and agriculture roads, houses, and for cuttivation
crops or buitd
coastal location for trade and
transport

i
I
Be.
I Caribbean Studies

Typeof Mountain Vattey j Plateau Lowtands, ptains

relief i

i l

i How tourism: transport left in forest or its naturat settlements: towns, viltages, capitat.
j man scenery routes, vegetation cities and continuous urban sprawl
i uses the nature especiatly
. land reserve in the
sometimes used as tourist agriculture: plantation or estates,
mountains attractions as wilderness places small or peasant farms
forestry
has ecotourism potential industry - processing of agricuttural
quarrying navigation
products
fishing the stopes are often cultivated
terracing for
by smalt-scale farmers who help fishing, roads, railways, airports,
agriculture
dams to erode the soils and carve the Ports
buttdozing the land stopes into gutlies
growing crops
to buitd houses I

dumping I

I
I

waste I
I
I

As-Activity 2.4 shows, landscape - its shape, altitude and gradient

inlluences human use of it. Howeveq, how people go about -J
-
agriculture,
industry, building houses and roads, h"r to do *itl I

"rrttrrJleritage.'
Jhus, although we have seen that tie land itself determin., *rr.r.
humans can settle and where they cannot, our historical
legacy of
cultural forms dictates what we of settrement,rt"y,"ri.i,?"rr",
materials will be used and what architectwar pt""
inffil'favour.
Activity 2.5 below encourages
Iou to explore the many ways that human
society and culture have been shaped by geographi" p[,."o*"na such as i

landforms, rocks and soils.

Feedback I
:
Activity 2.5 t:
i

Examples of how human society In many countries of the caribbean, there

are extensive plantations or
and culture have been shaped 6y estates producing cash crops for export such
as rrgar aana,trnun.r,
landscape coconuts or, ress common[y, cocoa. In some I

countries, these plantations l.

I

have been found to be uneconomic to

A[[ learning takes ptace best when
we can relate new information to
famitiar knowtedge. In this activity,
we wi[[ draw on your knowleage of
your own country to extend your
understandings.
1 What area of your country is
support and they have diversified
into sma[[-scale peasant farms, growing'food
crops ;.h .;;", ground 1
provisions, peas, beans, vegetabtel
or t.i"tt cash crops iol"rp"ia, such as t
sugar cane, bananas, ginger, arrowroot,
nutmeg and coconuts. you need to
exptain what is happening in your country.
lf your country has large areas of the
t
f
tand devoted to ptantations or I
estates, then there ...{.b. certain geographic
factors pres";;. il"
!

most extensively cu ltivated, gradient of the land is frat, rorting Jr

tor example, in sugar cane or
other cash crops?
2 What characteristics of the
landscape have encouraged
large-scale cultivation there?
3 winds.. Most [ikety, targe-scate cuttivationixists
How would you describe the
inftuence of history on the
social and culturat forms that
are present today in that area?
uiaurating. This r'"nJii .o
farm especiatty, with h.,eavy mach'lnery.
ri ".ri"**,"
rLiri,.r", ti"irforr. t
altitude is tow. The soits are riabte to 6" r"rtit"
"ro as rivers oi *.-i.,.
courses,
when they reach the p.t1in:,often ftood,
sfreading sitt and other minerals
and nutrients that enrich the soit. vou
ma! need to consider where the
mountains are in reration to.the prevaitini I
winds, the northeariir"o.
in areas that are sheltered
from the winds. These areas are usualty fI
near a port or have transport links.
The area you chose may have att II
or so'me of these .il.il;rr;; lhow
this form of cuttivation was [ocated why
there and not etsewhere.
While the tand itsetf may have the requirements
for extensive farming,
history interyenes when we consider
who were the different groups in T
possession of these lands and
how they made use of it. ptantationlgricutture
was not part of the social and
cutturat-norms of the c.riur, louJ.ls
ano
T
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
other indigenous peoples. lt was onty with the coming of the Europeans and
their superior technologr in farming that this grpe oitand organisation
became a feature of our tandscape and has remained so to thi; date.

The examples given above illustrate the social and cultural expressions
of a people. Similarly, the practices of small farmers and estates also
reflect social and culturd arrangements of our people. Thus, if we are
contributing to soil erosion because of bad farming practices, such as
deforestation, then that is a social and cultural response. It is a response
to geography because it usually involves the cultivation of marginal lands
- steep slopes that should really not be cultivated but left under a cover of
forest. There is also a historical dimension - large estates, usually owned
by companies, own most of the fertile plains, poorer farmers have been
relegated to cultivate steep, hilly, not very fertile lands.
The examples below show how landscape has influenced the ways of life
of Caribbean people.
Fishing is often a social and culturat response to land that'is inhospitable
to human settlement (high altitude, steep gradients!. Islands with
mountainous interiors often find coastal people forgng stronger links with
other islanders across the water, than with the urbanites of the capital city.
If you examine settlement patterns in the Lesser Antilles, you will notice
a clear distinction between the west and east. Most of the capital cities
are located on the west coasts.
Part of the reason for this is that there are larger pockets of lowlands in
the west suitable for cultivation.
This response by Caribbean people also has to do with the interaction
of relief and weather phenomena. The west coasts enjoy a sheltered
location (because of the mountainous backbone) from the weather
systems that are brought with the northeast trade winds - easterly
waves, tropical storms and hurricanes. These systems bring much rain
and hearry winds to eastern locations.
The high mountains force the winds to rise, depositing excessive moisture
on the eastern and windward coasts. Consequently, the west coast (the lee
coast) is drier, often facilitating cultivation (particularly sugar cane).
This pattern could also be found in parts of the larger islands of the
Greater Antilles.

Plate tectonics: landforms, rocks and sol]r

It is not enough to be able to describe the different surface landforms and
show how they have influenced the tlpes and location of human social
and cultural activities. Any Caribbean person should be aware of the
subterranean tectonic processes at work in the region and how those
processes can affect surface landforms and our lives.
Plate tectonics is a theory that attempts to explain how the landforms
we have iust studied were created and dweloped over time. The
substance of the theory states that:
s there are large slabs of the Earth's crust (land and ocean) that form
' plates and move, driven by convection currents in the mantle
I
a r the Caribbean Plate is bordered by the Atlantic Plate in the east and
I its western margin lies off Central America in the Pacific
I
F
n plates move and adioin other plates at their margins or boundaries
F-
&.
*

Se*.,
 t
$

I Caribbean Studies
I
t
t
i
I
t
I at these margins, three tlpes of movements are possible:
I
i
I

: where the plates collide, this is called a convergent or destructive I

!
margin - the Lesser Antilles is on such a margin
r where the plates move away from each other, this is called a t
I
i
divergent or constructive margin (there is only a small divergent
margin in the Caribbean, off [amaical
r where the plates slide past each otheq, this is called a transform
margin (or a fault) - the northern and southern margins of the I

Caribbean Plate are of this t1pe. i

I

The term tectonic refers to earth movements and so can be relevant to l

mountain-building activities such as folding or earthquake (also called

seismic) activity, which results in the faulting of rocks, or volcanism.
At each of the three plate margins mentioned above, various tectonic t
I

processes occur that affect the Earth's surface and human existence. i

I At convergent or destructive margins, the main processes are I

I

earthquake activity, volcanic activity and mountain building. -t t

r At divergent margins, the main processes are earthquake and volcanic I
I
i
activity. t

x At transferm margins, earthquake activity is the dominant process. I

Activity 2.6 ;
j

.
Plate tectonics and the creation ofthe Caribbean landscape i.
i

Use the information given on the teft about plate tectonics to answer the fo[owing questions.
1 ldentify the plate margin in the btock diagram betow.
The ptate margin shown below is a
_ margin.

Peru-Chile deep-sea
trench (subduction zone)

Continental
crust

\"S \
t-oHliGplates\
Continental
or !
oceanic crust I

t
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I

2 ldentify the plate margin in the cross-section above.

The ptate margin shown above is a ptate margin. The main features are:
t
I
I
I
Look at Map 2 betow. ldentify which territories in the Caribbean are not tikety to experience earthquakes or
volcanoes.
What are the social and cuttural responses in any Caribbean country to hazards such as earthquakes and
volcanoes?

Map 2 The Caribbean plate

Feedback

1 The first diagram shows a transform margin. The plates stide by each other
buitding up stress and strain in the rocks, which eventualty move or are
disptaced causing earthquakes. Fautts are left on the surface as lines of
weaknesses in rocks. They can be eroded to form vatteys or may stand out
. as botd retief features, such as fautt scarPs. Onty earthquake activity occurs
at a transform plate margin. This is very common atong the northern and
southern borders ofthe Caribbean Ptate.
 f
I Caribbean Studies
I

-2
The second diagram is of a convergent or destructive plate margin. lts main
features include:
t two ptates cottiding with each other - the grinding of ptate against
plate produces earthquakes
I one plate being forced down into the subduction zone where the heat
and friction metts the rocks
I motten rock ascending to the surface through cracks and joints to form
volcanoes
r sediments from the cottiding ptates accumulating in great depressions,
which are raised through earth movements (mountain-building
activity) to form islands such as Barbados.
Map 2 shows that the northern boundary of the caribbean plate does not
include most of cuba and the Bahamas. The latter particutarty is considered
to be on a stable (or shietd) area - not frequentty prone to earthquakes or
volcanoes.
The southern border of the ptate passes through Trinidad and northern
south America. lt therefore, does not affect cayenne, Guyana or surjname.
These countries are situated on the otd hard rocks of the Guiana shietd,
which is considered to be a stable area, not prone to earthquakes or
votcanoes.
The rest of the caribbean countries are prone to both earthquakes and
votcanoes - those on transform margins to earthquake activity and those
on convergent margins to earthquakes, votcanoes and mountain-buitding
activity.
The social and cuttural responses to hazards such as earthquakes
and
votcanoes vary across the region. countries where there is a low risk
of earthquakes and volcanic activity tend to be comptacent. The more
experience there is of a hazard, the better prepared ihe peopte
are for the
hazard (Nagte,1998).

SociaI and culturaI responses to hazards

Qne of the reasons for introducing the topic of plate tectonics in
the caribbean Studies syllabus is io examine the social
and cultural
responses-of people to geographic phenomena. while plate
tectonics
influenced the creation of many different landforms,
alr""rr"a
prwiously, the theory is also associared with enviro;-";;ihazards
".
such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. we diJ
ilk;;;eraily at how
altitude, gradient and shape of the larid surface irrfl.r.rr""d-hrr*"r,
social
and cultural activity- Now we want to look at ,h.;;;;r;,
or c"riuu."r,
people to rather sudden and extreme environmerrt
t't such
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. ""^Js, "s
First of all, we should be aware of the variety and :

types of environmental
hazards that occur in the Caribbean.

I
I

I
.a
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I

Activity 2.7
EnvironmentaI hazards in the Caribbean
The table betow shows different types of environmentat hazards. Comptete the tabte by putting a tick in the retevant
category - several categories may appty to one hazard.

Hazards Meteorological j Tectonic Man-induced i Sudden I Stow ,

I occurrence : (warning)
Votcanic
eruptions

Earthquakes

Ftoods

Landstides/
rockfalls

Hurricanes
a
Tidat ftooding

Feedback

Hazards MeteorologicaI Tectonic Man-induced Slow

(warning)
Volcanic V iv lv
eruptions i ,

Earthquakes ,l V
Ftoods .r/
^l
,l ,l
Landstides/ V ./ 'r/ V
rockfa[[s

Hurricanes
^l
Tidat ftooding V V
^l

Volcanoes can erupt suddenly but there are examples of protracted eruptions such
as in the Soufridre Hitts of Montserrat and Mt Soufridre in St Vincent.

Ftooding is especiatly prevatent in lowtands and coasta[ plains. Rivers are adjusted
to average rainfatt and tend to maintain their channels. However, in times of
unusually high rainfatt such as thunderstorms, the instabitity associated with
the intertropicaI convergence zone or during a hurricane, the incoming water
exceeds the river's capacity and the river is said to 'burst its banks'. Ftooding atso
resutts from human activities. For examp[e, repeated and indiscriminate dumping
of waste in rivers, particularty large items such as househotd appliances and motor
vehicte parts, can btock rivers causing localised ftoods.
Deforestation leaves the soils on steeP slopes loose. Rain then removes [arge
amounts of soiI down stope to be deposited on riverbeds. This raises the level of
the riverbed. In times of increased rainfalt, the river witl not have the capacity
to'accommodate the increased water and there can quite easity be widespread
ftooding.
Landstides and rockfatts resutt from unstabte rocks and soils with a large ctay
component. Ctay absorbs rainwater, becoming stippery, enabling rocks on steep
I Caribbean Studies
Example
There are some ptaces that
are somewhat removed from
the Caribbean Shield and
earthquakes are not a major
risk to their way of [ife, for
example, Guyana. tf peopte
have experienced earthguakes
repeatedly they tend to have a
plan as to what they would do if
a strong earthquake occurs.
The personality of individuats
is atso an important factor in
responding to hazards. Some
people are apathetic, even to
make plans for the possibility
of such an event; some wait
on national emergency bodies
to tetl them what to do; white
others seek to minimise loss in
the degree to which persons have
options that can reduce risk.
Persons of higher socioeconomic
status can choose to buitd in
areas where a better foundation
is possible, on more stable
slopes; can choose building
materials that can withstand
a Hurricines gather
range of stresses; and can invest
in insurance and health coverage
to mitigate the effects of an
earthquake.
Source: adapted from
Nagte (19s8)
tr
'slopes
to slide. Heavy rainfa[t, earthquakes or the vibrations caused by btasting,
quarrying and road and rail buitding can induce tandstides and rockfatts.
Hurricanes go through several stages. They begin as sma[[ depressions or
low-pressure systems over the Atlantic, near Africa. some of them deveto;i
into more intense low-pressure systems, catled easterry waves, and are
brought with the northeast trade winds into the caribbean. A few easterly
waves devetop into tropical storms and fewer stilt into hurricanes. They tan
be detected and tracked with routine forecasting.
Tidal ftooding resutts from extremety targe waves pounding the coast, caused
by either hurricanes or strong earthquakes out at sea, disptacing the seabed.
other environmentaI hazards may be locatised or infrequent phenomena such
as soil creep, stumping, mudstides, mud votcanoes and tornadoes.
Activity 2.8
Social and cultural responses to hurricane threats
This activity will call upon knowledge about hurricanes and responses to them.
1 Experience
i
:
Which Caribbean countries rarely experience hurricanes?
ii ldentify FoUR caribbean countries that are more frequentty hit by
hurricanes.
iii suggest an explanation why some caribbean territories are setdom or
never hit by hurricanes white for others this is a common occurrence.
2 Material well-being
i
Exptain how socioeconomic status may inftuence the social
and cuttural
responses of Caribbean peopte to the threat of hurricanes.
3 Personality
outtine the steps that may be taken by a person who wishes to minimise
the risk associated with a hurricane.
4 Collectiveresponsibility
How can governments and national bodies hetp to reduce I
l
the risks and
dangers asscltiated with hurricanes?
I
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Feedback
'l Hurricanes fottow weil-defined tracks as they cross the
Attantic and enter t
j
the caribbean. Usualty, they first hit the chain of the Lesser
Antittes so a[[
those countries and Barbados have first-hand experience
of hurricanes.
Within the caribbean sea, they are less predictabte. rhey
maycomptetety
miss the chain of the Greater Anti[tes, but those
istands ioo u-suarty
experience at least one hurricane every two or three years.
strength from passage over warm seas so that if they
is usually
Belize city forced that country to re-tocate its
hit centrat America, it
with considerabte force. The frequency with which hurricanes
hit
c;pitat inland, at Betmopan.
I
Hurricanes receive.theirimpetus to spin and -I
create a vortex from the spin
of the earth. This coriolis force is weak nearer f
to the Equator, so that I
countries close to the Equator (5" to 1oo N) are
not tikety io
hurricanes - for example, Guyana (S" ru) and
Trinidad (1O" Nt."*p"ri"n.. -i
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 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
Hurricanes hit poorer peopte the hardest. The more wett-to-do usuatty
buitd on protected sites and on stabte tands. Those inhabiting squatter
setttements suffer from tand stips and ftoods caused by hea{ rains
and destruction of their homes by strong winds. The sociat arid cutturat
responses of the poor are limited in mitigating the effects of hurricanes.

To minimise risk during a hurricane, we can take measures tisted betow.

I Batten down windows and doors; particutarty gtass panes.
t Remove atl furniture or objects from the yard that may become
missites.
I Keep a stock of fresh water, canned foods, candtes, matches and
hurricane lamps.
I Ensure that pets and tivestock are safe.
r Do not go outside in strong winds because of possible harm frorn ftying
objects.
I Formutate ptans about how best to protect oursetves, for example, we
should att be aware of the nearest hurricane shelter. '
r Keep a transistor radio handy to listen to the latest butletins.
r lt is advisabte to have insurance to cover any toss.
In atl Caribbean countries, governments and nationaI bodies usually take
stePs to:
I educate the poputation to adopt safe buitding and housing practices
that witl provide protection from extreme weather conditions
t devetop and imptement procedures for removing persons in an
emergency to safer ground and for general evacuation
r have wett-planned shelters in atl parts of the country
I develop an effective educationaland disaster-awareness programme
to sensitise the poputationas to risks and what they can do to
minimise risks
r meet adequate housing needs, as far as possibte
I ensure that buitding codes and regulations are fotlowed.

We cannot afford to be complacent about environmentd hazards. We

have seen the damage caused by volcanic eruptions and the potential
damage that may be caused by the subduction that is occurring at the
western edge of the Caribbean Plate Governments, agencies and the
people of the Caribbean need to ensure that measures are in place to deal
with these potential ho'ards. Each person has a role to play. For example,
we should be more careful about using rivers for a dumping ground and
cutting down trees. A knowledge of human ecology should further your
understanding of these issues.

Human ecology: conceptions of space and ptace

At the beginning of this section, two views of the man-land relationship
were mentioned. One view could be described as the determining
effects of geography. We explored this view at length as the influence
of geography (landforms, rocks, soils, environmentd hazards) on the
social and cultural life of Caribbean people. Anotirer view that was also

F]

I Caribbean Studies
Activity 2.9
Aboriginal conceptions of space
and place
Many of us, if we are not history
students, setdom think about
the aboriginaI people of the
Caribbean. Yet, thousands of
aboriginaI peopte stitt inhabit the
region today. This activity will
hetp deepen your awareness of
how different groups of Caribbean
people have shaped our [andscape.
From your previous knowtedge
of the Caribs, Arawaks and other
aboriginaI peoples, what would
you say were their dominant
beliefs about the man-land
retationship?
Activity 2J0
Eurocentric conceptions of space
and place
To a great extent the Eurocentric
view of life continues to dominate
our world. lt is important, as
Caribbean people, that we are we[[
aware of this.
1 Based onyour previous
historical knowledge, what
were the dominant betiefs of
Europeans about man-tand
retationships?
2 How are these betiefs
demonstrated today?
7
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'suggested was that the general perceptions or dominant ideas and values
of a people shaped how they see the potential of their living space. Thus,
deep-seated ideas, values and beliefs are impoftant in ocplaining how
land is presently organised and used.
Human ecolory deals with the impact of people on their environment
through the dominant social and culrural beliefs they have about
themselves in relation to land or nature. one way of making this clear is
to contrast the world views of nvo major groups of people that inhabited
Caribbean space over time.
:
Feedback
To complete this exercise, we must first think about the activities of the
aboriginal people. They grew a few crops, did some fishing, hunting and I
gathering and moved in dugout canoes with the prevaiting winds and ocean
currents. The aboriginal peopte, even those with more advanced agriculturat
systems and buitding technotogy such as the Maya, worshipped gods that were
closely associated with nature and with their daity activities such as ptanting
I
and harvesting.
Today the caribs of northeast Dominica, for example, continue to use the canoe
to communicate with neighbouring territories, crossing internationaI borders at I
witt. They maintain their traditional crafts such as basketry, weaving, fishing and
boat buitding. They do not rely very much on modern technotogies but conlinue
to use age-old knowledge of the winds and ocean currents of the area.
It woutd seem that they betieved that nature was sacred and that they needed
to pray and give sacrifices so that nature would continue to be bountifut.
Hence, they betieved that they shoutd understand as much as possibte, for
example, about ptants and their medicinaI properties, so that they coutd make
the wisest use of what was given by nature. Their practices demonstrate a
I
respect for nature and an emphasis on conservation. The unwittingness of the
caribs, Maya and the aboriginal peopte in the interior of Guyana to recognise
the internationaI borders that separate their peopte attestsio an undertying
disbetief that land can be carved up and demarcated or even owned by manl -
The world view of the aboriginal people can now be contrasted with
the world view of the Europeans who ff.rst came to the caribbean in the
fifteenth century'and whom wen today maintain a dominant presence in
our ways of life.
I
Feedback
1 Europeans were technotogicatty advanced compared to the aboriginat
inhabitants, especially in warfare and manufaciuring. They were
'Renaissance men' - they had thrown off the n"rroui supirstitious
views of
the Dark Ages and had embraced an optimistic spirit that mankind coutd
do att things. Their many breakthroughs in science and technotogy fuetted
their industries and increased their control over nature. They came to
the
caribbean as conquerors who enstaved the native inhabitanis as we[[ i
as
west Africans, who were brought to tabour in mines and on ptantations. I
Europeans conceived of the land space as being there to
be used for
their good and wett-being. They were caught up in the capitatist i
mode of
production, bent on making a profit, so thlt they did not
exploit resources
for their own immediate use but for mass produ-ction. The plrception
was I
1
 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
that the land coutd be owned by whichever party was strong enough to
I
maintain supremacy. Vatues then were atigned towards individuat o*ners,
i
competition, exctusion and targe-scate exploitation for profit.
2 Today, even though there are competing conceptions of land, the
Eurocentric views hotd sway. we may see such views manifested in how
land is believed to exist for the sustenance for those using it now. Thus,
land is sometimes degraded, littered, pottuted and destroyed without
a thought to the future. Housing and buitt-up areas are constructed on
slopes, causing accelerated soiI erosion, teading to ftooding and other
environmentat problems. Today, we struggle between the voices favouring
restraint and conservation in exploiting the environment and those who
point to the productive sector, modernisation and economic growth.

Human ecolory offers us insights into howwe perceive our lMng space
and an understanding that these perceptions are due largely to the socid
and cultural beliefs *rat we have inherited. We can use that characteristic
feanrre of the Caribbean environment - coral reefs - to futih"r e4plore
these issues.

Activity 2.11
Basic facts about corat reefs .r
The geography of the Caribbean shows the importance of coral reefs in maintaining many aspects of ]\.
our ways of tife. That we tend to abuse this resource coutd stem from a lack of awareness of the usefutness
of coral reefs.
Look at the diagram below and answer the fottowing questions.

1 There are three types of coral reefs: fringing, atotl and barrier reefs.
Locate any barrier reefs in the Caribbean.

2 Biodiversity: the reef 3 Coral potyps are the tiny

provides habitats, shelter marine organisms that secrete
and food for thousands a catcium carbonate shell or
of species of marine flora tube that remains after the
and fauna. potyp dies. They stick together
Types of corals
to form the massive structure
Show ONE way that this of the reef.
is important to man.
What conditions are necessary
for potyps to thrive?

4 Reefs are important to

man because:
. they breakthe force of
the waves providing 5 Threats to the survival of coral reefs in the Caribbean:
harbours and beaches
I Overfishing
Extracting corats, sand and limestone
' they provide ideal
Tourist traffic (walking on the corals, fuel from boats, dropping anchors)
environments for
diving, photography
they.

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r Caribbean Studies

Feedback

Barrier reefs are separated from the mainland by a deep channel of a

hundred feet or more. They comprise massive coral canyons, ridges and, I

tunnets. The most extensive barrier reef in the wortd is located off eastern I

i
Australia and Belize has the second tongest barrier reef. Another very large I

barrier reef is found off Andros lsland in the Bahamas.

I
:
Atolls are roughty ovat-shaped and enctose a lagoon. Groups of atolts are
found off Belize - Lighthouse Reel Glover's Reef and the Turneffe lslands.
Many of the islands of the Bahamas are atolts. They represent the growth -!
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of coral on a submerged mountain chain.
I
i
Fringing reefs are very common. They are connected to the istand or
separated from it by a very narrow strip of sea, for exampte, Buccoo Reef I
t'
offTobago. t
!
!
Biodiversity is important as the different ftora and fauna secrete substances f

to protect themsetves from predators and these chemicats have been I

I

found to be potentially usefutby man in manufacturing medicines.

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3 Potyps thrive best in shatlow, clear and warm warers.
t

t
4 Many wetland ecosystems in the caribbean can survive because coral reefs !.
t'
break the force of waves enabting a sheltered environment of quiet water f
for swamps and mangrove to grow. The tatter provide valuable fisheries,
F
ecotourism attractions and ecologicaI benefits to man. I
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Corals are destroyed in a variety of ways:
:
r coastaldevelopment in the form of hotets and marinas involve I
I
construction, quarrying and dredging, the waste of which drains I
out to
sea to provide turgid waters that choke coraI growth.
r Pollution, in the form of detergents and other chemicals, stimulates
algalgrowth which devetops over living corals and kitts them.

Eurocentric values that emphasise the exploitation of natural

-i
resources I

to promote economic dwelopment and well-being have resulted

in the
expansion of the tourist industry in ways that thrlaten tt
e ,ust"inability
of our environment. However, aiternative conceptions of
human
ecology, reminiscent of the aboriginal view of marr-lana
rehtionships,
are-competingwith mainstream values. Tourism policy in
Dominica
and Guyana advocates a minimum of high-rise to"rirt
a.rrJopmenr I

initiatives, and ecotourism enclaves that blend into the

narurat
environment. The payoff may not be seen as substantial
in terms of
short-term economic growth but adverse effects rh;;;;io,,-.rr,
""
minimal and there is potential for furrher dwelopment
oi ecoro$cally"r.
I
t

friendly tourism.

Key points I

It is believed that one of the first principres important

in understanding
the society and culture of a place is knowleag
or ii, ro""tiori
nhrsic,al landscape. Thii section emphasrs., ,t ..oiriir.,,io'
1|egeo€ranhl "ra i

ot inshaping some of the social

Caribbean people. ""d;"ilr",;;;ii"., of
t

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 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
For example:
Suggested further
I the archipelagic nature of the caribbean is thought to foster values
that tend to fragment Caribbean people and keep them apart readings
I geomorpholory shows how gradient, altitude and shape of the land
References
surface contributes to different kinds of relief
r relief is an important factor in how people have perceived the Honerychurch, L. ( 1995).'Caribs,
usefuLress of the landscape Creoles and Concepts of Territory:
The boundary between France and
I plains and coastal lowlands historically have been densely peopled Dominica'. Caribbean Geography,
because these areas offered man the opporhrnity to establish societies 6(l), pp. 6I-70.
and culnrres
r Nagle, G. {19981. Hazards. Surrey,
mountains, high plateaus, as well as the windward slopes of the
Lesser Antilles, are sparsely settled because of the difffculties for
UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd.
building, tr:rnsport, accessing fresh water and cultivating Mohammed, l. (ed.l. (2001).
I soil is also a factor in settlement on lowlands (soils tend to be thick Readings in Caribbean Studies.
and fertile on plains and lowlands but thin and prone to erosion on Kingston, [amaica: CXC.
steeper slopesl
I plate tectonics illustrates how subterranean processeehelped to Further readings
create landforms in the first place, and volcanic and seismic activity Palacio, J. {1995). Aboriginal people
continue to influence society and culture today - Their stnrggle with cultural
I hurricanes, winds and ocean currents also influence Caribbean society identity in the Caricom region'.
and culnrre Bulletin of Eastern Cartbbean
I Affatus, 20(4l;, pp. 254O.
human ecolory adds to the influence of geomorpholory on social and
culnrral activity - in that the dominant ideas of people about man- Potter, R. B. ( 1992t'.'Caribbean
land relationships influence how people use their geographic space Views on Environment and
r the aboriginal inhabitants of the Caribbean had different values about Dwelopment: A cognitive
man and land than those of the Europeans, whose values are now perspective' . Caibbean
mainstream in the Western world Geography, 3(4), pp. 236-243.
Pulsipher, L. M. (2001).'Our
Conclusion Maroon in the Now-Lost
Landscapes of Montserrat'. The
Geography provides the basic framework within which society and G eo gr aphic aI Reuiew, f an-Apr
culture develops. The outlook and perspectives a people may adopt are 2001, pp. L32-I42.
fundamentally related to what their environment offers and how they
subsequently shape that environment. Different groups occupying a Robertson, R. ( 1995).'Volcano
landspace may see different potential in the environment and, therefore, Surveillance and Flazard
their man-land interactions will differ. This, howwe4 leads us to a Mitigation in the Eastern
historical perspective - the subiect of Section 3. Caribbean'. Caibbean
Geography,6(2).

End test
Attempt atl the questions.
1 Copythe map betow and markthe fottowing:
I Attantic and Pacific Oceans
r Carhbean Sea and the Gutf of Mexico
r Barbados
r Guyana and Betize
I Puerto Rico

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Central America and the West lndies

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2 The 'Commonwealth Caribbean' is sometimes used to define the Caribbean.
State ONE criticism of such a definition.
--'i
3 a Ceomorphotogy is the study of _? i
b Human ecotogy is the study of

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Key -t
IIlGtr I
IFI*I mountains
FF!!

a river

a N.E. Trades
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t

a Copy the map and indicate with an X where setttement is most likety to take place. t

b Give FOUR reasons to support your answer.

SuggestTHREE ways in which votcanic activity has influenced Caribbean society and
culture. I

Describe ONE way in which winds and ocean currents have influenced Caribbean
society and cutture.
copy the diagram on page 37 and mark on it how smal farmers can continue to
I
cultivate these slopes and minimise the risk of soit erosion.
It

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 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture I
L

L 1,000 m

L I
L 0m

8 a ldentify the environmental hazard that has affected the rocks as shown in the
L 'before' and'after' diagrams.
Before After
L

I
b How has this hazard impacted on the landscape?
Tick off the terms and phrases below that are consistent with a human ecotogical
approach that respects nature and the environment:

t- a Preservation of wilderness areas

b Economic devetopment and modernisation
L c Sustainabitity
d Ecotourism
e Urban devetopment and urban sprawl
L f Use of [oca[ materials
g Blending construction into the environment
L h Mass production, for example, manufacturing or togging

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i High-rise hotel construction
I
j Over-exploitation of resources
Fitt in the btanks using words from the tist betow.
i (Note: there are more words in the tist that there are blanks.)
t-
irrigation extensive machinery Barbados peasant poverty
transport retief Jamaica haggters economy cash
L-
famity volcanic convergent plantation transform rivers
erosion divergent southern technotogy underdevelopment
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-l tI
{t
i

The island of _ shows complex features, which -1

influence society and culture. For example, the lowlands are I

enough to maintain the European tradition of sugar cane

cuttivation in hotdings. These lowlands provide ideat conditions for
and the
-1
of raw materials and finished products. t
{

I
provide water for One of the reasons that i

the soits are so fertile is because ancient rocks have broken - I

down to provide a high mineral content. (the istand used to be situated on a I

margin, but today the margin is of the tvPe). i

) : '.. l
I
On the other hand, mountain and hittside slopes are atso cultivated but the social I

and cultural arrangements are different. Farms are sma[[, catted

farms, and tend to be worked by labour. They lack machinery and
I

modern, often expensive, transport and I

I

The smatl farmer is involved in a different type of to that described I

above. He se[[s his produce in [oca[ markets or. to [oca] businesses. He is at the
mercy of floods, pests, low prices and lending institutions. The ' ' ,'of ' ':,1.:'.:): I
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small farmers is directly linked to rurat - a tradition that began I

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with European colonisation where the interior of a country, if it coutd not be

I
cultivated with _ crdps, was ignored. The plight of the sma[[ farmer t
continues to this day. White it is often true that he engages in practices that result I
in soil these practices reflect his [ack of options.
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5

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Feedback for end test t

-{
1* I

tt f
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t

+t
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.x
Guyana
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f
This is a definition of convenience as it demarcates the territories with a British cotonial experience from the others A
and excludes existing British territories. Any course that studies the Caribbean and defines it as the 'Commonwealth i

Caribbean' shoutd make ctear the assumptions that such a definition is at best onty a partial one, adopted for t
convenience.
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 Section 2 Geography, society and culture I
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3a Geomorphology is the study of the physicat [andscape, its processes and resutting features or landforms.
b Human ecotogy is the study of human perception of their space and how they have organised this space. lt
L can atso be described as the study of the retationships between human groupr and the'lr physicat
and human
environments.

L 4a

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As shown above, Putting an X anywhere in the southern lowlands wi[ be suitable.

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b i Flat land for buitding houses and roads
ii Fresh water for domestic consumption
iii A sheltered location from strong winds and hearry rains
L iv A port location for trade and movement
Ways in which votcanic activity has influenced caribbean society and cutture:

L I lt has increased the tourism Potentiatof certain countries through the promotion of
spectacular scenery, for
example, the Pitons of St Lucia and features such as hot springs, mineral baths,
sulphur springs, cratersind
calderas.
I
r lt brings to the consciousness of alt Caribbean peopte the threat of environmental hazards,
for example, the
destruction wrought in Montserrat.
r lt has caused insurance companies and undenruriting firms to increase premiums in those countries where
there
L is a risk of eruptions.
I Volcanic rocks weather over time to form fertite soits futt of minerals that plants need, thus encouraging
agriculture in high-risk areas.
L I The intermittent and dormant nature of volcanic activity has spawned a fatse sense of security
in those istands
where active volcanoes are found.
L The northeast trade winds, the prevaiting winds, together with the dominant ocean currents
in the Atlantic Ocean
hetped Cotumbus and those voyagers in the days of sait by directing them towards the Caribbean.
They brought
with them a way of life that was very different to the society and culture of the indigenous inhabitants.
The impact
I
l- of the Europeans continues to this day.
Another way that winds and ocean currents continue to inftuence society and culture is the
direction of ftow, which
facilitates inter-istand travel by fishermen in their pirogues. The ease with which individuats
I
can travel from istand
to istand in pirogues and other small craft reftects how they can take advantage of winds and
I

ocean currents tocatty.

The Caribs of Dominica and the Creoles of Cuadetoupe unJ Martinique interalting
across internationaI boundaries
are evidence of this.
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7 t
1,000 m
ri
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Concrete watts built around the hiltsides serve to impede the progress of soiI downstope. They are calted terraces. I
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Ploughing around the hittside - contour ptoughing - has a similar effect.
I
a Earthquakes or seismic activity. {
b i The retief has changed; there is now a scarp slope showing where rocks have moved or been disptaced to I
I
retieve the stress that has been building up in the rocks. ft

ii A fault remains in the rocks. A fault is a line of weakness along which further movement is tikety to occur. lt -{ {

is therefore unstable. t
I

9 a,c,d,f,g I
-
10 The istand of Jamaica shows comptex relief features, which inftuence society and cutture. For exampte, the I
southern lowlands are extensive enough to maintain the European tradition of sugar cane cuttivation in t
plantation hotdings. These lowlands provide ideaI conditions for machinery and the transport of raw materiats {
and finished products. I

Rivers provide water for irrigation. One of the reasons that the soils are so fertile is because ancient volcanic rocks T
J
l
have broken down to provide a high mineral content. (The istand used to be situated on a convergent margin, but {
today the margin is of the transform type).
i

On the other hand, mountain and hitlside stopes are also cultivated but the social and cultural arrangements are
different. Farms are smalt, calted peasant farms, and tend to be worked by famity labour. They lack machinery and J
modern, often expensive, transport and technology. I
i

The sma[[ farmer is invotved in a different type of economy to that described above. He selts his produce in [oca[
markets or to [oca[ businesses. He is at the mercy of ftoods, pests, low prices and tending institutions. The poverty of J
smalt farmers is directty [inked to rural underdevetopmCnt - a tradition that began with European colonisation where I

the interior of a country, if it could not be cultivated with cash crops, was ignored. The ptight of the small farmer
continues to this day. White it is often true that he engages in practices that result in soil erosion, these practices
reftect his lack of options.
I i

Tutor-marked assignment J
Write no more than 1,000 words on the following topic.
Choose one Caribbean territory and describe how the natural
environment has influenced some of its social and cultural practices.
I i

20 marks
Criteria for marking T
The award of marks is based on the following.

Content E:<planation of concepts: 8 marks

I I
Analysis of concepts: 7 marks
Synthesis: 5 marks
{

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 Section 2 Geography, society and cutture !
L
Structure
A quigk sketch map of the chosen country will help considerably in
L organising your essay. It should contain a key that describes thglocation
of maior features of the natural and built-up environment mountains,
plains, swamps, capital-city, densely populated -
L ft.r, you can
choose two or three of the maior..gio"r you show "r""..
on the map and
discuss the interaction and interrelatiottriiip, between ,t . pt yri""l
landscape and how humans have used the land.
L A discussion about social and cultural practices is necessary showing
that they encompass the rang-e of ways that groups fr"". ,rr.a to orgr"rrir.
their existence. Thus, not only agriculture iJworihy of mention,
but the
L dilferences in how it is organiiedkom hillsides r. pr"rrrE i-t e dangers
pos.eq by certain practices, for example, deforestation
ani ,oit
and the historical background influenclng these practices. ".or"iorr;
iocia
cultural practices can also include settlement patterns, interaction"na
L international boundaries, attitudes to hazards, and
across
such as
""iirriti",
fishing and tourism - all of which are tied ,. ,t prryri""i."-ro"ment.
"
L StyIe
,|ndysis and interpretation should be well dweloped and relevant
to
the issue under examination. conclusions drawn rrrouJ belogical
L insightful.
and

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t!
ll
I

3 History, society and culture

-'ut

-*
$
fr
I
I
D
U
t

General objectives lntroduction I

t

At the end of this section, you

In this section we build on your knowledge of Caribbean history. Past 1 t
events are presented in an effort to e>cplain their impact on Caribbean
should be abte to: l
society and culture today. In this way, r
-'1
understand the historicat rpl q'^ n
^t d$i€t€ry.i*ehq*rrtrcere-drd'!trilttt' in-drq*en.
I
factors that have shaped Some people like historyvery much and others tend to think it is all
Caribbean society and cutture about dates that are difficult to memorise. Howweg dates are iust details.
Of gfeater impOrtance are the processes or forces at work in a society that
J
appreciate the impact of
gave rise to certain events, which are remembered by the dates on which t
historical factors in shaping
they occurred. l
culture and society in the
Caribbean region. This section is a chronological study of important historical events and 1 t
processes over time. Time should not be confused with dates. 'Time' I
in history refers to broad periods when society and culture appeared
gontinuous, with only few deep-seated changes. For example,-lhgl11e- I
objectives Columbian era is considered a period of lruman his_tory il the Qaribbean.
I
t
You wilt be abte to: acgglgls-lq
I
anatyse the discipline of history
and its contribution to an
the.notm
qhe-.nbfms arufcu-stoms of the indieenous peoples. wimEe
uileople- With the coming o.
Columbus and the Europeans, society and culture changed
of
drastically. I I
Thus, the section unfolds in a chronological way identifying important I
understanding of present-day periods in Caribbean history. I
society and culture I

Howeveq, we will see that throughout each period certain themes or I

describe the impact of human
migration on society and
culture in the Caribbean
exptain how Caribbean
society was shaped under the
oppressive role of forced labour
historical processes recur. For example, migration, oppression, and
resistance are familiar themes in Caribbean history yet in different J
times they occurred under different conditions. While we categorise
the history of the Caribbean into different periods, we should also note
that trends continued from one period to the next, although with some I
-1
changes.
i

systems
assess the various ways in
Content
r The disciplirie of history
I I

which Caribbean people have

resisted and are resisting * Periods of Caribbean history: t
oppression r The encounter: the age of discovery
examine continuity and change r Settling down: colonisation l

in historical trends in Caribbean r Emancipation: engaglng freedom t

society and culture. r Globalisation: the changing encounter I
r Themes in Caribbean history
I Migration J
x Genocide/oppression I

I Resistancey'resilience
T
The table on the next page illustrates how the content (historical periods,
I
themes, events and processes) is organised in this section.
t I

T I

' 42,
T
1
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
t_
Historical periods Themes Events, processes

L The encounter:
discovery
the age of The indigenous peoples: Tainos/Caribs; voyages of CotrrnU,rs, tt e
Spanish conquest
15th and 16th century
I
Genocide/oppression Cenocide: enstavement of the Indians, the encomienda; the
I, repartimiento; diseases
Resistance/resi Iience Caribs, Windward tslands

L Settting down: colonisation

; Migration Eyropean intertopers: British, French, Dutch; forced ,igrrtion of
17th, 18th and earty 19th century African slaves

I
Genocide/oppression Slavery: the triangular trade;colonialism;,@
Resistance/resilience Maroonage; rebeltions; r.uotutionr; p"rri*ffiE
i
Emancipation: engaging Migration
I
Options for ex-slaves; indentured t"ffi
freedom
metropolitan migrations
Late 19th and 20th century
Oppression East Indian indentureship; imperiatiim; sosl6ifrl;fi1jffi
I
pluralism; obstructed groups
Resistance/resilience
politicaI parties; struggtes for independence

t_ Globalisation: the changing Migration Changing nature ofthe diaspora; refugees; the drug economy
encounter
21st century
Oppression j Neo-coloniatism: shifting of .
I
I nature of imperialism, WTO; technology (lCT); ethnocentric
I values
Resistance/resilience Regional institutions: CARICOM, UWl, CSME;
nativism: fundamentalism; identity issues
I

The discipline of history

L If you lived in the caribbean at the time of corumbus,
arrival, do you
think that you will agree with what history books t t to say about
your life as a carib or Thino? Ironically, the ultimate"* "a
a
a historian's account is valid or not, lies in whether
,.* whether
L_ tt. "ro", beinj
p..pr.
written about, long dead, would agree.
History then
I
!.grttr with a disadvantage. Its subiect matter is the past
and it has to ffnd ways to ma\e the pait yierd its r."t.ir.
L below helps you to acquire a deeper
-ktro*l.dg" e"iiviry 3.1
t rrirl"ians go about
reconstructing the past. "r "*
t-
Activity 3J
Can we trust the historian?
I

This exercise witt hetp you to think criticatty about what

historians wi[[ have us
believe about the past.
I
L
1 List the various pieces of evidence that the historian
may use to
reconstruct the past.
2 How does the historian ensure that his or her reconstruction
of the past is
I truthfu[?
3' ldentify TWo criticisms that have been levelted at historians,
accounts of
Caribbean history.
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rl
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L*
I Caribbean Studies {
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Feedback iI
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-''t
1 Evidence that the hfslqglf:ql r
I

-Documentary records such as diaries, newspaper reports, advertisements, t

government correspondence and proctamations, letters, statistics, books

written by people living at the time being studied, travel [ogs, retics and
t I

artefacts such as drawings, paintings, photographs, buildings, burial t

t
-''l
I grounds, rubbish heaps, coins.
i White the above provide some information to be examined by the historian, F
t

oral histories atso provide another type of evidence for reconstructing the Past. Ir
-
2 t1r$qtq119e4!qe thellhe reconstruction l :
I
r carefulty and sys-tematLqglty_Elqgo.r iqerPreting the t h
for exampte, estabtishing the origin of the document or I
3ryr@nce, -
artefact being used as a tool in reconstruction, and thus possibte bias t

tg$pginto conqideratio n wh{gtheihistorians- have mad e of the evidence

r using one's own judgement to detect retiabitity.
t- -. - :--J,^----r L- )^L^^L -^l:-L:l:+.,
J
3 r l;terpltt g rristo.y?.q-rir"s both rigorous analysis of evidence as welt as
I

an imaginative reconstruction of the past. Both aspects may be derailed { f,

by the biases and assumptions of historians. Examples are given betow.

t
Historians must give a plausibte or coherent account of the past. They may
fitt in detaits for which they have only circumstantial evidence. While this t
'"1
is acceptabte because history is not just a list of dates and events, it is also
t
dependent on the knowtedge, experience and expertise of the historian.
F
Historians have divided uP historicaltime into broad periods, based
on the knowtedge of hindsight. lt is imPortant to remember that I
the people tiving at the time did not know the period they would be
assigned to. lt was a tived experience for them. Thus, periodisation is f
targety a device used by historians to convenientty study the past. They i
may be guitty of imposing too much order on historical time.
The vatues, betiefs and stereotypes hetd by the historian can cotour
t
their interpretation of the historical record. For exampte, the issue I
of 'discovery' is onty an issue now that Caribbean historians are
rewriting history from the PersPective of the indigenous inhabitants
r
A
and the oppressed peopte under cotoniatism. When our history was
I
being written by historians frorn the colonising countries, the issue of
'discovery' did not arise. lt was treated as a fact. The long existence r
'''l
of different peoptes such as the Tainos and the Caribs, and highty
organised societies, such as the Maya, Inca and Aztec, in the region,
{

were ignored to hightight the accomptishments of Europeans.

A
I
I
To students who are not specialists in history understanding the past
may seem an interesting but somewhat impractical activity - meaning I.
that its usefulness may be very limited. However, it is important to krrow
i
that through periodisation and isolating themes and trends we can come
to better understand our society and culture today'
This section focuses on three themes in baribbean history (obviously
I I
there are more) - migration, genocidey'oppression and resistance/
resilience. A study of these specific themes should give us ways of
E.
analysing the major forces operational in our history. The section should
also help us to make sense of contemporary society and culture. I

'tI
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&
 I

I
Section 3 History, society and cutture I

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I Caribbean Studies f i

'Periods
of Caribbean history _[
I

The encounter: the age of discovery

The'NewWorld'
The migration of Europeans in voyages of discovery looking mainly
J

l
I
for trading routes, led to the encounter - a clash of two cultures, the
European being technologically superior, especially in terms of warfare,
to that of the indigenous inhabitants. This encounter, the result of
navigational mistakes and ignorance on the part of Columbus, had earth- t

shaking importance for mankind.

This contact first occurred in 1492 but because European society had
already evolved sophisticated forms of written language, much of the
I t

story of the enc4unter has been recorded. Howwer, the task of the I
historian remains to separate facts from the ethnocentric itterpretations
of the writers at the time. Our history texts have been clearly influenced t
' by writers with an Ewocentric outlook or bias. Such views have tended
to perpetuate myths rather than give balanced accounts of Caribbean {
history. t

One such myth relates to what we have learned about the Arawaks
and Caribs, their nature, practices and migfatory history. First of all,
Columbus, and the Spaniards who followed, referred to all of the native
I t
peoples as'Indians', perpetuating Columbus' mistaken assumption
in"i n" had found outlyrng islands of India and China. This name has I
persisted to this day. Mistakes continued as Europeans attempted to
classify and name native PeoPles'
I
The name'z\rawak' has been used in the British West Indies for those
t
native inhabitants that Columbus found in the Bahamas and the Greater
Antilles in the fifteenth century. In the Spanish and French West Indies
I
the name'Thino'has been used for tfre same goup- Today, this name
is thought to be more appropriate as it differentiates them from the t
Arawakan peoples who reside in large numbers in South America today. t

That thesJpeople never thought of themselves as Arawak or Thino,

makes the point about European superiority. T
The Caribs, occupying largely the islands of the Lesser Antilles, spoke
I

an Arawakan tanggage, adopted from the people they captured. Their

culture, though, differed markedly from the Thinos.
t t
Historians of today consider that the European emphasis on describing
the Caribs as extremely warlike cannibals, actually attempts to iustify
their pwsuit of these people to replace the Arawak labour supply when
t
that dwindled. A more balanced view of the history records shows that I

the Caribs ate small morsels of human flesh in rituals having to do with
planning raids and preparing for combat. That they were more warlike
than the Thinos is certain, but they were probably iust as warlike as the
I I
Spaniards. It would be interesting to examine the encounter from the
eyes of the Carib or Taino peoples. That they had no written language
forces us to be extremely careful in interpreting the European account.
t I

The Caribs and the Spaniards had differing concepts of war. The Caribs
I
were more interested in raiding villages to capture women rather than in
claiming territory amassing gold or building a labour supply. However, as I
the conLct with Europeans became more savage, the Caribs had to alter
their ritualistic approach to warfare in order to survive. t
It is commonly accepted that sometime between AD 600 and 700 the
Thino people moved northwards into the Caribbean from the coast of
I
t
1
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 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
L
south America. Much later circumstantial evidence seems to point
to their further migration northwards as the caribs began their move
I from south America to occupy the islands of the Lessei Antilles. This
historical acco'nt is usually given to explain the distribution of Thino
largely in the Greater Antilles and carib in the Lesser Antilles
at the time
of the coming of the Europeans. It is also given as further evidence
I of the
warlike nature of the Caribs.
one altemative explanation could be that just as groups have been on the
move from time immemorial (e.g. the migration of Asiatics into
North
America over the Bering Strait|, Thinos 1"t", caribs moved into the
"nd of diffusion and
caribbean region drawn by a natural process adaptation.
Yet, we have all been weaned on the idea of the warlike caribs p"rt
the peaceful Thinos northwards.
i"g

TheOldWorld
Prwailing
$inking about columbus was that he was an intrepid soul,
that he had a dream and was e gre^tadmiral ii;,i. unknown.
"oy"girrg
This sorr of thinking sits squarery in the tradition"wh"eru
legends a1e up arourrd the exploits of one,s o*n
h*., "rra
lgilt
could-probably be said of columbus was that he had "orriltry*en.
what
conviction
that the Earth was not fla1an{ consequently o"" ",iro"s to get to
"o"ial"iiLr.
the East. In many of the details, he wls wrong. However, he did have in-
depth sea-faring knowledge.
when columbus returned to spain after his first voyage, a monumental
migration began, bringrng Europeans to this ,newly iiio""r.a
world,. It
is written about as 'the age of discovery, and one c"n
e"sily discern the
bias there. usually, reacting to the horror of the *.d;;Gst
Indian
historians, on the other hand, have painted ttt" sp"niaiaq and
indeed
h_ a_ll Europeans, as gregdy, bent only otr th. pillage;"J j";fi;tion
of New
world societies. while that may be largely-tru.] i' th" i"i.i.r, of reading
his.tory accurately, we can examine cottditiorrs in fifteenth-@ntury
spain
to better understand the reasons for the large-scale ;rgr";;;
to the New
World.
Activity 3.2 below helps us in making this assessment. It also helps
to
build our erpertise in analysing historical events r""""r" it il based
on
distinguishing causes and consequences. we should be clear though that
a cause could once have been a consequence of some other
historical
occurrence. Thus, you will find that allocating reasons for a historical
event is quite complex and we should be wary of generalised explanations
for large groups of people.

Activity 3.2
Spanish migration to the NewWorld
Thisactivity hetps us to-buitd a balanced picture of historical events by
providing contextuat information about spain at the time
under studj.
You are provided with 1o boxes. Five boxes relate to causes and the other five
retate to consequences. In each case, you are required to match
two boxes,
that is, cause with its consequence(s).

ln 1494, Pope Atexander Vr arranged the Treaty of Tordesittas whereby

spain was given all lands to the west of Azorei and portugal a[
tands
to the east.
I Caribbean Studies
{

2 The fresh knowledge that the New World brought was defined by the
Spaniards in their favour - naming peoptes and places and assuming !
superiority over them. r'
t

3 Columbus was primarily interested in exploration and discovery. I

However, he felt that he had to ptacate his sponsors and carry out
their wishes in order to pursue his. t
E

t
F
4 Thousands of ordinary Spanish fotk migrated fteeing poverty and
I
a lack of opportunities in Spain. Many formed the armies of the
Conquistadores. 1
I

5 ln 1492, Spain was finatty successfuI in expelling the Moors after

centuries of occupation, the Reconquista. Religious fervour was high.

6 Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was experiencing the

Renaissance. People were restless and curious, seekingto extend the
boundary of human knowledge and experience.

7 The Inca and Aztec empires were rich in gotd, silver and precious
stones. Spanish armadas laden with these treasures regularly made
the journey from the New World to SPain.

8 Roman Catholic missionaries came out in their numbers to do

God's work - to convert the 'pagans' of the New World to Roman
Cathoticism.

9 For hundreds of years the two countries of the lberian Peninsuta had
been engaged as rivals in exploration, trying to find a sea route to the
east.

10 The Spanish monarchs had a potitical agenda to expand Spain's wealth

and prestige in Europe. Their New Wortd policies had to suPPort this.

Feedback

These are not arranged in any particutar order:

Cause: 9 - Consequence:'l
By the authority of the Pope, Spain was given an enormous Spanish American
empire. The fact that Brazit protruded east of the designated line of tongitude
enabted Portugatto ctaim it legitimatety.
Cause: 6 - Consequence: 2
The values and beliefs that fuetled Europeans' understanding of the wortd
somehow were translated into feelings of arrogance and superiority when they
did 'discover' new wortds.
Cause: 10 - Consequence: 3
Cotumbus was not as individualistic as we have been led to think. To be allowed
to continue with his voyages he had to detiver to their Cathotic monarchs tangible
evidence of gotd and the promise of more. This was to futfitttheir agenda in Europe.
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
t_
Cause: 7 - Consequence: 4
The promise of untotd weatth was a major reason putting migrants from spain
L to the New Wortd. The regutar arrival of the spanish gatteonitaden with
treasure later fired the greed not onty of spaniards but other Europeans as we[t.
I Cause: 5 - Consequence: 8
Retigion ptayed another major rote in putting peopte westwards. The
Reconquista had inspired spaniards to missionary zeat and, urged on by
L the king and queen, they saw it as their duty to win pagan souts to Roman
Cathoticism.
In order to understand the migration of spaniarjs in the fifteenth and
t_ sixteenth centuries, one must have some idea of the conditions existing in
spain at the time. The impressive weatth of the ,lndies, did seem to ptay a targe
part in enticing peopte to leave their home and venture into strange tands.
L However, the extreme savagery with which the spaniards treated the native
peoples cannot be exptained by greed atone. lt probabty has a lot to
do with
their feelings of superiority, no doubt driven by their reiigious zeat.
I
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I
The New meets the OId World
I
I
L Activity 3.3
Genocide and oppression
Read the primary source betow.
In the name of King Ferdinand and Juana, his daughter,
eueen of castile
and Leon, conquerors of barbarian nations, *e noitify you as best we
L can that our Lord cod Eternal created Heaven ana eartrr and a man and
woman from whom we alt descend for a[[ times and all over the wortd. . .
The late Pope gave these islands and mainland of the ocean and the
L contents Hereof to the above mentioned King and eueen, as is certified
in writing and you may see the documents if you so desire. Therefore,
their highnesses are lords and masters of thij tand. . .
Therefore, we request that you understand this text, detiberate on its
contents within a reasonable time, and recognise the church and the
highest priest, the pope, as rulers of the univirse. . .
shoutd you fail to co-mply- or delay maticiously in so doing, we assure you
that with the hetp of God we shall use force against you, Jectaring war
upon you from a[[ sides and with alt possibte means,-and we shatt bind
you to the yoke of the church and of their highnesses; we shatt enslave
L your persons, wives and sons, setl you or dispose of you as the King sees
fit; we shatl seize you possessions and harm you as much as we can.
Source: adapted from Bartolom€ de las Casas, History of the tndies,
transtated and edited by Andr€e Collard. Excerpt on pp 192_193.

This activity uses a primary source that gives an accurate picture of how
I peopte at the time felt and acted.

Read the document and then answer the fo[owing questions.

1 What does the letter suggest about the attitudes of the spaniards
t_ towards the indigenous peoples?
.
2 How do you think the native peoptes complied with the directives from
,l_ the Spanish monarchs?
3 What was the inevitable result of this declaration?
I Caribbean Studies JI

Feedback
J
'l Their attitude was one of superiority and arrogance. This is shown in I

expecting people who have been resident in a place for centuries to I

give up their ctaims and pay atlegiance to a foreign monarch of whom J
they had never heard. Moreover, where retigion was concerned, the I

indigenous peoptes were expected to abandon theirs and embrace Roman

Catholicism. The most ridicutous aspect of this encounter though was that J
the Spaniards expected that the indigenous peoples woutd understand the t
proctamation, read out in Spanish. They made littte effort to ensure that
they were being understood. J
2 The indigenous peoples were given no choice in the matter. To facititate t

their orderly conversion to Roman Cathoticism, they were distributed

through a process known as the repartimiento where the lands they J
occupied were given to deserving Spaniards. The arrangement Pertaining I
to the relationship between the Spanish owner and his 'staves'was known
as the encomienda. They had to Pay tribute and were supposed to work
for the 'grandee' and in return he would Protect them and oversee their
J
I
conversion to the Roman Catholic faith.
3 White some of the indigenous peoptes were abte to Protest for a short J
white by running away or fighting the Spaniards, they did not own horses I
or sophisticated weaponry and were quickly made to comply with their 3

conquerors. The encomienda was a forced [abour system and greatly abused
E
I

because the indigenous peoptes were treated as slaves with tittte attemPt to I
I
'protect'them or'convert' them. They died quickty through overu''uork, harsh
treatment and the destruction of their subsistence economies. -'lI
4 There was some outcry from the Spaniards themselves against the abuses I
meted out to the indigenous PeoPles. Las Casas of the Dominican Order
spoke out against the attitude and practices of his countrymen. lt was J
too little too tate. The Tainos were dying rapidty. When Columbus arrived I
in the New world, it is estimated that ctose to 8 mittion Tainos lived in
the Greater Antiltes. By 1514 there were 28 000, and soon after that
they were extinct. Diseases took a totl as we[[, for the native peoples had
J
l
not been exposed to EuroPean diseases such as small pox, the common
lI
cold, dysentery and gonorrhea. The inevitabte resutt of the dectaration
expressing spanish attitudes and intent was oPPression of the Tainos,
resutting in thlir genocide - the kitting of a whole race of people. I

{
Survivors of 'the encounter'- resistance and resilience I
t
Although the Tainos have been characterised as peace loving, they had to
dwise means to corrfront Spanish deceit, trickery forced labour practices,
and the certain knowledge that they were involved in a struSgle threatening
t I
I
their very survival. Hatuey, a Thino chief, organised his people to fight I
the Spaniards and was wentually captured and burned at the stake.
Undeterred, others such as Guarocuya (Hispaniola), Uroyoan (Borinquen,
Puerto Rico) and Guama (Cuba)were similarly defiant. They, however,
t I

had to overcome a lilestyle centred on peaceable co-operation to confront

the threat of the newcomers. Within the first 20 years of their arrival, the {
Spaniards had so swerely decimated the Thinos through wa4 overworlg I

harsh treatment and enposure to diseases to which they had no immunity,

that when they wennrally began organised resistance, it was a lost cause. -'lt
The Caribs on the other hand responded to the threat of genocide by
active resistance and resilience strategies. As a race of sea-going warriors,
{
l
t
 Section 3 History, society and culture I
they were able to raid smaller Spanish settrements
and outposts. The
dugout canoe allowed them to roam the caribbean
at will. It had several
advantages over European sailing ships- There were
no seams to caulk as
each vessel was hollowed rittgl" massive t .".-noiai"g was not
a problem as canoes were 9u1-from "
built of hardwiods and hauled out of the water
when not in use. Paddles were extremely reliable whether there was
wind
or not. They could capsize but not sink. Activity 3.4
carib resilience was shown in their shrewd use of the rugged terrain of the lmpact of the encounter on
Lesger
Caribbean society and culture
{ntilles, especially the windwards. They codd nJafford to fight
pitched battles and so conducted guerilla warf.are, employing poisonel This activity hetps to summarise
drol^'s from hidden and ever-changing perches. tong aftir tle Tainos had the contribution of Europeans
become extinct, the caribs were still r"iains Spanish and other European and the indigenous peoptes to
setdements. Evennrally, the spaniards gave-thim a wide berth, leaving Caribbean society and cutture.
them to their own dwices in the mountains of the windward Islandsl It acts as closure for the period
identified as the encounter: the age
4-olg anthropologists the favoured term for the caribs is Kalina, but of discoveryr.
those living in St vincent prefer to cdl themselves Garifuna. That carib
resistance continued for centuries is shown in the efforts of the Garifuna Indicate whether the statements
people, those of mixed African-carib ancestry in keeping the Europeans numbered 1 to 10 are true or fatse.
atbay in St Vincent until 1797. 1 There are more examples of
Taino material culture sti[[ in
one reason accounting for the resilience of the caribs compared to the
existence than its non-material
Thinos in the face of the threat of genocide, was the fluidiry of their tribal
culture.
society. Their chieftains were elected and they were accustomed to roam
at will rather than having a settled, sedentary lifestyle. They were able 2 The culture of both theTainoJ
to survive the conquest. Their society and culture remain to this day and the Europeans supported
and are being rejuvenated especially with the new and more enlightened sustainable development
interpretations of the'discovery' and the renewd of contacts between practices.
the Carib peoples of the region. Many aspects of their day-to-day living 3 Large numbers of Caribs are
persist in the form of craft such as weaving, basketry and the continued still to be found today in the
use of the dugout canoe. istands of Dominica, St Vincedt
and Puerto Rico.
Activity 3.4 brings closure to this first period of Caribbean history that
we have shrdied - the themes of migration, genocide, resistance and 4 The dugout canoe ptays a
resilience in the fffteenth and sixteenth centuries. major role in contemporary
society and culture in the
Feedback Lesser Antilles.

Fatse. There ismore evidence of Taino non-material cutture left. Aspects 5 Caribs continue to respond to
the arrival of Columbus and
of its non-material culture that are perhaps more alive in contemporary
the'encounter'.
society and cutture are words such as 'hammock' and 'tobacco' (in these
specific cases the materiaI aspects have atso survived) and 'hurricane'. 6 Norms and customs associated
Usualty, the onty existing cultural remnants are to be found in the names with European society
and culture prevail in the
of locations, for exampte, Haiti (mountainous land) and the continued
contemporary Caribbean.
use of foods such as maize and turkey. Sometimes some aspects of the
Taino animistic and materia[ culture have been intenaroven into the Euro- 7 SeveraI Caribbean countries
African fabric of the istands' folk betiefs. have stopped celebrating the
'discovery' of their tand by
environmentatty friendty, sustainable development poticy
Fatse. An
Columbus.
was not compatibte with a capitatist, exptoitative, materialist culture.
The Taino and the Spaniard had two separate understandings of man's 8 The 'lndians'were regarded
as free persons by the Spanish
retationship with the universe; Sate (1990) telts us that the Tainos'
Crown.
agriculture was centred around fietds of knee-high mounds called
conucos, ptanted with yucca (manioc), sweet potatoes, squashes and 9 The Carib people spoke an
beans grown in a multi-crop system. The root crops discouraged soil Arawakan [anguage.
erosion and produced minerats and potash; the leaf crops were effective 1O Europeans were primarity
in providing shade and moisture; and the mounds hetped in resisting interested in estabtishing
erosion and ftooding. The system was ecotogica[[y wet[ balanced and plantations in the West Indies.

;l
productive and did not need continued labour.
I Caribbean Studies

'3 Fatse. Dominica is estimated to have about 3,000 Caribs today

T
I
T

(http://www.avirtuatdominica.com/caribs.htm); St Vincent has small

numbers; and Puerto Rico is reported to have only smatlscattered
settlements of peopte who are said to be descendants of the Taino people
in remote mountain and coastalregions.
T
True. Dugout canoes are stitl used today as part of daity life in the is]ands
to transport goods, in retaiting, for recreation and fishing. They are often
fitted with outboard motors.
I
True. The Caribs and other indigenous peoples of the Americas are still
evoking responses of resistance and resitience to the coming of Cotumbus
and the changes the encounter brought. The 500th anniversary of
I
Columbus' arrival commemorated in 1992 is still evoking responses. They
are seeking solidarity with other Carib groups regionatly, wanting to revive
and resusitate their civilisation. They maintain websites now exptaining
T
their response. In 1997 some Dominican Caribs made the journey by
canoe, some 700 miles, to visit Caribs in Guyana. On the way, they
stopped and made contact with the Carib community in Trinidad. r
True. Sociegr and cutture in the Caribbean reftect mainstream European or
Western values. Even in countries where there are descendants of survivors
of the encounter, very tittte support is given to these peoptes to preserve t
their culture. What these groups have achieved to date has targety come
out of activety resisting mainstream vatues. This is a continuing theme in
Caribbean history, society and culture - how various groups resist more
dominant groups, and strive for resitience, in forging an identity.
r
True. Discovery Day, the Queen's Birthday and Empire Day have been
replaced in many caribbean countries. with the coming of Independence,
there was the desire to cetebrate more nationalist and nativist ideats:
t
National Heroes Day, Independence Day, Emancipation Day, as wet[ as
Divali, Eid ut Fitr, and Garifuna Settlement Day.
True. The spanish monarchs looked on the 'rndians' as citizens of the spanish
I
Empire who were to be treated humanety and converted to christianity in
return for their tabour. The abuse of the 'lndians' continued neverthetess. r
True. The caribs had captured so manyTaino orArawak women that the
language of the women was often different from that of the men. That
apart, the language system used by the caribs has been ctassified by
linguists as belonging to the group of Arawakan languages.
I
10 Fatse. Primarity they came for conquest and cotonisation.
I
Settling down: colonisation
t-
Significance of the coloniat period
Il dr. seventeenth, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, other
western Europeans carne, chdlenging the authority of the spaniards in
the
New world. It was a period of intense conflict, largely betn'e'en Europeans,
I
but also benn'een the Caribs, joined in uneasy elliir"", with Europeans,
against other Europeans. The god at ffrst was to plunder and
loot. Raids
and attacks were carrie! br privateers, pirates and
9ut buccaneers, to
obtain some of the wealth of thJ Spanish American empire.
Later on in this period came the emphasis on coronisation
and
settlement - by the French, British, and Dutch, often
after captrring
territory through war or trickery. settlement not only
meant buildini

tr
towns and villages, but also peopling the territory
sothat it could be
 Section 3 History, society and culture I
dtft"9*: It usually entailed the setting up of farming cornmunities
establishing trade and comrnunication links. and

colonisation then meant that each caribbean

territory was ruled or
governed by a wester",Eyo!."tt cguntry.
The caribb.*
the overseas empires of the 3panish, gtiiisrt, French
r.""-. part of
o","t. During
$e.s1e1teenth, eighteenth and ""J
oio.teenth cent'ries, a number of
""tiy and intensi-ffed that characterised
nrstoncal processes and events occurred
the nature of European colonisation in the Caribbean.
These events and processes are described as significant. Activity
3.5
below orplores what the historian means by th'. iigoip"on-"" of.
historical ex/ent or process. ^

Activity 3.5
The Significance of historical events and processes
We are wett aware of events and processes that are considered important and
significant. However, we may not be quite sure about why that is so. In this
activity, we witl examine the historian's perspective on wlrat makes an event
or a process significant.
1 List examptes of historical processes and events that you consider
significant and that occurred in the seventeenth, eighieenth and early
nineteenth centuries in the Caribbean.
2 Describe THREE attributes of a significant historical event or process.

Feedback

1 HistoricaI processes seem to predominate, reinforcing the notion of time

as important in the study of history. you may have chosen the fottowing as
significant historicaI processes:
r European setttement and cotonisation
r Stavery
r Sugar Revotution (around 1640)
r Development of ptantation economy and society
Some significant historicaI events were:
r Various rebetlions, Maroon wars
I Haitian Revotution (1791)
I Abotition of the StaveTrade (1807 in British cotonies)
I Emancipation (183a in British colonies)
2 According to Phittips (2002) a historical event or process is significant if it:
I was important to the peopte living at the time
r deepty affected peopte's lives
I affected a great many peopte
r affected people for a tong time
r exptains trends in society and cutture today.
You may have thought of others, for example, a historical event or process
could be significant if it continues to be extremely controversial with many
different interpretations, such as the effects of stavery and cotonisation on
Caribbean peopte.
I Caribbean Studies

1
E u ro pea n i nter lo pe rs: white i m mi g rati o n I

You will remember that by the Tleaty of Tbrdesillas, 1494, the Pope
.T
had divided up the New World among the Spanish and Pornrguese.
I
This blocked other Europeans from gaining territory and treasures, I

maintaining Spain's power and prestige in Europe. Spain was adamant

in keeping other Europeans out of her empire. Howwe4, she could not
effectively supply the entire region with the goods that they needed. TT

The trading agreement known as the Asiento de negros allowed ceftain

non-Spanish traders exclusive, limited access to the Spanish American
empire to supply badly needed goods and slaves. It was fust granted
to the Pornrguese, then the Dutch and British, and was considered a T
lucrative prize.
Howwer, these arrangements {the Tfeaty of Tordesillas and the asiento),
designed to prop up Spanish'ownership'of the Indies, proved too fragile
T
for the following reasons:
r European countries such as Britain and the Netherlands had moved
away from Roman Catholicism, so held no allegiance to the Pope and
I
disregarded his authority to allocate territory.
r France was Roman Catholic but was locked in conflict with the
Vatican about leadership of the Church in France, which they felt
T
should be Gallic rather than Roman.
I Whether Roman Catholic or nor, it seemed that the tangible wealth of
the Indies (mainly from the Aztec and Inca empires and the gold and
silver mines) was all that was needed to lure men westwards.
t
The British, Dutch and French who came to the Caribbean to pillage,
steal and smuggle, defying the treaty and the asiento, were, therefore,
F
interlopers - they were there illegally. That they succeeded in capturing
Spanish galeotas and flotillas loaded with riches, that they were able
to raid spanish sertlements and uade illegally, was largely because the F
empire was too huge and unwieldly for the spanish to police, govern and
supply effectively.
When these Europeans realised that they could go beyond piracy and F
smuggling and could acnrally senle on lands the spanish did not seem to
value, a mass migration began in earnesg involving most of the countries of
western Europe. These early white settlers were 'poor whites, - vagabonds,
criminals, farmers and others displaced by war, famine, poverty h.tdrt ip
in Europe. They were contracted as indentured seryants working "trd
on farms
growing tobacco and other crops. Howwer, the claims of these sJtdements
9n9 European power or another were not secure, as there were recwring
for
raids from the caribs and other European interlopers. In addition, wars
fought r1-Eurgne spilled over to the caribbean and treaty arrangements often
involved handing over teritory to victorious European pov/ers.-

Activity 3.6
European influences in the Caribbean
This exercise hetps to show us that a study of history is instrumental an
exptaining the diverse nature of caribbean socieer a-nd cutture today.
Answer the following questions, which are based on Map 1 that fottows.
1 Locate, using a suitabte key or cotour scheme:
a TWo named French territories that are presentty governed by France
b Two other, named, caribbean territories that the French did occupy
for a tong time.

['rl
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
To assist you, some of these countries have arready
been rocated on the
map. You will have to identify them and categorisi them
as a or b. or you
may choose to identify others.
For the TWo territories identified in a above, describe how
they are
governed.
For the TWO countries you identified in b above, indicate:

a the last cotonial power that ruted the countries

b how sociegr and cutture today has been inftuenced in these territories
by the French occupation.

The
Caribbean

KEY

@Currentty
governed
by France

!Long
French
occupation

Map 1

Feedback

France continues to maintain 'cotonial' territories in the Caribbean -

namety Martinique, Guadetoupe and some smatldependencies such as
St Martin, as wetl as French Guiana (Cayenne).
Today these territories are overseas departments of France, meaning that
they are governed as if they are part of France. The head of government is
a commissioner appointed by France and deputies or representatives sit in
the French NationatAssembty in Paris.
a There are many territories in the Caribbean that have experienced long
years of French colonial rule and then changed hands. For example:
Dominica and St Lucia, and to a lesser extent St Kitts, Grenada, St
Vincent and Tobago. Towards the early nineteenth century Britain
succeeded in estabtishing hersetf as the world's foremost maritime
power with a huge overseas empire, fuelting her industriaI revotution.
She was victorious in many of the wars fought in the eighteenth
century and, thus, received Grenada, St Vincent, Tobago and Dominica
from France via treaties.
Haiti experienced French cotonial rute from the fifteenth century to its
viotent overthrow in 1791, setting up the first black repubtic in the New
Wortd.
Trinidad also experienced a strong French culturaI inftuence but it was
the last Spanish governor, Chacon, who invited French aristocrats and
ptanters from neighbouring istands to come and settle with their slaves
in return for huge tracts of [and. This was Chacon's vain attempt to
stave off capture by the British, which eventuatty occurred in 1797.
I Caribbean Studies

b French cultural influence is seen today in many of these territories in I

I

the fotlowing ways:

t Language or patois that is widety spoken (Haiti, Dominica, St Lucia,
and in certain words and idioms used in diatects of Engtish (e.g. '
Trinidadian Engtish uses many French expressions and exctamations
I
r
such as'oui' meaning'yes').
Dominance of the Roman Cathotic religion attesting to both the
colonising inftuence of the Spanish and French. (You witt notice
I
that where the British interlopers obtained a foothold earty,
Roman Cathoticism is not dominant, for example, Barbados and
jamaica.)
l
t Schooting in Caribbean territories where the French were once
dominant has tended to evolve in partnerships with Roman Cathotic T
Orders such as the Hoty Ghost Fathers and the Sisters of Ctuny.
r Place names prove the strong inftuence of the French in allthe
countries mentioned above that experienced either French
cotonial rule or a heavy French presence, for example, SoufriAre,
I
throughout the Lesser Anti[[es, referring to the presence of sutphur
in the volcanoes that form the inner istand arc of the Lesser
Antilles.
I
Activity 3.6 emphasised the cultural influences that emanated from T
French colonisation and the legary of French interlopers. similar
parallels can be drawn for the Dutch in Suriname, curagao, Aruba and
other islands of the Dutch Antilles, and for the British in much of the
present-day caribbean. we need ro be aware of the diversiry that we have
t
inherited based on this period of our history. For example:
w the poor whites who migrated to the caribbean and were instrumental
in establishing farming communities in the early settlements in St
t
Kitts, Barbados and |amaica, are still represented there today (red legs,

r
backra johnnies)
territories that did not become farming communities from very early
t
on, such as Tiinidad, ocperienced the white presence as the French '
creoles whom chacon had invited and who, up to today, form the
wealthy top strata of sociery t
x the fact that the islands changed hands repeatedly makes for an
extremely varied and diverse cultural context where a mixture of
European inJluences is wident. r
Thus, the islands that orperienced French dominion until they were
supplanted by the British exhibit a mixing of these two European
heritages. certain countries, such as tri*dad, had strong inhuences
the Spanish, French and Bri-tish. Tbbago changed hands r"o
of
f
f
-""y times
that it is difficult to gauge the strength of Eur6pean influences, other than
the British. of course, the large islands of cubl, Santo oo-irrgo
Puerto Rico conrinued to hold spanish interest and it was diffiiult"rra
for the
Eu:opean interlopers to get a foothold there. These countries today
have
a dominant Spanish cultural heritage.

This period of white European immigration, largery of interlopers,

has left complex patterns of sociar and culnrral irrfiuences
evident in
our language, religion, education and legal systems/ o"i.*"o*i"
arrangements and our foods and place names. The experience
of each
caribbean reffitory has been different, thus adding to *r.
ii*rsity. It is

tr
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
important that we recognise this substantial layer
of social and cultural
influences because the nextwave of migration into
our region brought
people that far outnumbered the EuropJans,
bringinj;;A;, dimension
of complocity and diversity to Caribbean life.

Fo rced mi g r ati on
: Afri ca n slavery
In the early swenteenth century the white indentured servants and their
planter overlords were facing increasing competition from a better quality
tobacco grown in virginia and in
-rrch gr"rter quantities too. Disaster
was imminent so they needed a profitable crop. The Dutch, a major
trading nation at the time, introduced them to the cultivati,on of sugar
cane, recently started in Brazil by the porhrguese.
The changeover from tobacco to sugar cane necessitated far-reaching
changes in all aspects of life in the earibbean and continues to influince
culture and society here today.

Activity 3.7 .
Sugar and slavery in the Caribbean
Prosperity in the caribbean for Europeans came to be bound up with sugar
cane production. The latter was dependent on the forced migration of tJbour.
This activity hetps us to took at some of the retationships thJt devetoped
between sugar and slavery in the Caribbean.
Answer the fotlowing questions by circting the correct answer betow. onty
one response is correct for each question.
1 one of the differences between the cuttivation of tobacco and that of
sugar cane was that:
a tobacco was a seasonal crop
b to be economic sugar cane had to be extensively cultivated
c tobacco needed large amounts of labour, which the early settlements
coutd not provide
d sugar cane was more in demand in Europe than tobacco.

2 Europeans looked to west Africa for their labour suppty in the changeover
to sugar cuttivation because:
i Africans appeared to be more suitable to the climactic conditions of
the Caribbean than white indentured labourers
ii sugar cane was already in widespread cultivation in West Africa
iii from the early days of the conquest, West Africa had been treated as a
source of staves
iv West African kingdoms could not withstand efforts made by
Europeans to capture their people.
a i,iiand iiionty c iii and iv onty
b iand iionly d i, iii and iv onty

3 Africans who were captured and transported to the New Wortd came
from at[ of the fottowing territories except:
a Gold Coast c Benin
b Guinea Coast d Namibia
4 The Middte Passage refers to that part of the journey travetted by
captured Africans from:
a the interior to the coast of West Africa
b West Africa to the staving ports of Liverpool and Bristol
c West Africa to the New Wortd
d Caribbean sugar plantations to England.

E
I Caribbean Studies r
Why did this trade in human cargo continue until the nineteenth century? 1
i Africans coutd not defend themselves against the machinery put in
ptace by Europeans to capture them.
ii By the nineteenth century, large parts of West Africa had been
depoputated.
I
iii There was no international body at the time to condemn such
practices.
iv In Britain, awareness and moral obligations were stowly brought to T
pubtic attention by the Quakers and other humanitarian groups.
v lt was profitable for the sugar planters to have a business enterprise
where labour costs were minimised.
T
a i, iii, iv and v c i, ii, iii, iv and v
b iii, iv and v d i, ii, iv and v

Feedback
I
1b
Extensive cultivation meant using huge tracts of [and, bringing into being
I
plantations or estates. Tobacco farms on the other hand were smatl and
intensively worked. The agricultural [andscape changed - the most fertite
plains and lowlands came under sugar cultivation. Sma][farmers became
I
a thing of the past. Sugar barons came into existence. Large economic
undeftakings as sugar plantations had to depend on a cheap and dependabte
suppty of tabour. stave [abour sotved this probtem for the sugar barons, thereby T
tying the fortunes of sugar in the caribbean to an imported labour suppty,
which, even when in later times was not forced, was coercive in some way.

2d
t
West Africa became the preferred source of [abour for the Europeans.
However, sugar cane was not a crop familiar to west Africans. of attthe
reasons listed in this question the most pertinent perhaps was the inabitity of
t
West Africans to overcome the threat from the white man. They did not hlve
superior weapons technotogy and even if they did buy guns and ammunition
from the white stave traders, they were engaged in intei-tribal confticts. They
I
used the white man's technology to hetp in capturing their own enemies, and
these became a possible source of staves. Europeans established trade and
information netw,orks among tocat peopte to facilitate the capture of more and
t
more Africans, particularty those from the interior.

3d I
Att of the territories listed are to be found in West Africa, except for Namibia.
4c t
The connections between sugar and staves are seen ctearty in the Attantic
triangular trade system that devetoped around these two ,commodities,.
ships teft the British 'staving' ports of Bristol, London and Liverpoot taden with F
manufactured goods of guns, ctoth and utensils and made for the West African
coasts. There they traded these goods for captured Africans. They then
their way across the Attantic to the caribbean and North lmeriia this
being known as the Middle passage - where the human cargo was
-
made
teg r
traded
for raw sugar, rum and molasses in the caribbean and cottoriand
North America. The ships then made their finat teg to Britain
products to be refined, feeding the Industrial Revotution.
tobacco in
carrying these r
I
tr I

F
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
5a
Alt of the reasons listed are retevant except ii. white West Africa did suffer
depoputation - some 20 mittion Africans are reputed to have been captured
and forced into the journey known as the Middte passage - that woutd
not have deterred continued raiding efforts on the part of the Europeans.
The strongest reason for the abotition of the stave trade in 1807 in British
territories appears to be the growing humanitarian lobby, which finatty found
parliamentary support.

Genocide and oppression: Slavery

l,et us compare this period of oppression in Caribbean history with the
enslavement and genocide of the Thinos. In both cases, the superior
weapons technolory and industrial goods of the Europeans made
enslavement of other peoples lacking similar technologies possible with
only a minimal threat of retaliation. The Thinos and the Africans were
treated harshly, overworked, beaten, torhrred and killed at the whim of
Europeans. .
Howwer, there are some differences:
t The Indians were regarded as free citizens enjoying the protection of
the Spanish Crown and had their Protector in Las Casas. Even though
they were abused and exterminated, subsequent legislation probably
helped other Indian groups in the Americas.
r It was Las Casas who suggested African slavery so that the Indians
might be spared. The same moral arguments he used against
enslavement of the Indians did not seem, to him, to apply to AJricans.
In fac! serreral commentators suggest that European enslavement
of Africans was race-based and not merely the taking advantage of
a people less technologically advanced in warfare. Africans were
regarded as chattel, that is, as property, not human, and once born
into slavery could not escape.
r Christianising the Indians was a policy of the Spanish Crown.
However, while there were some similar ideas about the African
slaves, in reality there was no such emphasis in the colonies settled
by the British, French and Dutch. Settlement by the interlopers did
not include Protestant missionaries to the same extent that Roman
Catholic priests were involved in the conquest and colonisation of
Spanish America.
In the final analysis, African slavery occurred on a much larger scale -
millions were involved - and it took place over much of the Americas.
Although there were certain laws put in place to protect the Thinos,
in redity both groups oiperienced a violent and cruel engounter with
Europeans that served as the first taste of colonisation.

Activity 3.8
Inftuence of slavery on social and culturat tife in the Caribbean
Stavery has been of utmost significance in shaping Caribbean society. As
Caribbean peopte, we should be thoroughly acquainted with the ongoing
discourse that continues to be relevant.
Using the categories in the tabte below, copy and comPlete the table with
some examples that you feel best summarise the inftuences of stavery on
Caribbean tife - then and now.
I Caribbean Studies

Economic Social Culturat t

Then (17th,18th and earty
19th century)
l F
Now (contemporary Life
in the Caribbean)
F

Feedback
F
Economic
Then:The plantation system, which came into being supported by slave labour
and economic [ife, became tied up with this form oieconomic organisation or
agricutturaI system. Plantations were run as business enterprises, slave [abour
being of minimum cost to the ptanters.
Ptantations came to dominate the agricuttura[ landscape monopolising
the ftat
fertite coastaI plains where roads, setttements and ports *.r" .rt.btirh"d.
Now: sugar cane ptantations continue to dominate the agricultura[ landscape
in Guyana, Trinidad, Barbados, Jamaica, puerto Rico, cuba, santo
Domingo
and Belize - where they were first made profitabte through stave labour.
Note
that slavery was not abotished in Spanish territories untitthe late nineteenth
century and in the other territories the vacuum was fitled by either indentured
labour or freed slaves.
Social
Then: slavery changed the demographics of the caribbean
from being a ptace
where whites dominated a few caribs, to one where whites
dominated a large
enstaved poputation.
sociat life became stratified according to class and cotour.
Now: society is dominated by the descendants of the formerty
enstaved.
whites continue to be in the minority but for the most pu*
ol.rpy the highest
strata in society; other ethnic groups reached the highest
ranks in the social
order through social mobitity. However, the majority
of persons tiving in
poverty continue to be of African and East Indian descent.
)
Cultural
Then: cultura[ [ife, that is, dress, retigion, foods, language, music, developed
as
a syncretic mix of European, indigenous and African tra-ditions.
Now: African traditions.are now coming to the fore,
for example, African dress
and fashion, revival of the orisha and oiher Afro-centric
as an African-based phitosophy in opposition
Jigilir,Rastafarianism
to Eurocentriciatues.
Festivats like carnivat are now cetebrated across
the caribbean and
internationaIty.

There are many effects or influences that slavery is

reputed to have had
on our society and culture. In engaging in Activity
a.g, you may have
discovered that it is not slaverypZr"s
under interrogation. Rather,
the whole system of plantation society, ""rn^rwas
rl"*ry and sugar
to be rreated together as-each r.rpporrld the other ought
of life. Influences related to sociil^str"iint"tinrr,
t,'drlfi;
"rrifirr",io'
away
curtural plurarism and
economic dwelopment will be discussed
in subseque;;;;r.

if
 Section 3 History, society and culture I
Responses to slavery
Activity 3.9 explores some of the ways tJre captive Arricans had of
Activity 3.9
responding to their predicament. Resistance and resilience
That there were few successful
Feedback
rebetlions during slavery should
not lead us to betieve that the
1a Non-viotent resistance - refusal to work (evasion of work, matingering, captive peopte did not seek ways
deliberatety losing tools and implements and misunderstanding to resist and yet survive. This
instructions), composing songs that mimicked or satirised the tifestyte exercise helps us to understand
of the whites, and suicide. the different forms such resistance
b Violent resistance - individual acts of viotence against white persons, or
took, and continues to take.
group resistance. In Jamaica atone, there were constant rebettions between Read the following excerpt and
1673 to emancipation in 1834.The revolution in Haiti mushroomed into answer the questions below.
war between France and the staves in1791,the staves being victorious. African staves resisted their
c Maroonage - running away to settte in 'runaway'vittages far frorn the predicament, even when they
European society on the plains and wage war (attacks and raids) on appeared to be happy and
estates. In Jamaica, Maroon setttements were successfut in defending contented. Their forms of
resistance coutd be described as
runaway staves from recapture by locating in wild, inatcessibte territory
passive, active, and a combination
such as in the Btue Mountains and the Cockpit Country.
of both known as maroonage.'
2 to be demonstrated by Maroon communities that exist to
Resitience seerhs
1 Describe what you think each
this day and pursue a way of life that has many African culturat retentions.
form of resistance entailed.
However, in day-to-day life on the ptantations Africans began to forge a
life under inhumane and brutaI conditions by estabtishing families, support
a Non-violentresistance
network of friends, organising subsistence provision grounds, selting
b Violent resistance
c Maroonage
some of their produce and engaging in forms of recreation that provided
enjoyment and demonstrated their resistance to their enstaved condition.
2 Suggest ways in which the
enslaved population showed
3 Caribbean people continue to resist oppression through music and song - resitience in the face of their
reggae and simitar movements in Jamaican music originated among the predicament.
poor and oppressed and so too did the steelband and calypso of Trinidad. 3 ldentify some of the ways in
In fact, calypso continues the tradition of satire and doubte entendre to which Caribbean peopte resist
criticise anyone, inctuding the highest in the land. oppression today.
Resitience and resistance are also shown through our propensity to adapt.
European traditions may continue to dominate, for exampte, Christian
faiths, but they have been syncretised by other traditions, for exampte, the
Shouter Baptists and Rastafarianism.
Schotarship and research, especiatly about the era of slavery, continue to
engage Caribbean academics who advance atternative exptanations to
Eurocentric theorising. For exampte:
I Eric Wittiams, the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, put
forward the view that the abotition of stavery was mainty due to
economic reasons and not to the pteas of humanitarian grouPs.
I The Dependencia Theorists of Latin America show that the cotonial
retationship was one of structuraI dependency that continued after
potiticat independence. Thus, the inabitity of ex-cotonies to experience
significant devetopment is as a result of the ptantation economy and
society, estabtished on stave [abour. Thus, the devetopment of Europe
came about through underdevetopment of the colonies.
I The most recent response to stavery has been the discourse in North
' America about reparations due to the black race for the atrocities
perpetrated on them by Europeans for profit. This is reminiscent of the
outrage with which the First Peoples responded to Plans to 'celebrate'
Cotumbus' 500th anniversary of 'Discovery'.
I Caribbean Studies l-
Emancipation: Engaging freedom T
Today, many caribbean states celebrate emancipation on I or 6 August.
The British Parliament abolished slavery in 18a4, to take effect in tg+0.
In the intermediate period, the apprenticeship system was to come into
being.- It was designed to facilitate the transition hom a slave society to
I
one of free men. It, howwer, was more concerned with the pl€ht of the
planters than with that of the former enslaved. The latter were to remain
on the plantations for six years after the proclamation of emancipation to
T
ensure that they did not abandon the estarcs at once.
This misconceived notion proved too difficult to administer and was E
abandoned in 1838. Barbados and Antigua abolished slaverywithout an
apprenticeship system in 1834. 'Freedom'proved to be difficult for both
the ex-slaves and their former masters.
r There was a constant tension between brack and white over the new
t
status of ex-slaves as free persons with civil rights.
r Because they were not represented in the government in the early
post-emancipation days, the rights of the former enslaved were
f
sometimes withheld and they had to struggle against efforts to
introduce high taxes on small holdings, high rates for licences or
small traders and contracts that sought to tie labourers to large $
plantations.
I caribbean countries were facing severe competition from other sugar
producers who were able to sell at very low
f.ices on the world *"ik t
- India, south Atrica, Australia (all part of the British Empiret and
f
Cuba and Brazll.
I Planters were facing low prices for their sugar and now they had to ry
pay wages to the ex-slaves.
r The response of the ex-slaves varied across the caribbean. In very
small territories such as Barbados and Antigua, the ex-slaves had
no alternative but to continue working ott the estates. The planters
in those countries could have afforded to emancipate the slaves as
early as I834. This did not augur well though foiwage rates, as
the
ex-slaves had few options. Freedom came, but accomlanied
poverry for the maiority of Africans.
fy abject

r In larger territories such as lamaica, Tiinidad and Guyana, the

ex-slaves could move away and set up their own r*"li piovision
grounds and maintain aresilient, self-sustaining living.
The planter
class in these countries faced extreme labour rn6rt"g.i.

The period of indentureship

British planters turned to contracting free labour from Africa, India
and
china, to offset their labour difficulties. Although ,h;;;;;;;.ns were
given a contract to work for a small wage for a p:eriod
of hv" to seven
years and-were guaranteed_a passage uact< trome
ot piece of land at
the end of their indenn'ed plrioa, tnev arso were u"i " .J rr*shry and
inhumanely.
Most of the indentured labour came from India. Between g3g
l and I 9l z,
nearly half a million East Indians were imported to work
on sugar estates
in Guyana' Both Guyana and Tirinidad hai on$;"",It;.g"n
sugar
cultivation and had large tracts of fertile roit, *t.r.
piirrr"tior*
'#
*"...":?blished. Approximately I 45, 000 East I"di;i;;i;"rts
went
to Tfinidad, 38,000 toJamaica, z,soti to Grenada,
numbers
went to St vincent and st Lucia. Thousands or "oar*"fier
crrinese many
going to Guyana, Ttinidad and "iro "^*.,

tr
famaica.
 Section 3 History, society and culture I
Indenarred labour helped some caribbean countries to weather the
economic problems associated with sugar production in the nineteenth
century. Howwer, whatever agricultual production, whether it was sugar,
cocoa, coconuts or bananas, that the ex-slaves or the planter class tried,
suffered severe economic hardship in the latter halJ of the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.

Intra-Cari bbea n and metropolitan mig ration

Caribbean countries began to feel the pinch of overpopulation - too many
people to be supported by scarce resources. Depressed economic conditions
were at the root of severd waves of mass migrations that represented the
region-'s solution to its woes. Many thousands of |amaicans and others first
went as labourers to ttre newly opened up sugar plantations in Cuba. Many
Barbadians, famaicans and others went to Panama in the 1900s to help
build the Panama Canal. Th.ry, thus, helped to relieve population pressures
in the Caribbean and sent back remittances. Many never returned.
The largest waves of migration were to the 'mother country'. In the
aftermath of World War II 11939-1945|, Britain and France welcomed
migrants to help re-build their countries. Hundreds of thousands of
Caribbean people answered this call, causing consternation among British
and French nationals about the tidal wave of immigrants swamping their
country. In the 1950s and 1970s, Britain and France established stringent
qualiffcations for entry. Economic conditions in the Caribbean did not get
much better and so in the 1960s and 1970s Caribbean people now turned
to Canada and the United States as their preferred destinations. Swiftly
these countries moved to limit immigration and selected only the most
qudified persons.

Oppression
The new indentured immigrants faced harsh living conditions in the
Caribbean and were continuously e:cploited by the Europeans. They were
given crowded barracks to live in, meagre wages, long hours of hearry
manual labour and a company store to which they were chronically
indebted. East Indian indentureship ended in 1917 through the efforts
made by nationalists in India who were outraged at the conditions under
which their kinsmen lived and worked abroad.
Relations benryeen the nrto labouring groups - the East Indians and the
Africans - were always strained. Indentureship occurred at a time that
the AJricans were demanding higher wages for plantation work. This new
labour force gave the planter class an upper hand. This state of affairs
was largely r&ponsible for Africans moving away from estate labow in
Tlinidad and Guyana.
Both groups were brought from their native countries by Europeans under
coet"ine conditions, exploited and treated as second-class citizens' Yet,
the nature of colonisation was such ttrat both groups were encouraged to
mistrust and avoid each other. They were what sociologists would call
,obstructed groups,, with a common oppressor, yet the dominant ideas
and values th"y *"tttrally adopted were in the main Eurocentric. This
continues to be a feature of society and erlture in the Caribbean.

Resistance a nd resilience
Airi"arrs had to be especially resilient in this era. If the indentured
labourers were not taking away their worh the planters were trying to
tie them to the plantations. Risiliently, they invested in alternatives and
made attempts at economic diversiftcation.
I Caribbean Studies r
'
Many writers have commented on the extreme resourcefulness T
and
entrepreneurial skills of the former enslaved. The caribbean
saw the
danelopment of a dynamic and independen, p""r"orry
emancipation. The ex-slaves were able to seitle in free
rlLty
villages "rt",
and T
co-operate to buy bankrupt or abandoned sugar estates.
sorne simply
squatted on vacanr lands. They cultivated tG traditionaiiooa
and cash
crops and tried bananas/ coconuts, rice and arrowroo,-
ir, ,rr"y
were able-t?uary and increase their sources of income
uy "aairioo, paid F
seasonal labour on the estates. ""..pairrg
After indentrThip, mlny East Indians, Chinese and
Africans chose to
acc€pt land and stay in the caribbean, adding
elemenr to
F
the peasantry. All these peoples were startingl""",lr"iai"Jc
hfe ,from sciaicrr,, as it were.
They were committed to hard work and improving
their lot. subsequent
generations can scarcelybelieve how shrewdly
th# forebears were able to
save and invest as they did, so that their children;.ld

East Indians introduced-rice and produced cocoa

il;etter lives. r
and ground provisions,
while continuing to wg$ on.the i.rg"t ptattt"tions.-*ilt
own sugar cane and sold to the estates. The chiner.
conunerc€, shops, laundries and restaurants.
*orJa
o*, ,rr"o
into local r
The.most challenging act of resistance and resilience
seems to be still
playing itself out - the meeting and meiging
or trr" al".rr. loups oi
caribbean society brousht treri by Europeans.
In the latter half of the
nineteenrh and the early narentieth centirries,
they n"a io irrt"r"",
in the political and ecorromic struggles for internal
seu-governmenr,
F
independence and the legitimisingrf ttua"..niorrr.
their interaction has been along ri".r lir.u-into"rt,
F;;;;"sr parg
Howeve!, caribbean society anE curture
,"""-"rra u"rr.
continue to a..rop it will be
interesting to see how the iheme,
of ,erist"oce to European "nd dominance
and, resilience of oppressed peoples
in the future. "i"-ir,*rpor"t"a irrio E"ribbean life
Activiry 3.10 below helps to illustrate the
diversity inherent in caribbean
societv resulting from processes and
events rargerj;;;;;l; this period.

Activity 3J0
Diversitlr in Caribbean society and culture
sometimes we te"nd to think of the
caribbeal a;.a.lomogeneous entity,
experiencing rife very much tike we
ao in oui individuat caribbean states.
This exercise hetps ul,-"
ig"*itv oir"Liry iitt.ese socieii"s,
the differences that *:]l:g
targetv lhdil "-iii"riring
historical processes of the tate
nineteenth and earty twentieth i",itrri"r.'

of the 1o statements in column A

::ll*T.*ch with one phrasedrawn from

ColumnA
Column B
1 The demographic make-up of
a thereare substantial numbers oi
Barbados is substantially different
Amerindians.
from that ofTrinidad because ...

2 InJamaica ...
D Erge numbers of Javanese and
their descendants.
r I ne poputation of Suriname
differs the latter did not exper-ience
from that G uyana mainty Asian
immigration.
because of-of.the ftrmer,s ...

tr -
 Section 3 History, society and cutture I
ColumnA Column B

4 Trinidadt societlr and culture d there are descendants of Maroons

differs remarkably from that of or runaway staves.
Tobago's because ...

5 InJamaica, Hispaniota and e Haiti.

Guyana...
5 One Caribbean territory that f the former did not experience Asian
has substantial numbers of indentureship.
Amerindians is ...

7 One reason why Guyana differs in g Dominica.

ethnic composition to Trinidad is
because in Guyana ...

8 The mixing of European influences h there are mainty descendants of

such as that of Spanish, French Europeans, Africans and mixed
and British contribute to cutture grouPs.
and society today in ... .

9 Caribs contribute significantty to i Grenada.

culture and society in ...
10 African religions and other j Betize.
cultural forms are stitl remarkabty
well preserved in ...

Feedback

f Barbados is unique in the Caribbean in having had very few ethnic groups
ptaying a major role in the fashioning of their culture and society. The
British was the only European influence. 'h' may have atso been correct
but, it constituted a more comptete answer for number 2.
h One may have thought 'd'to be the answer, however from looking
at the other statements 'h' is the only comptetely correct response for
number 2.
b The Dutch were the colonial masters in Suriname and imported targe
numbers of Javanese from the Dutch East Indies (lndonesia) as labourers.
4c
d Maroonage occurred in most territories. The mountains of Hispaniola
and Jamaica and the forests (or 'bush') of Guyana attowed slaves to
runaway and establish communities away from European influence.
j Betize today has significant numbers of Maya descendants and mixtures
of these with Europeans and Africans. One may have thought that 'g'was
the correct answer here and it may have been. However, 'g'provided a
more correct and complete response for statement number 9.
a Guyana has large numbers of Amerindians of various tribes - surviving
Arawaks and Caribs as wetl as other groups are present. Trinidad has a very
smattCarib community, wet[ integrated into mainstream society.
i Crenada, white first settled by the Spanish, received large numbers of
French and then British settlers. European inftuences today are targety
French and British. White 'g' may seem to be an equalty correct response,
there are no other correct responses for number 9 but 'g'.
I Caribbean Studies
r
's g T
1O e The Haitian Revotution of 1791ousted the French overtords and
estabtished the first Black Repubtic in the New Wortd. African cuttural
forms, particularly retigious beliefs and practices (e.g. voodoo or vodun),'
tend to be more comptetely retained because of the overthrow of the
r
Europeans retativety earty in Haiti's history.

As the foregoing has shown, the period of. emancipation: engagingfreedom

t
saw increasing cultural plwalism in the Caribbean. The aftermath
of slavery and indentureship dso saw the di.fferent groups brought by
Ewopeans making a bid to settle down and resist the negative influences of
t
European domination. The economybecame more diversiffed as Caribbean l

people became more resilient. Freedom also meant emancipation from

oppressive economic policies and political freedom. Thus, engaging 7
freedom in this era saw Caribbean people strugglirg for economic survival,
for the establishment of uade unions and their own political parties.

Globalisation: The changing encounter

I
The cends and historicd processes we have examined in this section -
migration, oppression, resistance and resilience - continue to occur in
the twenty-first century. Although globalisation has been a feature of our
t
existence since the en@unter in the ffieenth cenhrry, it is definitely true to
say that these trends and processes are now occurring \A/ithin a contsct of an
increased pace of globalisation. There are now deepened interconnections
and relationships between all countries of the world, mainly because of F
cheap and efficient transporr, the accessibility of the mass media to all and
information and communicarions technolory (ICT).
while it is difficult for us in the rwenty-ffrsr century to examine these
trends and processes within which we are situated, it is still possible
to reflect on and andyse l;.ow the encounter may be changingwithin a
context of increasing globdisation. The following activities encourage
you to bring to bear your knowledge of the past, your understandrng of
present trends and your ideas about the future, on the historical trends
and processes we have examined in this section.

Activity 3.11 ,
Changing nature of the diaspora
The word 'diaspora' is used to describe the distribution of ethnic groups in
co-untries away from their original homelands. This exercise wilt hetp you to
reflect on the nature of migrations.
Fitt in the blanks in the foltowing sentences using one of the words from the
list below.
deportees Caribbean drug diaspora circular
migration refugees famity tCT i[egat
The African diaspora in the (1) refers to the descendants of
African staves.
This distribution changed as a second (z) _ occurred to
metropolitan countries.
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there has atso been intra-
Caribbean (3)_.

F
E
 Section 3 History, society and culture I

Conventionat thinking says that Caribbean people migrated mainty for

economic gain but (4) _ reasons were atso important.
Today the brain-drain aspect of migration is changing as (5) _ attows
for persons to tive in the Caribbean and work abroad.

A large number of Caribbean peopte in the diaspora are undocumented or

(6) migrants.
The Caribbean diaspora atso inctudes (7) mainly from Haiti and
Cuba.
-
Caribbean people in the diaspora contribute to (8)
patterns of migration. -
The (9) economy is an integrat part of Caribbean migration today.
Representing a return migration, although on a sma[[ scale, are (10)

Feedback

1 Caribbean.
2 diaspora. The migration of African peopte from the Caribbean to the UK
and the USA in the twentieth century rePresents another mass movement
of a peopte who had eartier been forcibty removed from their ancestral
hometand.
migration. Caribbean peopte, especiatty the Guyanese, have been
migrating to other Caribbean territories such as Antigua, St Lucia and the
Bahamas in response to depressed economic conditions at home. ln a
sense, they coutd be considered as a Guyanese diaspora in the Caribbean.
simitarty, Haitians are atso found in large numbers in santo Domingo,
Puerto Rico and the Bahamas.
famity. Recent research seems to point to the centratity of family
members and other kin in hetping migrants to make the move - famity
either in the host or donor country - who offered information and
emotionat, psychotogicaI and financiaI suPPort.
5 lCT. Microetectronics and comPuter technotogies altow for technicatty
educated persons to be emptoyed, usuatty by muttinational companies, in
their home country. They maybe paid in US dottars that may stay abroad
or be paid in the Caribbean country.
6 itlegat. Caribbean migration to metroPotitan centres continues to be hetd
in n6n esteem by the region's peopte. This desire is so strong that it temPts
norriatty taw-abiding peisons to transgress the immigration laws of these
countriis and overstiy their welcome. There continue to be fraudutent
schemes associated with migration to North America and the UK invotving
procurement of passports and visas.
7 refugees. A refugee is one who seeks asytum in a foreign country if he
or she can prove that they are being persecuted in their home country.
They usuatty have to get to the foreign country on their own. Many
Haiiian reiugees have pteaded potiticat Persecution in their
"nJCuban
. home country as justification for asytum in the USA, atthough thereofis
considerabt" ouett.p of potiticat and economic reasons. Thousands
Haitians have entered the USA as 'boat peopte' but many are sent back by
US lmmigration.

tr
! Caribbean Studies r
'8 circular. In the Caribbean diaspora there are second and third generations
born abroad. Many return to their caribbean country of origin on a
continuous basis - for hotidays, famity occasions such as weddings and
t
funerats, festivats such as carnivat, and national cetebrations such as
Independence. Thus, there is continuous movement between the
diaspora F
and the Caribbean.
9 drug. The increased efficiency of air and sea transport, and lcr, enabtes the
drug producers of south America to use the caribLean as a transshipment
point in the internationat drug trade to get the produce to drug
t
consumers
in the markets of North America. There ire weti-defined
drug traffic
routes from south America through Trinidad to the Bahamas-and
on to the F
usA- caribbean people, mainty in the innercities of the diaspora, are
atso
involved in the drug networks. The same conditions that tei
to the region
having high emigration rates (poverty, unemproyment and inequatitiel)
may.atso be responsibte for so many, especiaityyoung peopte,
being
involved in the drug economy.
1o deportees. Members of the caribbean diaspora who are
there ifiegatty
or who commit crimes, are routinety deported, representing
a return of
migrants to the Caribbean.

It is interesting to on globalisation
is affecting migration
1efl9ct
processes and trends. lrow
Regently, the involvement of caribf,ean people in
the drug trade has earned us the wrath of drug
agencies in
the usA. The shiprider Agreement gives the [s"rjor;;;";
the right
to enter our sovereign sea and air space to pursue"r*"Jror"es
and arrest suspected
drug traffickers. There iq increased deportation
of caribbean nationals.
Hence, the forces of grobalisation today enabre
intervene in the movements of caribbean people
*;;;;li;; countries to
in ana out oi the region.
Oppression
The theme of globalisation also interacts with the
theme of oppression.
The. im_petus for globalisation comes largely
from the industriarised
world. It is in their interest to elimin"tJt"iiff b;;;;i-e
to move capital quickly, and to be able to locate "bte
tfr.i, op"r"iior*
.anyry\re thevwish. Thev are herped in an this [v rrr.ilrloiorr"rior*
in ICT Multinational companies
ilvrNcs)with rriil;;;arters in
industrialised countries, in tlie past domin"r"J .rr.-*llld economy,
.have
but as globalisation continue, dominaiior,-i, rr!"o*irrg
hegemonic. "p"".,'Gir
caribbean countries, like most'deveroping,
countries, are caught in a
bind. Thev cannot o.pt.out of a grobalisa i".trJ,irr"y
and trade in a world where ,rorir,
ilii-io,.r"",
example, we have been accustomed"rrJpr"ctices
are ro,
to negotiate with"fr"rrgir.g.
Britain or France
as our past coronial masters to sell
our agricul*ra pi"a""..'No*,
there is the European union
{Euy f1t1"n ao"r ,roJrior.-r"ir-ourably
on past preferential trade To cope with this monolith,
caribbean countries hav: "gt"e-"rrtr.
to align themierves witr, v"rio.rs regional,
I;d
sub-regional and bilateral integratioir"t.*.s,
such as the oecs,
CARICOM, MERCOSUR, AC-S ana ttre Efea.
In a globalised world, the industriarised countries
benefit the most.
caribbean countries have no choice bui
to streamrine their operations
in the interests of being competitive. iitir
power rerations operating sinie
tfre
scenario is reminiscent of the
rhe activities of MNCs
F
and the regulations of organisations"n"ou,,t"r.
such as the EU and the World

F
k
t Section 3 History, society and cutture I

t Tlade organization (wro) act as neo-coronialist regimes. Although

most caribbean countries are now politicalry indepJndent, economic
ties bind them even more ftrmly into an unequal trading and dependent

t relationship with their former bosses.

It is said that we still have a plantation economy. There is very little
indrgenous capital and investment. Most of our industries are produced

t by MNCs as absentee landlords with net flows of capital ont of the

region. The specific countries and trade arrangements may have changed
since the days of conquest and colonisation, but the balance of power and
the oqploitative relationship between the caribbean and industrialised
countries remain relatively unchanged.

Resr3tance a nd resi li ence

Caribbean people have always responded to oppressive policies and
institutions through strategies of resistance and resilience. It is no
different today. Globalisation is both a threat and an oppornrnity for
Caribbean states and has generated a range of responses.
On the world stage, we see reactions to a globalised world dominated
by the USA and the EU. The reach of global companies, and the stifling
effect some of them are having on small economies, poses a particular
threat to some wotld uiews. Global companies, which are capitalist
ventures, encounter opposition from groups and movements such as
environmentalists, nationalists and others who are uneasy about the
imposition of a set of all-encompassing principles on the world.
Thus, at the same time that these companies are expanding and tending
to homogenise the world culturally through the capitalist way of life,
there are communal forms that are deliberately opposed to it. This
represents the nativist challenge to globalisation.
This is occurring at the level of international movements such as Islam,
and also at the level of nation states. Faced with the threat of a globalised
economy and culnrre, there is a retreat to nationalism and what people or
groups think give them identity. The question that arises for these groups
is, 'who are we and what drives us?' In the Caribbean, one response that
has intensified recently is Rastafarianism. This movement has been
around a while but in the present age it has reiterated its position. It
looks at the capitalist project as evidence of Babylon and stresses 'peace'.
There are groups locally that are ftghting the WTO and capitalist
exploitation of the environment, for example, Fishermen and Friends
of the Sea. What we are seeing is an assortment of big and little groups
that are retreating from the mainstream - nativism. Other examples
include the'greenl movement, opposition to the mass production of foods
using chemical fertilisers and other substances harmful to man and the
environment. All these are examples of resistance and resilience to the
challenge of globdisation.

Key points
Highlights of a study of the history of the Caribbean:
e The social and cultural differences wident between one Caribbean
country and another. These differences may be religious, linguistic
and demographic. These dillerences occur because some countries
experienced variations in the historical processes of the time. For
example, some countries did not orperience indentureship and thus
will have a different demographic society and culture to those that did..
I Caribbean Studies

'r The social and cultural commonalities thatexist in caribbean

countries. A caribbeanidentity has been forged through common F
historical experiences such as conquest, colonisation, ila*rery
indentureship, migration, resistance, and the struggles entaired in
engaging freedom. Thus, although some countries did not orperience F
indentureship, or some had large numbers of indigenous inhabitants,
such as Belize and Guyana, all were dominated by Europeans who
established a harsh and oppressive regime of plantation society,
economy and culture.
r The understanding that the problems and issues with which
caribbean people grapple today are an outcome of their history. Not
only thag these issues recur under different guises. For exampie, the
struggle against oppression is continuing now as the caribbean engages
globalisation and realises that it really is in the narure of a ,changiif
encounter' with Eurocentric vdues and ideologies.

Conc[usion
Il tEr section, you learned about the maior phases in the history of
the caribbean. These phases were studied chtonorogically, as time
and continuity are important elements in the discipline ol hittory.
continuity was shown through the emphasis accoided to broad irends
and patterns in every ft:'storical period such as migration, oppressionl
-
genocide and rcsistance/resilience. These historicaftrends- and patterns
represent one framework that you can use to explore the history
of the
caribbean region. The framework alows ur to alro examine ch'ange
in these processes frop on9 historical period to the next. overall, -the
section underscored the relevance of the gtudy of history to dweioping
an
understanding of society and culture in the caribbean ,oa^v.

Suggested further readings

faqres, C. L. R. Beyond a Boundary, London: Hutchinson & Company
Ltd,1963.
Manley, R. Drumblair:^Memories of a
lamaican childhood, Kingston: Ian
Randle Publishers, I 996.
Mohammed,l. et aL. (ed.l Readings in Cartbbean Studies,I(ingston,
lamaica: CXC,200l.
Muilenberg, P. 'Sea Kings of the Antilles: The carib Indians,, Americas,
44(41, 1992.
Phillips, R. 'Historical Signi.ffcance
Teaching History,106, pp.
- The forgotten,Key Element,?,
I4-Ig, ZOOZ.
Sale, K. 'What Columbus Discovered,, The Nation,25l(l3), pp. 44f448,
1990.

]_homa-9 Hope, E. Et<planation in Caribbean migration, London:

Macmillan Press, 1992.

Websites
kwabs'com: karibe web answer base system:
caribbean history
retrieved at www. kwabs. com/caribbean_history.html
kruabs-com/caribbean history/king Ferdinand Letter to
retrieved at www.krnrabs.com/<inaferdinand_letterhtrni- the
--- Thino peopre

End test
Answer aI questions.
1 L|SITHREE reasons why a study of the disciptine of
historyr helps us to better understand our societlr
and cutture.
2 a ildentify,THREE historicat periods in Caribbean
: ]history"'",. t;,:;1t; :;;.."':
,1;.1','1
b For EACH period identified above, describe ONE
reason why the Caribbean was engaged in large-
scate migration.
3 a LiStTHREE examples of forced labour systems in
Caribbean history.
b iFor ONE of.the forced labour systems you
ihave
identified above, explain 6ow it s-haped
;Caribbean societlr and cutture.
Feedback for end test
History offers us information about how peopte
and societies behave. A number of disciptines try to
do that, for exampte, sociology, human geography,
politics and economics. History has the advantage of
showing us how past societies and cuttures dealt with
particutar issues. lt, therefore, gives us evidence about
our society and culture from the past.
3 Forced labour systems experienced in the Caribbean
History offers us a chance to understand how things
change. For example, how our society and cutture
have developed by changing forces and conditions.
A study of history atso helps us to see what factors
do not change and, therefore, provides continuity in
understanding present-day sociaI and cuttural life.
History hetps us to reatise our connectedness to the
past. We are in the process of evotving and devetoping,
and such a perspective is necessary to assess our social
and cutturaI institutions now. Whatever we have, be
they probtems, issues, cutturat forms, all have a history
of evotution and development. A study of our society
today should be put in such a context.
Pre-Cotumbian migration could have been a response
to the intrusion of warlike tribes or, a natural process
of diffusion. The migration of Europeans into the
Caribbean was a response to the urge for exptoration
and adventure and later to amass wealth and cotonise
foreign lands. They instigated the forced migration of
Africans for labour and tater in the nineteenth century
recruited East Indians and others as contract labour for
the plantations.
Later on, Caribbean peopte emigrated to other
Caribbean destinations in search of work and
metropolitan centres in response to economic
Section 3 History, society and cutture I
GiveTWO possibte exptanations that account for
the survival of the Carib peopte when compared
with theTainos.
Suggest ONE way that Caribbean resistance and
resilience to oppression in the twenty-first century
differs from the responses of Caribbean peopte to
oppression in earlier historical periods.
and sometimes politicaI pressures. Their direction
of movement changed in response to changes in
immigration policies. Today, while emigration remains
a feature of [ife, returning migrants for extended or
short stays for work or holiday, are also a feature of
tife.
were the encomienda, stavery and to a large extent,
indentureship. The effect of the encomienda was
to establish European oppression of the indigenous
people, eventuatty leading to their demise.
Slavery has influenced society and cutture in the
Caribbean in many ways - the demographic make-up
of the countries contributing targety to an African-
Caribbean influence; the continued economic
importance of plantations which were first established
on stave labour; social stratification processes where
descendants of ex-slaves continue to experience
poverty and marginalisation; and cultural and
psychologicaI effects which are hard to determine but
which may help to explain occupationaI patterns and
famity life practices today atong ethnic [ines.
Indentureship was atso considered coercive in that
many recruits were fooled about the conditions of
life in the Caribbean. The inftux of Chinese and East
Indians has contributed to increasing the diversity
and complexity of Caribbean society. Today, ethnic
differences can serve to exptain many patterns of
social life evident in politics, occupations and social
stratification. Indentureship is atso responsibte for
cutturaI diversity evident in retigion, foods, music,
festivats and dress.
I Caribbean Studies F
I
ll
l

4 The Caribs lived in smatt, mountainous islands which to theTainos as they had no resistance to European
did not interest the Spaniards, especiatty when they
suffered heavy casualties trying to remove the Caribs
5
diseases.
r
r
Today, Caribbean people are less occupied with
from their stronghotds. The Tainos, on the other hand,
physicat resistance and more involved with resilience
occupied the larger istands where there was reputed
strategies - participating in regionaI associations
to be gold. They had more settted societies and, thus,
to fight economic sanctions and trade regutations;
were more vulnerable than the Caribs who could be
forming nativist groups to counter the hegemony of
easity mobilised to resist. ln this respect, the Caribs
American and European vatues and betiefs; and, at the
were more resitient - they coutd move now and come
same adopting ICT and other First Wortd technotogies
back later and attack. The protonged contact between
to comPete in a global market.
the Tainos and the Europeans atso proved harmfuI

Tutor-marked assignment
Write an essay of not more than 1,000 words on the following topic.
Colonidism is regarded as a significant and common experience of
Caribbean people. Describe THREE values that are evident today
in Caribbean society and culture and show how they stem from the
experience of colonialism. 20 marks

Criteria for marking

The award of marks is based on the following.

Content Explication of concepts: 8 marks

Analysis of concepts: 7 marks
Synthesis: 5 marks

Structure
concepts that are important in this topic include colonialism, norms,
cuhural traits, ethnocentrism, socialisation and imperialism.
The emphasis on values echoes section l. Each essay set by cXC tests
a range of obiectives. Yo9 will rarely find an essay baied on one objective
such as 1.r. ft. impact of historical processes on society and culture in
the caribbean'. An explanation of values is needed because it is around
this concept andcolonialism that the essay is buirt. For example,
'... a ranking of orientations towards various aspects of socidlife such as
yealth, physical beauty or ideals such as patriotlsm or honesty ...,, can
lead you to describe how a person ranks these entities that influence
his
or her behaviour and how these are related to a colonial past.
You should also be able to demonstrate a knowledge of the main issues
pertaining to colonialism and values; chronolory arrd tirrre in
relation to
historical events and processes; cultural traits that relate to the colonial
experience; the link between values and behaviours; And, perhaps reflect
on- the common experiences of caribbean people inhelping
to fashion the
values we have.

StyIe
4o"lyril and interpretation should be relevant to the issue. conclusions
drawn should be warranted, logical and insightful.

tr
 cultural diversity in caribbean society
and culture
At the end of this section, you
shoutd:
be abte to demonstrate
understanding of the common
cutturaI features that exist
within Caribbean diversity
appreciate the retationship
between diversity and sociaI
mobitity in the Caribbean.
You shoutd be able to:
describe cutturaI diversity in
Caribbean society and cutture
analyse plantation society as a
'totat' institution
exptain how sociat stratification
occurred in ptantation society
appty a knowledge of
plantation society to the
development of cutturaI
pluratism in Caribbean society
and culture
describe hybridisation of
Caribbean peopte as an asPect
of culturaI diversity
Introduction
One of the characteristics of Caribbean society and culture is that it is
culturally diverse. This diversity is evident in its racial, ethnic, religious,
linguistic, artistic and other cultural forms and expressions. While all
societies are culturally diverse (it is difficult to find a truly homogeneous
societyl, the Caribbean displays diversity to such an extent that the issue
of unity is always raised.
In this section, we will explore the concept of cultural diversity and
try to understand how it came about in the Caribbean and how people
experience it today. The influx of Europeans, who brought with them
their vdues and cgltural expressions, is seen as a major force leading to
diversity in the development of Caribbean society and culture. Plantation
society is thought to be the maior vehicle through which many aspects of
cultural diversity first derreloped and were later maintained.
Content
I Culturd diversity
I Plantation society as a'total'institution
I Social stratification
t Cultural pluralism
r Hybridisation
r Social mobility
CutturaI diversity
Sometimes the view is expressed that the Caribbean region, or a
particular Caribbean country is too diverse culturally to be able to foster
unity. That is usually said in the context of the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM| and its efforts to integrate the region, or at times of national
general elections in a particular country. The positive and negative effects
of cultural diversity are perpetudly debated. Before we attempt to add our
voices to this discourse, let us first try to comprehend this diversity.
A broad sweep of the Caribbean region shows us that diversity results
mainly from geography and history but primarily from history. For
example, the Lesser Antilles with their mountainous backbone have
fosterld fishing as a way of life and cultural communities such as frshing
villages, which, have strong ties with similar communities in nearby
islands. On the other hand, while the larger islands do have fishing
villages, their dominant economic livelihood stems from large-scale
agficultural enterprise, situated mainly on the fertile, coastal lowlands.
The cultural forms of organisation and lifestyles, thus, vary and are
due mainly to geographical factors. Howevel, it is difficult to ignore the
contribution of history to this scenario - for example, in pre-Columbus
times the larger islands were not engaged in large-scale agriculture.
Cultural diversity, therefore, results mainly from historical factors' Let us
attempt to sketcir broadly a picture of cultural diversity in the Caribbean
region-. Let us also reflect on how We will address the argument that
I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
1 Saint Maarten (Dutch) or St
Martin (French) in the Leewards.
There is freedom of movement
between the two sections of the
country. But for such a smatl
country, it shoutd be interesting
to find out how they deatwith
their diverse heritage and
accommodate to both French and
Dutch institutions and [aws.
2 Curagao (and other Dutch
Anti[tean countries). Papiamento
is a language that comprises
many words and phrases that
are Spanish, African, Dutch and
Portuguese.
3 Patois - which may vary stightty
from island to island but is
an enduring feature of French
occuPation. Note the recurrence
of the word SoufriAre throughout
the Lesser Antitles referring to
the sutphur found in votcanic
areas.
June Plum (known as Golden
Appte in other territories).
5 Carnival.
6 Mestizos.
7 Betize; St Vincent.
I Cuba; Montserrat, Anguitta,
the British Virgin lslands, the
Turks and Caicos or the Cayman
lstands.
r
diversity threatens unity. Activity 4.I below tests your awareness of
cultural diversity in the Caribbean.
r
Activity 4J
How aware are you of cultura[ diversity in the Caribbean?
t
Atthough you may be aware of diversity in a very general way, chances are
that if you do not interact with different groups of caribbean peopte regutarty,
you may not have reflected much on the issue. This activity hetps you to uegin
I
to address the issue of diversity. F
Complete the fol]owing sentences. n
1 The island of is divided between the French and the
I
I
Dutch.
2 The language Papiamento is spoken in
3 Wherever in the Caribbean the French settted for a time, a form of
is spoken.
4 The pommecythCre of Trinidad and Tobago is the of
Jamaica.
5 TheJunkanoo of Jamaica and the Bahamas is a variant of
the-_ festival cetebrated in much of the Eastern
Caribbean.
6 ln Belizeyou witl find many descendants of European
and Ameridian unions.
7 ako has descendants of Caribs from the island of
. They were re-located there by the British after a Carib
uprising.
8 while most countries in the caribbean have some form of independent
democratic government, potiticat systems range from the communist
regime in to British cotonies such as
Activity 4.1 focused on cultural forms and ercpressions such as language,
political systems, and festivals, that *er" irr-h.r""""a i,,
,o*e way by
the coming of the Europeans as they sought ro i*por"-,rr.i,
institutions on the tg9". The activity also points to ,"L"
norms and
(mestizos, ethnicity
caribs in Belize - the black caribst "oaculnrral
diversity. "r;;;i;-of
You should also note the points listed below:
I The variety of styles of European architecture that permeate
the
region and in some-countries jostle with dwerlings maae
indigenous materials. Moreover, a distinctive caiibbean
rto-
architectural
style seems to have emerged from a fusion F
s;anish and
British traditions. "f ";;h;
I Laws, iudicial s-yste-ms, the protective and armed forces,
governmeut and politics, are all modelled to a greater
or lesser
extent on the European colonial power that exer-ted dominance
in a particular country. Thus, the instit'tions, customs
ana rules
associated with the-leg-ar system will vary
considerably between
Hispaniola and Barbados.
r Religions vary with ethnicity but also vary with European
heritage.
The East Indian communities of Guyana will
tend to be either
Muslim or Hindu, while some East irrdi"rrr,
""J;;;,r.op."r,
 section 4 cutturat diversity in caribbean society and cutture r
and Africans belong to traditional christian religions.
Howweq, the
Europeans were of different christian denominJtiorr,
- thrrr, Tfinidad
is dominantly Roman catholicwhile Barbados is pr"do-irr"ntly
Anglican.
I Food and culinary traditions. The British, French and spanish Feedback
bestowed names of dishes and influenced taste patternJ-in the
caribbean (note, for example, that the nationat dish of Dominica is A raciat group is categorised
fr-ogs'legs, and the British reference to the French as ,frogs,refers to based on physical, biotogicaI
their preference for that meat|. However, Alrican traditiolns emerge and genetic type. An ethnic
gguall)rstrongly here in the predominance of ground provisions in the group can be based on a host
diet and ways of preparing food (mortar and pistlef . Indigenous forms of different cutturattraits such
have also been created such as the Maroon preparation o1,ierk pork,. as religion, tradition, [anguage,
The traditions of the indigenous people also pelsist with the usl of nationality, or geographicat
maize or com and cassava. origin. These are the usual
You can see, tJrerefore, that there are broad patterns of diversity over understandi ngs of ethnicity.
the whole region mainly brought about by the juxtaposition of di.fferent Any strong cuttural group is
E-uropean po\^rers, and their dominance over a population that was also considered an ethnic community,
diverse - Indigenous African and Asian. The interactiongof all these for example, patois speakers in
different groups have either promoted culturd erasure, retention or a certain area. You may need to
renewal in different degrees and in different ways in each caribbean look at census data to obtain
country. Diversity continues to be re-created. their retative proportions. Some
Howweq, we should not overlook micro patterns of diversity that may rhay not be officiatty recognised.
be e\ddent in one country or one region of a country. people may live Are there any diffdrences in terms
in conditions of sctreme poverty and others in a great deal of affluence. of rural and urban or suburban
Differences in socioeconomic status contribute to a range of lifestyles, location? For example, how
aspirations and opportunities. In addition, there continues to be a many whites are found in rural
great ded of difference between rural and urban living. Even this is a settings? lf they are present, hdw
European cultural legary. Europeans were only interested in the colonies does their tifestyle differ from
for economic gain so they dweloped ports to ship out raw materials that of other residents? Can you

I to the mother country and built roads and infrastructure between the
plantations and the port. Some of these ports eventually became capitd
cities and Caribbean people continued to invest in the core leaving the
p eriphery underdweloped.
describe the diversity evident irl
the lifestytes of rural and urban
residents?
To what extent is the rural-
While this may be a Caribbean-wide phenomenon, each country extribits
Ir urban distribution you described

t differences in terms of the social groups that may be dominant in the

core and periphery. This reflects the type of occupations favoured or
accessible to certain sectors of the population. So, in a specific Caribbean
country race may not contribute as much to diversity in the population
atigned with socioeconomic
status? ls weatth concentrated
in the hands of certain ethnic
groups? ls it a valid point to make
as socioeconomic statrrs.
for all members of that ethnic
group or are they well distributed
iq
t Activity 4.2
Cultural diversity in my country
This activity witl hetp you to think deepty about social groups in your country.
throughout the various rankings
of socioeconomic status?
European traditions may be
numerous to mention or may
too
Answer atl questions in retation to your own country using 1-4 below as into the
be so seamtessty woven
a guide.
fabric of life in your country that
n 1 ldentify the main raciat/ethnic groups and their relative proportions in the they may be difficutt to isotate.
population. Think about the institutions and

r 2
3
How are these groups distributed in terms of geographical tocation?
How are these groups distributed in terms of socioeconomic status?
how they are organised; everyday
tife - what do people eat and
wear? What are their hobbies,
4 Which European traditions continue to be dominant? occupations, or teisure activities?
n
F
I Caribbean Studies

Culrural diversity refers to the great differences in the characteristics

and attributes of social groups in the Caribbean. They stem mainly
from the uaditions and activities of different European powers that were
hegemonic in the region. Now that you have considered the nature of
cultural diversity in the wider Caribbean and in your home territory you
may be in a better position to add your voice to the debate about whether
diversity threatens unity. Activity 4.3 below takes up this issue.

Activity 4.3
Positive and negative effects of cultural diversity
This activity wi[[ help you to marshalt ideas that retate to cultural diversity
and to reflect on possible positive and negative effects. As a Caribbean
person, it is inevitable that you confront this issue and draw your own
conclusions.
Some ideas are expressed betow. Comment on each, expanding on the point
by giving an itlustration and stating whether you think each has a positive or
negative effect.
1 People growing up in culturally diverse societies tearn from earty on to
develop ways of coping with, and accommodating to, cultural differences.
2 Cutturatty diverse societies are said to be complex. The customs and
practices of the many subcultures are difficutt to represent on a national
level, leading to charges of discrimination and discontent in the society.
3 Syncretism, hybridisation and 'cross-overs' increase the complexity of the
culture and society but also develop new, creote, or indigenous forms of
culturaI expression.
4 The cosmopotitan nature of the society increases the breadth of
experience and knowledge of citizens and enriches their lives.
5 These societies are described as 'fragite'.

Feedback

1 When you grow up in a cutturatty diverse society you learn to co-exist with
peopte who engage in different cuttural practices. white this may seem to
have positive overtones, it should be reatised that one way of coping (or
accommodating) is to not get involved or to maintain a spectator stance
(or judgementat stance) retative to the betiefs and practices of others.
Thus, just growing up in a cosmopolitan society does not automatica[[y
confer attitudes of toterance, acceptance and inclusion.
2 complexity refers to the myriad socialgroups that may each have a
different point of view based on their different religious, racial, and
linguistic heritage. where they [ive, as welt as how they are positioned
in terms of wealth, atso influences their stance on national issues. lt is
difficutt to reach consensus on issues of national importance when each
group feels that it must protect its turf and not altow any other group to
achieve more sociat visibitity.
3 This is not onty a positive effect but it atso presents an opportunity to buitd
something new or hybrid from the various cultural etements, around which
there may be more scope for unity. As atways there are different views
some look on this mixing as'downgrading' culture in some way. Examptes
-
include the patois (language), the Shoutei Baptist Movement
[reugion),
and the chutney soca of Trinidad and Tobago (music).
 Section 4 Cutturaldiversity in Caribbean society and cutture I
This is retated to the first point and has vatidity. However, for persons, lives
to be enriched, they must have an open mind to the various experiences.
Then they are [ikely to appreciate the benefits this breadth affords.
Many of the wars that have occurred in recent times have been internecine
confticts arising from deep cuttural divisions in those societies, for exampte,
the Hutu-Tutsi conftict in Rwanda and the Bosnian conflict in the former
Yugoslavia. These confticts reflect the 'fragite' aspect of these societies
where differences and diversity are seen as important in maintaining
distinctions and in exctuding others.
Retations between the various ethnic groups are distorted so that any
factorthat exerts stress on the society acts as a trigger for exacerbating
the usual conflicts and charges of discrimination and exctusion. Extra
stress comes in the form of economic downturns, preparation for generat
etections, and any nationat issue that is controversiat. Sometimes this
fragitity can be manipulated by forces within and outside the country.

Diversity is an dl-embracing term referring to any culturil attribute of

social groups that is di-fferent enough from other groups to cause them to
have a significantly different e;rperience of social life from that of others
in the society.
Across the Caribbean from one territory to another, the cultural attributes
that cause us to speak of cultural diversity in the Caribbean, are:
I religious differences
r racial mixtures and differences
I dilferent cultural heritages (from the various European colonial
powers) such as language, religion, architecture, cooking laws, and
institutions such as education, politics, the economy
r the syncretism that has occurred between these European cultural
attributes and indigenous African and Asian adaptations
r indigenous, African and to a greater e)rcent, East Indian cultural
expressions surviving intact with minimal European influence, (for
example, African herbal knowledge and cooking practices as seen
among the Maroons of )amaica and the people of Haitil
I culhrre as expressions of popular culture, for example, music, dance,
drama, literature, and art and craft, which differ substantially from
one Caribbean territory to another, for example, zorrk, salsa, calypso,
reggae/ punta and cadence
s the influences that geography exerts on cultural life - for example,
how relief, soils, and resources affect economic activity, which in turn
alfects settlement patterns, li-festyles, and relationships with other
sectors of the society, for example, the coffee growers oflamaica,
the sugar plantations of Cuba, the oil industry in Tfinidad, tourism
in Tobago, the fishing villages of the Lesser Antilles, the vast cattle
rancheJof the Rupununi in Guyana and intact wilderness areas such
as the Mountain Pine Ridge of Belize'
In each country cultural diversity is also wident on a micro scale, in the:
n socioeconomic groups that ocperience different lifestyles
a , different values and characteristics that comprise rural and urban
living.
In the next section, we will examine the activities of the Europeans in
contributing to the nature of cultural diversity in the Caribbean.
 ! Caribbean Studies r
'The
plantation as a 'tota['institution F
fh9 advenl of Europeans inro the caribbean region and the imposition of
their social institutions are responsible for *rr"h of the culturai diversity
evident today across the caribbean. we discussed this in the last section.
I-nthis section, we will examine one institution that the Europeans
r
dweloped,-the plantation, and show how it came to dominate social and
economic life and contribute to diversity in social relationships.
F
Genesis of the plantation system
Early in the seventeenth century plunder and adventure had
waned
and Europeans began to settle and farm in the caribbean. The
Dutch h1$
{r9adr lelped the port'guese to set up large-scare agricultural
units, called plantations, in Brazil. the outch, i""-tlirrt andlrading
nation, offered such help to other Europeans in "the caribb-ean.
The changeover to the plantation system brought many changes
to social
and economic life. Many such changes are still-e"p.ri""""a
to-clay. The
way plantations were conceived and established sough, Jo
airria. ,n.
population and alienate groups from each orher. rnJreuiionships
formed
are the basis on which our societies are presently
and their
enduring nature is thought to be the *"i'o.rt"o*."rr"rrg.J
or fii" plantation,
conceived as a,total, institution.

TotaI institutions
caribbean scholars such as R. T Smith and George Beckford
wrore
about plantations established by-Europeans in
the-caribbean, and the
plantation society which e-volved, as a total institution.
total institurion was first developed by Erving
ii" of
"orr".pt
Goffman, a sociorogist,
i1 hiq wolk o1 asylums. Goffman .t rdi"d thJ kinds
oi i"J"tiorr.t
that developed in asvlums and how those relati";;h;:-i"r;;cted ips
individuals. since then other scholars t on
u""" alt.itirrg:i-il"riti.,
in institutions such as prisons, boarding"""
schools training
camps. smith and Beckford saw the similariti., "rd;ili;;;
u.t""e"l.yr"*, and the
plantation system.
Total institutions are those which form isorated
and enclosed
communities. Tle lives of inmates are w.holly
authority in charge of the institution. All aspects
*""ori.J uyit.
of their aairy hves
and the relationships thev are allowed ,o
routines, and established procedures basedl; "*;ip"i;;;by rures,
on control. Goffman was
ftgrqstg{ in the processei by which such institutio", ,o"+t to maintain
$ey hgld gnpeople,s lives and tt ,r"t rr" of the ;;;{";;;es for
the individual and society. Arso of "ittteiert
is how i"ai"i=J'J, adapt
to their situation because they enter the institution
as adults with
personalities, dispositions and a value
ry::.T
the institution seeks to re-socialise individu"r,
ar"aarir-ptll. obviously
to
values important in their survival. r"t
,r. see how "J6pi-ri.iirror-,
we can make the rink"rra
between plantations and total irrrtit"iiorrs
and then ,o"J*r"r diversity.

Activity 4.4
Plantation society and total institutions

Jff:!?::"J;il l;,: H:?::*',:'.1',:l:,1'I"fflS:#:,yiff:iH"#*" caribbean. you have to decide to what

extenr

Lrl
 Section 4 Culturaldiversity in Caribbean society and cutture ll
All questions are based on the fottowing diagram. Comptete the boxes that are btank and choose one (or more) of the
responses for the multipte-choice questions.

1492 1640 1834 2000

Discovery Estabtishment of The post-

plantation society emancipation era

Each plantation was The large plantation 1 Which term (or terms)
extensive, hundreds of encouraged thqformation of describe the impact on
acres, in orderto be a miniature social system society?
economic. with tittte contact with the a Cuttural pluratism
outside. b SociaI mobitity
c SociaI stratification
d Hybridisation
Such a large agricultural
entity demanded a large
labourforce, hundreds
of workers for manual
2 Which term or (terms)
describes the impact on
[abour.
society?
a Cultural pluralism
The owners and b Socialmobitity
managers of the c Socia[ stratication
plantation were the d Hybridisation
Europeans, those who
had access to capital.
3 Which term (or terms)
describes the impact on
The management society?
policies were based on a Cuttural pluralism
the ptantation as a b Socialmobitity
totaI institution. c SociaI stratication
d Hybridisation

Feedback

1 Because of the demand for large numbers of labourers, Europeans brought

Africans under a forced system which resutted in stavery on which the
plantations depended for surviva[. After emancipation, [arge numbers of
Asian indentured [abourers were imported, increasing the complexity and
diversity in these societies.
Cultural pturalism (answer: a) describes a society where there are two or
,three (or more) raciat/ethnic grouPs who live and interact but keep distinct
lines between them, usually involving retigion, famity life and marriage.
Despite these sociaI and cuttural norms, some degree of inter-raciaI or
inter-ethnic unions occurred resutting in hybridisation and is described as
a 'continuum of colour'.
I Caribbean Studies

Different races, while contributing to cuttural diversity, do not necessarily

result in cultural pluratism. The regime under which the ptantation was
t
organised discouraged easy interaction and mixing of the races. caste and
class were rigidty tied. The Europeans hetd managerial and supervisory
positions and enjoyed a superior standard of tiving. The labouring ctasses
(of a different race, or caste) were hetd in subservient positions, either
.
t
2
forced to labour or later, paid onty a meniatwage.
Labourers coming at a later date were hetd to be inferior to those atready
long established - the fate of new immigrants to a society. The fact that
t
caste and class boundaries were rigidty observed created a stratified
society along lines of race, colour and weatth. The ownership and 6
management of the plantations, therefore, led to a ptantation society
where social stratification (answer: c) was enforced. During stavery and
for a long time after emancipation, social mobitity for Africlns, Asians and
cotoureds was not possibte.
lt
Management policies sought to reinforce the superiority of European
cutture. Their vatues, customs and norms became hegemonic enforced
-
through harsh punishment and punitive tegistation. There was no other
I
society for Africans, East Indians, chinese and cotoureds to join. In addition,
the indentured labourers were brought in as competitors for work on the
estates and kept apart from the Africans.
3 The ptantation was a totaI institution. The enstaved Africans went through
a period of 'seasoning' into the norms of ptantation tife by other more
established Africans and were coerced to observe the European definition
of the situation. what Africans, and later East Indians and thinese,
underwent was virtuatty a re-sociatisation process, to try to reptace their
original customs, values and betiefs. lt was an attempt at cutturat erasure.
The total institution of the plantation demanded that everyone
observe
the superiority of European culture, which meant that:
r white was associated with weatth, prestige and power
r individuats produced by unions between whites and others were
highty
favoured because of fair skin, but not of the status and prestige
.n;oyJa
by Europeans
I whites were occupied as owners, managers and supervisors and
the
other races as manuaI labour or shopkeepers or smatl-scale artisans
or
tradesmen
r the labouring classes were encouraged to distrust each other
and look
for their progress to Europeans rather than to each other.
The total institution,of ptantation society encouraged cuttural pturatism
and
socia[ stratification (answers: a, c). Hybridisation (Jnswered)
ruutted in some
measure from whites having sexual relations with their
worlers and that could
have been a consequence of their ideotogy of superiorigr.
tn addition, it was
inevitabte that at an individuat tevetretationships
*outjo"r"tof that crossed
class, racial and ethnic rives among Asians, Africans
and cotoureds.

Activity 4.4 above sought to describe the main features

of plantation
society and its characterisation as a total instirution.
sought to extend this understanding of society
rhe iciivity also
and culturgro ,t . present
day. Activity 4.5 examines the links-benveen plantatio.,
colonial era and that of caribbean society and
,o"i"ry of the
culture in the-twenty_first
cennrry.
 section 4 culturatdiversity in caribbean society and culture r
Feedback
Activity 4.5
You can refer to: Making links - from then to now
r how certain social groups continue to dominate society (these groups may As Caribbean people, we need to
be direct descendants of Europeans), whether white oicotoureJ(sociat reftect on ideas about ptantation
stratification) society and its influences on our
lives today. This activity shoutd
I the way the economy is structured, for exampte, there may stitt be a strong atso hetp you think about your
resembtance to the cotonial economy where raw materials are exported contribution to society and culture
and there is the minimum of manufacturing or significant investment of in the region.
local persons in the economy abroad and very tittte has changed in terms
Answer the question betow in
of devetoping viabte atternatives teading to economic diversification)
relation to your own country.
I the extent to which cultural pturatism is stitt iriident (certain ethnic
Give ONE example drawn from
groups may be found in specific geographical locations, in certain types of
your own country to show how
occupations, and in certain clubs and associations) the ideology of the plantation as a
11
I a preference or a privileging of the ideotogy of European superiority (today, total institution is
it may have 'crossed the Attantic' and become a large-scate acceptance a still prevalent
F of North American cutturatvatues evident in fashion, imales of physical
b undergoing change.
beauty, music, consumer goods, appreciation of tifestytes and vatues,
targety pervaded by the mass media.

ti It may be that you are also abte to detect changing ideotogies:

I society and cutture today are not as stratified as ptantation society targety

I I
due to the social mobitity brought about through education.
Political power today targety resides in the hands of peopte who are
descendants of slaves and indentured [abourers.

I I There are groups in the society who espouse African customs, ethnic wear,
religions, designs and interaction with the continent of Africa in an effort
to learn more about their ancestral roots and simuttaneously to supptant
European ideotogies of superiority.
n
Summary
11
The plantation as a total institution sought to re-socidise (or brainwash)
social groups into the belief in the superiority of the white man.
Deviations from this ideolory were severely punished during slavery.
After emancipation, oppressive legislation, customary practices, norms
and values prevented and obstructed Africans, East Indians and other
groups from achieving social mobility.
Activity 4.5 suggests some ideas that underscore the description of
Caribbean society and ctrlture today as plantation society. While you may
be able to discern strong elements of continuity betrn'een the plantation
system of the colonial era and the present, in all societies there are
changes to the model. Perhaps you have reflected on the strength with
which the model continues to hold us in its grip. This is the outcome
of being a part of the re-socialising mechanisms o{ a total institution.
Sometimes this is referred to as having a colonial mentality. It is only
through reflection, discussion and observation of our society and culture
that we can come to a position where we can actively interrogate these
ideas and make decisions about our own behaviours in the context of
Caribbean society and culture. In the following sections, we will discuss
more fully how social stratiftcation, cultural pluralism and hybridisation
(effects of the plantation system) contribute to cultural diversity.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 4.6
Social stratification and culturat
diversity
This exercise hetps you to examine
the bases or assumptions on which
society can be stratified. Atthough
history shows that stratification
was imposed on us based on a
European model of superiority,
the issue remains today about
the extent to which that model
continues to organise social life in
the Caribbean.
Answer att the following questions.
1 Explain what criterion was
used to rank the various social
groups in plantation society
during slavery.
2 Slavery has been described
as a 'ctosed'system of social
stratification. Exptain what this
means.
Draw a wett-labelled diagram
to depict social stratification in
plantation society around the
1830s.
After emancipation, what were
the criteria used to stratify the
poputation?
In your opinion, what are
the criteria used today in
your country to stratify the
population into groups hotding
unequal amounts of wealth,
status and prestige?
SociaI stratification
In most societies there is some degree of socid stratiffcation, which
may be based on similar or different criteria from one society to anothe;.
Although we say that the plantation as a total institution organised
society and the economy along rigid lines of race and class, the society
and culture of the Thinos and Caribs was also stratified. The Thinos
observed a norm of hereditary chiefs so that kin was a main criterion
of social stratification. With the Caribs, ability in the form of ffghting
prowess was prized.
Social stratification refers to how a particular society ranks the various
social goups in terms of criteria that are valued. In most societies today,
wealth, status and prestige are linked to ceftain criteria and they tend
to be invested in the same social groups. In addition, a particular race or
colour may be aligned with those who have weahh, starus and prestige
in the society. Thus, social stratiftcation may not depend on one criterion
but on some combination, which a society has been socialised into
accepting as prized attributes.
Activity 4.6 to the left should deepen your understanding of social
stratification in Caribbean sociery and culture.
Feedback
1 stavery is a system of social stratification. This means that the members
of the society shared unequally the resources of the society (mainty
wealth, status and prestige) based on who was free and who was enslaved.
However, slaves did not betong to many different sociat groups. They were
Africans and, therefore, the distinguishing characteristic of a slave and thus
the basis for social stratification was race.
2 slavery was a 'ctosed' system of sociaI stratification because one could not
change the basis or the category that made one a stave one's race. There
-
was no opportunity to enjoy a greater share of weatth, status or prestige,
because one could not change one's race. This is an example of ascriptive
status that one inherits at birth and determines one's life chances.
Diagram depicting socia[ stratification under slavery
RACE oT CASTE
Upper - owners, managers,
Whites supervisors, book keepers, agents
Coloureds Middte - some
were freed
slaves, others
were artisans,
book keepers,
or tradesmen
f section 4 cutturatdiversity

ln the diagram, a pyramid is used to depict social stratification in

in caribbean society and cutture I

r nineteenth century caribbean society and culture. The pyramid is

typicatty used to show sociat stratification. The diagram ihows rigid
stratification as the horizontaI tines depicting occupations (sociaf ctass)

r are tied to race (caste). There are very few possibitities for movement
from one tevel to another.

t
t
l1
ii
Note that even among the African enslaved population there were sociat
distinctions based on occupation - the house slaves were regarded as
having more 'resources' (perhaps ctoser access to whites, a more retaxed
retationship with them, and [ess onerous jobs). they enjoyed more status

il and prestige among the enstaved.

Note the grorarth in the coloured groui3 as the stave period matured,
underscoring the criterion of race as the basis for stratification - their
percentage of 'white btood' guaranteeing them some access to more
11 superior status than futt-btooded Africans.
After emancipation, race and cotour continued to be the basis of sociat

il stratification as the economic resources remained in the hands of the

I whites and a few cotoureds. However, with the thrust towards universal
primary education in the late nineteenth and earty twentieth centuries
many blacks and cotoureds from lower socioeconomic groups were able
to access professionaI and better-paying jobs.
Thus, socialstratification was based on race, colour and educationaI

il quatifications. In other words, weatth, status and prestige were tied

to these criteria. Race and cotour are examptes of ascriptive status
(conferred at birth) but education was an achieved status showing that

il the bases for stratification were undergoing change.

Today the situation is much more complex, with many grouPs achieving

il social mobitity. You may want to consider who are the 'haves' and 'have
nots' in your society. Who are the peopte enjoying a large share of wealth,
status and prestige in the society and who are not? You may find that
race, cotour and educationaI qualifications continue to be the bases for

il stratification but that the overatl picture is compticated by factors such

as who one marries.

,il
;i Summary
In this section we examined social stratiffcation as an enduring legacy
,il of plantation society. The concept of the plantation as a total institution
heiped us to understand how the bases for strati.fication, lying mainly
in iace and colow, could come to be so widely aecepted by members of
the society. Social gloups have to accept the dominant values of those
*:t enjoyrng most of the resources of the society for a strati-ffcation
.:l
system to evolve. As we have seen, they may accept because they
have no other choice - the experience of plantation society as a total

fi institution.
Howwer, with the demise of slavery and the continuation of plantation
society in a modified form, spaces were opened up for prwiously
n obstructed gtoups to take advantage of what opportunities existed to
increase their share of the wealth, status and prestige of the society.
For many, such openings came with increasing access to educational
,'a opportunity.
:l Today, social stratification contributes to the diversity of Caribbean
society and culture. People of all races and shades of colour can be found
*.
.l;l
I Caribbean Studies r
at all socioeconomic levels. In the society today, there are many more F
social groupings that intersect lines of, race, class, colour, educational
credentials, political affiliation and family ties and nerworks in such
complex ways that cultural diversity has been $eatly increased. That
being said, race and colour continue as dominant themes in social F
stratification.

CulturaI pluralism
To a_large-exteng plantation society resurted in cultural pluralism in
the caribbean. sociologists studying European colonies worldwide have
been able to show that plantations - whether to cultivate tea, sugar
cane, rubber or cacao - were the preferred economic system imposed on
the colony. Plantations being large economic enterprises requirid many
manual labourers and Europeans often resorted to importing labour. Tirus,
in Malaysia, East Indians and chinese were brought in to dmplement
the Malay labour supply. In sri Lanka, Tamils weie brought in from south
India to complement the sinhalese labour supply. And, ; the caribbean
East Indians and chinese were brought in during the nineteenth century
to fill the void left by emancipation in the colonGs of Ti.inidad and
Guyana, which were still relatively underdeveloped sugar producers.
In plantation societies worldwide, the phenomenon of cultural pluralism
has been noted. Today in Malaysia, thJ Malays, chinese and
East Indians
contest power, wealth, land, iob opportunities and social visibiliry.
In
sri Lanka, the tensions and conflicts ben'een the indigenous sinhalese
and the Tamils have erupted time and again in terroriJm and civil
war.
sociologists describe cultural pruralism as the relationshifs found in
those societies where there are two or more racial or ethnic groups
who interact in certain well-defined ways and keep apart in others.
For
gxapnle, they may be involved in the economy as they meet and mingte
in $e worlqrlace. Thy may wen enjoy recrearion in an integrated
fashion and access educational oppornrnities in a similar
way. Howwer,
the customs and normr.tq follow may differ when it;;;;.
,o rerigion,
family life,-marriag! an! chird-rearing of sociar rife,-which are
pursued differently by the dominant gro.rp,"rp""t,in the society.'
The governance and management structures that Europeans
used to
dominate the workror"e - the plantation as a total institution
to create and maintain distrust and suspicion - helped
between the races and
ethnic grolps. They competed with eacir other for the
favour of the
European boss.
th-e caribbean, the African, East Indian
Jn and chinese elemen$ remain
largely apart - as is the case in Tlinidad and
Guyan" _ ,t orrgn rn"r.
is some limited intermarriage. In a similar r"rtio'to
oliiltrorri".
yhere the European established plantations and uroughi i; workers of
different ethnicities, conflicts ani tensions between
the racial and
ethnic groups flare up from time to time. Guyana
has suffered raciar
unrest and violence in the past betrreen the efric"r,
""a s*u nai"r,
cgrmunilies. In places such as st vincent that receivea E"ri
of East Indians, they have been either assimilated
numbers
irrto ttr" erri""r,
population or remained apart. Their East
Indian cultural norms have
eroded over time.
As we have norcd before, the caribbean is quite
culturally diverse and it
may be that culturar pluralism may occur in
complex and originar ways.
A"\-z !'7 will help to deepen your underrt""ai-ig or *'itir"t pt,rr"tir*
in Caribbean society and culturi.
 Section 4 Cutturatdiversity in Caribbean society and cutture I
Feedback
Activity 4.7
1 Many people think that the more homogeneous a society is in terms of Cultural pluralism in the
the ethnic groups represented, the stronger or more stabte the society witt Caribbean
be. sociotogists say that there is vatue consensus in that society. Those Answer atl questions.
of us who tive in caribbean societies where there is onty one or two ethnic
groups perhaps witl dispute whether value consensus reatly is a reality
1 What type of society woutd
you like to live in - one with
for all groups in a society. Those who live in countries where three or four
onty one or two ethnic groups
ethnic groups vie for visibitity and recognition, need to consider whether or one with more? Give
having competing value systems is the probtem of the society or whether it reasons for your answer.
is the inability to be able to deat with it.
2 The main ethnic groups
2 Barbados and Jamaica can atso be considered pturat societies, not so much in Jamaica and Barbados
based on raciat groups but more on ethnic differences. lf 'ethnic' is taken to are smatl numbers of
be strong culturataffiliation, then the society is made up of socioeconomic Europeans and their cotoured
groups which enjoy different kinds of [ifestytes, customs and norms, for descendants, and [arge
example, the Rastafarian community, the very rich, the middte classes, numbers of Africans, also
the poor (urban and rurat), and the Maroon communities in Jamaica. In affiliated with coloured groups.
Do you consider these societies
F this respect perhaps, Jamaica exhibits more features of a cttturatly pturat
to be cutturatly ptural? Give
society than Barbados.
reasons for your answer.
3 lt is customary when discussing pturat societies to dwell on the forces
3
li putting the society apart. The reatity is that many of these societies, for
example, in Guyana and Trinidad, do not necessarity experience more
lf ptural societies such as
Guyana and Trinidad are so
fragite and torn by tensions
viotence and instabitity than other countries. lf there is viotence and
F instability, it may or may not be due to cultural pturalism.
and confticts, what do you
suppose hotds the society
4 Lloyd Braithwaite has put forward a view that a country with a culture and together?
society like that of Trinidad must necessarity have a set of shared common 4 Suggest ONE measure or
values that maintains the basic stability of the country. His may be a recommendation for ptural
position that comes the ctosest to reatity - that amid the very real strains societies to improve their
and tensions caused by various ethnic and raciaI groups believing that their quality of tife.
ways are superior to others, peopte are committed to a set of shared vatues
that may override the differences of cutturaI pturalism.
Braithwaite refers to these vatues as universalistic and suggests examptes
asthe vatuing of democracy and achievement. lf this is so, then we may
be seeing the hope of integrating'the society based on values that are
universat.
Any measure you recommend must contain some element of bringing
the peopte in that society to confront their fears and prejudices. Measures
may inctude some form of public awareness or education campaign.
Multicultura[ education is being suggested more and more as a means
of overcoming the atienation, distrust and prejudice existing in cutturatty
plural societies. The thrust of such an education is to foster 'unity in
diversity', that is, to see diversity as valued and that unity shoutd not be
interpreted as uniformity.
However, you coutd also have suggested the equatty vatid point of ensuring
social justice and equatity of opportunity for al[ ethnic grouPs. Another
measure coutd be to grab the bull by the horns - to detiberatety engage the
nationaI community in diatogue about the forging of a nationat identity
that emphasises inctusion.

It may be timely to reflect on the nature of preiudice at this point.

1t Many persons have sought to explain the roots or the bases of prejudice.
t Prejudice is the precursor to acts of discrimination, alienation, inequality,

td
i

L
I Caribbean Studies V
'and
lack of tolerance. what causes prejudice? An obvious answer is the
socialisation process. How we were brought up involves initiation into a
t
value system upheld by our families and then by the main groups with
which we interact - school, peer group, religioui groups, nelghbourhood
friends. over rime, we learn through L:rplicit and-impiicit references how
certain groups are regarded and what behaviours are o,pected from us.
t
socialisation is an insidious process that never stops. Howeveq, most
people never confront and interrogate how they were socialised. people
tend to believe that the way they feel about most things (including other
social groups) is the right way - in many instances ,roi e.r., havini to
put it to the test. so most people do not reflect on the deep questions
regarding their own socialisation and their biases towards-others.
Prejudice can, therefore, be rampant in a society without it ever being
acknowledged by the perpetrators. Indeed, mosi people tend to feel tiat
they do not hold any prejudices.
Thgs, the problem is an enormous one not only in the caribbean but
worldwide. A large part of the problem is getting people to admit their
biases and genuine feelings about the curture and practices of other
groups. Another dimension relates to those persons who readily admit
they are prejudiced againstceftain groups and c"tt state reasoni they
consider valid. Therefore, they are not inclined to waver having thought
out the situarion and decided to be prejudiced.
-
In order to ded with the problems of culrural pluralism, there must be
some willingness to place yourself in the posiiion of the other. A moral
or
spiritual orientation may also help.

Summary
Culturd pluralism was a consequence of plantation society
conceptualised as a total institution. The need for a large
labour supply meant that Europeans first went ro efricf then
*r,rt"ot
"rrd to china
and to India to secure that supply. Although all these g,od;
wennrally
9o-exisged on plantations and-the society as a whole, tlr.y Lpt ceftain
lines of demarcation-across which they would toleraL ,ro irrteraction.
The
!"9^"y for society and culture today is that these groupr-r". trr.rrrr"t r",
in competition for the rewards of the society and-there are perennial
tensions and conflicts, sometimes resulting in violence. Thle idea
that
cultural pluralisrh ir problem hampering unity and national solidariry
F:
needs to be debunked. Rather the prob-lem seems-to
be the inability of
groups and individuals to cope with issues of cultural
difference. we have
seen tfrat whether the society is more or ress ho-og"oiou;,
,h"r"
always *1'y tlpes of social groups contributing,.l *rt"ihiy "r.
diverse
society. Thus, most countries in the caribbe"n-*r, uer,efit
fro- a suategy
that targets removing prejudice and coping with curtural differences.

Hybridisation
Hybridisation refers.to mixtures and syncretic forms. In
this section,
we will.look at hybridisarion as it relaies to people,s
racial hiritage and
cultural expressions. such as religion and laniuage-. ih;;t*"res
people and culture, began with the era of ,dis"cov?ry,-il of
our-history since then. Howweq, plantation society
il been part of
under whigh hybridisation became deeply established
*", ,t . irrrtitution
in caribbean
society and culture. It was not necessatity
expected outcome because
the plantation as a totar institution- rorrgh,"r,
,o *rrrioi tt Jrlltionrt ip,
of the various groups of workers. The go:vernance

tr
and management
F section 4 cutturatdiversity in caribbean society and culture r
practices of the white plantation owners uied to keep the races apart. The
di-fferent goups themselves saw much to dislike in each other.

Td"y, the mixed population of the caribbean is large and growing. Even
though social and cultural norms may have suppresied ttre mixing of the
races, mixing did occur. Most likely it occurred under force in theiarly
history of 'discovery' and conquest between spaniards and Amerindian
women. During the era of slavery this was also the case in large measure
between Ewopean men and African women. By 1834, there was a large
coloured population across the Caribbean.
The situation became increasingly complex with the advent of indentured
labourers from India, China and Portugal in the nineteenth century.
Unions involving tlre white owner or overseer still occurred with women
workers on the plantation. Howeve4, among the indentured labourers,
both men and women had unions with individuals from other racial
and ethnic groups. In the early years of indentureship, the shortage of
women from one's own country resulted in unions with women of other
races. As indentureship progressed and more East Indian and Chinese
women came to the Caribbean, somethingvery much lile their normal
values and practices became re-established, underscoring the cultural
differences with other groups in the society. Unions with other races were
discouraged, but they still occurred.
The European ideolory of superiority associated with being white
and inferiority associated with people of colour, wes a value position
inculcated under the plantation as a total institution. Ideals of physical
beauty associated with Caucasian features became the norm. Thus,
mixing of the races resulting in children of a lighter or fairer complexion
than one of the parents (usually the mother), meant that such a child
stood a good chance of being successful in society. In other words,
the closer one's skin colour was to white, the better one's chances of
securing a good job, a prestigious marriage, and moving in €lite circles. In
Caribbean society and culture then, the mixed or coloured groups enioyed
higher status because of skin colour.
A'pigmentocraey'evolved where the continuum of colour exhibited by
individuals was deeply analysed and discussed. It became a norm in the
sociery to describe someone using their colour as a maior descriptor -
'yellow', 'red', 'high brown' and so on. Nuances of colour resulted in
acceptance or reiection by different social Sfoups. In the competition to
be as close to white as possible, there evolved a preoccupation with skin
colour and other Caucasoid features in Caribbean society and culture.
Persons who were the product of hybridisation were more likely to be
successful in this contest for status than other non-whites.
Hybridisation has deepened cultural diversity in the Caribbean' One
must remember that it was not only the physical person that was
involved in a union with someone of another race but it was as well
two cultures meeting and mixing. In Caribbean homes today where the
parents are from tr,vo distinct cultural groups, it should be an interesting
ixercise to try to discern which cultural norrns are dominant. Usually
there is some recognition of their dual heritage such as in religious
celebrations and ethnic cuisine, but sometimes one culture becomes
dominant in a particular household. It is also interesting to debate
the extent to which the children from such a union embrace both
aspects of their heritage and also commit to the universalistic criteria
of mainstream society, that is, the white, western norms that pervade
culture and society today.
I Caribbean Studies

Activity 4.8 will continue to deepen your understandings of hybridisation

and cultural diversity in the Caribbean.

Activity 4.8
Racial and cultural hybridisation in the Caribbean
A study of hybridisation in the caribbean inevitabty leads us to consider its
contribution to cultural diversity and hence the imptications for unity and/or
national identity. This activity raises questions for you to continue to
reflect
on the society and culture of which you are a part.
Answer a[[ questions.
1 Complete the diagram below by naming the mixed or hybrid group
produced.

What-name is given to the mixed group produced by unions

between
Amerindians and Europeans?
ln the context of the discussion on hybridisation, what
do you think is
meant by the terms ,octaroon,, ,quadroon, and ,sambo,?
4 How do you think syncretism of cultural forms is
created?
5 LiSt THREE religions in the caribbean that
are mixtures of christian and
African elements.

*Tch hybrid retigions, especiatry those with heavy

?r",r,::,::,?)l_::f
Arncan I
etements, were discouraged by Europeans.
comment on the notion that hybrid peopte and curtural
forms are not a
threat to unity in the Caribbean.
Hybridisation'has been described as an example
of ,creorisation,. Exptain
what this term means.

Feedback

1 Mutatto - European and African mixture.

Cotoured may be the most appropriate term.
Attthe possibitities for
mixtures do not carry specific names.
Dougla - East Indian and African mixture.
2 Mestizo -Amerindian and European mixture.
Borianden (cuyana).
3 The importance ptaced on skin colour
and shades of cotour as determinants
of social accePtance and indicators of beautlr
is seen in the fine distinctions
made where calculations were made about
how much African biooo a person
had. These fine distinctions. were.especiatty
prevatent in the French caribbean
where there was a large coloured poputat'ion.
An octaroon was almost white,
having seven great grandparents who
were caucasian and one uL.t gre.t_
grandparent, thus becoming one-eighth
btack. A quadroon had three
caucasian
 section 4 culturat diversity in caribbean society and cutture I
and one black grandparent making him one quarter btack. A sambo was
atmost futl-btooded African. one's cotour was not just a biotogicat or genetic
characteristic, it signatled onet social standing and prospects.
Transcutturation is the process whereby two cuttures meet and mix and
something with new etements and forms emerge. syncretism has occurred,
We may see transculturation in music, cooking and culinary practices, art
and dress. On the other hand, acculturation is the process whereby one
cutture is absorbed by another - for exampte, the Carib community in
Trinidad has been targety absorbed into mainstream society and culture.
In recent years, they have been trying to revive traditional culturaI forms
associated with their ancestry.
Shango, Vodun/Voodoo, Kumina, Myat, Rastafarianism are some syncretic
retigions with Christian traditions and a heavy African input. Retigions such
as the Orisha faith are African and, therefore, not syncretic.

Not onty Europeans but atso Caribbean peopte who had bought into the
supremacy of European culture and belief systems looked with contempt
at sorne of these retigions and they were outtawed. The retigions went
underground and only in recent times were the taws repeated. Even
so, these retigions are stitl minority religions. The dominant ways of
worshipping continue to be the forms introduced by Europeans.
Hybrid peoptes and hybrid cutturatforms contribute to increasing the
levets of culturatdiversity in the region. However, they are not more likety
to contribute to disunity than any other socia[ or cutturaI grouP. Hybrid
forms of cutture that were created in the Caribbean and hybrid Caribbean
peoptes contribute to an emerging understanding of culture that includes
something created locatty. In this way, hybridisation offers an atternative to
us about our preference in adopting European norms or those of any other
community that have been imported, for exampte, African, East lndian or
Chinese cutture.
'Creole' refers to any person born or any thing created in the Caribbean.
Even Europeans are calted Creoles if they were born in the Caribbean.
The tanguage of Jamaica is referred to as 'the Creote'and it is so much a
creation of that society and cutture that it often has to be transtated for
other Caribbean people.
Hybrid religions, music, foods and peopte, created in the Caribbean
represent the creotisation of culture and society. This is interesting in that
the term suggests that what was here before targety came from outside
influences - be it from Europe or any other ptace.

This section has examined how society and culture have been influenced
by the hybridisation of Caribbean people and cultural forms such as
religion. We have seen that hybridisation has contributed to increasing
the complexity of Caribbean societies and, therefore, cultural diversity.
In the patt, *hett social stratification was rigidly tied to race and colour,
the preience of hybrid peoples underscored and emphasised the extreme
importance of skin colour in social life. Today that deep sensitivity to
skin colour continues, perhaps to a somewhat lesser extent than hitherto,
to shape Caribbean peoples' perspectives'
Hybrid people and cultural forms represent creole Caribbean creations
which maybe interesting to think about in the debate over cultural
diversity and national oiregiond unity. Hybrids, therefore, add another
dimension to the mix of voices and cultural groups that make up the
I Caribbean Studies

caribbean. while some may think of hybrid forms in a positive light as

presenting a local alternative to imporced norms and values, otheis of a
more purist nature look negatively on any combinations and mixtrrres
as degrading or diluting whatwer is good or valuable in the ingredients .

to the mix. Hybridisation presenrs a challenge to those caribbian

groups who are tryrng to preserve their culture and heritage by excluding
others. It may be that 'culture' for speciffc ethnic and racial groups in thi
caribbean may increasingly come to mean something that continues to
be created and re-created rather than what it used to be.

SociaI mobility
social mobility describes rhe process whereby social groups or individuals
move eittrer up or down the social strata. It is usually taken to mean
moving up the social ladder and has positive connotations when used in
that sense. However, the term can also refer to downward movement
in society. In the earlier section on social stratification, you will recall
that most societies are structured so that social gro,rpr are ranked in
accordance with how mrrch they have of what th" ro"i.ty values. In
the
days of slavery being white (being free and rich), afford.d yo' a position
in
the top strata of society. Then and now, the higher the rank of a-person,s
social goup the more that person enjoyed *."fth, status and prestige.
wealth, status and prestige came with occupying the higher nrngs
of the
social ladder, but one needed to have what it-took to ."r-r,
wealth] status
3d nleslis9. Be-s white or of right skin colour *"r
into the highest-ranking social groups. However, one"norrgh
to gain entry
'
need"ed m6re than
that to stay tJrere. A weu-thought out marriage partner (one
with wealth
or status) could guarantee social acceptance.
As education becamernore widespread and as a few persons
from the
poorest groups were able to access secondary educati-on
and beyond,
the society_recognised that education as sociJ roi
"tt"blirrgirr"rtor,-ouitii,
more people. A few boys whose not_too_dist"rrt
or indentured labourers were able to earn college extribitions
*.r. slaves
and
scholarships to universities such as oxford
others
with secondary education could enter the public ""icl*Lr-iG
r"*r"", i"i those with
primary education could become teachers.
The jobs obtained on the basis of being educated were
considered
respectable - in fict, they were not cailed
iobs, but b;;;il"s, or even
trocations'. They did not involve manual iabour o,
menral yo+. They were associated with more money
*rr"t'*", considered
and a better
standard of li_ving. However, primary school crri"j*rril*ot reratively
high payrng did provide to.rie to social mobiliry-tep
" being a teacher
and prestige associated with
b;"";;;i the status
and most of all, with being a healteacher.
i;tir.*i"ag."lie person),

This did not mean that skin colour no longer helped

or hindered one,s
chances at social mobility. In fact, skin cot6".
oi:r., piri.i""r
characteristics that are still prized,, continue to""i
be factors for who are
chosen for jobs, promotion and as-marriage partners.
sociologists have commented on the tendenry
in the r940s and 1950s
(and afterwards), of black, educated
men, enjoying professionar status and
prestige, deciding to marry much lighter
classes so that their childien wouldie
skinned;;;;;lr"* rower social
they would be abre to.access wen higher
oi f"ir-Jirr: ffi;.#we[ to do,
degr-ees of sociar ,rrJbiury th"r,
their parents. A female marrying roii.o".
or a"rt"irrJ,, *-, orr., by the
il superior lifestyle offered and the optimistic
section 4 culturatdiversity in caribbean society and cutture r
scenario for the children of
il such a unign. Ior a people recently ,.a fr..
indentureship), the preJs for sociai
from bondageirt"rr.ry
-oUitiry was a ,op plioriry. "rra
Activity 4.9 helps you to learn more about the concept
il of social mobility.

t Activity 4.9
Social mobitity in Caribbean society and cutture
You betong to a socioeconomic group and, therefore,
socia-l mobility is also a concem of yours. Sociat moUitity
c
d
theworking class is paid less and has different jobs
to those of the middle ctass
sociaI mobitity is not possible for the working class.
has dominated the lives of Caribbein peopte since
stavJry
il and. indentureship. This activity hetps io deepen your
understanding of the dynamics of social
-oLiUty.
lf someone achieves upward social mobitity, which of
the fotlowing witt appty?
a
il Indicate the correct answer for questions 1-9.
is based on a diagram.
euestion 1O _
b
the person witt adopt a tifestyte simitar to that of
persons in a higher income group.
the person wi[[ now move in the highest circtes in
1 The plantocracy refers to: the [and.
a c the social group to which the person betongs witt
t* b
the ptantation as a ,totat, institution
the movement towards converting tobacco farms d
now be ranked higher than it was before.
the person witl have more money.
to sugar ptantations
c. the planters and other elites in the society In the Caribbean for many decades after emancipation,
d ptantation society. the lower ctasses could not access secondarv
l+ education because:
2 Social mobitity was LEAST possible during the era of
i they could not afford it
stavery for:
ii the colonial authorities fett that it was not relevant
a c
I't b
the coloureds
fietd slaves d
octaroons
house slaves. iii
to the poor
the lower classes did not see the need for it
3 During slavery and just after, which of the fottowing iv only a few secondary schools existed.
was NOT an important factor in how social groups or a iand iionty c i, iiand iiionly
IT individuals were ranked? b i, ii and iv onty d i, ii, iiiand iv
a Cotour c Education How did the descendants of slaves and indentured
b Race d Wealth workers hetp their children to access sociaI mobitity?
IT i
4 How were the East Indian, Chinese and portuguese By saving and living frugatty
indentured workers ranked in the nineteenth century? ii By investing in buying tand
a At the bottom of the social pyramid
iii By investing in education
IT b As equivatent to the cotoureds
iv By institting in their children the aspiration to live a
c Among the middte classes better life

il d ln the top strata a iv only c i, iii, and iv only

t 5 Which of the following were important for social

mobitity in the post-emancipation era and beyond?
i
ii
Race
Colour
iv
v
Marriage
Wealth
10
b i and iv only d i, ii, iiiand iv
Diagram 1 depicts social stratification in the plantation
era. On a similar diagram show how social mobility would
have altered Diagram 1 bythe 1950s.
iii Education

il a
b
iand iionty
i, iiand iiionty
coloureds

il c
d
i, ii, iii and v onty
i, ii, iii, iv and v
I 6 ONE difference between the working ctass and the
middte ctass is that:

t a

b
the middle class is independently wealthy and
many do not need to work
the working ctass is predominantty African and Diagram 1: Social stratification
fi cotoured while the middte ctass is predominantly
coloured and white
j ust before emancipation
in plantation society

4
d
I Caribbean Studies
r
I

Feedback

1c 4a 7a
t
2b sd 8b
3c 6c 9d k
Whites now sharing the top strata and
10 Upper some moved downward, but not many. h
Coloureds are now able to gain access
to the highest strata but many atso
moved downward.
The btack population is also able
to access the highest strata and
l'
middteclass status but most of
them remain in the poorest
categories.

Diagram 2z Social stratification in the Caribbean around the 1950s

Note that the horizontat [ines indicating the races or ethnic groupings which
were rigidly held in place during slavery are now disrupted. Most races
and ethnic groups are participating to a greater or lesser extent in social
mobitity - either upwards or downwards. Education is the major reason
enabting blacks and cotoureds to penetrate the highest sociatstrata.

Summary
Social mobility in the Caribbean has been going on err'er since slavery
was abolished and indentureship came to an end. The'total'institution
of the plantation could not hold Africans, coloureds and East Indians in
as strong a grip as before. They had aspirations that were at odds with
the social position they had been required to take and which they were
ocpected to continue to uphold.
caribbean people used any means at their disposal to distance themselves
from the estates and a life of manual labour. parents worked tirelessly
on peasant farqs to save money to buy more land and to be able to
send their children to school. Frugal living hard work, saving, shrewd
choices in marriages and alliances, and an optimistic hope in education
were the avenues people chose for social mobility. Today, education has
enabled the social pyramid to Iook very different to how it was organised
in the nineteenth century - not roo long ago. social mobility truough
education has been the main means open to the majority of individuals
for accessing a better standard of life.

Key points
A summary of some of the key points and maior concepts that were
discussed in this section is given below.
t cultural diversity is a fundamental characteristic of caribbean society
and culture.
I cultural diversity is reflected in the many social and cultural groups
found across the region.
r Racial groups include Africans, Amerindians, East Indians, chinese,
Europeans and a goup of mixed heritage.

L,I
r K
Section

Ethnic groups are those bonded by strong cultural ties such as

4 Cutturatdiversity in Caribbean society and cutture !

r religion, country of origin, geographical location, language, customs

and traditions.
In each co-untry, there are social groups that lead significantly different
lives and lifestyles from each other, for example, those of different
socioeconomic lwels and those who live in rural and urban areas.
Cultural diversity in Caribbean society and culture received an
impetus in the'age of discovery and conquest'with the influx of
Europeans into the region and the opportunities for enculturation and
transcultrrration.
The European innovation of the plantation as a total institution
entrenched culturd diversity as workers were now imported from
different parts of the world to add to the mix of Caribbean society and
culture.
Stemming directly from the organisation of the plantation as a total
institution is the legacy of social suatification by class and caste.
Cultural pluralism was a consequence of bringing groups of different
races and ethnicity and setting them up in competitiofi with each
other for the favours of the Europeans.
Hydridisation of people and cultures was an inevitable consequence of
so many groups and cultures meeting and mixing in the region.
r Since the lessening of the power of the plantation as a total institution,
Caribbean people have sought social mobility largely through education.
r Culnrral diversity is continually debated as to its effects on unity in
the countries of the region.

Conclusion
In this section, the concept of cultural diversity in the Caribbean was
erplored. This diversity was shown to be a consequence of European
domination in the region and the imposition of their organisations
and institutions such as the plantation. Social stratification, cultural
pluralism and hybridisation are all interwoven effects of the plantation
system and contribute to the culturally diverse region that is the
Caribbean today. On both the micro and the macro scale, cultural
diversity poses a challenge to Caribbean people not only in being able to
live harmoniously but in being genuinely knowledgeable and empathetic
towards other gtoups and cultures that inhabit the region.

Suggested further readings

Beckford, G. Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in plantation
econornies of the third woild. N.Y: Oxford, 1972.
Braithwaite, L. 'social Stratification and Cultural Plurdism' in Social and
Cultural Pluralism in the Caribbean. Edited by Vera Rubin. Annals of the
NewYorkAcademy of Sciences. Vol. 83 No' 5 1960'
Distance Education Centre In1oduction to Sociology - social sciences
study guide, Barbados: UWIDEC, 1997.

Goffman, E., sylums; Essays on the social situation of mental patients

and other inmates. Anchor Books, 1961 N.Y.: Doubleday, 1990.
Mohammed ,l. Readings in Caibbean Studies, Kingston, ]amaica: CXC,
200 i.
I Caribbean Studies

' Smith, R. |. 'social Stratiffcation, Cultural Pluralism and Integration

in West Indian Societies'. In Sybil Lewis and Thomas G. Matthews,
eds', Caribbean Integration: Paperc on social, poktical and economjc
integration Rio Piedras: Puerto Rico Institute of Caribbean Srudies , 1g67.
S-i{, R. T Tfre Negro Family in British Guiana: Family structure and
social status in the uillages. N.Y. Routledge 8r Kegan Paul Ltd., I 97 I .

End test
Tick the correct response for each question.
1 ldentify the Caribbean country where cultural diversigr stems from the presence
in the
society today of many grouPs but predominantty, Eur6peans, Amerindijns, Africans,
and mixed groups.
a Jamaica b Antigua c Belize d Cuba
2 Which of the fotlowing belong(s) to a racial group?
i Rastafarians ii Mostems iii Caucasians iv Creotes
a iiionty
b iv only
c i, ii, and iiionty
d i, ii, iii, and iv
A fundamentaI characteristic of the plantation as a totat institution
was that it:
acontrolted the relationships between at[ groups
bwas mainty involved in agricultural production
csought to devetop ports and coastai areas atone
dwas responsibte for much of the hybridisation of caribbean peopte.
Ptantation society before emancipation was characterised
by:
a sociat mobitity
b rigid separation of caste and class
c the rise of an intelligentsia
d education as an avenue for new ctass formation.
of social groups according to criteria that are valued by society
If.:.TIl"g
Known as:
is

a socialstratification
b socioeconomic status
c sociat ctass
I
d socialmobitity.
cultural pturalism can be described as the situation where there
are:
a many different ethni.c and culturaI groups in a society,
each contributing to
.b comptex forms of cultural diversity
two or more cultures that have mlt and mixed, as in the
caribbean region where
one cutture was dominant and absorbed the other
c many cultures in a country where each maintains s€parate
customs and practic'es
d two or more cultures thaf have met and mixed ana
iroauiJilr"tr,ing-n;;-ah*
could be calted a Caribbean culture.
of the following reasons exptain(s) why cultural pluratism
Yhi:l'r devetoped in the
Caribbean?
i Distrust and suspicion between racial groups who
were first estabtished and new
immigrants.
ii The entry of indentured labourers caused
the wages for estate labour to decrease.
ill ethnic,groups were kept as separate as possible.
tv I9r::lll.ld
Eacn group vaed for the favour of Europeans
with respect to employment on the
plantation or emptoyment in towns.
 section 4 culturatdiversity in caribbean society and cutture I
a iv only
b iii and iv only
c i, ii, and iiionly
d i, ii; iii and iv
Mestizos are a peopte of mixed descent resulting from the union
of:
a Europeans and Amerindians
b Europeans and Africans
c Africans and East lndians
d East lndians and Europeans.
Which of the foltowing are examples of cuttural hybridisation?
i Rastafari ii Roman Catholicism iii Voodoo iv Orisha
a i and iii onty
b iii and iv onty
c , i, ii and iv onty
d i, ii, iiiand iv
copy the diagram below and use lines and shading to show what you think a
generalised picture of social stratification in Trinidad and.Tobago in the 1930s might
took tike. Locate the foltowing categories: whites (French creo-[es), Africans, East
Indians and Mixed.

i
T
Feedback

1c
for end test

4b 7d
2a 5a 8a
3a 6c 9a
10

\
\a
e"rr tndians

\
\
I Caribbean Studies

Note that the upper classes are now being accessed by
many mixed persons and a few Africans and East Indians.
Note that stightty more Africans are moving up into the
middte ctasses than East lndians. This is because the East
Indians as relativety recent immigrants were regarded as
the lowest strata of the society and were slower to access
education. However, the greatest number of poor people
are Africans and East Indians. Not included in the diagram
are the most recent immigrants, the Syrians and Lebanese
who at this time woutd occupy the lowest strata. lt woutd
be interesting to compare this with the present situation
where the Syrian Lebanese community is on par with the
French Creotes.

Tutor-marked assignment
Write an essay of no more than 1,000 words on the following topic.
Reflect on the history of your family to explore how the following themes
may be represented - culturd diversity, socid stratification, cultural
pluralism, hybridisation and social mobility.
30 marks

Criteria for marking

The award of marks is based on the following.
Content Explication of concepts: I0 marks
Analysis of concepts: 10 marks
Synthesis: l0 marks
Structure
You are required to reflecr on what you know of the origins of your family
and discuss your racial and ethnic heritage in relation to ttte history of
your country. In other words, you are asked to see to what extent you
can interweave your own family history with that of your country. In the
discussion, the themes listed in the question should surface.
StyIe
{ndysis and interpreration should be welr dweloped and relevant to
the issue under examination. conclusions drawn should be warranted,
logical and insightful.

tr
 lmpact of societaI institutions on
5 Caribbean peopte
General objective
t At the end of this section, you
shoutd be able to:
understand the relevance of
n sociologicaI concepts to your
own lives and those of persons
I in your community.
t ific obiectiyes
You shoutd be able to:
describe'sociaI institutions' as
11 a sociologicaI concept
use different sociological
11 perspectives to analyse sociaI
institutions
I evatuate the ways in which
sociaI institutions such as the
famity, education, retigion and
I the justice system impact on
people's Iives.
I and how they impact on our lives.
ll
Introduction
This section takes up the important theme introduced in section l, that
of the nature and impact of social institutions on our lives. Dominant
perspectives in sociolory regard society as a social system within which
there are mechanisms that order society according to our wishes. Social
instinrtions are the major organising frameworks in social life. In this
section, we will learn about how the family, education, religion and the
iustice system impact on our lives as Caribbean people. We dso explore
alternative perspectives on social instittrtions to construct a more complete
and balanced picture of the impact of socid institutions on our lives.
Content '
r 'Social institutions' as a sociological concept
I Sociological perspectives on social institutions
r The family
r Education
t Religion
I The justice system
'Social institutions' as a sociological concept
Social institutions are a fundamental part of the operations of sociery.
According to sociologists, each social institution has functions that
ensure the smooth working of the social system. In this section, you will
have the opportunity to analyse how social institutions are constructed
We all live in society and are quite aware of how things work - what is
accepted and what is not. It may be that we have grown up taking much of
this ordering of our lives for granted. In this section, we are going to look
more closely and criticdly at those societal arrangements that help us to
observe this order. Sociologists explain our willingness to obey and conJorm
largely through the power that social institutions wield in our lives.
Activity 5J
Social institutions in Caribbean society and culture
Sociat institutions dominate your life and ptay a large part in how you think
about issues and what you take for granted. lt is worthwhite then to explore
how sociaI institutions determine and guide your behaviour.
Read the excerpts below and answer the questions that fottow.
i 'ln my family, everybody has clear duties and responsibitities.'
ii 'The famity that prays together, stays together.'
iii 'She is well-educated.'
iv 'When | leave school, I want to get a good job, marry and settte down, and
have two chitdren.'
I Caribbean Studies

ldentify those excerpts that seem to be founded on values of order,

stabitity and continuity.
Explain what the concept 'wetl-educated' means to you.
Excerpt 'iv' is an aspiration many young people seem to have. Suggest
why that may be so.

Feedback

Excerpt i suggests that famity life woutd be orderty and be less

dysfunctional if rotes and responsibitities were clearty understood by att.
It suggests that where there are multiple roles performed by one person
(e.9. a single parent), there is a tendency towards disorganisition. ihe
excerpt, therefore, recognises'famity' based on certain vatue j udgements.
Excerpt ii is stating that the most important cohesive etement in famities
isthe recognition of religion (or spirituality) as the core of famity vatues.
Praying together assumes that atl betong to the same denomination and
are simitarty committed to the positive impact of the interaction of two
social institutions - famity and retigion. This interaction reflects a concern
about social stabitity and order and that retigion is the mainstay against
famity disorganisation and dysfunction.
Excerpt iv alludes to the experience of manyyoung peopte
-that schooldays
have been organised in such a way that they enjoy freedom from the cares
and worries of earning a living and the responsibitities of adutts. However, for
society to survive and thrive these young people are expected eventualty to
take their ptace in society and to contribute in terms ol,the knowtedge jnd
skilts they acquired. Many persons accept this as a natural progression of tife
- to leave school, find a job, get married, and have a .anageable number of
children. This is an exampte of how socialisation conditions us to internatise
society's goals as our own. The excerpt, thus, shows an undertying value
in
how we order our existence based on sociatty accepted ,out"r-.
'Well-educated' is an image that is steeped in the dominant vatues
of
the society. lt may describe anything from having advanced educationaI
credentials, to being well-dressed and welt-spokJn. The latter tends
to
refer to expertise and ftuency in using internationatty accepted
Engtish. The
images we attach to education and the educated p"rson reftect
the vatues
inherent in how we have created our social institution of education.
b.e_useful foryou to think about why peopte tend to prefer
!t T"I a sameness
to their tife that closely mirrors the routes taken by the majority
in society.
Have we internatised norms and fear social sanctions to such
an extent that
we merety conform? or, do we activety think about what
we want in tife and
try to juggte social expectations (which reatty are the values inherent
in our
social institutions) along with our aspirationi, needs and
desires?

Note the anomalous position of the career woman who never

marries
and who wants children, or the couple who decides
;;ir;". children,
";; or a woman
or marriage in a civil rather than a religious ceremony,
who
decides to maintain her own **"*.i'marriage
and not even resort
to a double-barrelled compromise. such individulls
and iudgemen* that.corne their way from persons
t"""*"rry questions
in the society who
believe that these individuars have 6one something
uncomfortable with such decisions.
*roij"ia r".r
t section

socid instit.tions are not tangible. They are represented through

5 rmpact

our
of societal institutions on caribbean people I

cherished be_liefs, ideas and i*"g"r about whatie *"rrt

il us look briefly at family
organising-family life to "s
rro* society. Let
a social instirution. we expect certain ways of

t take place and certain functions to be carried out

based on the values we associate with {amily,.
r"r.. trr. qestion of which
colleftion of individuals should be consider.'d ;;];ilyliiis
used as a basis for the deffnition of the term family,
is often
-,.'.. those related by
!loo,{, marriage or adoption...'. other tlpes of fa#lies, ,rr"h same-sex
il families, those who share a household based on choice and those
a-re ngt married, are regarded in some sense as aberrations
", who
from what a
family should be. The emphasis on what should.be shows us that much

li of our thinking about family is enmeshed in a set of values that we have

been socialised into as representing the norms of our society.

I Thus, social institutions are a set of beliefs and values that we (sociery)
use to shape our lives. our lives are shaped for us (these social
instinrtions existed before we were born) and we co-operate by making
conscious decisions that reinforce those cherished values. our lives in
li families, the pursuit of education, being members of a ce+ain religion,
and our observance of the iustice system, represent to gi."t extent our
" benefits by our
efforts to redise these cherished values of society. society
decisions because we choose to live our lives recognising the need for
Ir order, uniformity and consensus.
social organisations dwelop in a society to carry through or realise the

il values and beliefs held in the institutional framework of society. If our

justice system, for example, is predicated on values such as equality
and fairness, then social organisations such as the protective iervices,
the judiciary and our legd establishment, evolve in order to protect the
accused and the innocent and ensure that their rights are reCognised.
socid organisations are, thus, tangible outcomes of the cherished ideas in
the institutional framework. These social organisations help to structure
il society in accordance with deeply held beliefs and values.

Summary
il We have seen that social institutions play a major role in organising
society and, thus, in our lives. Social institutions have evolved over time
and, therefore, embody what the society cherishes in relation to family,
il education, lsligion, the justice system, the economy and health. Values
are the important component of socid institutions. The values that
tend to be dominant in society are those which promote order, stability,
il continuity and consensus. Socid organisations are concrete ways in
which we have organised and arranged our lives so that the values
we cherish are realised in society. We now tttrn to an examination of

f whose values and an oploration of alternative views to the dominant

perspectives on social institutions that have shaped society to date.

SociologicaI perspectives on sociaI institutions

|T
A sociological perspective can best be described as a 'way of seeing' or
'how one understands what is real and valued'. Through perspectives,

I sociologists are able to show us that we have different views or lenses

through which we understand society (realityl. There are dominant
vitiws and there are minority views or alternative ways of seeing and

t interpreting the world.

In this section, we will be introduced to trro of the sociological
perspectives that we can use to analyse social institutions. The
fr
s
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 5.2
Sociological perspectives and
what is real
While many of us are aware of
the vatues we hold (at teast some
of them), usuatly we do not think
about what those values indicate
about reality. Thus, we may be
hotding a certain perspective but
we are unaware of atl that it reatly
means.
The following questions are based
on the two statements given
below.
Statement 1 -'lf you go to school
and study hard then you will get
your subjects and you can get a
wett paying job. This will enable
you to enjoy a better standard of
tiving than your parents.'
Statement 2 -'Onty the children
of the rich and those who are
academicalty able leave schooI
with credentiats. Onty those who
are wetl-qualified or who have
contacts are abte to get good jobs.'
1 ldentify the social institution
(or institutions) being
described.
2 ldentify groups or individuals
who are most likely to voice
opinions as in Statement 1 and
Statement 2.
3 ldentify the statement above
with which you are inctined to
agree.
4 What are some of the vatues
impticit in the statement you
chose in question 3?
tr
oldest and most dominant, in that many people subscribe to it, is
the functionalist perspective. (You may see it being referred to as the
structural-functiondist perspective in sociolory textbooksl. The conflict
(or Marxist) perspective seeks to oppose the dominant view of reality and
show how it masks important aspects of life.
Sociological perspectives rest on certain assumptions (or philosophies)
about what is real and valued about social life. When we are socialised,
it is these assumptions that we are absorbing as truths about the world.
This is never made clear to us but over time we learn by observation what
others in the society regard as important and valued and so we become
conditioned to accept such norms ourselves. Activity 5.2 orplores these
different understandings of reality and, therefore, what we value in society.
Feedback
1 Education and links with the economy.
2 Statement 1 - parents, teachers, emptoyers, policymakers and ptanners in
education, students who are succeeding.
Statement 2 - a sma[[er group, inctuding critics of the education system
who may be disgruntted parents and/or teachers, especiatly those who
are invotved with students who are underachieving, and some students
themselves may have this view. Those who are not rich may also be a
group hotding these views. lt is not a dominant perspective on education.
3 white you may feel more inctined towards one view, chances are that you
may see truth reflected in both perspectives. Bearing in mind the purpose of
this activity, trlr to figure out why you prefer the views of one perspective over
the other. In so doing you wi[[ be trying to isolate the vatues you hotd dear.
4 Statement 1
r Order - there is consensus as to how education operates.
r Rational ways of behaving.
I Equity - everyone has a chance (meritocracy).
I A socialty approved rite of passage encompassing the interactions of
social institutions, such as education, the economy and family.
r Education seen mainly in instrumental terms for extrinsic rewards, such
as marks or grades and high sataries (sociat mobitity).
I The vatuei emphasised - order, uniformity, consensus, harmony.
StateTent 2
r conflict - some sociat groups (the rich or the very bright) are more
tikety to reap the rewards of the education system. Thi order then
operates for the good of a few, generating contradictions and conftict
in the society
t lf students accePt that education is organised rationalty for their benefit
then they woutd see their faiture as,their own fautt and not that of the
system. The emphasis on a rationat exptanation of how education can
help you advance yourself serves to foot or mistead many persons.
r Education increases the inequities in the society as a[[ groups do not
come to school possessing the same amounts of cultuiat capital
necessary to succeed. The resources of their home background
pt.y a
large part in how we[ they do at schoot. -
r The vatues emphasised - that reat tife invotves conftict,
contradiction,
oppression, domination and the condition of ,false consciousness,.
 section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on caribbean peopte r
Functionalism
This is the oldest and most dominant sociological
perspective. Ir gives
us a certain kind of.understanding
of society and how sociar institutions
work. statement r in Activity 5.2"is a functionarist
interpreration of the
social institution of education. Functionalir*
i, oi tt . ,ri-o" ,t society
can be harmonious for alr if we
- 'agJ to organise o,r, ri*, in",certain
ways. These ways involve holding tf,e dominant
values and beliefs of
the society as represented by theiarious social institutions.
If there is
consensus, then there is the likelihood of order,
rt"tirity,
and rationality in social life. "niformity,
f
Most people are functionalists although they may not
know it. As one
fl:y:-:p i" society and becomes socialised into ih" rror_, and practices
tnat are appropriate to life there, one also accepts a
certain orientation
to redity that most people there seem to hold.
Thi, .ririi".ion is only
made manifest through the values that we share
u.rtlt rrriy'rr*", u"
something that we are called upon to think about ., ;.;L
critically
andyse. For instance, most people tend to think that how
they see the
world is how it is and that to broach the idea th"t ther";are
other notions
of reality may seem too farfetched or even unnerving.

I Functionalists see life in society as an ordered existence. Everyone

roleto play and if these roles are carried through
has a
there
would be maximum productivity and the minimum "fn;i*dy;hen
of behaviourar
problems, imbdances and dysfunctions. you will recognise
this as a
nonulal ggum€nt by persons trnng to orplain social iils. ror example,
the problem of student indiscipline is more often than not attributed
to
lack of parental involvement and guidance. In other words, parents
are
not carrying out their role efftciently. The social role is i*port"rrt
concept in functionalism. "t
Functionalism has been responsible for the ideas, beliefs and values that
are at the heart of our social institutions. They remain dominant even in
times of:apid change. some of those ideas wemay find not as useful
as
prwiously but because they continue to be valued, they remain a part
of
our social institutions and are difficult to dislodge. Forexample, glnder
roles especially in the home have undergone deJp and fundamental
changes over the last 30 years. yet therJremains in the social institution
of the family a sense of value attached to the roles of woman as wife,
mother and homemaker. These values only remain in the social
institution of the famrly because we continue to privilege them.It is our
ideas and beliefs that form the social institutions. Social institutions are
intangible.
Functionalism then holds a conservarive understanding of society and
the way social institutions impact on the lives of *.*6"rr. It sees value
and importance in maintaining the status quo. change is regarded
as necessary in improving society but it must be ordered, gradual
and incremental. what is seen as crucial is the necessity ti buita ana
maintain social cohesion.

The conflict (or Marxist) perspective

This way of understanding social life and social institutions sets itself
up in opposition to functionalism in many ways. Statement 2 in
Activity 5.2 is a view of education that oomes out of a conflict
perspective - notice how it differs from the traditional view of
education as a social institution.

trl
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 5.3
Sociological perspectives and
social institutions
In this activity, we continue to
explore how the values inherent
in our social institutions can be
interpreted through the lens of
sociologicaI perspectives to show
different understandings of what is
real and important.
ldentify the sociological
perspective associated with the
views expressed below.
1 Selective hiring and firing
practices maintain the status
quo.
2 lf students are not achieving
as they should, then remedial
classes shoutd be organised for
them.
3 Poor students arejust as
tikety as rich students to earn
academic quatifications.
4 Family violence is one outcome
of the contradictions between
valuing women as homemakers
and the expansion of
opportunities on the labour
market.
5 'Retigion is the opiate of the
people.'
6 outside the home and more opportunities are opening for
A famity in which each parent
plays their role meaningfutty
leads to the minimum of
probtems in the famity and
education.
tr
conflict theorists feel that functionalist explanations about society
mask the views and experiences of the underclass or those who are not
privileged in the society and those whose voices are not usually heard.
They emphasise conflict and tension between socid groups attempting
to reap the rewards of the society in terms of wealth, status and prestige.
This conflict and tension stem mainly from the contradictions that ariie
in social life because of how socid instinrtions seem to value some social
groups over ot-hers. In facg they see 6lite groups actually obstructing the
progress of others. Any socid order that exists, they say, occurs because
of social control - one or more groups oppressing others.
This perspective takes the view that the values, ideals and beliefs that
make up our social institutions are mainly of use to the dominant groups
in the society. Yet because of the way these values are universalty h-ld in
the society, wen those who are disadvantaged by such values hold them
dear. conflict theorists refer to this as having false consciousness.
You may be better able to appreciate this concept if we go back to
Activity 5.2. If we hold the ideas in Statement I (a functionalist
perspective), chances are we feel that education is good for all. statement 2
(a conflict perspective) on the other hand'seeks to show that all is not
well within the social institution of education. It is plainly evident that
only very few groups are successful in obtaining educational credentials
and indeed there is a high failure rate. If you are among those at ris\
those failing, and you continue to hold ideas and values as represented
in statement 1, then
lou are srrlty of false consciousness. you are being
duped into thinking that it is largely your fault that you are underachi#"g.
In the view of the conflict theorisq the siruation works out happily for
the dominant groups who are reaping the rewards of the system without
any opposition or disruption of the status quo. Howwer, this state of
sets up contradictions about what iJexpected and what actually
{"itr
happens, Ieading to conflict and tensions in education. For example, ii
most people look to education to earn them social mobility, trren ttre
maiority of school graduates and their parents are not realising their
expectations. Inequities and oppression result, with low-income groups
on thewhole leaving school with minimal qualifications and, the-refoie,
instead of social mobility what occurs for them is social reproduction.
The conflict (or Marxistf perspective then opposes a view of society as
one organised thqgugh consensus for the good of all. They ,."
glving a truer picture of reality than consensus in all social institutions.
"orrili"t "s
Feedback
1 conftict theorists say that famity background and contacts can ensure
that
Persons are hired who do not necessarity have good educationatquatifications.
2 Functionatists view underachievement as a personat problem
and do not
necessarily see that issues of schooling or poverty may atso
be invotved.
3 Functionalists see reality as uniform for everyone.
4 conftict theorists point to contradictions in the institution of the famity
that are heightened by changes in the economy more women now
- work
them but in the
institution of the famity they stitt ptay targety traditioiat rotes.
5 A famous guote attributed to Max, the founder of
Marxism. Retigion creates
an illusory fantasy - it is an exampte of 'fatse consciousnesses,.
Economic
realities prevent the poor from finding true happiness
in this tife so retigion tetts
them that this is okay, and they witlrind that'true r,"ppin"r,
ii
the next tife.
r 6
section 5 rmpact

Functionalist perspectives stress uniformity and consensus about roles

of societal institutions on caribbean peopte I
and
il relationships leading to harmony in sociat tife.

Summary
T^,o sociological perspectives have been described in this section. They
demonstrate that ideas of reality can be contested based on different
notions of what is real. Functionalist sociology regards reality as the
same for everyone based on @nsensus - that the ideas and values people
have are shared. These ideas and values are really about how we want
our society organised and they comprise our social institutions. con{lict
theorists on the other hand underscore the inherent changefulness in
society brought about by conflict, contradiction and inequities, thus
opposing many of the cherished values of the social institutions. one way
of understanding commondity and diversity in caribbean society and
culture is to see groups as having different views about what is real or
what is of value.
.
In the following sections, we will examine several social institutions
and o<plore their impact on our lives through thd interpretations of the
functionalist and conflict perspectives.

The sociaI institution of the family Activity 5.4

The institutional framework of
one way you can really understand the social institution of the family in
the famity
the Caribbean is to examine your own beliefs and values about ,family,.
chances are that your own values and beliefs are a mirror image of those Families are often taken for
held in the institutional framework of society - that is, those held by the granted. This is because they
maiority. The activities in this section are designed to help you examine are thought of in close and
these beliefs and values. personaI terms and not as a social
institution. This activity hetps
Feedback you to broaden your perspectives
where the institution of the family
1 You probabty have thought about values that are universatty associated is concerned.
with famities, such as love, belongingness, sharing, support, encouragement,
Answer each of the foltowing
caring for the young or old, chitd rearing and providing shelter. lt woutd be
questions betow.
interesting if you had responded with some negative statements such as
viotence, abuse or exploitation. The vatues that we a[[ attribute to family 1 When you think of 'family'
and that represent the social institution of the famity in large part tend to what are the kinds of values
be the positive ones mentioned. That famities are hardly cast in this model
that come to mind?
and that there are more exceptions than exemplars of this modet, do not 2 When you think of the range
seem to have altered our values concerning famity. The sociaI institution of of famity types that exist, is
the family contains a contradictory situation where there are certain ideas there one type that best fulfits
of famities that are hetd to be ideatfor allfamities and yet most families the values you identified in
question 1 above? Cive reasons
operate with vatues far from this idea[. The positive ideas are dominant (but
foryou answer.
note that the others exist as well in the institutionatframework).
2 The range of famity types you may have thought about coutd be the singte
3 What criticisms can you offer
for the fotlowing definition of
parent, nuctear, extended, common law and sibting families, as we[[ as the
the term 'famity':
visiting retationship and even polygamous families.
A famity is a residential
Ethnocentric views (those of earty sociotogists mainly from North America
unit of adutts and children
and Europe) tended to privilege the nuctear famity as a universat famity who are retated by blood,
' form because this famity type was dominant in their world. Today the value
marriage or adoption and who
attributed to nuctear families is stilt present even among Caribbean people share some bond of love and
who have had experience of coming from, or knowing persons living in, belongingness.'
many other diverse famity types.
I Caribbean Studies

3 Essentiatly what the question asks is whether famity type, structure or

composition has any bearing on the kinds of persons produced by that
famity. The answer is no - good and bad persons seem to have emerged
from a[[ manner of circumstances. However, there is stitt a strong body of
opinion around that values unions or families based on marriage and the
presence of two parents.
lf the nuctear famity is hetd as vatued yet many peopte are involved in
diverse unions and retationships from which famities have evolved, clearly
we have a situation where we are seeing that the most dominant values in
the institution of the famity are the values of a certain group - the etites
(among whom nuctear famities may be the norm). othir persons, mainty
lower-income persons, may or may not espouse these values and tend to
have very different famity retationships, which are not strongty represented
in the social institution of the famity. so, we see that the domlnant ideas
and vatues of famity in a society may onty be the ideas and values of the
rich and powerfut. The lives of the majority and the famities they create
may be far from what has the officiatstamp of approvat. yet it is useful
to remember that atl ideas, betiefs and values, whether dominant or not,
represent the social institution of the famity.
More and more we reatise that a famity is what you say it is. Definitions
that attempt to force a fit of the diversity and dynamiim of famities into
certain categories and attribut"t .r. ,nrl"tisticlfor exampte:
r 'residentiat', rules out the visiting relationship
I there may be families and househotds where chitdren are not present
-
showing that famities go through cycles and change
r btood, marriage or adoption excludes common law unions where
choice is the main criterion
r tribal groups, as in Africa
I there are families where the sharing of such bonds may be non-existent.

Agtivity 5.4 helped us to examine the institution of the family in ways

other than those to which we are accustomed. The emphasis was on
9_ypioi"g flmily as a social institution rather than asbur own family.
we learned thatrre have ideas and values about family that may not be
the same as in our own families.
T.etus think of ways by which we as individuals have felt the impact of
the social institution of family.
Firstly, it is apparent thar growing up in society and being socialised
into its norms and values is a comprex procesi that occ'is both on the
surface and within our own personalities. Socialisatio" g*, beyond
the
tasks normally attributed to- it (Iearning a language, g""E"i
behaviour, cusroms, ways of interacting) ana extendJto dweioping"ppropriate
in us
an orientation to certain ways that we deem good to organise
social life.
However, it is not a straight case of us as induiduais thinking
that we
have a personal preference. It is the activity of socialisa,ion a-".p
within
our consciousness. As socialised beings we are opected to
espouse the
values that are dominant in society,slnstitutions such
as the family.
These beliefs and values come to the fore in choices
that we make and
the biases we sdribit. we dwelop stereoty?es based
on these ideas and
values. Thus, in discussions about bringing up children
anJ family life in
general, we are able to obsenre how others view
the different
ilil Section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on Caribbean peopte I

t family forms and how they exhibit their biases in

judgements' These judgements are
terms of their varue
not personal and individualistic
(though-they may seem.to bef but tap into

t particular society and culture.

You may hear persons arguing about the
the dominant and approved
values about family in the institutional frame\^rork
of family in a

merits and demerits of certain

family forms, for example, that the nuclear qpe is better for bringing

il up children than the visiting relationship, whilch is nor stable and often
leads to dysfunctional families. you may irear them cite psychological
and sociologicd research to support their views. you may notice that

il they bring religion into the argument to show that only a marriage under
religious rites is acceptable for unions and bringing up children. such
biases are held deeply and reflect the societal ndrrJr tlhat the dominanr Activity 5.5

il groups in the sociery hold dear.

If the impact of these values was straightforward and we all espoused
them, then social life would not be soiomplex. The fact is that even
Theories, biases and stereotypes
about family types in the
Caribbean

t{ lmong persons living within diverse family forms, there is an unconscious

bias (sometimes conscious) towards some ideal family t1pe. what is even
A major tension in the institutional
framework of famity reflects
the biases directed at African
more complicated is that the choices those same people make about their
own lives, often do not reflect the biases and valuis they hold. famity forms in the Caribbean in

il Feedback
comparison to the nuctear family,
a norm in Western industrialised
countries. This activity helps you

il
African retention - the close bonds between mother and children, in to work through the different ideas
situations where they often occupied a different househotd to the man, is retated to this tension.
evidence of a matrifocatfamity. Researchers thought that these patterns
Read the following passage and

il were reminiscent of those in west Africa where there were potygamous

retationships, with the husband occupying a separate household from each
of the mothers and their children. The prevatence of matrifocat famity
then answer the question betow.
Ethnocentric researchers
'

have been intrigued by the

forms in the caribbean seemed to suggest to researchers that this reftected
widespread incidence of African
t{ African cultural retentions.
famity forms in the Caribbean.

t
slavery - other researchers were of the opinion that the totaI institution of These are thought to be mainly
plantation slavery woutd have obtiterated any African cultural forms. They characteristic of the lower
attributed matrifocaI famity forms to the detiberate separation of families socioeconomic brackets. They are
on the ptantations and to the fragile and unstable nature of famity tife mainty matrifocaI and comprise
the visiting relationship, singte-
there, as members could be sotd at any time and families destroyed. The
parent families and common-
male then developed a marginal and peripheral relationship with women
law relationships. They have
* and children. put forward various theories to
Poverty - stil[ other researchers attribute the origins of the matrifocal account for the origin of such
|f famity to the stark realities of living in poverty. Women as welt as men
had to work. However, a man coutd not make enough money to support
famities in the Caribbean.'
Use the headings given below in

t
the woman and her children and so she in turn was not tikety to invest in a each case to reflect the theory
long-term relationship that coutd not support the famity. that you think researchers
developed to explain the origins of
Your own theorising? White it is interesting to posit theories, there is little
family forms in the Caribbean.
evidence to support the above theories. ln fact, atlthe above theories

t may be partty true. These ways of organising famity [ife are now becoming
manifest in many countries - inctuding Western, industrialised nations.
How woutd ethnocentric researchers describe what is happening in their
1
2
3
African retention
Slavery

* own countries? Coutd any of the reasons they put forward throw some Poverty
light on the early emergence of these famity forms in the Caribbean? 4 Your own theory?

4 Diversity in the Caribbean family is seen in the contrast between

African and East Indian family life. Africans tend to have matrifocal
{and often matriarchal) families whereas East Indians form patriarchal
$
d
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 5.6
Functionalist perspective and the
famity
'Order'for society forms part of
our value system (it is todged in
the reatm of institutionaI ideas
of famity). Although it provides a
basis for commonality, there are
diverse interpretations.
Complete each of the sentences
below.
1 The reproductive function
of the famity means that
While many individuats obey
the notion of order and the
reproduction function of the
famity, others contribute to
'disorder'by
The reproductive function of
the famity has ethnocentric
overtones in that
Feedback
... sexual activity and the rearing
of chitdren take ptace within the
confines of an established famity
unit making it easy to take care
of the economic and social needs
of women and children.
... having chitdren out of wedlock
or having children and not being
responsibte for their upkeep or
emotional health or in the case of
men specificalty, having children
and not even knowing about it.
... it assumes that families are
nuclear and that marriage is
the basis for the formation of
a famity. (Such a perspective
cannot accommodate families
existing without a marriage
having taken ptace or that famity
life could be conducted even
though parents live in separate
homes or the many diverse forms
that characterise Caribbean
famity tife.)
tr
families. While matrifocal refers to the mother or grandmother having
much responsibility and acknowledged as the one who keeps the family
together, she may not wield the power. That could be the man, even
though he may be peripheral to family activities. Where the woman
wields the power as head of the family, a matriarchal family occurs.
Many African women run households in the Caribbean and the extended
family is more often than not the norm.
In East Indian families, the power and authority to make decisions
tends to be invested in men. Families are also of the extended type
with different relations and generations living in the same house or
compound. This is definitely a cultural retention as indentured labourers
did not experience strong attempts to muzzle their cultural traditions
and practices as did the African slaves. Growing up in an East Indian
household, females especially are socialised from early on to respect and
obey elders, to conform to traditional practices and to allow important
decisions to be made for them, although this is rapidly changing. The
impact of the institution of family, therefore, varies considerably on the
lives of Caribbean people according to the values that are held about
gender roles, power and authority.
The family from a functionalist perspective
The impact of the instirution of the family on the lives of Caribbean
people can be understood from a functionalist perspective. Functionalism
says (and society agrees) that the family should carry out several
functions listed below for order, stability and harmony in society:
m The reproductive function
r The socialisation function
r The economic function
I Providing love and a sense of belongingness
These functionalist ideas and values provide a basis for the corrmon
interpretations of the institution of family across the region. The family
is seen as the basic unit of society. If these functions are carried out in
an optimal manner and if everyone plays a role, tJren families would be
happy and society would not be threatened by any breakdown of social
o1{er. Activity 5.6 continues t}re theme of orploring how the instinrtion
of family impactg on individuals through a functionalist lens.
The family from a conflict perspective
Family is also associated with exploitation, oppression and domination.
Nuclear families are seen as products of capiialism where labour has
to move to where employment is located, leaving behind the extended
family. without the support and solace of this nJtrrork, the employer
could e:rploit workers effectively. The oppressed worker in turn oppresses
his wife and children.
The nucleal family form also ffts capitalist plans in that there is a sexual
division of labour where the man works oulside and the woman st.ys
home and carries out rhe roles of wife, mother and homemaLr. conflict
theorists su€gest that the functionalisi understanding of families
ftts rref
nicely into how capitalists view workers, lives.
The agenda of conflict sociologists is to make plain the reality
of families
(which they view as conflict, contradictior,
oppt"*iorrf and, thus,
to remove the lenses of false consciousness, "rrd
whici-may be encouraged by
T section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on caribbean people
i
r
a functionalist notion of orde4 stability and consensus.
Ii
say
with family, has contributed to f"*ily oppression, abuse
These sociologists
that the assigning of roles t}rougtrthe institutional values
associated
and viorence. This

II
is because what results is an unequalpower distribution
gender relations and e'en-pro9y*. generationJ
that jeopardises
;"fil.EhildrJn may be
required to conform to roles of being obedient and r"f."*i.rrt
and may be
rendered powerless because their volces are silenced.
The conllict perspective gives an alternative view from that of the
ft Activity 5.7

I
dominant view of the social institution of family. goth a.r"ribe the
impact of the family on caribbean people. Functionalism contributes The institutional environment of
some dominant ideas that help to shapi commonalities, whereas education
our history and conflict theory show us how diverse we are in
The institutionaI environment of
interpreting'family'. education refers to the values that

|i Summary
commonalities in the social institution of family across the region occur
comprise the sociat institution
of education and the practices
that stem from such a vatue
position. lt may not be the usuat
at the level of the values we hold about what families should bJ about.
fi These values are shaped by the dominant notions of reahty in the society.
These notions of reality tend to focus on ordeq, consensus and harmony'
way you think of education but
it hetps in relating what you see
around you (tangibte reality) to
in social life. Functionalism is the dominant view of reality that most the sociaI institution of education
people hold. Howeveq, there is much diversity in family foims in the (intangible, comprising vatues).
caribbean and the values espoused are not necessarily evident in practice.
Read through the list of vatues
The conflict perspective presents a more accurate picture of the associated with education and
institution of family, particularly the nuclear family, as largely a product indicate the ones you believe are
of capitalist organisation of the economy and society. As such it imbodies dominant vatue positions of the
much of the character of capitalist relations with workers - conflict, institution of education.
contradiction and oppression. ! Schooling is an asset to
The nuclear family, which is often promoted as a universal family form, anybody.
reflects an ethnocentric value that we have inherited. conflict theorists u The more schootingyou have,
say that the value attributed to the nuclear family at present in our social the better foryou.
institution of the family results mainly because it is the value of the rich
and powerful in the society. The extent to which others hold this value is
ta High educationaI quatifications
a reflection of the condition known as false consciousness.
make it difficutt for you to
mingle as before with friends

il The socia[ institution of education

Education as a social institution contains our deep beliefs and values
about what the young should know and how learning should take place.
tr
and famity.
Chitdren don't seem to learn
much in school - most of them
fail.
National consensus, enshrined in law, sees schooling as clearly tfre main
route to becoming educated. Only very recently are home schooling
f, Teachers these days are not as
advocates making their voices heard, but for the most part society favours dedicated as before.
schools to educate the young. I lf a chitd is 'bright', they should
go on to secondary school and
In this section, we will analyse the social institution of education from
then university.
functionalist and conflict perspectives. Much of the discussion will relate
to schools as the maior organisations through which the institutional * lf a child is not 'bright, they
values associated with education become concretised. Howwe4, let us could stil[ learn a usefuI trade.
first try to identify some of the values we hold about education in general. l* You shouldn't think of
Feedback marrying anyone who is not
educated.
Most of the statements tend to be representative of dominant ideas and c{ Examinations are necessary to
values we have about the institution of education. Some of the statements separate the sheep from the
that we may find famitiar betong to the institutional environment of education goats.
but they are not dominant, for exampte:

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'High educationalqualifications make it difficutt foryou to mingte as before

with friends and famity.'
white this sentiment is sometimes heard and felt, it is not considered a
sufficient deterrent to discourage anyone from seeking higher educational
qualifications. Thus, the dominant vatue is to seek the quatification. The
sentiment expressed is atso part of the institutionaI ideas and vatues we hotd
about education but it is not dominant.
You may also notice contradictory value positions that are both dominant in
the institutional environment of education. For exampte,
'The more schooting you have the better for you.'
'Children don't seem to learn much in school - most of them fait.,
The vatue position is that schooling is good and the more you have the better.
At the same time it is perceived to be not as good as it used to be, there seems
to be something wrong with it, but stitt it is best to have more of it rather
than less.
some of the statements impty a dominant understanding of education and
what it is about. For example:
'lf a child is 'bright', they shoutd go on to secondary schoot and then
university.'
'lf a chitd is not 'bright, they coutd stitt learn a usefuttrade.,
'You shoutdn't think of marrying anyone who is not educated.,

'Examinations are necessary to separate the sheep from the goats.,

Many persons link schooling with 'being bright'- atmost as if persons who
are less academicatly abte shoutd leave school as soon as possibte. Acquiring
educational credentiats is the most basic and urgent goatior committing
onesetf to schooling. There is a hierarchy of occupations associated wittigoing
to school and you have to settle for something considered to be less triaei
1a
if you are not academicatly'abte'. Someone with educationat quatifications
has
a certain amount of status and prestige and a potentiat for additionat
success,
so the educated person becomes more etigibte as a tife partner.

-In
Aclivity 5.7 we saw that the social institution of education contains
both dominant afld other ideas about education. some of these contradict
each other and yet each could be dominant showing th"r*"
can hold
contradictory ideas about something. The activity a=lso showed
that a
dominant value placed on education was that if y"" *"i. ,"ccessful
at it
$a-t m9an1 that you were 'bright' and therefore r"rr""ri"g st orrtd really
be fo.r'bright'people. Howwe! schooling is arso i-pori""rrt ror
social
mobilicy and everybody wants a chance.
It is instructive for us to reflect on the origins of our dominant values
and ideas about educarion. To explore thiJissue further,
*itt rr..
ourunderstandings of the sociological perspectives, functionalism
"r. and
conflict theory.

Functionalist perspectives on education

To a large extent, functionalism regards education
as a socialisation
p.rocess fol
loyns members of sociEtv. schoohnj isih; ;;i;*echanism
through which this socialisation process takes;l;".;;;r,
a$emp,' to capture ways in which education socialises u.,
the young for the

tr
benefit of sociecy.
 Section 5 lmpact of societaI institutions on Caribbean people I

Activity 5.8
Education as sociatisation
society regards the famity as the primary agent of sociatisation. Schoots
are agents of secondary sociatisation, which never stops. Even as adutts
we continue to learn appropriate behaviours.This activity demonstrates
how education as schooling sociatises us into acceptance of society's other
institutions.
Examine this diagram and answer the questions that fotlow

EDUCATION AS SECON DARY SOCIALISATION

Schools socialise Schools sociatise Denominational schools

students into the need students into patriotism provide an arena for
to get a 'good' job. through rituals and proselytising.
explicit curriculum goals.
Schools inculcate High status and prestige
skitls, knowledge and Schoots sociatise chitdren are conferred on
dispositions that are to respect the nation's denominationaI schoots
prerequisites for the potiticat institutions; to by the vatues in the
labour market, accept the status quo. institution of education,

Schools sort, stream, Schoots socialise children DenominationaI schoots

and atlocate students into the rote they will socialise students to
through exams and play as adult voters. accept religion and its
differentiated curricula values as important to
to different positions education.
on the labour market.

What do you understand by the statement that schools inculcate

'... dispositions that are prerequisites for the labour market'?
What is imptied in the ctaim that'schools sort, stream and allocate
students'?
Suggest why there is such a strong and valued tink between the institution
of education and the institution of religion.
From what you know of functionatism so far, exptain why education is
seen mainly in terms of sociatisation?
Using a functionalist perspective, suggest ONE reason why schooting is
seen to be very important in a multi-ethnic, mutti-religious society.

Feedback

Schoots incutcate dispositions of obedience, regutarity, punctuality and a

work ethic that are vatued by employers.
Selection devices such as examinations sort students into different types
of schoots where they are exposed to different curricutar offerings, and
routed to different areas of the labour market, leading eventuatly to either
sociaI mobitity or social reProduction.

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I Caribbean Studies

The diagram shows that education through schooting supports the

institution of retigion. In the institutionaI environment of education in
the caribbean, there are strong values which give status and prestige to
denominationaI education. why is this link so strong? Historicatty the
churches were very invotved in providing schools for the former enslaved
after emancipation. Even that cannot quite exptain why this vatue stitt
remains as strong as ever. Probably it has to do with the view of education
as 'moulding'young peopte (sociatisation). Retigion in education seems to
deepen efforts at what vatues, morats and disciptine are inculcated through
education. Thus, education as a social institution values the tink with
religion as a social institution in order to effectivety achieve its goats.
Education socialises young members of the society into the norms and
vatues of the sociaI institutions of their [and. Functionatists maintain this
view of education because they see society as needing mechanisms for
integration and cohesion so that order, stabitity and harmony witt prevait.
A pturalsociety or one exhibiting much culturat diversity is thought to be
fragile and needs mechanisms to incutcate universatistic vatues within the
disparate sociatgroups. The latter witt be wooed to overcome atlegiance to
their more particularistic values through interaction with different groups
through schooting.

Conflict perspectives on education

conflict theorists (or Marxists) focus their ocplanations of the social
institution of education on its relationship with the social institution
9f $e economy. They trace the beginningi of mass education systems
in Europe and North America in the nineteenth cenrury to the parallel
dwelopmentof capitalist economies. capitalism needed a supply of
educated workers and so the education syste* developed a,handmaide'-
role to provide for the needs of the economy.
conflict theorists view the education system as organised to reflect
functionalist ideologies. Howwer, the educatiorr rylt"* may discriminate
against the poor and those who need extra help tonegotiatqthe
curriculum. These theorists argue that if one examinls achievemen t d,ata
it is clear that the majority of children fail at secondary education and
only the children,of the wealthy and academically able sruJ."r, achieve
success. Schooling has several mechanisms that .rrr.rr.
that the poor
cannot compete effectively. It thus perpetuates inequities in the -society.
Examinations are an obstacle students have to repeatedly hurdle
in order
gain credentials, obrain a good job and enioy an enabling
1o- lifestyle.
They function as a selection mechanism to sort children to
different
types of schools and in this process the rich and the
able get
the most prestigious placemLnts. yet there may be """a"*i""uy
for the examination. In the strucrures and process";;i'r;h;ling,
"""q.r"rpreparation
attention is paid to those who are at risk. only very few access
little
social
mobility through education and conflict theorists inaici th. Ldu""tio'
system as contributing to a cycle of social reproduction.

Summary
The impact of the social institution of education on caribbean
peopre
can be viewedin terms of the perspectives of functionarism and
Marxism. Both give alternative inJights on how education
i*p""r, o'
 section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on caribbean peopte I

us. Marxist or conflict perspectives are critical of functionalist values in

how education is organised. Functionalist values on the other hand are
dominant in the social institution of education.
From a functionalist perspective, education,functions, to work smoothly
with the other institutions of the society, such as religion and the family.
Education provides skills, knowledge and dispositionJ helpfur in the
institution of the economy. It socidises the young to respect the culture,
customs and ways of life of the society. In schools, education is fair and
open to all and rewards are based on merit.
conflict theorists oppose dl this. They say that the dominant ideas about
education are those of the 6lites whose children continue to be successful.
No innovations or reforms will be implemented in such a way that
will enable the poor to succeed and, therefore, escape the fate of being
exploited in the labour market.

F The social institution of religion

A social institution is a sociological concept that tries td explain how
lr society works. Our study of the family and education showed us that
social institutions are non-tangible entities that are the repository of
all the ideas and beliefs a society has about how it wants social life
tt organised. Some of these ideas are values of the dominant classes of
society translated into concrete forms as social organisations. Less
dominant beliefs and values are practised by some social groups and
limited in their impact.
Religion, berng another of the socid institutions of society, is that realm
in society where our beliefs about a supernatural power and an afterlife
and how these impact on our life now, exist. Specific religions as well as
il churches, mosques, temples and halls of worship are tangible outcomes
or forms of social organisation that reflect the beliefs and values of
religion.
h In this section, we will analyse how the social institution of religion
impacts on our lives. We will examine the views of functionalist and
conflict (Marxistl sociologists about religion in society. Then we will look
h at the diversity of forms of worship in the Caribbean and try to relate
them to the functionalist and conflict perspectives.

r Functionalist perspectives on retigion

h Because social
social
order is a cardinal value of functionalist views of society,
institutions are orplained in terms of how they can contribute to
integtation and harmony in society. You may ffnd it strange that religion,
which is concerned with supernatr.rral powers and mysticism, should be
thought of in this way, but functionalists see a fundamental link between
religion and the maintenance of social stability.
Commitment to certain beliefs, rinrds and forms of worship are seen as
mechanisms that increase the levels of social solidarity among a people.
Religions tend to be conservative in nature, preaching obedience and
perseverance through suffering, as well as emphasising an ethic of care
for one's fellowman, and virtues such as truth, discipline and sobriety.
Functiondists, therefore, see religion as playing a major role in social
cohesion. Religions provide a basis for socid order because they are based
on consensual values.

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I Caribbean Studies

SUPERSTRUGTURE Conflict (Marxist) perspectives on religion

Marxists in particular regard religion as serving the needs of those groups
dominant in the economy. The diagram below sketches the relatioiships
that Marxisrs see between social institutions in general {called the
superstructure), and the social institution of the economy (called the
THE ECONOMY substructuref .
(oRTHE ECONOMTC BASE
oF THE SOCTEW)

The Marxist concept of social institutions

The diagram suggesrs that Mancists do not see a neutral relationship
among social institutions as functionalists do. They believe that the
social relationships in the institution of the economy influence and are
reflected in the other social institutions.
For example, t}e nuclear family is thought to have come into existence
as a direct response to the demands of capitalism. work was now
concentrated in factories so labour had to move to ttre cities. prwiously
ygtk-*"1_*ainly agraian and performed by the extended family and
friends. The economic system influenced a change in the form of the
family where traditional family norms were ett.o-.rraged. The woman
stayed at home to take care of the children and the lio-e for the comfort
and well-being of the male breadwinner. previously, men, women and
children worked outside in the fields.
Activity 5.9 continues the theme of andysing how Mancists interpret the
impact of socid institutions on our lives.

Activity 5.9
Religion, the superstructure and the substructure
A:-vg, work through this activity, keep in mind functionatist ideas about how
religion.impacts on society. Both sets of interpretations (functionatist and
Maxist) are found in the institution of religion but one r"t i, rnor" aominant.
ldentify the answer that best answers the question.
1 The superstructure of society refers to:
a all the social institutions of society
b ideas and vatues in society that ari those of the 6lites
c atl social institutions except that of the economy
d ideas and values found in ihe sociat institutions
-of
a society.
2 which of the foltowing statemenr best exptains the retationship
between
the superstructure and the substructure?
a The superstructure represents the vatues that society hotds generatty
and the substructure represents the vatues hetd aboit tne
l.onomy.
-
b The substructure hotds ihe vatues of the workers and th;-
superstructure those of the 6[ites.
c The superstructure hords values that promote those of the economy
or substructure.
d The substructure _a-nd superstructure are in conflict, hotding
fundamentatly different views of society.
3 Which statement below best describes interactions in
the social system?
a Att sociat institutions interact.
b
c
d
Each social institution interactsseparately with
the economy.
Att the institutions.comprising.the superstructure
socia[ institutions interict coitectivety with the
interact separatety.
-' r
I

";;r]. I

tr F-
r
I
 Section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on Caribbean peopte I
The sociaI institution of retigion is described by Maxists as:
i. made by humans to ease their suffering
easing the pain produced by capitatism-
iiiii
hetping to change the subsiruciure.
a ionty
b iionty
c iand iionty
d i, ii and iii

Marxists say that religion helps to reproduce existing retations of

production by:
a keeping the working class falsely conscious
b promoting vatues of consensus
c integrating the society
d catering to the needs of the working ctass.

Feedback

b. However, some of the other responses are partiatty correct. But b says
concisely that the superstructure is the reatm of ideas that are dominant
because they are hetd by the 6tites. These ideas and values are indeed
found in atlthe social institutions but they are so deepty interretated with
those in the economy that we cannot realty say that they are separate

I from the economy (though the diagram may seem to indicate this).
c. Al[ the other responses are definitety wrong. The superstructure, white
comprising atlthe other institutions (that is the vatues and betiefs of the
€tites in retigion, education and famity) except the economy, is dominated
by the ideas and values in each institution that upholds and promotes
the ideas and vatues of the economy or substructure). The superstructure,
therefore, is an outgrowth of the substructure.
a. Att the other responses are definitety wrong. The social system is a
framework constructed out of interactions. White there may be dominant
interactions, there is no possibility of one institution interacting separatety
with another - atthough, again, the diagram may suggest that that happens.
c. iii is definitety wrong. Maxists say that the economic system, capitatism,
is so exptoitative and dehumanising that it alienates workers. Retigion
becomes the opium or drug that eases suffering and deadens pain. Retigion
perpetuates an understanding that suffering, deprivation and poverty are
divinety ordered and that the reward for being meek and righteous in this
life is to be rewarded in the next wortd.
a. All the other possibte responses are functionatist ideotogies. Maxists say that
in capitalist countries religion is one of the institutions that keep workers in a
state of false consciousness. Reatity is distorted by promotingthe notion that
the social order and suffering are manifestations of 'the witt of God', so values of
humitity, obedience, happiness and contentment become the norm. These work
in the interests of the emptoyers and €tites and keep workers' interests unfutfitted.

Religion acts as a conservative force in the society by making legitimate

the values that the capitalist machinery needs to continue to accumulate
profits. Mancists such as Althusser regard the superstructure as part of
the ideological state apparatus. This means that the values and ideas
of the €lites that are dominant in the superstructure are deliberately
reinforced and promoted by how the social institutions operate.

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I Caribbean Studies

In other words, while in totalitarian societies the police and the iustice
system may work together to force compliance, in capitalist societies the
rr
values of the €lites made hegemonic in religion, education and politics I

become the values of workers without much forced coercion. Workers,

conversion to valuing the positions of the 6lites comes about through
,
l
socialisation. The family, education, religion, politics and the mass media I

are the main agencies of socialisation into accepting the norms and
values of the wealthy as legitimate for all.

The institution of religion in Caribbean society

t
and culture F
From the foregoing you have realised that functionalists regard religion
as absolutely necessary to the preservation of social order. you would also
have appreciated that what Mancists have done is to give an analysis of
how that social order is maintained. Marxists suggest maintaining social
t
Activity 5J0
Religion in Caribbean life
order has to do with the suppression and oppression of a group, and that
if the oppressed were to see their position without the blinkers of false
consciousness, they must necessarily unite to overthrow the syscem.
I
Traditionally, we have had a high
regard for religion in the region.
Religion is one of the components of the ideologicd state apparatus that
seeks to support and maintain the status quo.
Let us now think of religion in our own society and indeed in our own
I
Even persons who do not go to
lives. In the caribbean, there is a diverse array of. religions and sects
church ctaim membership in some
retigious organisation and a belief
in God. How do we interpret our
which reflect our history of conquest and immigration resulting in
enculturation, acculturation and slmcretism. Activity 5.10 examines how l'
reality against a background of the
sociologicaI perspectives?
Answer alt the questions.
the institution of religion impacts on our lives.
Feedback I
1
1 Religions that are dominant in our social institution of retigion tend to
A tist is provided below of
be the ones that have been tegitimised by European cotonial rute. They
some of the religions observed
are fotlowed by the retigions of the majority. Europeans or 6[ites, aftei
in the Caribbean. Indicate the
emancipation, did not try to curb the invotvement of the poputation in
ones you believe are dominant
in the sociat institution of
religion.
becoming devotees of mainstream christian or even the nonconformist
churches of Methodists, Baptists and Moravians. They fett that it woutd be
hetpfut for sociat stabitity if former master and former enstaved were now
!
I
I
I
I
Shango
Roman Catholicism
Angticanism
Hinduism
2
to worship in the same way.
The situation ie very comptex. In Trinidad and Tobago white Hinduism
and
I
lstam are observed by a large percentage of the pofutation, it may not
I lslam be true to say that they represent vatues dominant in the institutionat
I Pentecostal
environment of retigion. This is because Roman cathoticism and other
I Revivat
christian religions (inctuding presbyterianism, which has a fottowing that
I Rastafari
is almost whotty East Indian) dominate pubtic tife and
I Shouter Baptists national sym-bols.
I Orisha For exampte, the highest award of the country is the Trinity
cross. The
I Methodists struggle for recognition is the struggte between vatues in t-he social
I Presbyterianism institution of religion.
2 Indicate those religions listed comptexity is deepened when we think of those retigions that adopted
above that may be described as some christian elements but created a hybrid with ifrican
'syncretic'. traditions and
New Wortd adaptations. These were not as welcomed by the
European
3 Suggest ONE reason why dtites and their creore successors. They represented a
fundamentat
Caribbean peopte may join difference in how worship was to occur with much singing
anJ dancing
churches that do not reflect accompanied by drums and an abandon related to dirJctiommunion
dominant values in the with
God as in 'ketchin'the spirit'. The Myar and Revival
institution of retigion. churches of Jamaica
are syncretic and Rastafari is thought to have grown
out of such roots. The
shango of Grenada and Trinidad also have syncretic
forms of African and
 section 5 rmpact of societal institutions on caribbean peopte I
christian etements and so does the shouter Baptist faith. The
orisha on the
other hand is more whotty African than the others.
Possibly, these retigions were frowned upon because they
represented
something that was not 'owned' by Europeans, but a .r.-.tion of the
former
enslaved. ln the vatues that gave rise to such religions was a quest for
a
certain independence of spirit, fuetting a rediscovery of the spirituatity of
one's ancestors. Many of these retigions were dectared ittegai and harie onty
recently been legitimised. Likety followers were often those marginatised
by society, the poor and the powerless, desirous of shaping an aliernative
value system to that of Europeans.
3 There are many other syncretic retigions in the caribbean and they not
onty represent the mixing of African roots with Christianity but Amerindian
traditions as wet[. Retigion may be one of the sociat institutions where
we are abte to observe social change - that is a graduat re-orientation of
vatues that are more inctusive of other traditions than just mainstream
christianity. observe that for some time now traditionat christian
churches have taken to developing'fotk masses' and drulnming. Expressive
singing and clapping are becoming a normat part of *orri'rip. Note also,
that persons of alt social rank and ethnic origin have now joined the
Rastafari faith.

while we can immediately understand the functionalist perspective on

society (largely because it represents a familiar worldview to usf, the
Marxist perspective may have occasioned some unease. Many of you
though would have understood it as highlighting the inherent conllicts
in society that functionalism glosses over. Thken seriously, Marxism
challenges you to reflect on your own orientation to religion and decide
to what extent is it about preserving the status quo or about personal
salvation and empowerment.
The many forms of syncretic religions in the Caribbean attest to the
desire of Caribbean people to not only fashion beliefs and worship so that
they could find solace and comfort, but in so doing to resist traditional
institutional values. Thus, the macro-perspectives represented by
functionalism and Marxism do not hold up in their entirety in explaining
the relationships in the social institution of religion in the Caribbean.

Summary
In this section, we have seen that religion could impact on our lives as
a conservative force associated largely with positive values. Moreoveq,
we have seen that the Christian ssligion is legitimised by the values in
the social institution of religion more than any other form of worship.
Christian worship then in the Caribbean has historicdly been associated
with preserving social life according to the norms and customs of
Europeans and Caribbean people who have accepted those values.
On the other hand, we have seen that Mancists choose to disrupt the
positive messages associated with religion. As part of the superstructure,
religion functions, they say, hoodwink the masses into belie\ring that they
can find peace and comfort through worship. Mancists go on to say that
the plight of workers is so grim {largely because workers do not see it),
that they can only find comfort in an overthrow of the capitalist system.
Syncretism of religious forms in the Caribbean displays elements of
resistance, independence and a deep appreciation of the divine. Syncretic

Frll
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 5J1
Perceptions of thejustice system
As contemporary Caribbean
citizens, we are experiencing rapid
sociaI change in unprecedented
ways. The rules for living we
tearned as social control may be
no longer as relevant. This activity
challenges us to explore our own
perspectives on crime and the
justice system.
Answer each of the fottowing
questions.
1 How do we learn the rutes for
tiving in our society?
2 In your opinion, why do some
people break the rutes?
3 ldentify crimes you believe
to be'petty'and those
you betieve to be 'serious,.
What criteria do you use to
differentiate?
4 How does crime affect you
personatly and your famity?
5 ln your perception, who is most
tikety to commit crimes in your
country?
tr
religions, therefore, help to comfort the worshipper and also oppose
mainstream values, thus seeking to undermine the status quo. Howwer,
these religions do not have a maiority following as )et; their value
systems are not dominant in the social institution of religion. on the
whole, functionalist ideas of religion and how it impacts or ont lives tend
to dominate.
The social institution of the justice system
The justice system refers to the interaction of those socid institutions
that are clearly identified with social control. These include the
interaction of crime, the law and the iudiciary, as well as the police and
the protective sen"ices. Less formally, members of society areiocialised
fromvery young into what is considered acceptable and unacceptable
social behaviour. observance of these rules for living is mostlylased on
a system of rewards and sanctions, at least early in life. As more manrre
citizens, we usually observe lawful conduct because we are personally
convinced that to recognise and uphold the rights of others is a hallmark
of a good citizen, and not because of possible sanctions.
In this section, we will ocplain how the justice system impacts on us
through functionalist and conflict perspectives on the sociolory of crime.
But before this, we can ocplore our own responses and e:cplanations as to
how the justice system impacts on us.
Feedback
1 white the justice system purports to defend our rights we in turn have
to observe the duties of citizens by conducting ouiactivities in a lawfut
manner. The processes of primary and secondary socialisation are
supposed to initiate us into the rutes for tiving in the society, to which we
devetop a personaland individuaI commitment.
2 The justice system, atthough described as a means of sociaI controt,
is
fundamentatty concerned with maintaining a society where citizens are
treated justty and fairty. This means that those who threaten or attempt
to take away these rights shoutd be formatty deatt with in such a way as to
punish and deter them from committing such acts in the future.
The potice
seruice, the law courts and corrective and pena[ organisations translate
these beliefs apd values into real experiences for deviant citizens.
Deviance is associated with breaking the rules. some explanations
usuatty
advanced for deviant behaviours inctude:
r
not being property sociatised (e.g. growing up in dysfunctional famities
with inadequate parenting or experienceiof abuse)
r rebeltion and resistance to traditional norms by those who do not
see
the relevance to their own tives
I PeergrouP Pressures
r desire for a better tifestyte through ftouting traditionat norms
I tack of direction fiust drifting into a tife of crime).
3 A typical classification of crime is based on the degree
of hurt or harm
it causes the victim. Atso important is the extent to which
the crime is a
violation of the right to private property. For example:
r petty crimes may be ,white co[ar crime,, petty [arceny, traffic
violations, praedial larceny, toitering and other misdeiieanours
ilit section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on caribbean peopte I
ir
t more serious crimes inctude murder, causing grievous bodity harm,
3 abuse, torture, breaking and entering, automobite theft, bank robberies
il and kidnapping
r not often included in classifications based on popular perceptions are

il 'white' cottar' crimes invotving fraud, extortion and misappropriation of

pubtic funds.
This depends on where you live and the environment in which you function.
Personal precautions that we take are:
I to heighten our own awareness of others and the circumstances we find
ourselves in, for example, accessing our homes late at night
il t protecting our homes
r imposing curfews on oursetves (and as famities)
il r observing rutes about wearing expensive jewetlery in places where
crimes are likety to occur.
Officiat US crime statistics tend to show that most offenders are male

il (gender), betow 25 years (generationat), poor (sociat ctass) dnd predominantty

of one raciat or ethnic origin (usuatty of minority groups). Does this profite

il generatty fit with your perceptions of perpetrators in your country?

These statistics and the perceptions to which they give rise have been
criticised by those who say that poor, minority neighbourhoods are more
actively patrolted by the potice and thus such groups figure prominentty
il in crime statistics. Additionatty, the weatthy are more tikety to be invotved
in other types of crime, namety, 'white cotlar' crimes of fraud and
embezztement, which are difficult to prove in the justice system. Some

il experts say that they do not believe that poorer groups commit more
crimes but that crimes are a daily occurrence in life and the crimes of the
weatthy are harder to track down and to convict.

il
Functionalist perspectives of the justice system
IT Functionalists belierre that vdues about justice, equality, and fairness are
universally acclaimed as good and form the basic framework for society.
il*;
{f
Society has to have ways of dealing with those who break the laws of
society because they contribute to disorder and disharmony leading to
chaos and confusion.
Functionalists created the institutions of the justice system to take care of
such deviants - by one or more of the following: punishment, deterrence
or rehabilitation. The police force and the court system have a role to
perform. Dwiant behaviour is explained largely in terms of breakdown
in the family socialisation process or how individuals react to changes
in society. For example, the anomie theory says that there are socially
accepted means of obtaining the rewards of society but those who cannot
access the rewards through these means will try other socidly unaccepted
ways. This is likely to happen when most people in the society accept the
same highly desired goals but few have the means to attain them.

Conflict perspectives of the justice system

Activity 5.12 explores the views of conflict or Marxist theorists and
should be contrasted with those of the functionalists described above.
 I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
Conflict approaches to the
sociotogy of crime
This perspective adopts a criticaI
attitude to social institutions as they
are exptained by functionatists.
Whereas the dominant perspective
sees socia[ life as being organised
based on consensual arrangements,
conflict or Marxist theorists see
conftict as the major organising
framework of society.
The justice system is no different.
According to Marxist thought, the
justice system is another institution
comprising the ideologicaI state
apparatus. lt, therefore, functions to
maintain the weatthy in power and
by extension seeks to oppress others
and discriminate against them.
Unlike functionalists, who exptain
criminaI behaviour in terms of
socialisation and anomie theory, the
Marxist view is that the structural
inequalities of society brought on
by capitalism, isolate poorer groups
who cannot access betterjobs.
Their acts of crime are regarded as
examples of rebellion against their
situation.
The superstructure includes the
potice service and the law courts,
which function to controt the
activities of the poor. Criminat
statistics are used as a device to
blame social probtems on the
working ctass. This is evidence
of unequal law enforcement, say
Marxists, because the many crimes
of the wealthy go either unreported
or unpunished. In sum, socialorder
is imposed by the powerfulon
the powertess and is not based on
shared vatues. The justice system
seryes the interests of the 6tites and
is not about sociaI integration.
118-l
Activity 5J2
Inequatitlr and the justice system
This activity asks you to apply your knowledge of the conflict (or Marxist)
perspective on sociat life to the passage below. As the heading suggests, ihis
perspective is mainty concerned with exposing inequatities in society.
Fitt in the blanks in the passage below using words from the list provided.
Conflict approaches to the sociology of crime
This perspective adopts a attitude to sociat institutions as
they are exptained by Whereas the dominant perspective
sees social [ife as being organised based on arrangements,
conflict or Marxist theorists see conflict as the major organising framework of
society.
Thejustice system is no different. According to Marxist thought, the
justice system is another institution comprising the
state apparatus. lt, therefore, functions to maintain the weatthy in
and by extension seeks to oppress others and discriminate
against them.
untike functionatists, who exptain criminal behaviour in terms of
and anomie theory the Marxist view is that the
structurat inequalities of society brought on by capitatism, isolate poorer
groups who cannot access better jobs. Their aits of crime t"g"id"d
examptes of "r"
against their situation. ",
The -- includes the police service and the law courts,
which function to control the activities of the poor. criminal statistics are
used as a device to blame social problems on tt
class.
This is evidence of unequal law enforcem"nt, says-tGffiEG"
"
th"
many crimes of the weatthy go either unreported or unpunished. In
sum,
social order is imposed by the powerful on ihe powerteis and is
not based on
values. The justice system serves the interests of the 6tites
and is not about social integration. -
Words to filt in the blanks:
1 ideotogical, 4
critical 7 power 1O socialisation
2 shared 5 consensuat g working
3rebellion 6functionalists gsuperstructure
"
Summary
The justice system impacts on caribbean people through their
understandings of realiry. They may hold dorrrin"rrt
,""r, as those
oJ functionalism, which-depicis the justice sysrem quite "iJr,differentry from
the conflict or Mancist theorists. personal
used as
"-i.ril"il;;;;
evidence to support one perception of the juslice system over another.
on the other hand, caribbean people may hold multiple perspectives.
For example, that the functionalisiperspective
of iustice i the right
one and that it is the scarcity of resourcis for the
judiciary as well as the lucraiive promise i"ii*,.Jce and the
of the dil;;J.;hat has made
it ineffective. Marxists would say that that is false consciousness
as the
upsurge in crime is an excrrse to forcibly enact legisl"tio'to
poor and such legislation is in the interlsts rertrain the
of thJ ehtes.
il Section 5 lmpact of societal institutions on Caribbean peopte t
ffey points
il a sociologlsts understand society to be a social system and social
institutions are the major frameworks of that system.
il r social institutions, however, are not tangible entities. our values and

t,E
atr
r
beliefs are embedded in these social instinrtions. Dominant values and
beliefs become translated into concrete entities as social organisations.
Some of the major social instirutions are the family, education,
religion, the economy health and the iustice system.
r Sociologsts do not have a uniform perspective about how social
- institutions impact on our lives. Functionalism and the conflict (or
IE
Manrist) perspective offer different understandings of socid instinrtions.
r Functionalism is based on a view of reality that is uniform for
Suggested further
everyone. socid arrangements are constructed out of consensus and
NI
-i
shared values for the good of everyone. readings
r conflict theorists (or Mardstsf hold an opposite view. They see social Barrow, C. Family in the
control at work to structure society according to the dominant values Caribbean: Themes and
and beliefs of the rich and powerful. ' perspectives. Kingston, |amaica:
r Functionalists see the social institution of the family as socialising Ian Randle, 1996.
young members into the norrns and values of the society. Marxists
Chevannes, B. Rastafari: Roots
see the family as being socialised into the nonns and values of their
and ldeologt, Mona: Syracuse
socioeconomic position in the labour market. University Press, The Press, 1995.
r Functiondists regard the social institution of education as a means of
secondary socialisation into the norms and values of the society. Marxists Deosaran, R., Reddock, R.
see education as organised to reproduce social class inequalities.
and Mustapha, N. (eds.).
'Contemporary Issues in Social
n Functionalists see the social institution of religion as committing Science: A Caribbean percpective.
members to shared values through a positive regard for rituals, VoL.1, 1994.
symbols and ceremonies that emphasise love, brotherhood and peace.
Mancists say that these virtr:es blind workers to their oppressed state. Distance Education Centre.
p Functionalists regard the justice system as a measure to safeguard
Inftoduction to Sociology - Social
peace and stability by creating structures to ded with deviant Sciences study guide. Barbados:
uwIDEC, 1997.

il
individuals. Manrists say that dwiance becomes equated with
the lower socioeconomic groups who are really the victims of the Haralambos, M. and Holborn,

til capitalist organisation of the labour market.

Conclusion
This section focuses on the sociologicd concept of social institutions.
Specifically, the social institutions of the famity, education, religion
M. Sociologt: Themes and
perspectives, London: Harper-
Collins, 1996.
Mohammed, J. (edl. Readings
in CaribbeanStudies, Kingston,
and the justice system were analysed through the macro-sociological |amaica: CXC,2001.
perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory or Marxism. In each Mustapha, N. and Brunton R.
case, dominant perspectives were described using the functionalist (eds.). Issues in Education in
ht perspective and criticised using the conflict or Marxist view. Each
perspective sought to ucplain how social institutions impact on the lives
Ttinidad and Tobago. IJWI, St.
Augustine: School of Continuing
of people through the values that are promoted within the social system. Studies, 2002.
# ; End test
Answer at[ questions.
* I
I Tick the correct response for each question.

1 Social institutions are part of the:

a
ft b
social system
framework of social organisations
c
d
sociotogicat perspectives
justice system.

ffi
ffi
I Caribbean Studies

Which of the following does NOT describe a functionatist understanding of society?

a Members of a society agree to how sociaI institutions function.
b Each sociat institution performs a function for society.
c social institutions operate in such a way as to ensure inequalities.
d There is consensus in society.
Conftict perspectives of society maintain that:
a capitalism is responsible for social differences between members of society
D some Persons are naturally more able than others and should be justty reriarded
c the most talented in a sociegl shoutd be the leaders based on a systim o? meritocraqy
d the social relations of prodJction are reftected in the unequat ihare of the societyi
resources among sociaI groups.
Which of the fotlowing statements BEST describes the social institution of the famity?
a The beliefs and values.of the society about how famity life shoutd be organised.
b A group that is related to each other by btood, marriage or adoption anJ who
occupies the same househotd.
c A. social group that shares bonds of [ove, caring, sharing and belongingness.
d The universal famity form of the nuctear famity where mother, fathlr ind children
reside in the same household.
East Indian famity forms are for the most part:
a matriarchat c polygamous
b patriarchal d ethnocentric.
Which statement betow BEST describes the meaning of the term, institutional
environment of education?

Ib I!'r" structure of primary, secondary and tertiary levels in the education system.
The vatues and betiefs that determine how education is structured
c The social organisation of education into schools, ministries of education, parent-
teacher associations and other groups.
d The belief that education is good for alt.
ldentify the statements betow that describe how the sociaI institution of education
impacts on Caribbean peopte.
i Chitdren learn values of obedience, conformity and respect.
ii schools select students and al[ocate them to different experiences.
iii Education serves the needs of the labour market.
iv There is high status associated with denominational schools.
v Education is seen as an avenue to social mobitity.
a i, ii, and iiionly
b i and iionty
c i, ii, iv and v
d i, ii, iii, iv and v

ldentify those social organisations listed below that represent vatues and betiefs of the
institution of religion that are NOT dominant in the Caribbean.
a Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism
b Shango and the Methodist faiths
c The Moravian faith and Myal Churches
d Rastafari and the Orisha retigious denominations
Marxist perspectives on the social institution of retigion try to show:
retigion promotes social solidarity among social groups
Ib lo*
its interaction with other sociat institutions such as th-e famity and education
c how the values in religion are promoted and supponed by the 6tites in society
d that mutti-retigious societies wiI have probtemsof social cohesion.
 section 5 lmpact of societat institutions on caribbean peopte I
10 An example of 'fatse consciousness, is:
a that the justice system operates to safeguard the righs of
atl citizens
b that the minority groups in society are unfairty treaLd in the courts
c a tack of faith and betief in the promise of thelustice system
d that the justice system is part of the superstructure oisociety.

Feedback for end test

1a 2c 3d 4a sb
6b 7d 8d 9c 10a

Tutor-ma rked assignment

E:rplain in no more than 1,000 words how oNE of the following social
institutions impacts on life in the Caribbean.
a Family
b Education
c Religion
d the iustice system 30 marks

Criteria for marking

The award of marks is based on the following.
Content E>cplication of concepts: l0 marks
Analysis of concepts: l0 marks
Synthesis: 10 marks

Structure
You should be able to deffne social institutions and use the one you have
chosen to further illustrate your deffnition. An analysis of the impact
of the social instinrtion on Caribbean society can be done through
two lenses - the functionalist and the conflict perspectives. You may
synthesise main points using your experiences and knowledge or those of
a social group with which you are familiar.

StyIe
Analysis and interpretation should be well developed and relevant to
the issue under exa.mination. Conclusions drawn should be warranted,
logical and insightful.
 5 Caribbean-globat interaction
At the end of this section, you
shoutd be able to:
understand how the gtobat
community and Caribbean
society impact on each other.
Specffic objectives
You should be able to:
describe the nature of the
interaction between the
Caribbean and the gtobat
community
assess the inftuence of
extra-regionaI countries on
economics, potitics and identity
in Caribbean society and
culture
assess the influence of
Caribbean countries on the
potitics, economics and culture
of extra-regional countries.
tr
Introduction
In this section, the nature of the interactions between the caribbean
and the wider world will be examined. we are well aware that this
interaction began for the most part with the 'age oL discovery,, continued
as plantation society under colonialism, and is continuing today driven
by the forces of globdisation and the needs of small dweloping societies.
Content
r The nature of Caribbean-global interaction
r Extra-regional countries'influences on the Caribbean:
r The economics of dependence
r The politics of dependence
. Dependence, Caribbean identity and aesthetic
I Caribbean influences on extra-regional countries:
r Politics
r Economics
r Culture
The nature of Caribbean-gtobat interaction
The major nations with which the caribbean interacts are the North
Atlantic countries of the usA, canada and Europe. our task is to
examine the components - largely beliefs and values which underlie
-
this interaction. one fundamental aspect of this interaction is that
it is interaction between small, deveroping nations and developed
countries.
However, we are well aware that interaction with dweloped
countries is
not a recent phenomenon. The caribbean has been a globalised area
of
interest and interaction since spain established itr spirrirt -American
Empire in the fifteenth Since then, we have-been continuously
drarrn into the ambit of-ce-ntury.
the plans of such countries.
In these plans, caribbean people had little power and resources
to
challenge the dominance of the values, beliefs pr""ii"", of the
superpowers in the region. Howe'rer, there was"rramicioJevel resistance
to European domination in the form of slave rebellio"r, port_
emancipation rebellions, maroonage, the establishmeni
or rr." villages,
the diversificarion attempts of theleasant.y go*i"fiitionaism,
resulting in the drive for independJnce. ""a
Thus,-caribbean peop-le always made attempts to resist
the condition of
subordination in which they iound themserves Ho**.ir-u"h
were made within a society and culture thar were f"rhi;;Jiargely "tt"*pt,
in
accordance with European norms, laws and
the latter
represented prwailing or dominant attitudes""r,o*r.ii"i
and values,
the social institutioni of the mother country. that uy
theie "prr"ta
liere arways
minority groups and arternative ttrinkers whb ,"rirt
a *"irrlrr."* ideas,
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
represent hope for us today as we continue to grapple with
the activities of
the foreign forces for the deepening of power aia au*rorit
ir, ,t. region.
In this section, we are going to further exprore the nature of the
interaction that prwails today betr,veen extra-regional countries and the
Caribbean.

Activity 6.1
Mapping the interaction
The map that foltows represents important aspects of the nature of the
interaction between the countries of the North Attantic and the caribbean.
sometimes a graphic mode of representation hetps us to grasp a situation
more clearty.
Look at the map and answer the questioni tliat fottow.

Map 1 Caribbeannlobal interaction

1 What do you think each set of arrows represents?
2 What is the significance of the variation in thickness of the arrows?

Feedback

1 The broader arrow targety represents the goods, services and peopte that
are imported into our region from Canada, the USA and Europe. They
include a vast array inctuding those listed betow:
r foods, fresh and packaged r fitms, videos, cabteTV
r etectronic items I music, entertainment
r motor vehicles r books, magazines, software
r computers r tourists
r furniture r consultants, experts, advisors.
r apptiances

E
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 6.2
Caribbean resistance to cultural
imperialism
This activity tries to balance the
picture by taking into account
counter-themes to those of the
dominant superpowers in our
region.
Answer all the guestions betow.
1 How does the worship of
Rastafari oppose culturat
imperialism?
2 Why is it necessary for the
indigenous peoples of the
Caribbean to tell their side of
the story?
3 Suggest different examples
to show instances where
Caribbean people are resisting
the values and beliefs of
countries of the North.
tr
You witl surety be able to think of more categories.
The thinner arrows represent our main exports in terms of goods, services and
people. They tend to be limited in amount and type of goods, for example:
r agriculturaI produce - sugar, rum, motasses, citrus, bananas,
arrowroot, nutmeg, mace, cocoa, coconuts
I some packaged produce - jams, jetties, juices
r fish - fresh lobster
r mining products - bauxite, petroteum
I music, carniva[ costumes, songs, artistes, performers
I migrants, students, tourists
r skitted workers - teachers, nurses.
2 From the above, we already know why the arrows vary in thickness to
such an extent. we import much more from the North Attantic countries
than they do from us. Thus, we have an unfavourabte balance of trade. ln
addition, our import of their cuttural products and media in terms of the
images and lifestytes portrayed is difficutt to quantify. The thickness of the
arrows in this sense refers to the dominant influence of images from the
North on society and culture in the Caribbean.
Aclivity 6.1 showed us that gtobd interaction is highly skewed. The
influence of extra-regional countries on society and irlture in the Caribbean
is strong and pewasive. on the other hand, the caribbeanls potential
to
influence culture and lifestyle in the North appe"rr rr.ry limiied, given
the
few products that receive acceptance into martets abroad.
9ty..l9ti-r picrure, we should also remember that there have always been
individuals who were willing to s€t up counter-ideologies and lifestyles
to
resist the allure of what metropolitan countries have Io offer.
Activi ty 6.2
further e:cplores this theme of iesistance.
Feedback
1 cultural imperialism has been a constant theme in our history.
rt refers
to the efforts of different cu.ltural groups to impose their
betiefs and ways
of life on oth&s. The pervasiveness"of ilages of the North in
caribbean
society and culture is an exampte of cuttuiat imperiatism.
Adherents of Rastafari,have agreed to renounce the
trappings of the
capitalist world, or'Babyron', where the varues stress
comp&ition, the
accumulation of wealth, the exptoitation of others
and the environment.
The lifestyle they embra.ce is a iar cry from mainstream
European,
American or Caribbean life.
2 The indigenous peoptes are intent on rewriting
the history books to
officiatty record the atrocities committed by E-uropeani"i.-iirt
ancesto-rs and to pose as probtematic attthl
tt.i,
claims maae-uy whites to the
lands of the New Wortd..Atthough few in number,
they esse'ntiatty want to
say that other peoptes atso exisf and that
they each h-ave a history and a
culture. They want to express a negative viewof
white, wor,j domination
stemming from the 'age of discovery" colonialism
ana'imperiatism.
3 There are many attempts at asserting
a caribbean identity, for example:
r caribbean websites on locat music, products,
history and attractions
r creating caribbean stytes of art, architecture,
furnishings, designer ctothing
 Section 6 Caribbean-globaI interaction I
producing courses on caribbean culture that are avaitabte via distance
tearning
t Caribbean conferences to hightight our issues
I ecotourism that does not threaten the environment and stresses
sustainabte devetopment
maintaining our traditionat festivats and music even amidst the barrage
of music from the North.

Activity 6.1 painted a broad picture of the narure of caribbean-global

interaction. we understand this scenario because we live it everyday. The
foreign mass media that impact on much of the caribbean are beamed
from the usA. we are inundated with the beliefs and values of the people
who packaged and promoted these media products.
Caribbean persons dert to this must necessarily examine their own
beliefs and value positions in relation to the dominant position of the
North. our aaditional way of life is under the constant inJluence of
North American culnrre.
Activity 6.2 on the other hand recognised that there were pockets of
resistance to the hegemonic nature of the North in Caribbean-global
interaction. It is rather a complex situation to be experiencing from the
inside. From Activity 6.2 we see, for instance, that Caribbean people use
some of the cultural products of the North (e.g. computersl to maintain
and promote their own culturd heritage.

Extra-regionaI countries' influences on the Caribbean

The economics of dependence
The prwious section sought to outline the nature of the interaction
between Caribbean states and other countries. It showed few interactions
with the wider world; interaction was focused on the countries of the
North. In this interaction, the Caribbean was a minor player. Metropolitan
countries exported not only a great deal of their products to the region,
but also images and cultural artefacts that tended to promote therr beliefs
and values within the Caribbean region.
In this section, we will examine the trading relationship between the
countries of the North and the Caribbean. For many newly independent
countries in the Caribbean, their main trading partner continued to be
the mother countty. For the countries of the Commonwealth, Britain
sought to protect their fledgling economies by offering preferential rates
of entry into Britain for sugar and bananas. These countries were known
as the ACP countries {of Africa, the Caribbean and the Paciffc) which
were once, or still are colonies of Britain and France. These preferential
rates meant that Caribbean sugar and bananas were taxed less than sugar
and bananas from non-Commonwealth producers on entry to Europe.
This enabled Caribbean products to access a ready market.
We depended a great ded on the renewal of these trade agreements -
notably the Lom€ Convention - and there was much concern as trade
began to be liberalised leading to a lessening of preferential rates and
tariffs. Such an environment meant that the most economic producers
would be able to sell cheaply and thus capture a larger share of the market.
More expensive producers would not be able to sell their products.
In the case of bananas, the Caribbean was a region of small farms, with
plots on hilly terrain that were difftcult to cultivate and vulnerable to

[4
I Caribbean Studies

the ravages of pests, diseases and hurricanes. caribbean bananas were

e4pensive to produce but banana production was vital to the economies
of Grenada, st vincent, st Lucia and Dominica. concerns mounted in
the 1990s as globalisation sought to further liberalise trade and brougfut
the banana issue to a point of crisis.
This dispute raged among the uS& the European union (EU) and their
organisations for trade and regulation of trade. The caribbean countries
whose economic livelihood was in jeopardy could only play a minor role
in this scenario. Through their various diplomatic missions, caribbean
countries tried to convey their side of the issue. This is an example of the
economics of dependence of Caribbean countries.
Activity 6.3 continues to e:cplore the banana dispute as an example of
Caribbean-global interactions in the realm of trade.

Activity 5.3
The banana issue: interaction of wortd powers
For us.as caribbean peopte, the banana dispute is instructive. lt hetps us
to see
that atthough traditionaI forms of caribbean-globaI trade interaction have
changed, the superpowers are stitt wielding as-much inftuence in gtobat affairs
as before.

Four quotes are given and four interested parties in the banana
dispute are
listed betow. Match the quotes to the most tikety'interested pilyi

It does not matter about We have complied with

historical ties. All countries shoutd internationaI regutations and
compty with internationat have increased the tariffs on
bananas from the Caribbean.

Our bananas shoutd be allowed lfyou do not observe

a chance. We produce on a large
internationaI rulings on bananas
scate. lt is discrimination to we wi[[ increase customs duties
exclude us with high tariffs. for many of the exports.

EU - the European Union The United States of America

WTO - the Wortd Trade Organization Chiquita Brands InternationaI

Feedback

a The world Trade organization (wro). This body was

estabtished in
1994 and took over the activitiesof
cerr tc"n"i.ilgr."i"",
on Trade
and rariffs), which was formed in1947.Generatty,
to regulate armost art aspects of trade between
th"-Go ;ttempts
nations by democratic

t
E-
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
Processes. lts most usefuI mechanism is the Dispute setttement Body
(DsB) for members to take perceived injustices ind infringements for
resotution.
It was to the DSB that Ecuador, Guatemata, Honduras, Mexico and the
usA comptained about the EU and what they considered to be viotations
of trade liberatisation agreements by giving preferentiat rates of entry to
bananas from the Caribbean to the EU.
The European Union (EU) questioned usA invotvement in the complaint
since the USA is not a banana exporter. The EU fett that the USA was seeking
the interests of its own companies that owned banana plantations in south
and centralAmerica. consequentty, the EU was not initiatty responsive to the
ca[[ from the WTo to address the situation. lt did raise tariffs on caribbean

[{ bananas but that was deemed to be not high enough. The EU also has to deal
with criticisms from within, for exam ple, from Germany, which does not have
historical ties with the Caribbean.

i'l chiquita Brands International is based in cincinnati, usA. In 1999 chiquita

persuaded the USA government to impose punitive tariffs on EU imports,
as the EU was guilty of transacting unfair trading practices in a ctimate of

Irj trade liberalisation. A comptaint was made to the WTO. Bananas produced
in CentraI and South America, where Chiquita has large ptantations, are
referred to as 'dottar' bananas because they are produced so cheapty.

Irj The United States of America felt that the EU was ignoring the rutings of
the WTO and took matters into their own hands by threatening to enforce
sanctions against other European goods coming into the USA.
[r'
While the EU has had to comply with most of the demands of the
WTO, backed by the USA and its multinational companies (MNCs), the
F. situation is still at a stage of negotiations. Interestingly, for these talks
p our representatives had only observer status. Did the USA play this role
wen though it is not a banana er<poftet?
Our interactions with countries of the North where economic matters
are concerned underscore how very dependent we are on the goodwill of
others. Our historic association with Britain and France has helped us so
far by protecting us from the demands of a liberalised trade environment.
However, as can be seen from the demands of the WTO and the USA,
protectionism is regarded as a thing of the past. Possibly, our only hope
is to emulate other countries and join ever-larger trading blocs such as the
FTAA (Free Tlade Area of the Americasl. Clearly, the beliefs and vdues
that comprise our culture and are manifested in our behaviours, need to
undergo reorientation to accommodate the fact that in our interaction
with the world we are rmlnerable and dependent. Culture and society in
the Caribbean are still strongly tied to national or insular concerns.

The potitics of dependence

In the last section we looked at how smdl dependent nation states fare
in matters pertaining to trade in an increasingly globalised world. In this
section, we put politics under the spotlight - how is Caribbean politics
affected by its interactions with the outside world? Politics is understood
as having power to allocate resources. Power is understood as the ability
to secure compliance.

r
T^/o issues are raisedin this section. First, that economics and politics are
not separate. We have seen that our economic potential is influenced by the
politics of the North Atlantic nations, their MNCs and uade organisations.
I Caribbean Studies

In this section, we will see how caribbean politics is influenced by

economic might. secondly, that culnrre and society in the caribbian needs
to 'come of. age'and encourage awareness of our place in an increasingly
intemationalised world. Tb date our beliefs and values have prwenteJus.
from dealing co-operativelywith each other, yet the demandi of the times
require us to deal co-operatively with much larger blocs and organisations.

l
The strategic value of the Caribbean
Not only in terms of preferential trade agreements have we benefited
from our relationship with metropolitan countries. our very location has
been-of suategic importance to the superpowers who in the past have
sought ways to court our compliance and support
During the cold war while the usA conducted an ideological battle with
the forces of communism, the caribbean was consideredl sensitive
I
area, regarded as the 'third border' of the uSA. It was too close to allow
communism to take root. The successful revolution of castro in cuba,
oyerthrowing the USA-supported Batista regime, redoubled efforts to keep
I
the caribbean clear of enemies of the usA. The caribbean was not only
physically close to the us& it cnmmanded entry or exit to and from
Panama cand. The waterway is vital to the movement of goods
the
ben^reen
I
the Atlantic and paci.ffc Oceans.
The caribbean beneffted by aid from the usA- the caribbean Basin I
Initiative (cBI), the rMF and the world Bank. This could be construed
as support for caribbean economies so that they would not
by countries the USA considered to be enemies.
be influenced j
since the dismanding of the communist states of Eastern Europe
and the
USSR-in the 1990s, the threat of communism to the usA has decreased.
cuba has been left largely isolated. No longer is the usA and world
dwelopment agencies constrained to pour as much funds into
the area
I
I
as before. As a matter of fact they are very much involved
in helping to
develop the economies of the former soviet uto" ro tr,"t tt.y
become
more integrated into the world system of capitalist economies.""r,
our preferential trade agreemen* with Britain and France no longer
command the respect they once did. The uSA is adamant
be dismantled. In a similar way, the caribbean ir
"o*
with other countries of the world for aid and dwelop*.",
that th-ey
io-i*a rc compete
I
longer do we enioy preferential starus because of our
ar. No
il;;g;""pilocation.
pul uryterg?"di''g of how the wider world interacrs and influences politics
in the caribbean is dependenr on our knowing wh"t o"c.rrreJduring
I
cold war and what happened after the t9pos.-activiry g.+ll"""es the
USA initiative that has caused widespread uproar i" til
C;ibb""".
on a I
Activity 6.4
The shiprider dilemma forthe Caribbean
I
Please answerthe guestions betow, which are

USA:
based on an imagined diatogue
between an officiat of the USA and a caribbean prime
vinister'(ev):
Most caribbean countries seem to see the sense
in signing the
I
Shiprider Agreement.
PM: r',m not saying that it is not sensibte.
However, it seems to make
more sense to you . . .
USA: And how is it less sensible foryou?

tr
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
PM: You have to see it as part of a pattern, not something specific in Feedback
itsetf. You have to see it against a background of wro, ihe rtal, the
Grenada Invasion.. . 1 Caribbean states, particutarly
USA: wait a minute. The shiprider the smatter ones, are nearly
Agreement is about international
co-operation to prevent drug smuggting in the Caribbean. The defensetess if their territory,
WTO and the FTAA are wortd bodies about regulation of trade. The officials, institutions or rule are
Grenada Invasion was a white back, in 1983. lt involved a communist threatened by the activities of
threat to the USA. Att that is no longer important. drug traffickers, gun runners, or
criminal cartets who often have
PM: The Shiprider Agreement is asking us to put locat officiats on USA
vast resources at their disposal.
Navy or Coast Guard vessets as immediate permission for the USA
to pursue suspected drug traffickers in our waters. Some agreements Drug lords have the power to
want that permission even if a local official is not on board. Woutd destabitise these countries. The
you extend the same courtesies if we had to venture into your drug economy comes hand
territoriaI space? in hand with guns to protect
turf and etiminate informers.
USA: You don't understand it, do you? put as harshty as I can put it - it
is not the same. You are not a superpower. you have no choice. you
It atso has the need for money
cannot deal with the sophisticated nature of the drug threat to us as [aundering facitities. The USA
well as to your economy and society. you need our ltelp. lf you don't has the resources to combat
sign - there can be an economic backtash . . . these etements but needs the
co-operation of the different
PM: Perhaps. But, there is only a timited extent to which that can be done.
countries in the Caribbean.
By the very nature of our strategic position, you need us to enjoy
stabteeconomies... 2 There is no other superpower to
rivaI the USA in the Caribbean.
1 Outtine ONE benefit for the Caribbean if it accepts the USA position on
The USA now dominates the area
shipriders.
more than ever before. What
2 What is your position on the issue? route would you prefer? To co-
operate with the USA or insist on
recognition of sovereignty and
Of course the situation is a complex one. The USA can offer very hold out for such clauses and
favourable terms of trade to Caribbean countries in return for agreeing statutes?
to let them pursue criminals in Caribbean waters. It may seem a
win-win situation all round. Howweq, we know that each country seeks
its own interest. This is entirely acceptable but such policies should
not be pursued at the expense of other countries. This is the cnrx of the
issue. In the prwailing mindseg one hardly gets the impression that
the solution in mind is consultation and participation of dl the parties
concerned. USA interests can explain all the benefits that shipriders
can bring to the Caribbean. Howwer, Caribbean interests ask about gun
running from the USA to the Caribbean. It is a lucrative business for
USA manufacturers and it is implicated in the narcotics traffic and rise in
crime in the Caribbean. Yet, it is not berng pursued with such zeal as the
import of drugs into the USA
If we deepen our examination, we see that the drug problem is a part
of larger problems in the USA. The Caribbean is implicated because
of its strategic position between the drug producing nations of South
America and the drug consumers of the North. Its thousands of miles of
unpatrolled cays and islands make it a haven for narco-traffickers. Poverty
has played its part too. The huge sums have tempted many of our people.
Undoubtedly, Caribbean countries need a powerful partner to help in
controlling this problem - but, clearly a partner that acknowledges its role
in the problem via gun-running, which contributes to the drug problem.
Caribbean society and culture remain locked into a perspective where
national issues and insular prejudices remain important. The wider
world is seen in terms of migration and vacation. The ongoing disputes
with the WTO, the Shiprider'Disagreement', and the inclusion of the
I Caribbean Studies

caribbean into the FTAA need to be key issues on the national agenda.
The dilemma of the terms of our relationship with the usA must
become national issues in the Caribbean.
For a start we need national and regional dialogue to demonstrate that
we are a politically aware and articulate people. we have been so in
the past in response to national issues. Howeve4, we have been more
intent on carving our niche and protecting our rurf and identity from
other caribbean folk. our values and beliefs need to wipe out insularity
and view with suspicion those countries unsympathetiC to regional
integration.
New forms of politics need to be understood by caribbean people. It
does not really matter which politicd party is in office. Intirnational
negotiations and world bofies dictate what happens in the caribbean.
we have to re-orient our politics, our values and beliefs to see ourselves
as world players on an international scene. That will give us a
more workable perspective in our approach to our dealings with the
superpowers.

Dependence, Caribbean identity and aesthetic

Previously, dependence, which is a structural condition, was described
as playing a role in fashioning aspects of culrure and society in the
caribbean. Specifically, the liberalisation of trade and the tiueats
geonarcotics pose to national governments, discussed earlier, are
developments likely to throw into disarray values such as insularity,
nationalism and sovereignty. The extreme vulnerability thatis now
characteristic of the caribbean in marters of trade and politics should
alert us to the fact that we live in a worrd where certain international
norms predominate. These norms and the values they represent tend
to be those of the capitalist world and pose a challenge to^us here
in the
caribbean in balancing what we
-urt ,rec"ssarily exferience as world
culture with our own understandings of culture ,o"i"ty.
""a
For instance, we have always welcomed cultural expressions
from the
North. we have been active and wi[ing consumers-of images and
cultural
products that emanate-from the uSAu -canada and
Eurofel Eurocentric
1n}sic, theatre arts, culinary products, fashion, images o? b"".rty
lifestyles have pervaded the caribbean through trr" Foi.ie"inass ".ra
media
o1n qreference for travel to those deitinationr. ft"rry of our
:f_",:rand relatives have also taken
tnencls up residence in these countries.
tle nnslish-speaking caribbean has bien heavily p"".ii","d
by the
USA media largely because of proximity to North America
we speak a similar language. The influence of countrie,
b"""rrr.
"rrdNorth on
oiarr"
our general orientation and lifestyle has always b"er, *or.
visible than
the.influences that are now being manifested in the
and
pouucs. "r."rli ""de
In this section we are going to examine the influences
of the wider
world on caribbean identity and aesthetic. Aesthetic
refers to the rules
or values that are accepted in guiding our tastes and preferences.
caribbean-aesthetic will refer io horiwe
A
{re)prereot il;;;G in our
cultural producrs, tasles and preferences.'uriderlyi"g;,
constructing our caribbean aesthetic willbe our valie
in
"h"ices
,yrt.rrr. Although
r,.ve have grown up with the wer-present,doom
""J;;;;;iositio'
that our caribbean curture is unier threat of erasure
from the ever
popular mix of products andrnessages from
the North, we ,"".r, to h".ra
dweloped ways of striking a baland of ,ortr.
It is the narure of this
co-existence thatwe will examine in this section.

E:-l
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
Activity 6.5 moves away from the idea of structural dependence to one
of emotional or psychological dependence on the culture of the North in
examining Caribbean culture and aesthetic.

Activity 6.5
The influence of countries of the North and the caribbean aesthetic
we are att invotved in constructing our caribbean gesthGtidTh"e-foreign mass
media and our traditionat appreciation for the cuttural products of the North
vie with our continued support of our own cultural forms and expressions.
This is a complex situation that requires some further anatysis.

The Likert-type questionnaire below is one means of conducting a survey

and cottecting data. For each statement indicate whetHer you strongty agree,
agree, are uncertain, disagree or stron$ty disagree.

1 The foreign mass media affect Caribbean peopte, particutarly youth, to a

great extent.
2 Urban residents and those of a higher sociat economy strata tend to be
more influenced by cuttural and media images and produdts from the USA.
3 Most Caribbean peopte do not took at loca] television programming.
4 Caribbean youth's mode of dress is highty inftuenced by cultural images,
mainty propagated by the foreign mass media.
5 The imports of foreign media in the Caribbeari ftdS il.titilttt
dependency.
5 Most Caribbean peopte preferto take vacations in tfr6 usA, tftff" ot
Europe than in other Caribbean countries.
7 Local Caribbean music effectively competes with foreign music for
airptay and appreciation across the Caribbean.
8 Caribbean youth prefer fast foods, junk foods and packaged and
processed foods from the USA rather than Caribbean cuisine.

9 There is a high tevet of local and regional support for festivals and staged
music events of our artistes across the Caribbean.
10 When trying to portray a Caribbean aesthetic, Caribbean artistes tend to
use predominatety European ideas and images.

Feedback

Undoubtedty, your answers witl differ according to the experiences you have
had in the different contexts of Caribbean society and cutture.
1 Very probabty you tended to agree with this statement, whether strongly
or otherwise.
2 White urban residents and those of higher socioeconomic status may
own more of the cuttural products of the North (CD ptayers, comPuters,
cabte tetevision, designer wear), Caribbean peopte on the whote, of a[[
socioeconomic groups, tend to be very aware about the status of having
things associated with foreign tastes and [ifestyle.
3 On the whote, Caribbean viewers seem to prefer the content, pacing and
. aesthetic quality of American television Programmes. The Caribbean
has been proactive to a limited extent in devetoping interesting [ocal
programmes. However, when [oca[ Programmes were aired (Oliver at Large
in Jamaica and No Boundaries and Westwood Park - [oca[ soap operas in
Trinidad and Tobago), they received futt suPPort from local audiences.
I Caribbean Studies

4 This is targety true. Again, you may see it being manifested more among
urban youth but some persons of a[[ socioeconomic groups seem to be
abte to afford the designer brands that the youth cutture of the USA
demands. This may be interpreted as the relutt of the ovenrr,hetming
inftuences of the foreign mass media on ouryouth. At the same tim;,
we should atso consider that youth need symbots to hetp them ctaim
identification and betongingness and these foreign symbots are widely
purveyed as pertaining to youth. In fact, they seem to derive much
social
capital among their peers for owning the latest brands in footwear, for
example' lt may not be a case of cultural dependency, or rejection of
'things Caribbean', but more of a generationaI response.
5 This is one view. However, we cannot whotty blame the foreign media.
Historicatly, we have had a preference for the culturat products of the
mother country and then for those of other metropotiian countries. This
cuttural vatue is rooted in caribbean culture and society. lt has probabty
facilitated the intensity of the penetration of the foreign mass media in
our region. Brown (1995) describes a study conducted by Varis in 1gg4
showing that the caribbean was among those countriesiaving the highest
import of television programmes (from T6 per cent in
Jamaica to 95 per
cent in Montserrat). The lowest importer was the USA with z per cent.
5 Again, targety true. Do we interpret this as a distaste for the caribbean?
Among persons who have rarely travelled to other caribbean countries,
you may hear the view that they do not wish to visit other
caribbean
countries. They prefer a different experience to what they are
accustomed
to, when they vacation abroad, so they wi[[ choose metr6potitan
destinations. others are fascinated bythe stark cutturat
contrasts and the
nuances of diversity of al[ kinds when they visit other
Caribbean countries.
That being said, caribbean peopte who are wett-travetted
within the
Caribbean are in the minority. How do you interpret
this?
7 In spite of the continually expressed fears that
our music is being sidetined
by American music, the music of the region continues
to hotd piioe ot
ptace among caribbean peopte. perhaps it shoutd
receive more airptay but
it continues to compete effectivety wiih the music imported
to the ,,"gion.
8 The yrounger generations seem to have devetoped a taste for foreign foods
but it does not necessarity mean that they pr.f", them.
Adotescents tend
to.have troubtipg.eating habits, perhaps t-he tiking ror
out of
this aspect of sociaI tife. what peopte eat may stim lrnt;.omes
from many different
circumstances, for exampte, the organisation-of famity
tife now, where
home cooking may not necessarity occur on a
daity bisis.
9 This is simitar to statement 7 and indicates
that there is much variety
and choice now because of the foreign imports. yet
caribbean peopte
stilt display a high tevet of support fo-r tocat ana
regionail"rtiuar, .na
cetebrations.
10 The gist of this comment is that Eurocentric
ideas have so pervaded
our lives that our conceptions of the world, ,what
even i, clriuu".n,,
conforms to a Hottywood notion of what a
caribbean aesthetic is. For
exampte, if we had to distitt the essence of
what ,u"ing
-.riulean,
means,
would we resort to tourist brochures and
fitm ponr.Gr, r..r,
white sands, the odd patm tree or corourful "lltr.
fruits in i ,.rt.t. The probtem
is particutarly acute for caribbean artistes
and novetists who must
necessariry 'block out' the images of
the caribbean that are sent back to
us from the North via the media.
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
Activity 6-5 sought to challenge the cultural dependency thesis that
portrays the caribbean as penetrated with images and
cultural products
from the North, transmitted bl the forergn mais media and threatening
indigenous caribbean artistic forms and expressions with erasure. we
have seen that the foreign mass media dominate images and orpressions
in the caribbean. Howweq, is it that the dominance Jr tn" images
induces a cultural dependenry syndrome or does it help to er.p"nd orr
choices in all aspects of socid life?
If we freely choose foreign cultural products, does that necessarily
indicate cultural dependenry, or the reality of social life in a globalised
world? The answer to this question will vary across social gr6ups and
caribbean countries. some people may genuinely feel that alliances
with the usA and a closer mesh between its economy and products
and our economy and lifestyle must augur well for us. Those very same
people may unhesitatingly support caribbean music, festivals, the arts,
and indigenous expressions of culture. what we are seeing is a complex
picture of foreign mass media penetration into caribbeanlife, which is
ju:aaposed against caribbean people's continued support of their own
popular expressions of culture. People as meaning-makeri seem to choose
freely those aspects of foreign culture that will ln'ork, for them - for
example, computers to facilitate entry to the world economy, or American
rap artistes to facilitate entry to world culture, or designer labels to
identify with youth culrure.
what is disquieting is the consciousness that the media induces and
which may not always be discerned by the individual. This was alluded
to above in the dilemma we face trying to describe the caribbean devoid
of the images that foreigners have already cast. Certainly in no age or
era have Caribbean people, particularly youth, been confronted by such
a range of choices. Critical knowledge of ourselves and why we make the
choices we do, may help us to balance the realities of life in a globalised
world with conscious effofts to evolve a Caribbean aesthetic.

Caribbean influences on extra-regionaI countries'

Politics
How can the Caribbean influence the metropole, given all that was
said in the previous section? What mechanism, process or event would
be powerful enough to make an impact in a rerrerse direction to the
dominant flows of goods, senrices, media products and images?
Undoubtedly, migration has played a substantial role in any influence
that the Caribbean is perceived to be having in the metropole. Whether
in terms of politics, economics or cultural expressiong such as culinary
arts, music, festivals and religion, the miglation of Caribbean people
forming a second diaspora in metropolitan countries, is at the heart of
such influences.
Thus, the influence of the Caribbean on ertra-regional countries in
relation to politics revolves around questions of migration - immiglation
policry, illegal entry, quotas, illegal sale of passports and visas, the needs
and wants of the immigrant community. Because of these issues, those
countries take an active interest in the domestic politics of Caribbean

t
'sv
'l r'
states. If economic woes, political instability or natural disasters occur in
the Caribbean, chances are that many persons will want to migrate as a
solution to their problems. Activity 6.6 ocplores how Caribbean countries
influence politics in metropolitan countries.

il#i
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 6.6
The politics of migration
The Caribbean has been described
as having a culture of migration.
As Caribbean people, we see
migration as leading to a better
tife. We atmost never consider the
impact on the host country.
Five statements are given below
For each statement explain how
it explains some aspect of the
potitics of migration.
1 The USA insisted on placing
President Aristide back in
power after a mititary coup
ousted him.
2 The USA rescinded its policy
of altowing Cubans refugee
status and co-operated with
the Castro regime to prevent
unauthorised travel between
Cuba and Florida.
3 Before 1965, there were no
numerica[ limits on migrants
into the USA from the Western
hemisphere.
4 for
Most Cubans in the USA tive in
southern Ftorida.
5 There are large Caribbean
populations in New york,
Toronto and London.
tr
Feedback
1 To be abte to turn back the Haitian boat peopte from landing in southern
USA, the USA government had to assist in reinstating president Aristide .
as the tegatty elected head of state. The ftow of Haitian immigrants to the
USA and their inhumane treatment at the hands of the US coast Guard
often came to internationat attention. By reinstating Aristide the USA
coutd now justify the return of any Haitians attempting to tand ittegatty.
2 simitarty, the decades-otd poticy of the usA in offering refuge to cuban
migrants had to end as the ftow of migrants was growing too targe and
their potiticat activities in Ftorida were becoming too explosive an issue in
Ftorida politics.
3 The perception that there were too many migrants in the country brought
about reforms in the immigration laws, requiring visas and quotJs. n taige
number of migrants in a country is frequentty tinked to deprlving nationits
of jobs or a fair wage. Migrants are often victims of discriminator5r
practices teading to potentiatty explosive race relations. Reforms in the
immigration laws were enacted to stem the flow of migrants and control
this situation.
4 They settte there purposefulty - as ctose to castrot cuba as they could get
in order to suPPort and participate in activities to destabitise
r"[ir..
Caitro's
Miami and southern cuba have an unmistakabte cuban cuttural pr"renJe.
5 The potitics of such large migrant communities in these metropolitan
centres turns on how they are able to form a powerfut tobby to influence
poticy-making on issues such as immigration laws but atso -about
domestic
issues such as education, unions and charges of discrimination,
example, difficutt situations at times with the taw. They comprise
voters
and so can choose to use the caribbean vote to affect ih" b.i"nc" of power
in domestic politics in metropotitan countries.
stemming the flow of migrants from the caribbean to metropolitan
countries only partially addressed the issue of migration
andlts impact
on extra-regional countries. The caribbean populations
of large cities
such as-London, New york and Tbronto
s* by ""t"""tio"reases so
that today there are second, ttrird and rour*r generatio;c"riuu."r,
peopre
born abroad. Thdy are fairly well assimilated into the
mainstream culture
of these countries but many maintain contacts with
the caribbean -
the countries where their parents and grandparenr,
migration came to a halt, the numbet of p"tsor* of
*"r. uoin. nven ii
caribbean heritage
will still conrinue to increase in metropolitan countri;.----
from the migration issue, another more recent Caribbean
1,1"*
pnenomenon is impacting on the politics
of the USA, especially.
Narcotics traffic is seen as a potenlially destabilisi;tlh;;irr
caribbean region. so serious is it beini regarded that
rt.
a USA-caribbean
Summit was held in Barbados in r99lattinded
by presia.rrt crirrton and
the heads of government of most caribl."r, .t"r", (except
cuba). This
was unprecedented -.*", an American pre,sidsnl
caribbean to meet with so many of its liaders.
r"o"fjjo"*ey to the
the issu", *a dangers
associated with the narcotics traffic through
trr" ,.sio;;ill ro
influence USA politicar strategier ,t.y undertake to seek "ontinue
operadon with Caribbean counrries "t to addrer, ,h;;r"bl;. -
croser co-
The caribbean is influencing poritics in the
usA and other metropolitan
countries through its huge migrant populations
;f;;;;;ora. t'
il*l Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
* addition, the dangers associated with drug trafficking are forcing the
usA
-tr
zl to change its traditional ways of interacting with c"iiuuean governments
{l by.adopting more co-operative relationships in the hope that"the problem
will be more effectively addressed.

fi Economics
The fact that the caribbean is so dependent on countries of the North

il may make it dfficult for you to envisage ways in which the region can
impact on the economies of canada, the USA or Europe. particularly,
the realities of living in an increasingly globalised *otld may make *ris
il
{I
scenario seem very remote. Howeve4 we are well aware that migration
has been impacting the economies of the North for decades. Activity 6.2
4t examines some less well-known interactions, which have become
necessary through globalisation, and requiring accommodation on the part

il of industridised countries. In this context, we in the caribbean may bi

able to wield some influence on the economies of extra-regional countries.

il Migration andthe economicsof the North

.
caribbean migration occ-urred throughout the twentieth century but
intensified in the 1950s and 1960s just before the uK implemented
stringent immigration regulations. After that, caribbean migrants turned
l{ to North American destinations until similar measures were put in
place in the 1970s and 1980s. Howeveq by then therewere substantial

il caribbean populations well established in the big cities of North America.

Caribbean migrants in the UK and France helped in the 1950s and
1960s to rebuild those countries'economies, which had been ravaged

il bywar and where the male population had been decimated. In Britain,
Caribbean migrants worked in the public transit systern, as postal
workers and, to a great extent, as nurses.
ilxt
iiJT
Immigration to the USA and Canada quickly became selective and
applicants were screened to ensure that they were professionally trained
and educated. This led to a situation known as the brain drain where our
educated people, often trained at the e:rpense of the state, left to benefit the

fi economies of already dweloped countries. Caribbean people hold prestigious

iobs in North America and Europe today and this option has continued
to linger in the Caribbean consciousness where the USA, in particular, is

fi seen as the land of oppornrnity. Caribbean people then have continually

impacted on the economy of host nations by providing an educated and

t
willing workforce and spreading word among their relatives and friends back
home about work and study opporn:nities in the metropolis.

Activity 6.7

til Caribbean small states and the economies of the North

Today we need to look for new responses to the inftuences of globalisation
and at the same time to resist those inftuences. This activity hetps us to
understand some of the clout we may be able to wield.
,t I
The fo[owing headings of provide hints about the nature of the influence that
fi the Caribbean is wielding on the economies of the North. Describe what you
think is meant by each, One has been completed foryou.
I

t
E:lamples of how the Caribbean influences the economy in countries
of the North
{
Camival: Large poputations of migrants in New York, Toronto and London

t have created a tradition of CarnivaI celebrations, which are attended by

.$E- t_q
I Caribbean Studies

thousands. These festivals boost the locaI economy through hotel bookings,
taxes on entertainment, seryices, the food industry and provide work in
producing costumes and organising aspects of the festival.
1 Fruit picking 2 'Green'bananas
3 Free Trade Area of the Americas (rren) zoos 4 off-shore banking

Feedback

Fruit picking - caribbean, canadian and US governments have altowed

temporary migrant workers from the caribbean to pick fruit in canada
and Florida. They work for the minimum wage, the farmer covering the
cost of airfare and accommodation. These economies are, therefore, very
dependent on caribbean workers to harvest the fruits before winter.
'Green' bananas - conditions of production of bananas and other fruits
and vegetabtes in the caribbean are influencing the distribution and sale of
these products abroad. Interest groups in developed countries are asking
guestions about whether bananas, for example, have been produced under
ecologically healthy conditions - organic fertitisers, proper disposat of the
blue ptastic'sleeves' in which the banana hands are protected, whether
crop rotation and management of water suppties are environmentatty
sound. There is a large market segment in devetoped countries that witt buy
produce onty if they are assured that such conditions operate. Recentty,
consumers abroad are concerned about MNCs exptoiting caribbean
workers so they witt only buy Fairtrade bananas - wherelarmers are paid
a fair price, where there are long-term contracts with the farmer, and
heatthy working conditions. These concerns impact on the marketing and
distribution of produce. Internationat companies now have to try to ensure
that these conditions operate in the caribbean and devise certification
procedures as wetl as develop internationalty recognised basic criteria and
guidetines to monitor this devetopment.
FTAA 2005 - The caribbean is to become part of the Free Trade Area
of
the Americas. lt is widety hetd that if caribbean countries do not integrate
meaningfutty, the interests of big countries in this partnership coutd
marginalise them. At present, the USA benefits significantly irom trade
with the carib-bean, enjoying a consistent surptus. The cariibean Basic
Initiative is in ?act the ninth largest export market of the usA. lf uriified
and integrated, this region wilt be abte to wietd significant clout at
the
bargaining tables with the USA.
off-1hore banking -The cayman rstands, Bahamas, British Virgin rstands,
Turks
and caicos, Anguilta, Antigua and Barbuda are off-shore ..onJni",
catering
largety to ctients abroad. These ctients are mainty interested
in tax avoidance
in metropotitan countries. Devetoped countries lose miflions
of dottars every
year owing to the operation of these tax havens where
there are bank secrefo
laws that protect those who wish to avoid taxes in their
home countries.

caribbean migrants have helped to dwelop the economies

of metropolitan
counrries. carnival celebrations in the bigcities of the
metropole
off-shoot of caribbean migration. Every ylar these f;rli""l, "ri ",
becoming more-integrated into the economies of these ;.* hrge4
cities. we have
arso explored other less-well-known, but more recent
ways in which the
economies of the caribbean and industrialised corrrrt
i"s
increasingly intertwined, calling for a range of "r"tecoming
building co-operative srructures. "**oa"tioos, including

b-l
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
Culture
The caribbean region is strong in the dwelopment of a wide range
of cultural forms and orpressions. some of these have penetr"ted
international markets and have gained acceptance in metropolitan
corrntries. Tb a large elftent, this acceptance is related to the presence
of communities of caribbean migrants in the big cities of the North.
The caribbean is dso a premier tourist destination so that people in
the daneloped world learn about caribbean culture ffrst hand and spread
this knowledge in their home countries. The mass media and computer
technologies are playing a significant role in disseminating information
on Caribbean music, festivals, fashion, cuisine, and other areas of
cultural expressions abroad.
Activity 6.8 helps us to begin to think critically about how our culturd
forms and expressions are being accepted internationally.
Feedback

1a Reggae and soca music are now regularty ptayed and pcrformed
Activity 6.8
attover
the world. some of you may have mentioned the steelband. The tuning The impact of Caribbean cultural
and playing of the steetpan have become poputar in some schools afid expressions
cotleges abroad. Every year in Trinidad and Tobago many of the top This activity tests your breadth of
steelbands preparing for the annual Panorama Competition take on a knowledge of different forms of
few players from the metropotis who are for the most part studying the Caribbean cultural expressions in
art form. relation to their impact on extra-
regionaI countries. As Caribbean
b Reggae, to a greater extent than catypso or soca, has devetoped a people, much of this shoutd be
fottowing among non-Caribbean peopte. lt is said that this interest familiar to you.
began with the protest music of Bob Martey's early recordings and it
Answer each of the following
was adopted, particutarty by the youth of the wortd. His music also had
questions.
strong themes of peace, love and brotherhood, again retevant to the
concerns not only of youth but mankind. His Rastafarian image is also 1 a ldentifyTWO forms of
important in explaining the wortd acclaim of reggae. Caribbean music that have
had wortdwide impact.
c Calypso and soca, atthough steadily breaking new ground, have
b Examine the reasons for
not penetrated wortd consciousness, as has reggae. Perhaps this is the impact of ONE of these
attributed to the calypso's strong concern with sociaI commentary musical expressions.
that remains [oca[ and specific to the context of Trinidad and Tobago, c ldentify TWO other forms
than with the wider Caribbean. Soca music on the other hand with its of Caribbean music that
emphasis on 'party' and competition for Road March honours, may have had a particutar
be too fast for an international audience. The context of CarnivaI and impact in metropolitan
its various competitions is important in understanding how these countries.
art forms have evotved. Interestingty, Arrow, the calypsonian from 2 ListTHREE Caribbean festivals
Montserrat, probabty is the one artist who has had a hit, Ah feeting hot, that have had significant
hot hot', that commanded international attention. The renewed vigour impact internationalty.
with which Carnival cetebrations are now pursued in the istands of the 3 ldentifyTWO examptes of
Lesser Antiltes ptay an important part in promoting and disseminating Caribbean fashion that seem to
the art form as they are more poputar tourist destinations than Trinidad have international appeat.
and Tobago. 4 To what extent has Caribbean
There are many types of Caribbean music which, although quite cuisine penetrated the market
poputar in the Caribbean, have had limited impact on the world scene. in metropotitan countries?
For exampte, zouk, punta, cadence, and Afro-Cuban rhlrthms (such 5 Suggest at teastTWO other
. as the rumba are types of music which are enjoyed abroad by Caribbean examptes of Caribbean cutturaI
peopte and their friends). Dissemination to a foreign audience usualty forms affecting the wider
occurs on an informaI basis, for exampte, through their friends and [oca[ world.
live performances, for exampte, 'West Indian' nightctubs.

"ff*.
I Caribbean Studies

carnival in Trinidad and Tobago and the other istands of the caribbean as
we[[ as the locatcarnivats developed by the migrant communities of New
York (Labour Day, Brooktyn), Toronto (caribana) and London (Notting Hitt)
has internationalappeat. Reggae sumfest has made a significant impact
on internationaI audiences who visit Jamaica annuatty for this festivat.
5o too have the Jazz Festivats in many caribbean islands. These have a
retatively large internationalfottowing and are covered by the international
media.
The Rastafarian image comes to mind. The dreadtocks of the Rastafarians
have come to be associated with persons in the music industry and show
business people who do not necessarity espouse the Rastafarian faith.
Today, it is very much accepted as a hairstyle and has been adopted by
peopte in atl watks of [ife, and of atl races.
White corn rows did not originate in the Caribbean, it is very much a
fashion statement today and adopted mainty by those persons who do not
wish to atter their hair with chemicats but leave it in a natural state. lt is
a common sight in the caribbean to see tourists getting their hair ptaited
with cotourfuI beads in simulation of this fashion statement.
caribbean cookery has remained a speciatity in metropolitan areas catering
mainty to the caribbean poputations of those cities, for example, west
Indian markets and restaurants. Any penetration to non-wesi tndian
poputations comes out of ctose association with west Indians or having
visited the West Indies. There is more widespread acceptance of rum and
Angostura Bitters than food preparations, atthough jerk seasoning and
canned coconut water are usualty readity avaitabte. What woutd it take to
ensure that west Indian foods enjoy as wide acceptance as reggae music
among foreigners?
other caribbean cuttural forms that are influencing metropotitan countries
are our literary styles which have received widespiead acctaim with
having two Nobel prize winners - Derek Watcott and Vidia Naipaut; and,
our philosophies of black consciousness such as Rastafari anj Negritude.
Additionalty, many non-caribbean peopte are signing up for online
courses
in cuttural studies. some are engaged in the stuJy or th" steetpan
in
their own countries and are involved in the tuning and manufacturing
of steetpans abroad. There are steel orchestras taigety made up
of non-
caribbean pecple. Thus, the cultural expressions Jnd productsof
the
Caribbean comprise a body of work that others are now studying.

Activity 6.8 tries to assess the impact of caribbean cultural forms

on extra-
regional countries. It should be of interest to us to study
the conditions
under which some forms or oqpressions receive more acclaim
than others.
For example, on the internet there are websites advertising
reggae events
in Germany, maintained by Germans. It is also wenkn#a;
reggae
is very popula-r in |apan. To what extent is this pop"r"ritylinked
to the
resistance and overcoming themes of Rastafari
or, ,t. ,rr"r, media?
pn the other hand, tle parifuna punta music of "rrigelize being produced
by migrants in New york city, as well as in Belize,
Honduras, are limited to those,in the know,.
cn"t.*"ia and

Key points
r The caribbean has had a long history of ,globalised,
relationships
with North America and Europe.
 Section 6 Caribbean-gtobal interaction I
A dependency syndrome has characterised macro-type relationships
with countries of the North, for example, in terms o] economics and
politics.
In economics, we have dways been dependent on our preferentiar
trade concessions through the Lom€ Convention.
In politics, our strategic location, only 40 miles from the USA, and
the dangers that the usA perceived during the cord war, meant that
the caribbean received aid and suppotr to stave off any threat of
destabilisation but when the cold war ended in the ti90s, with the
collapse of communism, the support was reduced.
The WTO and the USA are now engaged in spreading an ideology
of trade liberalisation and the dismantling of irade barriers and
preferential agreements; this puts Caribbean economies under
tremendous pressure.
The demise of communism in Eastern Europe and the ussR means
that maintaining aid programmes to the caribbean is not a priority
issue any rrore; howwer, the drug economy is now forcing the USA
into partnerships with Caribbean countries. .
Culturd images and products from abroad are an important part of
life in the Caribbean; thery are represented in what we wear, eat, the
music we listen to, the television prograrnmes we watch, and the
aspirations we have.
r At the same time, we have elements of resistance to the mainstream
Suggested further
themes of consumerism and capitalism that have achieved worldwide readings
acclaim even from the centres of such ways of life - reggae and Abrams, E.'The Shiprider
Rastafari. Solution Policing the Caribbean'.
r Our migrant communities have been instrumental in spreading and The National Interest. 1996.
diffusing our cultural e:rpressions abroad, for example, the carnivals Retrieved at: http:/Annanrr.eppc.org/
that are now celebrated in metropolitan cities. publications/
Brown, H. ?\merican Media
Conctusion Impact on famaican Youth:
In this section, we focused on the interaction between the Caribbean and The cultural dependency
the wider world. The Caribbean, since its 'discovery'by Europeans in thesis'. In Hopeton Dunn (ed.).
G lob aksa tio n, C o mmunic atio ns
the ffieenth century has been a key player in the international relations
of the hemisphere. It displays the complexities and contradictions
and Caribbean Identity. Kingston,
inherent in relationships benareen the superpowers of the world and tiny, ]amaica: Ian Randle Publishers,
independent states. While some commentators have suggested that such r995.
fragile economies should repudiate political independence and cleave Chevannes, B. Rastafan: Roots
more strongly to the superpor /ers for protection, aid and support, the fact and ideologr, Mona: Syracuse
-
li of. independence rnay actually constrain such powers and force them into
collaborative, participatory ventures to overcome common enemies. The
University Press, The Press, 1995.
.- section showed examples of conditions that are pushing tJre superpowers
Grugel, I. Poktics and
Development in the Caribbean
- into having more didogue with Caribbean states than hitherto.
Basin: Central America and the
*
i

On the other hand, the influence of countries of the North in the Caribbean in the NewWorld order.
'* region is dominant and pervasive even to this day. It has always been London: Macmillan, 1995.
so. Caribbean people, while adopting much of the cultural products
i
and images of the North, at the same time continue to participate and
Mohammed, J. (ed.l Readings
-I support home-grown festivals and art forms. Disturbing to many are the
in Caribbean Studies. Kingston,
ways in which traditional celebrations and music are being changed by Jamaica: CXC, 2001.
exposure to values and media from abroad. An interesting dilemma for us Thompson,l. The Media and
is that such changes often ensure that the productions are more palatable Modemity: A social theory of the
( to an international audience. Thus, wider appreciation of our culture media. Cambridge: Polity Press,
abroad brings with it changes we may not necessarily support.
I

r995.
il,

il
I Caribbean Studies
r
End test
Complete the crossword puzzle below. t

I'
F
t
b

r
lt
r
T

Down Across
1 A feature of Caribbean cutture and society (9). 1 Companies that dominate Caribbean economies (4).
2 The WTO/EUIUSA controversy centred on the sate 7 A process of integrating wortd economies, culture
ofaCaribbean_(4). and society (13).
3 A festivat hetd in the Caribbean with international , 8 Responsibte for globat trade regulation (3).
appeat (4).
9 A trade organisation of ex-coloniat countries (3).
4 Metropolitan contribution to our Caribbean diet (4).
15 Considered a threat wietded by the USA to smatt
5 Foltowers of Rastafari (6).
independent states (9).
6 A mega trading bloc to be established in the 16 lndustrialised countries (5).
Western Hemisphere (4).
17 Large numbers of migrants of a particular society
10 Staple of Caribbean diet, dating from stavery (3).
and cutture living away from their hometand (g)l
11 Countries outside the Caribbean region (5).
'12 USA, tMF and World Bank contribution to our
devetopment (3).
13 The phenomenon that is now forcing co_operation
between the USA and Caribbean goJernmlnts (s).
14 Large communities of migrants from this country
are
found in Amsterdam (5).

td
 F 6
Section Caribbean-gtobat interaction I
l Feedback for End test

Across
1 Migration 1 MNCs [muttinationat corporations]
z Crop 7 Globatisation
3 )azz 8 WTO [Wortd Trade Organization]
4 Junk 9 ACP [African, Caribbean and pacific countriesJ
5 Rastas 15 Shiprider [agreement]
5 FTAA [Free Trade Area of the Americans]
16 North
10 Cod 17 Diaspora
11 Extra
12 Aid
13 Drugs
14 Aruba a

Tutor-marked assign ment

write an essay of no more than 1,000 words discussing
the imprications
of this statement for decisions that caribbean nations
need to make in
dweloping continued relationships with tfr. ,.rp..po-"i.. -
'The refusal of Bermudans to vote for independence last year
may show that they, at least, have understood the poi*'ir,
increasingly troubled region, reliance on a foreign
and power may be the most sensible form of
;"*.; for "r,
security
""iio'rr"tir*.,
Abrams, E. (19961
30 marks
Criteria for marking
The award of marks is based on the following.
Content Explanation of concepts: l0 marks
Andysis of concepts: 10 marks
Synthesis of concepts: l0 marks
Structure
You should be able to describe the dilemma that small,
independent
states face in the twenty-fust century where
-""y oi,irei, proule*s
and social issues need externar intervention and r"ppo*-iiposes
as problematic the issue of political independen"r #irr"ir.",i.r" i'
d9a]i1s with such problems. political independenc" i,
seen as
a hindrance "croJry
to the working out of solutions to the problem with the
superpowers.

Style
Analysis and_interpretation should be well dweloped and relevant
to
the issue under examination. conclusions drawn should be
t warranted,
logical and insightful.
T
i

r
-#.
 7 concepts and indicators of devetopment
At the end of this section, you
should be abte to:
appreciate how different
concepts of development have
impacted on the retationship
between potitics, economics
and devetopment in Caribbean
countries.
tives
You shoutd be abte to:
compare older and
contemporary measures of
development
distinguish between economic
growth and devetopment
appty indices of economic
growth and human development
explain the chattenge of
development facing the
Caribbean.
Exampte
Country X has a national income
of $40m in year 1 and S50m in
year 2. The increase in national
income is therefore S10m. This
represents a 25 per cent increase in
the national income of that country.
lf the population of that country
is 1 miltion in year 1, the per capita
income would be S40. We calcutate
per capita income by dividing totat
output by totat population. lfthe
population is 2 mittion in year 2 then
the per capita income woutd be S25.
The purpose of this activity is to
develop your skitl in using national
income estimates for purposes
of comparison. These kinds of
comparisons are frequently done
by potiticat leaders and other
policymakers in your community.
lntroduction
In this section, you are golng to learn about the concept of development as
it is used in discourse in the social sciences. It is a very important concept
today as you may frequently hear about strategies aimed at dweloping
a country or about those countries such as France, Germany, the UK
and the USA' which are referred to as,developed, countries and those
countries of the African, caribbean and Paci-fic regions, which are referred
to as'developing' counuies. Dweloped countries are more industrialised,
have sound technologicd capabilities, good education systems and varied
infrastructure and institutional suppofts for economic activity.
Content E
I Different conceptions of dwelopment
I Economic growth and development
r Material and quality of Iife indicators
r Challenges of development
r The political process
t Globalisation
u Multilateralagencies r
r Tiansnational corporations.
Material and quality of life indicators
r
In this section, we will look at the way the concept of dwelopment has
ft
I
moved away from a focus on purely materid factors, such as:
r levels of national output n investment
I per capita income I infrastructure.
n employment
Moving towards inclusion of a number of factors that have to do with the
quality of life anil the sustainability of that quality.
Material factors
[ust as acoess to an abundance of materid things does not necessarily
make for a happy individual, so too at the level of an entire society, tire
possession of an abundance of goods and services does not necessarily
make for a high quality of life.
National output and per capita income
National output is the sum total of the value of goods and services
produced in a country in a given year. A rise in the national output of
a country is usually celebrated as an achiwement for most countries.
It says that the economy has functioned well over rhe period concerned.
when the national output of a country in a given y."r, ir divided by
its total population, it says whether the per capita output is growing or
not and consequently whether that country is able to feed iti gowing
population. Growth in national output and per capita income are
indicators of a country,s capacity for employment.
I Section 7 Concepts and indicators of development I

l Activity 7J
catcutate the rate of grorarth of national income for the three countries betow
and compare them. What are the tikety imptications for the different countries?

I Country i
1
National income yR
(us S)
1 National income YR 2
(us s)
I Rate of growth
Feedback
A 550m 600m
:- CountryA-9 percent
,r
I
FI
800m 880m
Country B - 10 per cent
c 600m 580m
CountryC-3percent
il
Levels of investment Feedback
Levels ofinvestrrent in a country signal whether or not conditions are
improving. The more investrnent taking place, the more likely that iobs will be Long-term emptoyment - hote[
generated, additional output will be produced and ta:r rerrenues may increase. management, waitresses,
boutiques, cooks.
In country Y, more hotels are being built. The gorr"rrr-"rit is also
e:rpanding the network of highways. There is a school building Short-term emptoyment -
programme. There is a housing programme that will provide many new construction workers, architects,
housing settlements. In all these instances, the employment generated as transport, quantity surveyors.
well as the increased demand for goods and services is very positive. Agricutture - chicken farmers,
In Activity
7 .2, you are required to show concrete ways in which an
vegetabte growers, tocaI agro-
investment may impact on your country. processors.
Cottage industries -

il Activity 7.2
Given a decision by a foreign company to set up a 1,000-room hotel in your
manufacturers of locat
condiments, hairdressers, craft

il country, identify three tikety effects on your country under EACH of the
fottowing headings:
producers.

1 Long-term employment 3 Short-term emptoyment Example

al 2 Agricutture 4 Cottage industries In country X, the provision of good
roads meant that the costs of
agricuttural products went down and
investment in agriculture increased
Levets of infrastructure as farmers were abte to transPort

{ The quality of infrastructure in a country enhances the production their goods to ports as wetl as to
capability of that country and helps to encourage foreign investors to internal markets.
il choose that country as a site. This would include, for example, good
roads, postal systems, transportation systems, reliable power supplies,
telecommunications and water. Feedback

Entertainment - more venues

Activity 7.3
become easity availabte, it
to identify ways in which a specific
ln this activity, you are required becomes easier to travet at nights.
investment in infrastructure impacts on the economy.
Manufacturing costs - transPort
People tiving in ptaces that tack basic utilities, tike etectricity and water, are of materiats becomes cheaPer,
very aware ofthe disadvantages their situation PerPetuates' consumers get easier access.
Given a heaqy investment in the road system of any caribbean territory, more sites become
identify TWO ways in which benefits woutd accrue under EACH of the
Tourism -
accessibte, cheaper fares.
different categories stated betow.
Agricutture - better access roads
1 Entertainment industry 3 Tourism
facititate farmers and reduce finaI
2 Manufacturing costs 4 Agricutture costs to the consumer.
 I Caribbean Studies
Example
In country Y, white the national
income has doubled, the levets of
poverty have increased and fewer
people are sharing in the weatth
produced. Women are especia[y
vulnerable as femate unemployment
is high. This has caused a rise in the
crime rate and a spate of other sociat
ills, which are now requiring urgent
investment of public funds. Investors
are now said to be discouraged by the
crime rate.
Feedback
Health care - crime increases
heatth care costs unnecessarily.
Security - substantiaI sums
of money must be invested in
prisons, potice, atarm systems.
Tourism - tourists are
discouraged from visiting.
Leisure - entertainment industry
suffers as peopte are afraid to go
out freely.
Example
Country Y has destroyed all its
forests in the pursuit of production.
The country now faces severe
flooding during the rainy season,
water shortages during the year.
Costs will rise and expenditure
increase in order to deal with the
effects of deforestation.
Feedback
Famity entertainment - sea
bathing becomes a health risk.
Fishing industry - deptetion of
fishing stock and a rise in our
food bitt.
Tourism
- reduction in tourist
arrivals.
Househotd food bitt - househotd
food bitt becomes greater.
Summary
So far we have looked at tfuee yardsticks of development that give
some indication of material dwelopment in a country. These are the
kinds of indicators that economisti and policy makeis focused on
up to the 1970s. By the end of the twentieth century it became clear
that even if the material indicators like national o.rtp.rt, employment
and investment were good for a country there could-stiil be;use for
serious concern. This concern was due to the fact that there could be
growth without equiry growth without sustainability or growth
without
participation. some non-material factors were now included as indicators
of dwelopment.
Non-materiaI factors
when wealth is produced but shared only among a few, the result is a rise
in crimind behaviour. Everyone's ability to enjoy wealth then decreases.
when wealth is produced by destroyingthe environmerrt, it.r, the result
is the same. Our ability to enjoy wealth decreases.
Equity
If a country's material.wealth grows but the inequality between
crasses,
Froups or genders is widening then develop*..tlis biing impeded
because that situation can lead to social tensions in
the future.
Activity 7.4
This activity is designed to altow you to see the i[
effects of an approach to
devetopment that is too concernea witt materiaI wearth.
List one of the itt effects of crime under EACH
of the fottowing categories.
1 costs
Health care 3 Tourism
2 Security costs 4 Leisure
Sustainability
Pollution and destruction of the environment
are now included
as indicators of dwelopment. If a country is getting .i"no rr"t tt.
environment is bLing a,.r"gl"q ;-rh.;;""ess,
that country will
not be able to sustain that revel of wealih in
the future since its stock of
natural resources will be depleted.
actjyitv is designed. to help you assess
lnil
destruction on
the impact of environmental
the quatity of tife.
Given the poltution of the sea around any
caribbean territory, state oNE
effect in EACH of the different categoriei U"to*.
1
Famity entertainment 3 Tourism
2 Fishing industry 4 Household food bitl
Participation
If the lwel of output and.wealth grow in
an economy with all the decision
making and controls in the handl or
ror.igtr"rs and the rocar communiw
 Section 7 Concepts and indicators of devetopment I
does not share in the decisions that affect
their lives, then there exists
growth without development. This level
of outpur
in the future because of the dependency engeniered
#rf"*
te sustainable Example
The main activity of country X is
tourism. Att the hotets are owned
and operated by foreigners. However,
Activity 7.6
the peopte do enjoy a high standard
Thisactivity is designed to attowyou to understand the need for local of living because the economy is
involvement in key areas of your economy. An electricity company is being booming. This state of affairs is risky
sotd by the government of a caribbean country. one polential puichaser
ii because the owners may decide to
local and the other purchaser is foreign. usingihe criteria betow, compare leave at some point in time if the
the
tikely effects of selling to the tocat or foreign-purchase r. returns are not suitable.
1 Emptoyment of nationats 3 Reinvestment of profits
2 Technotory 4 Concern for nationaI development
Feedback

Employment - some locals witl

tose jobs to foreigners if we selt
Summary to foreigners.
In keeping with the new thrust to include concerns of equity, Technotogy - foreign firms may
sustainability, empowerment in considerations of dwelop'ment, have more access to advanced
new indicators are now included in an official measure compiled by
technology.
the united Nations Dwelopment programme called the Humlfr
Dwelopment Index. The indicators include: Reinvestment of profits - locaI
firms are more [ikef to retain
r freedoms enjoyed by the population profits at home.
e availability of health care
National devetopment
r - foreign
crime firms may not identify with
r housing national interests as easity as
I education. locaI firms.

The challenges of development facing

the entire Caribbean
Because of the plantation legacy of the Caribbean, most of the countries
have inherited certain patterns in their economies that hinder their
growth and productivity, and perpetuate inequity, non-participation and
lack of sustainability in their economies. These economies have displayed
great dependenry in managing their affairs. These economic patterns
include:
* dependence on foreign capital, skill and entprprise
it monocrop production
p dependence on foreign imports
x foreigfi tastes
* dependence on imports of technolory
il * domination by total institutions such as multinational corporations.
q The challenge of development has been to minimise these patterns that
we have inherited.
Feedback

il Activity 7.7 Opinions may vary on these issues

I
This exercise atlows you to assess the extent to which your country stitl but you have to think about them.
exhibits traditionaI patterns of dependence.

t t
Assess, using 'high' or 'low', the economic sector of your country on each of the
following criteria. Indicate your answer by placing a tick in the appropriate box.
There may have been improvement
over time on some of these issues in
some countries.

fi
I
I Caribbean Studies

Local Local raw LocaI Local Local

i decision- materials management
making
ownership technology F
High

Example
In the Caribbean, trade unions
have been significant in the
representation of the poorer classes
of these societies. Equity and
social sustainabitity have been key
contributors to the trade union
movement. Trade unions have
struggted for better wages and,
conseguently, for food, ctothing,
and shetter for poorer people in the
Caribbean.
Feedback
The names of the trade unions will
be different, but in alt Caribbean
countries they have ptayed a
critical role in hetping poor people.
Today, we may find that they
are faced with a different kind of
chaltenge if they are to lead workers
constructively given the changes due
to globatisation.
Low
F
F
Summary
F
You must realise by now that developmenr is a complex issue and that
the challenge of dwelopment facing all the caribbean islands is similar
in nature and origin. In the next section, you will see that the process of
dwelopment is a human one involving institutions and groups. |'
The potitical process and development
The extent and nature of the participation of different groups in the
decisions affecting the affairs of a society affectthe proluctivity of the
society as involvement in decision-making can motivate people to
maximise their contribution. Participation can also affecCthJ distribution
of wealth as groups openly contest to influence the kinds of decisions
taken' Through active participation, people also learn the skills
involved in managing their affairs. The existence of a whole range of
cMc instirutions is vital to this process. These include political
larties,
trade unions, business groups/ womens'groups, conservation groups,
professional groups and other non-governmental organisations.
Activity 7.8
This activity witl help you to see the role the trade union has ptayed
in our
devetopment.
The fotlowing three questions call for some research and discussion
with your
Peers.
1 Name three trade unions in your country.
2 Examine critically the functions of these unions.
3 ldentify ways in which these unions have contributed to the devetopment
of your country.

Potiticat parties
Political parties are also key institutions in promoting widespread
participation in the dwelopmenr process. TL.y, like
iade orio.rr, include
the_working classes in the procesJof directing the use
and deveropment
of the resources of our society.
Feedback

There is no singte answer here for att Activity 7.9

countries in the Caribbean. There is
variation across the Caribbean. your
answer shoutd be based on your
knowtedge of your own country.
This activity should be done as objectivety as possible.
the part the state ptays in the quaiity or tire oi trre pofui.iioi. -'"
lt wil hetp you to see
For each of the functions below, rate the provision
of that service by the
government of your country as either good, fair
or bad.
L Section 7 Concepts and indicators of devetopment I
;{
t'l 1

2
Health care
Crime
5
6 Food
Emptoyment

3 Education
t 4 Housing
7 Transport

il
I
ii Summary
Exampte: Privatisation/
You have seen in this section that institutions and the political process nationalisation
iltl by which institutions participate in the decision-making ptoceri affect
dwelopment. In the next section, you will see the difficult choices the
Three decades ago, government
control of the commanding heights
present world environment presents to dweloping countries.
of the economy was the main aim
il Globalisation and development
of economic poticy. Many countries
sought to nationatise key sectors
{t The present world economic environment has undergone significant
and firms in their countries. Today,
the privatisation of some of these
change in the last trn'o decades and presents a whole new pa-kage of same operations is a main goat of
dwelopment options to our countries. These options and fiolicies are very
f'f different from those that prwailed in the 1960s and 1970s. The changes
economic poticy. Privatisation is the
process by which the state foregoes

il
l1
1l
are due to two key factors, which have shaped the modern world ."ono-i"
environment. Tiade liberalisation is a process by which barriers to free
ownership of productive enterprises
by setting them off either to the local
trade and the movement of money and resources between countries of the or foreign private sector.
world are being reduced consistently. The new information technologies
reinforce this bne village' concept of the world by making it possibleio
Feedback
transmit masses of data to an)'where in the world in real time.
White there may be variation from
Activity 7J0 time to time, generatly privatised
Privatisation is seen sometimes today as the panacea for a[ aiting state firms tend to become more efficient,
enterprises. This exercise witt hetp you to be more informed about that option. more profitable and may improve
Choose any instance of privatisation you are familiar with and say whether customer service. However, prices
the impact on the categories betow was favourable or unfavourable. may increase and emptoyment may
fall as part of the effort to achieve
1 Efficiency 4 Profitability efficiency.
2 Emptoyment 5 Customer service
3 Prices
Example
As a result of the removal of tariffs,
some industries have not been abte
Protectionism to survive the competition from
.J In earlier times, countries sought to protect their local industries from foreign products. Locat industries
'I foreign competition by the imposition of tariffs. The systematic removal have disappeared in some countries
of tariff barriers has been taking place. This has had both positive and because customers can buy the same
il I
negative consequences. product more cheaply from abroad.
This resutts in a loss of jobs when
I
ptants are closed.
Activity
il 7J1
In this activity, you witt get the chance to assess the costs and benefits of
Feedback
i trade liberatisation.
q Choose any industry where protection has been removed in your countrlr and decide Variety and quatity tend to improve
1
whether the situation has improved or worsened with regard to criteria betow. with competition. Prices can
i
1 Variety of choice 4 Overalt employment fluctuate and overal[ employment
may fatl if the [oca[ industry dies.
*I 2 Price of goods 5 Government revenues
Covernment revenues may go down
i 3 Quatity 6 Local industry because of the removaI of the taxes.

{
)
I Caribbean Studies
Example
The abitity to order books over the
web has improved the welfare of the
buying pubtic. However, it is a serious
challenge to retail bookshops a[[ over
the world.
Feedback
Areas of economy - entertainment,
education, famity communications,
business communications, music
industry, commerce.
The state and middtemen can be
wiped out of certain transactions
as they can be bypassed
completely.
Local producers of any product
that can be transported can
advertise their goods to a world
market and receive payment
from any part of the wortd.
Example
The case of bananas and the WTO is
instructive for the development of the
countries of the Eastern Caribbean.
Under the old Lom6 agreement, the
Eastern Caribbean countries received
preferential treatment for their
exports of bananas in the European
market. Protests by the USA to the
WTO have put this preferential
treatment in danger as it does not
conform with the rules of the WTO.
But white bananas are not even grown
in the USA, it is the main export of
some Eastern Caribbean countries.
Example
TheWortd Bank has lent moneyto
some countries of the Caribbean for
the improvementof their education
systems. These include Jamaica,
Trinidad andTobago, Barbados and
St Lucia. The Wortd Bank however,
exercises great influence in how money
lent is actuatly spent by these countries.
TheWorld Bank may insist on the hiring
of foreign consultants and countries
have to put measures in ptace to ensure
that their needs are met through the
programmes being imptemented.
tr
E-Commerce
The existence of the World Wide Web makes it possible to trade in a
borderless world. Orders for products can be made from an)rtrrhere and
some services and products can be delivered an)rwhere. Payments can
also be made over the web. This offers tremendous advantages as well as
disadvantages to small developing countries.
Activity 7J2
In this activity, you will have to compare the negative and positive effects of
e-commerce.
You may be able to get this information through discussion with colleagues,
friends and other informed adutts. Answer each in a short paragraph.
1 ldentify five areas of your economy that have benefited from the wortd
Wide Web.
2 How can the state and some middlemen be put at a disadvantage?
3 ldentify a few [oca] producers who can benefit from the Wortd Wide
Web? How witt they benefit?
Summary
Globalisation, thereforg presents many challenges for countries like ours.
It has already impacted strongly in areas of education, enteftafurment and
culture. It is necessary to ensure ttrat we hamess the possibilities offered to
increaseproductivity, as well as equity and sustainability in our dwelopment.
The multilateral agencies you will study in the next r."ion can have
tremendous influence on the prospects for dwelopment of small countries.
The role of multitateraI agencies
At the end of the second world war, in order to manage the international
systems of trade and payments, three key institutions were formed:
the International Monetary Fund (IMFI, the world Bank and the
General Agreement on Thri.ffs and Tiade (GATTI. This latter has now
been transformed into the world Tlade organizatio"
provides assistanre to countries experiencirrg b"l"n".
twrot. The IMF
of pafnents
problems. The world nlovides projecthnancing to'a.lrr"topirrg
lank
countries to improve their education systems, publiclnfrastrucEure,
health and communications. The wrb ,"t, tli" rules aniliegulations
for
the conduct of world trade and the settlement of tt"a. airp"ies
between
countries. The downsi,de of these arrangements for developing
countries
is that the conditiong fol assistance by ihese institutions
rrot always
consistent with the dwelopment needs of developing countries.
"r"
In
addition, the rules and regulations they set may not-always
be in the
interest of the poorer countries of the world.
Activity 7J3
you understand the loss of autonomy suffered at the
I!lt:.ll"i.ywitt,hetp
nanos ot muttitateraI agencies.
Read the above paragraphs and then
gompare these agencies to private banks
by making a rist of three ways in which borrowing frori
muttitai"-J agencies
is different.
t
 Section 7 Concepts and indicators of devetopment II
Feedback

1 Rates of interest may be lower with the agencies.

2 Repayment periods may be tonger with muttilateral agencies.
3 Loans from muttitateral agencies are tied to certain conditionatities, which
limit the way that money can be used and tie the borrower to certain
policies, which may not be in their interest.

Activity 7J4 Feedback

This activity witt hetp you to appty some of the ideas about development that
Concerns coutd inctude: the
you have just tearned.
impact on the environment, the
Read the question below, discuss with cotteagues and write an answer of two emptoyment potentiaI of the
paragraphs. i nvestment, the technology transfer

You are an adviser to your government. A certain corporation wishes to possibte, the [inkages with the
negotiate an arrangement for investing in your country. List FOUR concerns rest of the economy, the possibte
you witl raise in the negotiations to ensure that the devetopment needs of commitment to future projects the
your country are met. state may have in mind.

Activity 7J5 Example

StateTWO ways in which the devetopment needs of a country may be The IMF has lent money to many
subverted by the relationship with a muttitateraI agency. Caribbean countries as wetl as to
other developing countries atl over
Feedback the world. In exchange for loans,
which are repayable with interest,
Some of their poticies cause increased hardships in the short term. Removal of the borrowing countries have to
agree to implement policy packages,
subsidies and state programmes can cause increased hardships to poor peopte.
which are recommended by the
This can sometimes lead to social unrest, which makes it more difficutt to
IMF as a precondition for retease
provide a peacefut environment. Removatof protection can also cause [oca[
of money loaned. These poticies
industries, which may have had potentiat, to fotd. often include the reduction of the
public sector, the removat of tariffs
on foreign trade, the removal or
Summary reduction of subsidies and social
While multilateral agencies set out to assist the poorer countries of the welfare payments, privatisation of
world, the actual policies and conditionalities they insist on may not cure state-owned businesses and the
the problems they set out to address. Another factot, which can impact removal of restrictions on foreign
exchange. These poticies have had
significantly on the development prospects of countries in the present
serious social consequences.
world environment, is the transnationd corporation. You will learn about
this in the next section.

TransnationaI corporations and development

All poor countries welcome the intewention of transnationals into their
countries because of their control of finance, markets, and technology.
This kind of organisation is privately owned and controlled in one
country but draws upon the resources of as many countries as possible
to integrate inputs through its organisation for the production of output.
HoweveL while there are obvious benefits to attracting transnationals to
cash-strapped economies, there are also ways in which the transnationals
can inhibit the dwelopment of the host country.
! Caribbean Studies
Example
MX International had invested in
country Y and spent a period of five
years. The company had secured tax
concessions on profit and imported
inputs and technology for a period
of five years, and they are now ready
to teave at the end of that five-year
period. The company was involved
in the making of beer. During the
five-year period, most of the profits
were repatriated and the firm was
managed by foreigners. Att of the
inputs came from abroad from its
other subsidiaries. Now that the firm
is ready to leave it is felt that the
industry wilt die and workers will tose
their jobs.
Activity 7J6 E
suggest some key bargaining points to guide your government in altowing
multinationats to invest in your country.
Feedback
You wi[[ certainly want to make sure that the investment ties in with the
long-term needs of your country. you wittwant to evatuate the emptoyment
potentia[ of the project and how much loca[ materials can be accessed. you
may want to get [oca[ managers exposed to the industry.
Summary
?ansnational corporations serve their own interests and as profit-seeking
organisations it is their right to do so. It is the responsibiliryof the host
countries to negotiate properly with them in a transparent and competent
fashion.
Key points
I Dwelopment is about improving the quality of life for all.
I Economic growth does not always lead to dwelopment.
I caribbean.economies face challenges in providing a decent standard
of
uvrng tor aU.
Political parricipation facilitates dwelopment.
I Globalisation presents new possibilities as well as challenges.
r we have to learn to deal with key international institutions.
Conclusion
Dwelopment is slow and it is a learning process. The
caribbean is faced
with the challenge o{ developing the re$on in such *"y
produce
a better quality of life for its citLens in1 sustainable" "r-ro
ani equitabre
way. The new global order presents cerrain challenges
possibilities, which we have to deal with. ";;;ll as certaia
?
Suggested further readings
!.irv.an, N. (ed.) Rethinking Developmenr, Kingston: Consortium
Graduate School in the Social Sciences, 1995.
Hunter, R. What is Development!, Washington
DC, Overseas
Development Council.
 Section 7 Concepts and indicators of devetopment I
End test
1 With reference to your country, examine each indicator and tick the relevant box if
ydu think it.is satisfactoryor unsatisfractory.

lndicators Satisfactory i Unsatisfactory

Income per capita
Unemployment levets
lnflation
Pubtic infrastructure

Levels of new investment

Educational opportunity
Crime
Housing I

Diversification of the economy

Meora tTeedom

Equity

You are an adviser to a Caribbean government. A big muttinationat hotel chain would
like to set up on the istand. This hotel woutd promote att-inctusive packages. Atl of
its food inputs woutd be imported. The hotel would be managed mainty by foreign
staff. Of course, the hotel would like to have certain tax concessions. Explain the
tikety effects of this investment on the development of the country and advise the
government on some demands they could make to increase benefits to the country.
Choose one group that supports conservation of the environment in your country and
the impact of the group's activities on the production of goods and services as
as,sess
welt as the quatity of life in your country.
ldentify two positive ways that globalisation has affected education and
entertainment in your country.
A Caribbean country has a balance of payment problem and has gone to the IMF for
a [oan. The loan is granted but as part of the agreement, the IMF requires atl taxes on
foreign foods to be removed. Write a paragraph suggesting the possibte impact of this
arrangement on the Caribbean country.
a Do transnational corporations (TNCs) have a rote to play in the development of
your country?
b Examine any TNC operating out of your country and assess the negative and
positive impact on your country.
Devetop a comprehensive list of criteria that a poticymaker in government can use as a
framework for assessing proposats by foreign firms that wish to invest in your country.
you must inctude a brief justification of each criterion, showing its relationship to
devetopment.
I Caribbean Studies
Feedback for end test
The answers to the first four items may be obtained
by checking documents. The other items require
some knowledge of the ptace where you tive and
some subjective assessment can be made. lt woutd
be
interesting to share your answers with someone else.
You woutd look to see how the arrangement can
be done so as to maximise emptoyment, training
of local managers, tax revenues, input from tocat
manufacturers and farmers and benefits to other
operators in the tourism business.
Co.nservation groups can affect output by making
it ittegat for certain kinds of harmfui projucts and
processes to be foisted on the pubtic. Their activities
can increase the quality of life for a[ and encourage
a
feeting of equity in the society by their opposition
to
powerfuI business interests when required'.
Some positive ways gtobalisation has affected
education:
r many fietds of activity.
More citizens can earn degrees externalty while
studying at home.
I devetopment, you have to consider eirptoyment
Students can do courses over the internet.
I oi
Easier access to books.
Framework fot
Criteria
Does it displace tocal enterprise?
i Can it help to produce lo."l entJprisJ
Can it contribute to the a"u"toprr,"nt
to."f
of
technologicat capabitity?
Can it generate local emptoymente
ls it going to increase the net i"ft","
exchange? "ff*",g"
Wilt it help to develop tocal materiats?
Witt the project be integrated into the
toc"t
community?
What witt be the impact on tt t*"t
" "*i-r_*tZ
Would it lead to downstream operations?
Some positive ways that gtobatisation has impacted
on entertainment:
I The abitity to share in more of the wortd,s culture.
r The possibitity that [oca[ artistes can se[[ their
cutture to the wortd as wett.
Your paragraph must include the fact that white
acquiring the loan woutd assist with the payment of
the deficit, the reduction of taxes on foreign goods
would make foreign goods more competit]ve, as it
might be cheaper for consumers to purchase foreign
goods instead of the tocatty manufactured goods.
This would increase the outftow of foreign exchange.
Keep in mind that the IMF may see this is a strategy
to make tocal producers improve their products.
a TNCs do have a role to ptay in any country today.
They are the leaders in cutting edge technotogy-
and a significant number have beiome teaderi in
b In assessingthe impactof anyTNC inyourcountry,s
effects, technotogy transfers, generation
downstream activity, tax revenues, purchase
of inputs,
community invotvement and environmental effects.
Justification
long+ffi1["1$.*g
This coutd deter
Thiswouldimprove@
I This woutd certainly t"ffi
I areas.
iorejobsmeanmorep"@
services.
j This woutd rn"an th
I has to and also build reserves.
I This would hetp to generate rnor" iiiilf
I overatt. ".on-rni.
lf it is integrat"d
people would not be disrupted ,nn"Lrr"rigl
tfthelocal"nuiron@
heatth of the society is preserved.
rftheoutPutoftheinffi
Ij industries, there
wit[ be a great impact on the economy
I overall.
 Section 7 Concepts and indicators of devetopment I

Tutor-marked assignment
Answer the following question in approximately 500 words.
1 What do you understand by the term,development,? l5 marks
2 How does the present global order affect your country,s
chances for development? 15 marks
*
Criteria for marking
The award of marks is based on the following.

ft Content Explanation of concepts:

Analysis of concepts:
5 marks
5 marks
Synthesis of concepts: 5 marks

Structure
You should be able to clearly explain the term'development'touching on
the two conceptions of dwelopment. In question 2 you niay deal with
issues such as removal of preferential access to metropolitan markets
(WTO rulesf; effects of competition on local producers, manufactures, the
World Wide Web and 'in-formation without borders'.

StyIe
Analysis and interpretation should be relevant to the issue. Conclusions
drawn should be warranted, logical and insightful.

il
ff
,t
f;
il I

t
il
t

ilrl
fr
't
 t contribution of sports to devetopment
in the Caribbean
At the end of this section, you
shoutd be able to.
evaluate the importance of
sports in the devetopment of
the region.
You shoutd be able to:
explain some specific ways in
which sports have impacted
on the development of the
Caribbean.
Activity 8J
State TWO ways in which your
society benefits from a treilttry
population.
Feedback
r Reduction in costs of heatth
services as a result of improved
heatth.
I home in the caribbean, we have o"i*
Healthier work force.
Introduction
You will recall from earlier sections that development involves increasing
the choices of people so that all can live fuller lives. This means
increasing the chances for all to achieve their full human potential.
some
material factors t"hat are extremely important in this ,"g"r-d
& levels of output in a country "r",
* level of employment
t levels of investment.
Some of the non-material factors to be considered are:
m educational gpportunities
* housing
w health care
e transport
w levels of crime
e recreation and leisure
w cMcs rights and freedoms.
F'\t-r section, we wilr look at the role of sports in deveropment
in the
caribbean. Sport has facilitated the process- of increasinfit
e crroices of a
number of caribbean people, thereby helping trt"*
io
human potential. "trri.* their full
Content
r Sports and health and fttness
I Sports and identity
t Sports and morale
n Sports/tourism and income generation
s Sports and educational oppornrnities
Sports in the human famity
Think about the big sporting events of the world.
For example:
Tennis at Wimbledon World Cup Football
World Olympics World Cup Cricket
The Commonwealth Games
what other events h.1y.e the gapacity to generate
such excitemenr across
the globe,-to keep millions of p"opl. r-#tea
to their television sets and
to make them arrange their lives io as to
share i,, th;;"r;itsl neopre
wen adopt the names of successful athletes
for their own children in
the Caribbean, names.syc!
ry
venus williams, Ronaldo, MauriL
trger wooar, Md;;l iora'""rr]s.rena and
creene and Marion fones. Here at
Merlene ottey, Ato Bordon,
obadele Thompson, Hasely
-c.t^*f;;d, Don-euarrie, sii C"rh.ld Sobers,
Brian Lara and Courtney w"lsh, ,o ,r"rrr" a few.
il section 8 contribution of sports to deveropment in the
caribbean I
Heatth and fitness
il The fust obvious benefit to any society of participation
is the dwelopment of mentar and physical
in sports by its
Activity 8.2
What was the reaction of West
:ETr tt popuration. lndians when the West Indies
Participation in sports has a tremendous impact "rtrr;i,ir.
lt on one,s
Thisactivity is meant to help you ro assess the value of a
heatth.
hearthy
cricket team defeated the Engtish
cricket team in the first half of the
population. twentieth century?

il Building identiry and pride have to do with enlarging the

Plonle- and-empowering them. These
life choices of
,rorr--"t ri"l fictors are closely Feedback

il related to the concept of development.

West Indian victory over the Engtish
cricket team indicated that the West
Sport and the development of good citizens Indian cricket team coutd compete

il flave-rgy aner played any ream sport? Even if you have not, you probably
with our former coloniaI masters at

I
have followed some team game, perhaps football, their own game. Under the captaincy
;; h;k;;,
"ri"k ""ii"ti. of Clive Lloyd, the West Indies cricket
team were the world leaders for
Activity 8.3 . about 15 years. With openers tike
1 Make a list of SIX quatities required in a good team player. Gordon Greenidge and Desmond
2 Haynes and pace bowters like

il 3
Make a list of SIX qualities required in a good citizen of a country.
Make a tist of slX quatities required in a good worker in a production enterprise.
Matcotm Marshatt, Michael Holding,
Joel Garner and Andy Roberts, and
4
il Compare your three lists. batsmen tike the 'Master Blaster', Sfr
Vivian Richards and Lloyd himself,
the West Indies was invincibte.
Feedback

iJ a Qualities required in a good team ptayer include:

I loyatty
I skitted competence in one's area of expertise
*
r abitity to get atong with others
I dedication
{ I ftexibitity - the abitity to adapt to changing conditions
I abitity to motivate the group
I opennessto learn newthings
{ r humitity in victory

t r grace in defeat.
Compare this list with the others that you made.

i
Feedback

Check through your answers.

i Presence on the world stage How many of your tist are sports

t i
As a region, our most popular personalities and outstanding feats
emanate from the field of spofts. Merlene Ottey and Don euarrie
brought us fame, so too Obadele Thompson, Ato Boldon, Asafa powell,
personalities. In the Caribbean
we may not know the names of
politicians and leaders of the different
countries but we know names like
Brian Lara and Dwight Yorke. Michael Holding, Curtty Ambrose and
{ I Vivian Richards. Otder peopte woutd
I Cricket and the West Indian coltective identity know the three Ws of Caribbean
cricket -Worrett, Weekes and Walcott;
f; Activity 8.4 and, of course, the accomptishments
t List the names of 10 famous West lndians. of Sir Carfield Sobers.
q
I Caribbean Studies

Feedback Sport/income generation/tourism

Activity 8.5 shoutd hetp to make
the point that sports can be big
business. Hotels, vendors, airlines,
taxi-drivers, retaiI estabtishments and
entertainment centres can atl benefit
from sports tourism. Wheneverthere is
a cricket tournament in the Caribbean,
airtines offer special deats to the
destinations where matches are played.
Activity 8.5
Your country is staging the Wortd Under-l7 Footbatl Championship. This will'
invotve 20 finalists from around the wortd. Each team witl spend from 10 to
15 days in your country. Teams will have to get food, accommodation and
transportation. The tournament wil[ attract foreign fans, media, and officiats.
ldentify 10 stakehotders in your country and show how they will benefit from
this event. The first one has been done for you.
Stakehotder Benefits

1 Hotels High occupancy rates and thus more revenues

Feedback

Activity 8.6 may require some

discussion among peers. You may
make estimates. But multipty this
total sum by the number of teams
in your country and then a[[ over the
wortd and one gets the idea of the
size of the sports goods industry.
Think now of atl the different
games that are ptayed and have
to be supplied with shoes, clothes,
equipment and special foods.
Example
Consider some interesting facts about
the footbatl ctub Manchester United,
which can be used as an idea of what
gains are possible from sports.
Manchester United's total
revenue for 2OO2 was €1,461m
CBP (man.utd.com)
€563m GBP or 39 per cent of
total revenue in 2002 came from
match day cotlections.
€519m GBP or 36 per cent of
total revenue in 2002 came from
media turnover.
Manchester United trades on its
fan base of 50 mittion peopte
worldwide to selt a number of
products using the Manchester
United brand name.
Manchester United is a commercial
and media-based organisation
driven by a winning footba[ team.
It uses its football fame to selt
media coverage and different lines
of clothing and consumer goods.
Manchester United pLC is a pubtic
timited company with shares
quoted on the stock exchange.
Activity 8.6
You are the manager of a footbalt or netball team. You have to equip a team
of 20 ptayers for the season. Make a list of the items you will have to buy to
outfit the team and to train your team for one season.
Sports and the building of community
Activity 8.7
For each of the sporting disciptines betow, list the number of ctubs that exist
in your country.
1 Football 3 Cricket 5 Hockey
2 Athletics 4 Netbatt 6 Lawn tennis
Feedback
Activity 8.7 is meant to alert you to the number of ctubs that function in our
societies in the caribbean without the pubtic being futty aware of the extent
to which private individuats dedicate time and effort to the pursuit of the
development of ygung peopte through sport. some of these ctubs have been in
existence for decades.
Activity 8.8
count the number of lea€ues you know of in your country in cricket and
netbalt. How many are there at the schoot tevet? now miny are there
at the
community level? How many are there at the national levei? How many are
run by non-governmental organisations? ldentify them.
Feedback
This has atways been a strong area of civic participation in the
caribbean.
These leagues have been a popular form of community recreation
for
supporters; heatthy exercise foryoung peopte;disciptined
co[aborative activity
for youths; and development of organisationat skirts for adutts
who manage
these ctubs.
 section 8 contribution of sports to development in the caribbean I
Sports education and employment
Activity 8.9
A friend wishes to seek emptoyment in an area retated to sport. List the jobs
that may be avaitabte in each of the fottowing:
1 Ministry of Sports
2 West Indies Cricket Board (WICB)
3 Ministry of Education
4 Management of a stadium

Feedback

Keep in mind that the Ministry of Education has to employ persons to train
children in atlthe available sporting disciplines. There are, therefore, a range
of occupations invotved in the area of sport. There is need for coaches,
administrators, trainers, managers, marketing personnet, prolessional
managers, physiotherapists and sports doctors.

Scholastic aptitude test (SAT)

Activity 8J0
Sports scholarships to North American universities have allowed many
What percentage of our student
young people to access university education in North America. Our population goes on to tertiary
students have contributed to these universities by their prowess in the education?
field of spoft. Today good SAT scores and proof of decent abiliry in a spoft
can qualify a student for a full or partial scholarship at a North American What does a three-year degree
university. programme cost in a foreign
university?

Activity 8J1
Make a list of the names of famous sportsmen in your country and the rest Feedback
of the Caribbean. Several of these individuals have achieved worldwide fame,
status, and income. Sports have provided an avenue for social mobitity in Less than 10 per cent of our
the Caribbean. This atso holds true for the rest of the wortd. student population acceses tertiary
education. lt is fett by ptanners in the
region that the number shoutd be
increased to 20 per cent.
Conclusion
A three-year degree programme at
We have considered sport and its effects on health and fitness, discipline a North American university can
and morale, identity, income generation, tourism 4nd educational cost approximatety 510,000 US for
opportunities. It is important to understand that the impact of sports tuition onty.
on dwelopment is great. Sport has the capacity to affect employment
opportunities. Sport dso helps to improve the qudity of life for
individuals.

Suggested fu rther read ings

|ames, C. L. R. Beyond a Boundary, London: Hutchinson and Company
Limited, 1963.
Beckles, H. ASpirit of Dominance: Cficket and nationalism in the West
Indies, Kingston: Ian Randle Publications, L997.
Ince, B. Black Meteors: The Caribbean in international athletics,
Kingston: Ian Randle Publications, 1998.

E
f Caribbean Studies

End test
1 lmagine tha-t you are a Minister of Education of an English-speaking Caribbean
country and Australia witl be playing the West lndies iricketteam -n yorr coirntrlr.
The tradition has been that schools get one hatf day off in or:der to aliow studenfs
to
view the game. Some school principals are objecting to the practice. As Minister. of
Education, outline in about 1o lines an argument to support this practice.
2 You are the President of the West tndies Cricket Board and are organising a tour
of
the West lndies by a foreign team. There shatl be five matches in differenl countries.
The boardl finances are limited and revenues wi]l not cover expenses. you want to
approach the government as we[[ as the private sector for assiitance. Which private
sector organisations witl you target and why? What argument wilt you put to atl your
potential contributors? Answer in 10 to 12 tines.
3 An athletics ctub that has been functioning for three decades is facing the threat
of
closure due to financial problems. You are ihe President of the ctub aid have been
invited by a government official to make a request for assistance. Make'an argument
for assistance in about 1O lines.
4 You are the sports coordinator for the CARICOM regional secretariat. you
are
preparing a Programme for the development of cricket and netball throughout
the
region. You need the support of the individual governments. outtine
irgr;"nt ot
four or five paragraphs showing the benefits tJthe region and the individu-al
"n territories
if these sports are encouraged to grow.

Feedback for end test

You may wish to emphasise the way cricket has
hetped to devetop regional identity over the years.
You may want to suggest the threat of us losing the
sport attogether since young people do not seem
attracted to it as before.
It shoutd be obvious that buitding regionat identity
hasto do with increasing the tife choices of peoptl
and empowering them.
Inyour argument you may point out the financial
benefits to the society. lt would be wise to target
those who gain from the tour without paying, for
example, airtines, hotets and entertainment centres.
You willwant to include the contribution of the club
in-devetoping young peopte, in developing the skitts
of organisation in the community and in making
recreation availabte to a[t.
You,witlwant to emphasise the economic benefits,
the heatth benefits, cutturaI benefits (identity),
community empowerment, employment and
education.

Tutor-marked assignment
rvl/rite an essay
of 500 words on the following topic:
How has the dwelopmenr of the caribbean been affected
by the game of
cricket so far in our history?
20 marks
Criteria for marking
The award of marks is based on the following.
Content E:cplanation of concepts : 6 marks
Analysis of concepts: 7 marla
Synthesis of concepts:
7 marks
 9 RegionaI integration and devetopment
General objective
At the end of this section, you
should be able to:
exptain the ways in which the
evotution of the integration
movement has influenced
devetopment in the region.
Specitic objectives
You shoutd be abte to:
trace the history of the
il integration movement
il evaluate the progress of the
integration movement
explain the difficutties involved
il in the deepening of the
integration movement
'l exptain the chaltenges and
achievements of key regional
il institutions such as the West
Indies Cricket Board, the
University of the West lndies,
Caribbean Examinations
Councit, the Caribbean Tourism
Organisation.
Activity 9.2
A tariff has been ptaced on soft
drinks entering your country. What
woutd be the impact of the tariff
on each of the following agents?
1 Local consumers
2 Local producers
3 Exporters to your country
4 Covernment
Introduction
In this section, we will look at ways the regional integration movement
can contribute and has contributed to the dwelopment process.
Content
x From CARICOM to Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSMEI
H Achievements and challenges of the University of the West Indies
(UWI), the West Indies Cricket Board (WICBI, the Caribbean
Examinations Council (CXC) and the Caribbean Tourism
Organisation (CTO|
In order for you t3 b.gin to understand institutions like CARICOM and
the CSME, you ffrst have to understand some key issues in the
integration process.
Activity 9.1
List 1O of the most pressing problems facing your country.
Feedback
You may have included crime, corruption, unemptoyment, HIV/AlDS, poverty,
teenage pregnancy, an unstabte economy, vulnerability to foreign inftuenceg
and mono-crop production. The fact is that attthe countries of the Caribbeah
face some common probtems today and this tist would look almost the same
for at[ territories.
Economic co-operation
One of the traditional first steps which countries take in order to begin
integration within any identiffable group is to liberalise trade within
the group. This has the impact of creating a bigger domestic market
for producers within the group. This is done by the gradual removal of
barriers to trade within the group. The economic co-operation may be
gradually intensified over time.
Effect of a tariff
You must understand the effects of. a tarrtf. if you are to begin to
understand the problems and dynamics of an integration movement.
A tariff is a tax placed on foreign goods entering a country. Governments
may impose ta:€s on foreign goods in order to protect local producers.
Feedback
1 Tariffs would make foreign goods more expensive to [oca[ consumers.
2 Local producers of that product would be protected against
competition from foreign products as the tariff would lead to a
E
 I Caribbean Studies
Activity 9.3
How would manufacturers in the
Caribbean region benefit from the
existence of a free trade area?
Feedback
Al[ these manufacturers can assume
that the Caribbean is their home
market, which they can access.
Each producer (whether located in
Barbados or Grenada) can produce
knowing the market for the product
is the whote Caribbean. Regionat
producers can operate on a larger
scate and so use machinery more
effectively. In the tong run, output
and avaitabte jobs witt increase.
Feedback
Countries where producers are
inefficient or less productive stand
to lose the most in a free trade area,
because the producers in the more
productive countries witt be in a
betger position to take advantage of
the'new arrangements.
Activity 9.5
You are a Minister of Trade from
one of the smaller countries in
the Caribbean. you foresee the
removal of internaI barriers to
trade as being detrimental to
many businesses in your country.
What can you bargain for with
your other CARICOM partners?
Feedback
Countries norma[y bargain for a
gradual removal of tariffs interna[y
in order to allow time for their firms
to adapt. Countries may also seek
other kinds of assistance as trade_
offs. There may be other ways, such
as training schemes, grants, toans
by
which smatter partners may benefii
from the integration process.
price increase of the foreign good and the locat good would
become
relativety cheaper. LocaI producers might becom]" comptacent about
becoming more efficient.
3 Exporters to your country woutd be ptaced at a disadvantage
as the
increased price due to the tariff may reduce their sates.
4 The government may benefit from the tariff since revenues are generated
for the state from the coltection of the tax (tariff).
A free trade area
A ffrst step in regional co-operation is the formation of a free trade
area.
A free trade area is formed when a group of countrie, a""ia"io
remove
tariffs on trade with one another. rtre c:ariuuean Free rr"ae essociation
(CARIFTAI was formed in 196g, years after the break up of the
_seven
Federation. CARIFTA was upgraded to the srarus of common market fy
*:3:-qr of chaguaramas in r97B andwas afrenrrards referred to as
CARICOM.
Difficulties with economic co-operation
Activity 9.4
You are a manufacturer of furniture in a smatter
istand in the caribbean. you
operate in competition with other caribbean
manufacturers from targer
countries. They operate rarger enterprises. As part
a of the integiation
movement, tariff barriers are removed in your
country. what short-term
impact is the integration movement going to have on your
country?
Concessions to weaker partners
Integration aryrong uneqrral partners is always
a challenge because
partners benefit unevenly from di-fferent
measures. ThiJis the biggest
challenge- in any integration *o.r"*"rr,. p"r*"r,
have to focus on how
they can benefft frorn$9-yhot" pro".r,
over tirne and that i"t ., ,-rg
commitment and goodwill.
Stages in economic co-operation
Stages of integration
)rage I I Free trade area Removal of barriers to irade
Stage 2 Customs union common externaI tarrir-
Stage 3 Common market Common quantitative iestrictioni
Stage 4 Economic union Common financial, economic, t"x"tion
and socialpolicies
rn stage one, countries remove balriers .o
keep their own restrictions for *""oi!,
trade with one another but
outside,hJ-d;;;:"
In-stage two, as a customs
union, all countries in the goup agree
similar policies towards on
i., o"tJ-J. o, the group.
""""t
In stage three, as a common,market, in
addition to internal free trade
and a common set of external trade
barriers, there is free movement
capital and labour within tfre of
_"rt
"om_or, .t.
 Section 9 RegionaI integration and devetopment I
Stage four is the highest form of economic co-operation among
countries. countries may co-operate on all matters affecting them. This
comes close to a political union.

Deepening of the integration process in the Caribbean

Activity 9.6
Assuming that your country is a member of CARICOM, state the possibte net Feedback
resutt of each of the fottowing measures on your country. Woutd there be net
loss or net gain? Free trade in services wi[[ mean
that insurance, banking, finance,
1 Free trade in services between countries.
architecture, engineering and
2 Free movement of labour between countries. medicaI services, among others,
3 Free movement of capital. coutd be supplied without
restrictions by other CARICOM
4 Free movement of persons. firms to your country.
5 Free right to estabtishment anlnarhere for business firms ilr the Caribbean. Free movement of labour and
persons wit[ mean private
individuats and skitted persons
All of the five measures listed above have been accepted since 1989 by would be free to move
the heads of government of CARICOM as part of the stratery for moving throughout the Caribbean to
towards a Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME). pursue their occupations withdut
work permit requ irements.
Activity 9.7 Free movement of capitat meahs
List FIVE possibte objections that may come from citizens in your country in investors would be free to move
response to the proposed measures for estabtishing a CSME. their profits and their investment
to their preferred sites.
Feedback Free movement of persons
means that Caribbean persons
1 Governments may not wish to lose control over certain poticies. woutd not require a nationat
z Some countries fear loss of skitted personnel. passport or traveI document
to move from one CARICOM
3 Firms may gravitate to the bigger territories.
country to another.
4 Some countries fear mass migration from other countries and the potiticat, to establish business
Rights
economic and sociaI imptications of this. anywhere means that caPital
Individuatterritories may betieve they can do better if they negotiate with becomes more easity accessed.
the outside wortd on their own rather than cotlectivety. Combine these five measures with a
common currency and harmonised
fiscat and monetary poticies and
These fears and inhibitions have meant that the integration process has what we witl have produced in the
been rather slow in the Caribbean, in spite of the fact that the CSME is region are ideal conditions for the
intended to improve the qudity of life of people of the Caribbean. maximisation of the resource and
human potentiaI of the Caribbean.
Major institutions ProPetting the integration Process:
the University of the West Indies
The I-IWI has been functioning since 1948. It has expanded its faculties
to include medicine, engineering, law and computer science. The IJWI
has l l centres situated in non-campus territories. The university
has attempted to expand physically to increase student intake and to
accommodate more students by making courses available on a part-time
 f Caribbean Studies

basis and by using distance-education methods. The uwl also has

links
with the private sector and with otJrer universities.
Feedback
Activity 9.8
1 Cave Hit[, Mona, St Augustine This is a quiz on some facts about the university of the west Indies (UWr).
2 Mona, Jamaica write your answers to each question and then iheck betow to see whether
you are correct.
3 Trinidad and Tobago
4 Barbados
1 Name the three campuses of the UWl.

s 1948
2 Where is the Facutty of Medicine located?

6 Mainty from contributions

3 Where is the Faculty of Engineering located?
from participating regionaI 4 Where is the Facutty of Law located?
government and fees 5 In what year was the UWI estabtished?
7 Owen Arthur, Ralph Gonsalves, 5 How is the UWt financed?
Patrick Manning
8 Derek Walcott
7 N-ar.ne three prime ministers in the caribbean who
are past students
of the UWt.
I Name one Nobel prize winner who is a past student of the
UWl.

Your government has decided to abandon its commitment

to the uwr and
intends to s_et up its own university in the future. Advance
FoUR sirong
arguments for continuing to participate in the UWl.

Feedback

Activity 9J0 You may want to consider the issue of costs. Because
caribbean countries are
List FIVE ways the UWI and UG can small, it is probabty more cost effective to have one
regionat institution. This
contribute to the devetopment of would certainly minimise costs.
the region. Also you must consider the benefit from caribbean
peoptes interacting white
they study' This woutd tead to a meeting of different
cuttures and woutd
Feedback facilitate a regionaI outlook by the instiiution.
The.institutions mqy then be in competition with
Five from: one another and may
dupticate effort.
Producing skitted personneI to
run business€s, goV€tnment and
industry.
The uwl and universiry of Guyana (uG) face the
following challenges:
Producing people committed
the region.
to I competition from foreign universities, which
have entered into
parrnerships with local agencies to
Devetoping science and t
offer a.i, a.gr.rrl;*, by distance.
off-shore universities, which have set up throughout
technology. (they mav be easier to access the caribbean
Producing research that fuets the perceive to be easier to obtainf"tta
ori", digrees ,r;;;;;;*s may
.
private sector. t Individual governments, perceive the need for a university
Producing research that solves under their direct politicallvhich tl.
society's probtems. r The need to expand in order "orrt
to raise the level of graduates
approximately l0 per cent of the population;i.hild"; from
Raising the level of innovation ,o abour
20 per cent.
and entrepreneurship in the
region.
r Providing tertiary education for students
who lack financiar resources
while governments insist trrat stuaents
bear
economic costs of university education. ";;;;;;;ion of the
 Section 9 Regionatintegration and devetopment I
Caribbean Examinations Council
The caribbean Examinations council (cxcl was established in l9z2
under agreement by the participating governments to conduct such
examinations as they may think appropriate and award certiffcates and
diplomas on the results of any such examination so conducted. The
participating territories are:
r Anguilla E St Lucia
ll r
r
Antigua and Barbuda I St Vincent and the Grenadines
Barbados r Tfinidad and Tobago
r r
il r
Belize
British Virgin Islands I
firrks and Caicos Islands
Guyana
r Cayman Islands r |amaica
r Dominica I Montserrat
r Grenada r St KittslNwis

Feedback
Activity 9.11
ln the early twentieth century in the Caribbean, when students studied Show how the work of the CXC
geography they learned onty about England and North America. When we did has contributed to Caribbean
biotogy in schools, we studied foreign plants and animats. devetopment.

Understanding and appreciating one's own is essential for gaining a sense

of place in the world. This is the first stage for manipulating onet own
environment. The CXC has the responsibitity to determine what knowledge
is worth knowing from a Caribbean perspective. Without the setf-confidence
that comes from knowing and vatuing se[f, creativity is crippted and a society
remains poor because peopte witt lack a sense of what is possibte.

Economic benefits

Activity 9.12
1 List FIVE of the emptoyment opportunities that exist because of the
existence of the CXC.
2 List some of the cost savings the CXC brings to the region.

Feedback

The CXC emptoys a range of peopte to manage its affairs: administrators,

curricutum officers, measurement experts, cterical and secretarial
staff, subject speciatists in various disciplines, markers, supervisors and
examiners in al[ the different subject areas.
Thousands of chitdren sit the exams every year. In former times, fees for
chitdren to sit each subject would have been paid to examining bodies
abroad. Foreign exchange is saved by the region with the existence of the
cxc.
The potential savings are now greater because the CXC has increased its
offerings to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE). The
CXC atso makes provision for private candidates, who may not be in the
formal school system, to partake in examinations in many of the subjects
offered.
 f Caribbean Studies

Enhancing the integration process

Feedback
There are many people who may
have answered 'no'to all of the
questions above. Peopte who answer
'yes'to most of the questions
very often have friends in other
territories. A human connection
makes a big difference.
Since 1972, the CXC has provided
a basis for people from attover
the Caribbean to work together to
implement the work of the councit.
This continuous interaction has
contributed to the establishment
of a network of friends across the
Caribbean. Through meaningfut
professionaI interaction, the CXC
has given the regionat movement
something that it lacked. That is, the
awareness of commonality and a
sense of belonging to one famity.
Activity 9J3
Answer 'yes' or 'no'to each of the fo[owing questions.
'l You listen to daity news programmes from the rest of the region.
2 You read newspapers from the rest of the region.
3 You regularly watch tetevision broadcasts from the other caribbean
countries.
4 You fotlow closety the potitical affairs of the region.
5 You understand the problems facing the other territories of the region.
6 You fee[ a personal connection to the other peopre of the region.
Activity 9J4
The government of your country is_bejng pressured to revert to a foreign
examining body and abandon the cxc. civetHnrg arguments to convince
them to remain with the CXC.
Feedback
Your argument shoutd include:
foreign exchange savings, buitding of identity through
knowtedge
m"pg:m:lt, building a core of CARTCOM professidnats, reteva"nce
to the Caribbean experience.

The West Indies Cricket Board (WICB)

rfl wtcn is responsible for the administration and organisation
of
gricket in the region..I_t comprises representatives from-Brrbados,
Guyana,
famaica, the Leeward_Islandi, the windward Islands and Tfinidad
Tobago. The west Indies-has played internarional and
cricket since I92g and
the administratiog has always been in tt. t
oi,rr" wrEn.
"rri,
Achievements of the WICB
I The wICB has managed west Indies crickeg
a maior unifying force in
the English-speaking baribbean.
I The wICB has sought to mobilise government
and privare sector
support for the game. F
r The wrcB has organised co-aching prograrnmes
the territorial boaids from the inairiau"at
in colaboration with
iJli.rop tr* r
sport in the various territories.

Future chatlenges
"";;;i;;
:l
r
I
To bring West Indian cricket back to
world standard.
r government and privare secror sponsorship
$j::ff* for the game
I To develop a newthrust in coaching
dwelop more cricketing talent.
throughout the west Indies to
I
il
_l
 9 I

t
Section Regional integration and devetopment

r To modernise coaching, pay more attention to fitness

levels and
appropriate diet, and provide player education for our
cricketers to be
able to compete consistently tir" highest lwel.
"t

tl Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO)

IT-rhir section, we look at_an organisation that evolved from some very
old institutions that have been zuccessfully promoting caribbean tourism
since the early trn'entieth century. Tourism has a greaipotential for
conqibrlting to employment and income gen"t"ti,on in the caribbean.

t No doubt people from countries like Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda and
famaica will understand this very well because of their well-developed
tourism sector.
The cro was formed officially in I989 by the merger of the caribbean
Tourism Association and the caribbean Tourism Research centre. The
I't main purpose of the cro is the dwelopment of sustainable tourism for
the economic and social benefit of the Caribbean region.
Activities of the CTO include those listed below: .
f,! r Tburism marketing: The marketing of the Caribbean as one
il r
destination.
Research and information management: Relevant and up-to-date
information provided to all stakeholders in tourism to aid
decision-making.
r Human resource dwelopmenc The organisation assists with the

il r
training of relevant personnel for the industry.
Product development and technical assistancq The organisation
assists stakeholders to conceptualise a niche in the tourism industry.
r Consultancy sen'ices: Providing assistance to all stakeholders by

il providing easy access to a pool of professionals to satisfy the specific

needs of different stakeholders. Feedback

Hotel owners need to study

il Activity 9J5
What part do the following stakehotders play in the work of the CTO?
the patterns of arrivats and
departures, and lengths of stay of
1 3
t
Hotel owners Governments those who visit different territories
2 Airline operators 4 Tour operators
to be abte to plan expansion.
Airline operators need
information on the ptans of
Some achievements of the CTO different tou rist packages offered
fi The CTO has made some major achievements. For example, the CTO:
in different areas so they can ptan
their routes.

t I
E
r
hosts a conference on tourism is organised annually in the Caribbean
sponsors regular trade shows in Europe
has set up chapters in dl the major markets across Europe and North
Governments need information
on the trends in travel so they
can give incentives and support

t x
America
maintains comprehensive tourism information for the public and
private sectors
to the local industry.
Tour operators can get data on
different prices and packages
{ n maintains up-to-date websites in different languages for travellers to offered in different countries by
t access information on the Caribbean competitors so they can ptan
s 'has succeeded in the approach to advertising the Caribbean as one their packages.
destination
T
fi
I

."tr"
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 9J6
List FIVE ways in which an annual
conference on tourism may
be beneficial to tourism in the
Caribbean.
End test
Write short answers to the foltowing.
1 Exptain THREE potential benefits
2 DescribeTWO sources of possibte resistance to the development
3 DiscussTHREE chattenges facing any regional or national universigr
Feedback
1 Provides opportunity for all stakeholders to interact.
2 Provides information on recent devetopments
3 Makes resutts of recent research avaitabte for atl.
4 Raises pubtic knowtedge and awareness about the tourism industry.
5 Makes poticymakers and planners more conscious of the needs of the
industry.
Challenges facing the CTO
The challenges facing the CTO include:
r making governments more aware of the need to support the industry
r changing the public perception of tourism so that it is more acceptable
as an important economic sector and a friendlier environment for
tourism to be dweloped
r wining a greater share of the tourism market in an era when tourists
are now concerned about international terrorism and travel to certain
destinations
r assisting local operators to refine their tourism product so that small-
scale operators may beneftt from the industry
r continuing to market the region as a safe destination in spite of
hurricanes and other natural disasters that occur occasionaly.
Conclusion
The-9sME can bring maior benefits to the caribbean but there are many
hurdles to cross. There are regional instirutions with a long history of
success but they face many challenges in their continued divelopment.
D-welopmentprospects for the region are f.ar greater with the deepening
of the regional movement. There is growing realisation that we need to
hasten the process.
Suggested fgrther readings
wedderburn, I . A caribb ean Reader on D evelopment, Kingston: Friedrich
Ebert Stifsung 1986.
West Indian Commission A Tlme for Action: Repon of the West Indian
Commission, Mona: The press, 1992.
:
to be derived from the csME.
l
of the CSME.
in the Caribbean.
 Section 9 Regionatintegration and development I
Feedback for end test

CSME woutd attow more professionals in the region
to remain within the region, intensify the benefits of
the singte market for regional producers, facititate
greater cottaboration in government poticies and so
reduce costs to all in the region, hasten the creation
of a Caribbean identity. lt woutd also help to advance
integration in production invotving combinations
of resources of different countries, for exampte,
atuminum from one country and natural gas from
another.
Sources of possibte resistance would be:
disptacement of locats in the job market, unfair
distribution of benefits, disptacement of locat firms
by other CARICOM firms, some imptied toss of
government sovereignity.
3 a To expand its intake to attow a larger number of
Persons to access tertiary education.
b To improve its distance education capabilities to
attow for more ftexibitity in programming.
c To build more connection with the private sector
of these societies. To continue to provide quatity
education that is locatty, regionatly and gtobatty
retevant.

Tutor-marked assignment
Write a letter of approximately 500 words to a newspaper in your country
showing how the CSME would affect your country in the short run and
the long run. Convince your fellow citizens that even if there are short-
term losses there will be long-term gains.
20 marks

Criteria for marking

The award of marks is based on the following.
Content Explanation of concepts: 6 marks
Analysis of concepts: 7 marks
Synthesis of concepts: 7 marks

StyIe
Analysis and interpretation should be relevant to the issue' Conclusions
drawn should be warranted, logical and insightful.

il
t.
r
r

q
F

,#
 10 |ffiffiil:motinsorhinderins
At the end of this section, you
shoutd:
understand the relationship
between politics, economics
and devetopment.
objectives
You should be abte to:
identify major forms of
inequatity in your country
explain the historicaI causes of
inequalities
state the effects of inequalities
on the development process
show the connection between
education, inequality and
devetopment
explain the potentiat benefits
and chattenges of tourism in
the Caribbean
identify the different kinds of
disasters we are prone to in
the Caribbean and show their
impact on devetopment
define the meaning of ideotogy
identify different id".1"il,
demonstrate how taissez-
faire free market ideotogy can
impact on development
discuss how HIV/AtDS,
narcotics and crime impact on
development.
Introduction
In this_section, you are going to examine some of the factors promoting
or hindering development in the Caribbean.
This section deals with five issues:
t Distribution of resources r Natural disasters
I Challenge of tourism r Ideolory and dwelopment
r Health issues, the narcotics trade and crime
we have dealt with the concept of dweropment in a prwious section and
w-e adopted the position that dwelop-ettl has to do with improving the
life of people. And while there is a cruciil material
to this,
there are also other non-material considerations tt "o*po".",
t io do with
the quality of life, for exampre, freedoms enjoyed and "".
"t participation in
decision-making.
You will now need the concept of dweropment in dealingwith
the issues discussedlo.in"ppl.v
this section.
Content
& Unequal distribution of resources r Natural disasters
and development
e Tourism - challenges and potential I Ideolory of development
n Other factors that promote or hinder development
UnequaI distribution of resources
caribbean societies are. characrerised by hlsh
degrees of inequarity in
the ownership of wearth and income
that some people do not have access ,o-fi"
rirshld;";;1;il"liry means
ffiJ-i;i,t";1*rrl gooa, ro,
enioying a decent quality of life. This may
also mean that the talent
and energies of t{rese people may not be avairabre
for improving the
productive potential of thi society.
Activity 10.1 will herp you to focus on the extent
prevails in your country. of inequarity that
Activity 1O.1
For your country, specify whether the
foltowing conditions appty or not.
1 High tevets of poverty with some tiving in
[uxury
2 High tevets of unemployment
3 Marginalised groups
4 Poor public health-care system
5 Squattingcommunities
6 Urban ghettos side by side with luxury
condominiums
can you identify other instances of inequatigr
that you perceive in your country?
 Section 10 Factors promoting or hindering devetopment I
SociaI mobility
social mobility exists when individuals who come from low-income
families are able, through effort and industry to move out and enioy
-
a better standard of lMng. There are many exampres of this in the
caribbean. Many of our lawyers and doctors and politicians were from
I
low-income families. This kind of mobility is very healthy for a sociery.

I The next activity will help you determine whether your family has been
achiwing some degree of social mobility over time.

Inter-generationaI mobitity
I If your grandfather was a labourer and your father was a teacheq, then
Activity 10.2

I your family has experienced inter-generational

Intra-generationaI mobitity
mobility. Indicate the educationat levels and
emptoyment levels achieved by
your grandfather and father. Also
indicate the same for yoursetf,
If your father beg;an work as an office clerk and wentually became a manager given your aspirations.
10 years later, then within one generation your father would have climbed out
of one social strata into another. This is called intra-generatibn mobility.
x EducationaI level: primary,
secondary, or tertiary
while both of these types, inter-generational and intra-generational, o{ mobility
# Employment leveL high,

I have been prwalent in the Caribbean, today the prospecB for such seem to be
getting more difficult. This is unhealttry for the social stability of the society.
middle, or low income

I History of inequatity in the Caribbean

'I am a slave from a land so far
Feedback

lf your grandfather had primary

I was caugltt and I was brougJtt here from Africa education and did [ow-income

I It was licks |ike.fue from the white slave master'

The Mighty Sparrow
work and your father had secondary
education and did middle-income
work, then your family has achieved

I with the history of the Caribbean, you will know

If you are familiar
that the very wolution of Caribbean society is one of exploitation and
suffering. Some groups were brought into the society under conditions of
some mobitity. You are probably
aiming higher than your forefathers.

I servitude and some as masters.

I Activity 10.3
For each country betow, indicate the appropriate condition that may have
apptied in that country during its evolution. Keep in mind that the countries of
the Caribbean were at[ cotonies under some European power.
Conditions: i European owners and managers Feedback
ii Stavery and indentureship You may have chosen at[ conditions
iii Limited/no access to prospects for slaves for a[[ countries and you are
iv Limited or no access for capital accumutation correct. Part of the chatlenge in the
Caribbean is to reduce the traditionaI
v Laws used to inhibit staves after freedom disparities between the dominant
Countries: Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, groups and the formerly dominated
Antigua and Barbuda and Dominica. grouPs.

Highly limited economies

'TheWest Indies is that place wherc Britain finds it convenient for
the growing of sugar, tobacco ...'
|ohn Stuart Mill, 1892
 I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
lf you examine your answers, you
will reatise that there is unequal
access to income and, therefore, the
generation of weatth is not easy to
solve overnight. Transformation of
the economy is required.
Activity 10.5
List the costs of a high crime
rate to your society. One cost is
suggested as an example.
1 Disincentive to tourism
resulting in a loss of revenue.
Feedback
Other costs may be: loss of foreign
investment; costs of constructing
more prisons; costs of expanding
police force; strain on medicat
services; anxiety on the part of the
population; migration out of the
country.
caribbean economies are very undiversified and sometimes dependent on
a single commodity. we need more balanced economies and more sectors
dweloping industries that can compete with the rest of the world.
Activity 10.4 will help you to assess the capacity of your economy for '
generating employment and incomes for alarger percentage of the
population
Activity 10.4
Indicate 'yes' or 'no' for each of the foltowing statements to indicate whether
or not it appties to your country.
Yes No
i lt is undiversified and dependent on one main sector.
i
2 Local entrepreneurship is in great supply.
3 Our producers do not need protected markets for our exports.
4 New sectors are expanding enough to emptoy the labour force. l
5 Government project work for unemptoyment is very
necessary.
6 The [oca] manufacturing sector is very dynamic.
Crime - a cost of inequatity
'War in the East
War in theWest
War up North
War down South
Now everywhere is war,
Bob Marley
when inequality becomes very pronounced, it can lead to increased
crime, which in extreme cases may border on social chaos.
what makes
it worse in the Garibbean is when the inequality follows colour/ethnic
lines and when certain regions and groups u."o*" rrru*"rg"a
crime and violence.
i" cycles of
4"ti"iry I 0.5 will assist you in
analysing the effects of a high crime rate on
the society. The effects ge clearly i-*i*t t" *rra*r"pE"t
of the society
because reso'rces absorbed could be used more productiiely.
chaos is tfueatened the very prospect for dwerof,merr,
wt social
"r,
,..-, unecrtain.
Education and sociaI mobility
'Children go to school and learn well
otherwise later on in kfe yuh go ketch real hell.
Wthout ah educationinyuh head
yuh whole kfe wil be pure misery,
wh better off dead'
The Mighry Sparrow
 Section 10 Factors promoting or hindering devetopment I
Education is a key factor in the democratisation of a society. social
barriers are removed or overcome by groups of people as thly become
educated and skilled. In the caribbean, edlr""tiott was the main avenue
for social mobility. Education prepared people to hold the highest offtces
in government and public service.
lbday, the link between education and access to the good life is no
longer as simple. In addition, in some instances the education system is
definitely inadequate for the dwelopment of the human resources of the
country.
Activity 10.6 will help you to assess the adequacy of the educational
arangements in your country. You may not be able to answer all
categories but you may check with your friends and relatives for their
opinions.

Activity 10.6
Are the provisions for education in each category betow satisfactory in your
country? .
Primary Secondary TechnicaUvocational University
Adutt education Other post-secondary Distance education

Do you have education for all at the primary and secondary level?
Do sufficient numbers go to university?
Are there arrangements for those who might have left school with or
without certification?
Distance education makes it possible for working people to study.
All of these would impact on the distribution of wealth and resources in
the long run.

Tourism - chaltenges and potential

In other sections in this course, there have been frequent references
made to and examples drawn from the tourism industry. This
is so because of the strong emphasis placed on this industry by
many countries in the Caribbean. In the present competitive world
environment, where traditional markets for commodities like
bananas and sugar are under threat, opportunities for the promotion
of tourism will be pursued by more countries in the region and
worldwide.
There is great potentid in the tourism industry for generating jobs and
foreign exchange but this potential is unlikely to be tapped if the industry
is not organised in a way for local citizens to benefft.

Forms of tourism
There are many different avenues for the dwelopment of tourism.
Countries may dwelop different types of tourist products using the
resources that they possess.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 10.8
Your government has negotiated
with a cruise line to begin visiting
your country. The visit of these
cruise ships witl bring certain
benefits to your country. In the
left-hand column, identify the
stakehotders who wit[ benefit from
this arrangement and in the right-
hand cotumn, explain the ways
they are tikety to benefit.
Stakeholders I Benefits
1 I
2
3
4 conserved on a sufficient scate.
Feedback
Government will benefit through
the cotlection of tax revenues.
Tour operators wit[ benefit from
increased revenues.
Taxi drivers wil[ receive increased
revenues.
Producers of locaI foods wil[
experience increased sates.
Local performers wi[[ be more
consistentty emptoyed.
F
Activity 10.7 t
t
Below is a list of various types of tourism. Indicate from the list of countries
whether the country offers that form of tourism.
Countries
1 Dominica 4 Barbados
2 Jamaica 5 Antigua and Barbuda
3 Grenada 6 St Lucia
Types of tourism
i Eco-tourism v Festival tourism
ii Health tourism vi Heritage tourism
iii Sports tourism vii Leisure/sun/sea/sand
iv Business tourism
Feedback
For most countries, you will have indicated several types of tourism. This
indicates that countries are trying to diversify the product offered. Did you
think of any country in the list that offers heritage tourism?
r Eco-tourism is based on the uniqueness or attractiveness of your naturaI
environment. some caribbean countries do capitatise on this form.
r Health tourism is not a big attraction in the Caribbean as yet.
r sports tourism in the caribbean is largety confined to the game of cricket. we
do not attract sufficient wortd-class games to depend on this form of tourism.
I Business tourism is welldevetoped in ptaces [ike ceneva, switzerland. There
must be a large infrastructure of hotets and supporting infrastructure, such
as transtating facilities. This is not we[ developed in the cariboean.
Festival tourism is wetl developed in the caribbean. Att the countries have
some indigenous cetebration that is offered to the outside world.
I Heritage tourism is not welldeveloped in the caribbean. While we may
have sites of historical significance, they have not been devetoped or
t Leisure tourism is wetl developed in the caribbean with most of the
countries being able to boast of beautifuI beaches.
Benefits of tourism
Tourism can bring many gains to a country. visitors have needs to be
satisfied and money to spend on what they might consider unique and
attractive products and services. Their spending provides muctr-needed
{oleign exchange and can boosr an econo*y inieveral ways. In addition,
jobs may be generated.
Activity 10.8 will help you to better understand the several ways tourism
may impact on the economy of a country.
A major challenge: Securing the benefits of tourism
while it is easy to identify the benefits that can result from the tourist
trade, it is not as easy to organise to ensure that those beneffts
accrue to
 Section 10 Factors promoting or hindering devetopment I
the local stakeholders. Too much reliance on imports would ensure tjrat
the local sectors do notbenefft. A large proportion of foreign ownership
may cause the profits of the sector to go abioad. while to.r-rir- c"r,
promote dwelopment, it can dso hinder it.
The following activity will help you to understand these issues by
considering a case that is not unusual in some caribbean countries today.

Feedback
Activity 10.9
Read the fotlowing case study and answer the questions that fottow. The resutt of this kind of
Crusoe Hotet arrangement is that the benefits
crusoe Hotel operates in a smatt caribbean country. this smalt hotet is of the tourist industry are very
owned by a swiss coupte who advertise in the European market. A[-inclusive timited as far as the development
packages are offered to tourists who pay the swiss couple in their Swiss bank of the locat economy is concerned.
account. The hotel is operated by five loca]s on behatf of the owners, who Poticies must therefore be put in
visit frequentty. The guests are picked up at the airport and spend most of place to ensure that locals share
their time within the bounds of the hotet, which has a beautifut beach of its in the tourist industry as owners,
own. Entertainment is organised within the compound so there is very little managers, suppliers of raw materiats
reason for tourists to mingte with the tocal poputation. The menu of the hotel and services.
consists mainty of European dishes and the foodstuff is imported directty
from abroad by the owners.
1 In what ways is the government deprived of revenues by this type of
arrangement?
2 What impact does this type of tourism have on the local agricuttural
sector?
3 What impact does this type of tourism have on the rest of the [oca[
economy?

Other challenges of the tourism industry Feedback

'Somebody sneezed recently in Hong l(ong and people aJI over the world You may recatl that after the
stopped travelling! It was called SARS.' September 11 event, the tourism
The tourism industry is a highly competitive one and is also very industry went into a dectine.
unsable because of the sensitivity of travellers to all the unpredictable Peopte were generatty more
forces and errents of the globd village. International terrorism, airline fearfulof travetting.
safety, communicable diseases, politicd instability and crime can cause
The airtine industry was very
the industry in a given location to grind to a halt almost instantly. Events
negatively affected. Insurance
like the bombing of the World Tfade Centre, *re outbreak of SARS (swere
costs went up. Modifications had
acute respiratory syndromef in Hong Kong and China all impact on
to be made to aircrafu to secure
tourism immediately.
the cockpits. Security had to be
Activity 10.10 will help you to understand the effects that internationd improved white demand fortravel
events may have on the tourism industry in your home territory and decreased. Many large airlines have
worldwide. since gone into bankruptqy since
costs have gone up and revenues
Activity 10J0 have gone down.

In 2001, militants hijacked and ftew two aircraft into the Twin Towers in Air travet has become more
New York City. That disaster had tremendous effects on the tourist industry. inconvenient because of the
Outtine some of the effects in the different areas by answering the questions. tighter security measures at
1. How did this event impact on tourism in the Caribbean? airports. Significant numbers of
tourists now choose to spend
2 How did this event impact on the airtine industry? their vacations in their own
3 How did this event impact on tourist travet? country.

F"l
I Caribbean Studies
I

NaturaI disasters and development

As a citizen of the caribbean, no doubt you must have heard your parents
it
and grandparents talk about Hurricane Gilbert or Hurricane David, the
destruction it brought and the fear it put into the hearts of those people
who had to live through it. In this seciion, we are going to look at the
impact of natural disasters on the development of a country.
I'
There are sections in this course that deal with the nature of the

I
caribbean-landscape. Because of its location and geomorphological
patterns, the caribbean has always been susceptiEle to nanrral disasters
such as hurricanes, earthquakes and volcanic aitivity.
rn 19o2, Mt Pel6e vglcano erupted in Martinique desuoying the nearby
town of st Pierre and killing 30,000 people. The most disaitous
earthquake in the caribbean desuoyed the town of port Royal in
famaica
in 1692. More recently, soufri0re volcano also erupted in lr,ionsterrat.
Activity 10.I t will help you to assess the damage that a natural disaster
can cause and the effect it may have on the development prospects of a
cOUntry.

Activity 10J1
lmagine a serious hurricane has hit your country (perhaps you have actua[[y
experienced this). state concisely the negative impact on 6ach category/
sector.
t Roads
r Electricity
I Ports/airports
t Health system
r Water suppties
I schoots
r Agriculture
I Tourism
t Food suppties
r Manufacturing
I Government revenues

Feedback

A country can be totatty devastated by a disaster

such as this. The standard
of living of citizens can drop significanity and for tong perioJs
oi.time. the
recovery process can be costly and slow as the
country has to sometimes
seek outside assistance to buitd back its infrastructure.
The quality of [ife can
deteriorate.

ldeology and development

Ideologies are belief systems that provide
clear guides to the organisation
of political, economic and social rir.. ra.orosirr";;il;llyi"r"d
clear ideas about huqal nature, the purpose o'
of life andtiieleutionship
between mankind and the physical aid
Jupernatural.

td
 Section 10 Factors promoting or hindering devetopment I
Religions can be considered ideologies. Islam, christianity, Hinduism
may contain certain clear perspectives on how to consider the political,
economic and social life of a country. There are Islamic states in the
Middle East that determine all policies by adherence to the eur,an.
communism, socialism and capitalism are all ideologies. They all have
clear and contrasting ideas about how resources should be owned and
how production, trade and orchange are to be organised. In addition, they
have clear notions as to how society is to be governed.
Ideologies may hinder or help to promote dwelopment by the way they
motivate and empower people ro act individually and collectively.

Laissez-faire capitalism
Principles of laissez-faire capitalism.
r Survival of the fittest. Competition is good because the strong will
survive and the weak will perish. This is good for society.
r The role of government is to keep law and order. Government should
not be too involved in economic and social affairs. '
r Private ownership of property and the means of production is
advocated. State ownership should be discouraged.
r Markets, prices, competition and the pursuit of proffts should be the
driving forces in the economy.
Feedback
Does laissez-faire capitatism hinder or promote
development? Some benefits:
The next nuo activities will help you to consider the potential of the I lmproved service
laissez-faire ideolory to hinder as well as promote dwelopment of a
country.
r Cood service leads to better
business environment
In Activity 10.12, a government operation is sold to the private sector.
,

I Access to modern technoto!51

This is referred to as a privatisation or a divestment.
I Employment based on merit
Activity 1012 I Better management practices
Read the case study below and answer the questions that fottow. This is an I Cost-effective operation
exampte of the laissez-faire free-market ideology at work.
I Company responsive to
The tetephone company in a certain Caribbean country was owned by the customer needs
government of that country. Government appointed managers to run the
Some costs:
company and it was wetl known that supporters of government were favoured
for employment in the company. The service was poor and inefficient. There r Some tocatjobs may be
were frequent comptaints by businesses and citizens at large. The company sacrificed
was eventuatty sotd by the government to a foreign firm. The company
changed its employment practices, introduced modern technotory and took
r Profits may be sent abroad
revenue cottection more seriousty. The service improved rapidty and the In this case, it is quite ctear
company expanded the range of services and also improved customer service. that the benefits outweigh the
1 How many benefits of this divestment can you identify? List them. costs and the apptication of
the free-market type ideotogy
2 How many costs (tosses) of this divestment can you identify? List them. contributes to the country's
3 Do the benefits outweigh the costs? devetopment.

Privatisation in education
The next case we consider is one where laissez-faire ideology is
implemented in education. The overall impact of this stratery is
somewhat different from the case above.
 I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
1 Potential benefits:
r Educationat institutions
become less dependent on
the treasury
I Private educational
institutions can compete with
state institutions
I A market for educational
services devetops
2 Potentiatdisadvantages:
r The chitdren of [ow-income
families wi[[ have increasing
difficutty accessing higher
education
t In profit-driven institutions,
courses in subjects like
philosophy, art and literature,
may be deemed not
marketabte as fewer peopte
wish to do these. This would
tead to a serious sociat loss
3 In this case, when you compare
the benefits and disadvantages
the severity of the disadvantages
are so great that you may
conctude that the policy is going
to hinder the devetopment of the
society.
Feedback
t High cost of heatth care
I our
Famity loss of [oved ones
r Strain on the socialwelfare
system
r Loss of critical manpower
I lncreased insurance costs
I Scarce resources channelled into
health care
r lncreasing numbers of chitdren
become orphans at an earty age
While a heatthy poputation
promotes development, an
unheatthy one hinders it
significantly.
Activity 10J3
Read the following case and answer the questions which fottow.
In some caribbean countries in the past, education was offered free of
charge to members of the pubtic at the [eve] of primary secondary and post-
secondary. In keeping with free-market ideology, there has been jtrend to
make market forces operate in education. one clear instance of that is the
imposition of increased fees at university level and other forms of post-
secondary training and a gradual cutback of state financing.
1 what are the tikety benefits of this poticy of imposing fees on higher
education?
2 What are the tikely disadvantages of imposing fees on higher education?
3 Do you recommend a continuation of this poticy?
Other factors that promote or hinder
development
In this section, you will be exposed to two other factors which hinder or
promote dwelopment.
Health issues are a maior factor affecting dwelopment.
crime and the narcotics trade together are critical factors affecting
dwelopment in the Caribbean.
Health issues
If you were an employer, would you employ someone who is terminally ill
or continuously ill?
When you are ill, do you feel you are enjoyrng life as you ought tol
The health of a population determines the capacity of individuals to
gnioy physical well-being. It also determines their value in rcrms of the
human resources available to society for the production of goods and
services. Good health is critical to economic and social dwElopment.
In caribbean society today, our bad eating habits are contributing to an
increase in diseases. These diseases are becoming more prevaleni
our people and atyounger ages than previously. "r";"g
The most critical health issue which has the potenrial for decimating
population in the very near funrre is the threat of Hrvleros.
Activity 1014
Hlv/AlDs is transmitted- mainty through sexual contact. Death may
be slow
but inevitabte for those infected. The cost of treatment is very
affected eventuatly become totatty dependent on others to
high. lndividuats
care for them.
ldentify some of the ways societlr is negatively affected because
of HIV/A|DS.
Crime and the narcotics trade
Do you feel safe to wark the streets at night where you
live? In certain
parts of the Caribbean, people do not enioy that
freedo;.
The narcotics trade in the caribbean is tied into organised
gang warfare'
crime and
This is a serious issue affecting dwelSp*.rri ir, ,t
Caribbean. "
 f I
Section 10 Factors promoting or hindering devetopment I

I Activity 10.15 is designed to help you understand the way the drug rade
can subvert a democratic sociew. Feedback

1
I

Loss of confidence in the

t I
Activity 1015
Consider this scenario and answer the fottowing question. 2
protective services
Uncontrotlabte crime rate
3
t I
In a certain country in the caribbean, there are a few very weatthy drug
barons. The drug barons own some business estabtishme-ntswtrere'ttrey
provide employment for a lot of young peopte. Barons are seen as godfathers
4
Unwittingness of citizens to get
involved in sotving crime
Youths getting used to the idea
I in the neighbourhoods where they operate'because they have beei known to
help peopte in need. peopte seek ihem out for assistancl instead of the tocal that the good tife can come from
il politicians. Politicians in fact seek their hetp in order to secure votes in the crime
I
I
constituency. Politicians and policemen are suspected of being in teague with
the drug barons. Youths in the area may prefer io work for the-drug birons
5 Tota[ subversion ofthe
democratic process
il rather than for legitimate employers.
This is a tikety situation in Caribbean
t what dangers can you discern for the long-term development of a society countries today and it is a serious
tike this?
challenge to the development process.
il a

I
Key points
il
ri Inequality in the Caribbean:
Suggested further
t r Inequality hinders dwelopment by perpetuating marginalisation readings
and alienation of some groups. Girvan, N. (ed.) Rethinking
.il r Inequality perpetuates and encourages crime. D evelopment, Kingston:
;t I Tourism makes an impoftant contribution to caribbean dwelopment.
Consortium Graduate School in
the Social Sciences, 1995.
il'f r
I
I
The Caribbean is prone to naturd disasters.
Free-market ideologies can retard dwelopment if implemented
Sanders, R.'Narcotics, Corruption
and Development in the
uncritically. Countries of the OECS: The
il (
t
Dwelopment is not a straightforward or easy process. Our particular
history culture and physical conditions provide us with specific
problems in the Smaller Islands of
the Commonwealth Caribbean'.
:f
constraints and possibilities. Caribbean Affairs, 3: 1, I 990.
il
End test
il 1 ldentify the most gtaring area of inequatity in your country.

t
2 Describe the impact this has on the devetopment of your country.
I 3 Suggest measures to reduce this form of inequatity.
{ 4 List and justifyTHREE criticat interventions necessary so that tourism may better
t enhance nationaI devetopment.

il 5 The government of youi country has come up with a disaster preparedness ptan. lt
invotves the setting up and staffing of a permanent agency. Some people have been
I condemning the idea as a waste of money. Justify the establishment of the agency.

f, 6 ldentifyTWO free market measures that have been implemented in your country
t recently. Assess the impact of these on the development of your country.

I
- !
7 Assess the impact of crime on different areas of life in your country. Indicate whether
! the following areas of tife in your country are:
I
i
i negtigibte ii bad iii very bad.
a Number of foreign visitors d Watking the streets at night g Business activity
fi 1
b General feeting of safety e Using pubtic transport h Foreign investment
c Freedom to wear jewettery f i
t
Safety of females Safety of chitdren

't
,: t",

,,ffG.
I Caribbean Studies

Feedback for end test

There is no one answer to this question. There may
be different kinds of inequatity in your country. lt
may be based on gender, colour, race, ethnicity or
take the form of discrimination against the speciatty
challenged peopte in the society.
Depending on the inequalityyou choose to address,
identify how the society suffers by the toss of
fulfitment experienced by those affected.
In each case you will have to suggest ways to deal
with it. You may consider such issues as facitities,
education, employment and other special kinds of
interventions.
There is no one answer to this question.
a Ownership. With more locatownership, the
profits of the industry are likely to stay at home.
b Training so that the necessary skitts are available
for the suppty of labour for the industry.
c Linkages with agricutture so that [oca[ farmers
may benefit.
d Proper marketing abroad so that the destination is
wetl known.
e Education of the wider community so that there is
general support for the industry.
a Can save lives.
b Can prevent destruction to property and business.
c Can prevent loss of infrastructure.
d Can reduce loss of business revenues.
e Can make people feel safer living in the country.
a Removatof protection for [oca[ industry. Can
assist with devetopment if that industry was
uncompetitive in the first place. May retard
devetopment if the industry had the capacity for
becoming competitive with a longer period of
protection.
b Removal of price controls on certain items. White
it may make the market for that product more
competitive, it may lead to high prices which may
be onerous on the poor.
c Removatof support programmes for poor
and minorit5r groups. This is supposed to reduce
dependency on the state and create a stronger work
force. But it may be punitive to peopte who are
genuinely poor and positive in outlook.
There are no right and wrong answers. But a frank
assessment gives you a good sense of how the quality of
life in your countD/ is affected by the [evet of crime.

Tutor-marked assignment
Describe Two critical examples of inequality in your society. choose
oNE of these and show how it hinders dwelopmlnt of your'co'ntry.
offer a measure which may help to reduce this form of inequality. four
answer should be,no more than 1,000 words in length.

30 marks

Criteria for marking

The award of marks is based on the following.

Content Explanation of concepts: l0 marks

Analysis of concepts: 10 marks
Synthesis of concepts: l0 marks
 11 I ntellectuaI trad itions
General objective
shoutd be able to:
demonstrate an understanding
of the Caribbean inte[lectuaI
traditions.
Specffic objectives
You shoutd be abte to:
assess the tenets of Pan-
Africanism
understand the phitosophy of
N6gritude and its impact on the
Caribbean
analyse the reasons for
industrialisation by invitation
and its effects on Caribbean
society
describe the concepts of
Marxism and neo-Marxism
examine the principles of lndo-
Caribbean thought and its
inftuence in the Caribbean
examine the contribution of
indigenous peoptes' ideas,
thoughts and actions on the
r"e,T _
describe tlre irrrpact of British
capitalism on the Caribbearr
economies
discuss the goals and objectives
of the feminist movement in
the Caribbean.
*.
i
e
Introduction
In section 8, we examined the contribution of sports to the dwelopment
of the Caribbean region. This section focuses on the Caribbean
intellectual traditions.
Throughout history caribbean people have been subjected to oppressive
systems of. encomienda, slavery and colonialism. These systems denied
and prohibited self-expression by Caribbean people on regional issues.
Howwer, by the second half of the nineteenth century West Indian
writers began to critique the prwailing system of colonialism, racism,
social iniustice and underdevelopment. consolidating on these early
writings, caribbean scholars in the nventieth century produced a number
of important work$ on all aspects of caribbean life - history politics,
literature, economics and sociology.
Together these writings can be perceived as the formation of an
intellectud tradition. Governments, non-governmental organisations,
and the populace in general have incorporated much of these writings
into their strategies for dwelopment, particularly in the period after
independence.
Content
The objectives and impact of:
E Pan-Africanism
& Negritude
I industrialisation by invitation
* Marxism and neo-Marxism
; Caribbean perspectives on British capitalism
x trends in Caribbean feminist thought
r Indo-Caribbean thought
* the indigeneous perspective
Pan-Africanism
Between 1450 and 1870, millions of Africans were forced to leave
their homelands to work on plantations in the New World. This forced
migration scattered African people throughout various continents and
territories and today descendants of these African slaves now live and
work in diverse regions. It was this condition that gave rise to a Pan-
African movement and hence Pan-Africanism as an intellectual thought.
Pan-Africanism is an intellectual movement conceived by people of
African descent, mainly in the Caribbean and in the USA. In 1900,
Henry Sylvester Williams and William E.B. Du Bois gave Pan-Africanism
an international structure when they convened a group of African peoples
from the continent and the diaspora in London. At this congress and
several more held in the 1920s, many issues of concern to AJricans in the
colonial world were discussed.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 11J
A definition of Pan-Africanism
In order to understand the work
of Pan-Africanism, you must first
define Pan-Africanism, that is, you
should be clear what it means.
Define Pan-Africanism.
Activity 11.2
The activities of Pan-Africanists
By what means did Pan-Africanists
attempt to organise people of the
diaspora?
Even though scholars have been in heated debate over what pan-
Afriqnlsp is about, $eftrave agreed that it originated as a campaign
to 'rehabilitate the vahrable aspects of African culture,. In short, it sits
9ut t9 resuscitate pride in people of African descent, who had been
humiliated by slavery and other forms of unfree labour.
Consider the following deftnition.
Pan-AJricanism is a political and cultural phenomenon which regards
Africa, Africans and African descendants abroad as a unit. It seeks to
regenerate and unify Africa and promote a feeling of oneness among
the people of the African world. It glorifies the African past and
inculcates pride in African values.
P. Olisanwiche Esadebe, 1982
Feedback
lf you peruse the titerature on pan-Africanism, you witt find that each schotar
has given his or her own interpretation of the pan-African movement.
You wi[[ also notethat there is controversy over its origin. some suggest it
started far back as the stavery era in the eighteenth century. othirs credit
as
Henry sylvester Wittiams of Trinidad as the major proponent. some American
scholars suggest Wiltiam E.B. Du Bois.
We are certain that it started as a movement to unite peopte of African
descent in the diaspora. lt was also intended to sensitise peopte of African
descent to the gtorious achievements of African civilisation.
we must stress that the aims of Pan-Africanism evotved over time. lt is a
movement that stitl exists even in the twenty-first century, and its adherents
are mainly intellectuats of African descent in Africa, the USA and the Caribbean.
The major components of Pan-Africanism can be itemised as foltows:
r Africa is the hometand of Africans as well as persons of African origin in the
diaspora.
r Solidarity is essentiatamong peopte of African descent.
I There is a distinct African personality.
t African descendants must have pride in African culture.
I The resuscitatio.n of Africa's past is a nobte objective for people of the diaspora.
Let us examine how activists of pan-Africanism went about their task.
You probably can see thatin an era of sailing ships and slow mail, this
would have been an arduous task.
Feedback
Pan-Africanism was a complex movement that manifested itsetf in many
and had many adherents. The task of reaching miltions of peopte in the
lo-rTr
African diaspora was indeed a difficutt one. poets, historians, soiiotogists,
a.nthropotogists, ptaywrights, journalists and potiticat scientists *ere att part
of
the movement. The nature of these disciplines shoutd give you a ctue as to the
means by which Pan-Africanists attempted to spread their gospet.
There were many approaches that pan-Africanists adopted in
their efforts. They
wrote in journals and newspapers. Reginatd pierrepoini in Ne* york
exptoited
this approach. witliam E. B. Du Bois was a protific journatist and
historian. His
book, rhe soul of Black Folk,is a classic. you shouti make an effort
to read it.
 Section 11 lnte[[ectual traditions I
Marcus Garvey's Negroworld newspaperwas distributed
wortdwide in a
clandestine way, by seamen. we have mentioned the various pan-African Activity 11.3
conferences held during the 1920s. ctaude McKay and peter Btackman Opposition to Pan-Africanism
articulated the cause of pan-Africanism through iheir poetry, concerts
and Who opposed Pan-Africanism and
sermons. Visits to Africa and support for African independence
during the why?
1950s and 1960s were some other means by which Pan-Africanists
articutated
their views.
Feedback

Pan-Africanism has had some

Pan-Africanism had it setbacks and failures. you must examine this side
of the movement if your critique is to be balanced and sound. opposition from the ptanter-
merchant ctass in the Caribbean. pan
rj N6gritude
Africanism, because of its emphasis
on the politicat and economic
resurgence of Africa and the

ll
I
The congent of N€gritude was brought into French literary circles
in 1947 by the black poet from Martinique, Aim€ c€saire. Leopold
senghor of senegal dso assisred in developing the thought. It provided
diaspora, attracted the attention of
the imperial nations of Europe and of
a terrn by which 'blackness, could be asserted positivelv in literature. the USA. They, no doubt, recognised
Some scholars suggest that Haiti took the lead in adopiirig an the potential of the aims of Pan-
'explicit nationalist ideolory of N€gritude'which provided the artistic Africanism to throw off the yoke
and literary roots for Aim6 C6saire and Franz Fanon,s literary and of cotonialism. The cry for African
politicd creativity. potiticaI independence among
African nations woutd atso have
been viewed, by those who exptoitbd
Activity 11.4 Africa, as an attack on their 'intereit'
What do you understand by the term N6gritude? by Pan-Africanists.
We must also admit that the
Feedback Pan-African movement itsetf
suffered from infighting among its
N6gritude, seen here as an ideotory propounded by Caribbean schotars, was intetlectuats. Wittiam E.B. Du Bois
influenced by the btack experience of slavery, imperiatism and cotoniatism of and Marcus Garvey had a bitter
the slavery era and after. exchange about the nature of the
Black schotars of the diaspora were concerned with many issues concerning Pan-African struggle.
the nature of btack consciousness among peopte of African descent.
You can therefore argue that Ndgritude is a part of a wider movement
concerned about the needs and aspirations ofAfrican people.
It tried to promote the concept of blackness through the arts and literature.
For exampte, an examination of the works of Aim6 C€saire, Leopold Senghor,
Omafume Onoge and Gabriel Okara, would reveata strident effort to hightight
aspects of the struggtes of persons of African descent through the medium of
poetr!, novels and short stories.

Like any philosophicd and literary movement, Ndgritude is subiect to

dispute, especially in relation to its aims and objectives. In short, unless
there is a strenuous effort to establish these things clearly while the
movement is in its infancy, there is a tendency for controversy to be ever
present. The concerns of an essayist Henry Banyou highlight this:
'It is impossible to separate the work of C6saire and his N€gritude
from a total compromise on the political lwel, both with regard to
'decolonisation in general and with the liberation of the oppressed
people from this point of view, Senghor's N€gritude is very dilferent.'
Please note the different perspectives on N€gritude by traro of its
founding fathers.
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 11.5
ldentify the main objectives of
N69ritude.
Feedback
You must focus on what proponents,
such as C6saire and Senghor, had
hoped to achieve in proposing this
approach to black consciousness. We
can identify some objectives:
To communicate a need for unity
across the black disapora.
To create a diatogue between
various cotonised peoples.
To draw on the continent of
Africa as a source of ethnic
identity and cuttural depth.
To cement a feeting for
revolutionary struggle and
consciousness among black
peopte of the diaspora.
Activity 11.7
1 Define the term
'industrialisation by invitation,.
2 State FOUR reasons why
Arthur Lewis proposed a
policy of industriatisation by
invitation.
Please note that the writing olErantz Fanon would have played such a
role in this movemenc.
N€gritude as a philosophical and literary movement had many proponenm,
drawn from many ffelds and disciplines - poets, novelists, dramatists,
playwrights, politicd activists, reachers and social workers. It will be useful
for us to assess the impact of the movemenr on people of the caribbean.
Activity 11.6
Describe the impact of Ndgritude on the Caribbean.
Feedback
N6gritude started in French Martinique. Aim6 c6saire was a politicat activist
there, and in France, for a long time. He wrote extensively, using poetry as a
form of protest against French coloniatism.
You must mention the revotutionary writings of Frantz Fanon and his activities
in Algeria during the revolution there. ptease note that his work Black skins
white Masks andThe wretched of the Earth, shoutd be compulsory reading for
atl students.
The philosophy of N6gritude had an impact on many caribbean writers such
as
Derek Walcott.
The poetry, short stories and ptays of N6gritude could have created awareness
about blackness among.caribbean peopte. you witt realise that this point is
difficutt to measure and to prove.
You must mention that Ndgritude was embraced with greater enthusiasm
in
Haiti and Cuba than in the Commonweatth Caribbean.
N6gritude, tike Pan Africanism, for exampte, was subjected to severe
negative
criticism. This criticism created doubts in the minds or tr,e masses.
Industrialisation by invitation
In the 1930s, the caribbean witnessed a spate of rebellions which
resulted in loss of life, properry damage and racial discoJ.
one of the
main reasons for these upheavals waJthe prwailing trigh tevet poverty
of
in the region indicated by high employmeng poor h--ous'ing
and a narrow
e)port sector based on sugar.
Arthur Lewis, produced a study lhortly after, a st Lucian boin economist,
thai.rrgd c"tiuu""n go""rri*.rra, ,o
embark_on a policy of industrialisation"by invitation.
.ds envisaged by
Arthur Lewis, caribbean governments wbuld
corporations to establish industrial enterprises"rr*rrr"g" -.rtti-rr"tiorrat
in the i.sio;uy tt.
provision of suitable physical plants equipped
with utiliiies.
Feedback
Joy
might have gteaned from the introduction that industriatisation
by invitation was an idea to encourage foreign businessmen
to make
investments by estabtishing enterpriies in th.-e rn.nrf..turing,ilto,.
in tr,.
caribbean. caribbean governments woutd in turn provide
facitities and
concessions to encourage this investment.
It was fett that the poticy of industrialisation
by invitation would stimulate
new investment in the region. Economists
betilved ttrat ttris woutd tead
 Section 11 lnteltectualtraditions I
to economic growth and there would be positive social benefits for
Caribbean people.
one of the criticaI probtems facing caribbean peopte was the probtem of
high unemptoyment. The sugar industry, because of its seasonal nature,
did not offer significant emptoyment opportunities. on the other hand,
the estabtishment of industries, it was hoped, woutd reduce the high
unemptoyment situation.
The establishment of industries woutd give stimutus to the export sector
and earn additionaI foreign exchange. This woutd have the effect of
creating a more diversified economy.
Lewis envisaged that Caribbean entrepreneurs, using their capital, woutd
ptay a rote in the estabtishment of manufacturing industries, using the
concessions given by the government.
Another objective of the industriatisation programme was that the
estabtishment of enterprises woutd result in a transfer of technotogy and
skitts, which Caribbean people woutd use to strengthen the industrial base
in the region.

lmpact of industrialisation programme

Since 1945, Caribbean governments have accepted the scholarship
of Arthur Iewis and have adopted policies of industrialisation under
dilferent narnes, and with varyrng degtees of success. This section
examines the advantages and disadvantages of these policies in selected
Caribbean territories in the second half of the twentieth century.

Feedback
Activity 11.8
1 ln1947, Puerto Rico [aunched an industriatinitiative catted 'operation 1 Name FOUR Caribbean
Bootstrap'. In the 1950s, Trinidad and Tobago launched its industrialisation countries that imptemented
programmes of
by invitation programme, followed by'Operation Beehive' in Barbados.
industrialisation.
Jamaica atso invited North American companies such as Reynotds, Alcan
and Kaiser to mine bauxite. 2 State FOUR concessions that
Caribbean governments gave
2 ln Puerto Rico, the government offered a variety of concessions which
to muttinationaI corporations?
inctuded freedom from US income taxes and tax-free rePatriation of
profits. In other countries, governments offered to construct industrial 3 List TWO advantages of the
ptants equipped with the utilities, duty-free importation of machinery and programme for Caribbean
10-15 year tax hotidays. In addition, some governments remained sitent on territories.
the issue of low wages paid to workers in the industrial sector. 4 ldentifyTWO disadvantages of
the programme.
3 Advantages:
I lndustriatisation by invitation stimutated foreign investment in the
Caribbean. For Puerto Rico, capital investment increased from 514bn in
1960 to S24bn in 1979.
I In Puerto Rico, there was a rapid increase in investment, which resulted
in the growth of the gross domestic Product from SZ239m in 1950 to
5164bn in 1982
I Many persons, especiatty those who had previousty worked in the
' sugar industry, found emptoyment in the US-owned muttinational
corporations. In Barbados, industriat devetopment provided low-paying
jobs particutarty for women in the garment sector. Working conditions
in the industrial sector were much better than on the sugar plantations.
I Caribbean Studies

I The industrialisation programme ted to the futt utitisation of physicat

resources. For exampte, mutti-national corporations mined baulite in
Jamaica and Guyana;American and British oit companies paved the
way for the exptoitation of the oi[ resources in Trinidad and Tobago. ,
4 Disadvantages:
I Industriatisation did not create the levetof emptoyment opportunities
that was envisaged. In puerto Rico, for example, unemptoyment increased
from12 per cent in the 1960s to z0 per cent in 1975. InJahaica in 1920,
18 per cent of the workforce coutd not find emptoymeni, and
in Trinidad
and Tobago the 139 estabtishments created in ihjperiod 1950 to
1965
only netted 6,g21jobs, at a huge cost to the government of
s257m.
r In most Caribbean countries that imptemented a poticy of
industriatisation, mutti-national corporations took adv'antage
of the tong
tax hotidays and low-wage regimes by moving to other destinations
when the 'hotidays'were over. In Barbados, for example, the exit
of rntel
and caribbean Data services threw many workers on'the bread
tine.
I The potiqy of industriatisation created a dependence on North
American capital in the caribbean. This wai simitar to the
dependence
on European capital in the heyday of the sugar industry in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
r In Puerto Rico, in particutar, where there was a
massive inftux of North
American chemical and pharmaceuticatfirms and
oiI refineries, there
have been considerabre environmentat probtems,
becausetf heavy
potlution and the disposal of toxic waste.
I white the poticy of industrialisation by invitation has
satisfied the
expectations of caribbean governments, its effects
on the landscape
are evident today. The mutti-nationatowned
industries stitl provide
jobs and contribute to the diversification
of the economic ,..tor,
traditionarty based on sugar. Moreover, this poticy,
with strong private
sector initiative and government support, has
cr6ated the framework
for the development of the tourist industry,
which is now the main
economic sector in several Caribbean countries.

Marxism and neo-Marxism

lntroduction
The concept of Marxism was dweroped by
Karl Mam based on his analysis
of economic dwelooment as it unfolded
in-western Europe, during the
Industrial Revoluti6n of the ;J-;-;;;nth
century. The main thrust of
Mar:cs arguments was detailed in the
this documeng he was critical th;
co-rnsoi.t Manifesto of lg4g. In
"f
far-reaching consequences fo, person.
*;l;lis;;ffi;;ii"tio' and the
ii' rrr"r, societies.
A capitalist sociery is one in
lvhich large investment of capital is made by
l:T-"tt gg"p of persons fnr the ptod.rJtio'ot commodities,
with the aim
tor maximising profit. In Manr's view, the accumulation
of this wealth
came from the exoloitation of th"
the working class-or tf." prot.t"ri";.---"
*"sses"ird;6;;"",in" formed

Marx argued that the wages paid to these

workers for their labour was
well below the value,of
between the value of-thel",si"ar
grt nt"a"ged, and it was the difference
wages and commodities, that
in the form of profit by the *pioiirr"--- was appropriated
 Section 11 Inteltectual traditions I
From this andysis, thereforg Manc concluded that the economic
dominance by this smdl minority (bourgeoisie| had influenced the political Activity 11.9
structrue of these societies. For example, the government, schools, 1 Who was Kar[ Marx?
churches and the iudiciary, as well as-the valuis and belief systems of these
societies would reflect largely ruling class ideolory.
2 What do you think is the
central concept of Marxism?
In this kind of environmeng where the labouring class was dominated 3 Describe briefty the occasion
and exploited, Marx held the view that a struggle would dwelop berween that inspired Marx to formutate
these two classes, the capitalists and the working class. This siruggle his manifesto of 1848.
would wentually transform the capitalist society. Marx envisaged this
new society to be one where property was communally owned, there
would be no class division and there would be a sizeable means of Feedback
production, which is the source of power.
Kar[ Max was a German-born
Objectives of Marxism phitosopher, economist and
sociologist.
When Karl Mancwrote his manifesto, he was very concerned about
the manner in which the labouring class was being exploited under the The central concept of Marxism
capitalist system. He was dso concerned about the inequalities in the is the nature of capitatism and its
distribution of wealth and the system of socid stratiftcaticrn that had exptoitative effects.
dweloped. The Industriat Revotution in
the nineteenth century was
Activity 11J0 the occasion that inspired
Max to criticatty assess and
1 How can workers become alienated in a capitalist society?
formulate the 1848 Communist
z Exptain the terms 'bourgeoisie' and 'proletariat'. Manifesto.
3 List the THREE factors of production that Max identified.

Feedback

How can workers become alienated?

1 According to Kar[ Max, the production of goods and services is the key
to human happiness and futfiltment. To him, therefore, working is very
important as it provides the means either to futfit peopte's potential, or
to distort and prevent their retationship with each other. Max, therefore,

trl concluded that people can become 'atienated' or cut off from their work,
when they are unabte to find satisfaction in performing their job, or in
the products of their labour. Some factors that are responsibte for such
alienation are [ow wages, supersession and poor working conditions. This

tjl 2
can result in various kinds of industrial protests.
Bourgeoisie is a priviteged minority of merchants, industrialists and

tri 3
financiers in a capitatist society. Protetariat is the underpriviteged majority,
which does not create new forces of production in a capitalist society.
The factors of production are [and, tabour and capital.

t I
Land, labour, capitaI
In any capitalist country where goods and services are produced, there must
be various components that must come together for such production to be
effective. These components are capital, [abour and land.

1 I The ownership of land in the Western hemisphere by a smatl minority group

,is part of the cotonial experience. This trend did not change significantly and

t I
thus exptains why the labouring classes have not been abte to reverse the
trend, irrespective of potitical independence for most countries.
Labour is atso essential in any capitalist society, as the labourers must setl
I

t I
their labour power in order to survive, as they do not own a part of the

il
I
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 11J1
1 In what ways did MarxisVNeo-
Marxist ideotogy inftuence
Michael Mantey's approach to
governance in the 1970s?
2 Who was Maurice Bishop?
OuttineTHREE of his policies.
3 Which country in the region
practised co-operative
socialism and with what
results?
tr
means of production (that is, tand, machinery, toots) and tack the means to
produce goods independentty.
r capitat the money needed to finance the production of the goods and
is
to be made avaitable to the pubtic. For example, there must be '
services
money availabte to buy toots and machines.
lmpact of Marxism on the Caribbean
caribbean leaders such as Michael Manley of.lamaica, cheddie lagan
and Forbes Burnham of Guyana and Maurice Bishop of Grenada, iere
all influenced by Marxist/neo-Mancist ideology. ThJse leaders sought to
implement policies that would create a just and equal society.
Feedback
Democratic socialism in Jamaica
1 The rise of Michael Manley to potitical power in the 1972 general etections
in Jamaica came against the background of poputar social unrest and the
widespread catlfor welfare reform in the decades preceding the etections.
In the minds of peopte, previous teaders had not done enough to satisfy
the
expectations of the poputation who thought that they werelhe tramp[ing
ground for white middte-ctass domination and exptoitation.
with this kind of historical background, Mantey devetoped a deep-seated
commitment to social justice and equatity because of the stark realities he
encountered as president of the National workers Union (NWU). on many
occasions, he had to represent numerous poor labourers againsi weatthy
employers - a situation that forced him to repeatedty dendunce capitatism
and other forms of exptoitation.
In keeping with the Maxist ideology that the masses shoutd own
the
means of production, the Manley regime embarked on a nationatisation
programme of owning the majority of shares in the electricity
and
telephone companies, as we[ as the transport system.
He also imposed a z5 per cent bauxite levy on all bauxite companies
operating in the country in an effort to increase revenue to the country.
Examptes of some of the tegistation passed to protect the vulnerabte
in the
Jamaican sociEty were:Thelamity court Act, Maternity Leave Act and the
Minimum Wage Act.
Sociatism in Grenada
2 The aim of Maurice Bishop and the NewJewel Movement (NJM)was
to rid the country of Grenada from cotoniat potiticat thinking under
the
leadership of Eric Gairy. Like other Engtish-speaking
countri;s that were
under cotoniaI rule, the capitatist systim of produJtion
*", undertying
feature of Grenadian society. "n
Bishop implemented setected sociarist programmes,
such as the
nationalisation of banks, transportation and the media.
other aspects of this alternate path to development were
to improve the
conditions of work through progressive taboui tegistation,
improvement in
heatth as we[[ as education. Bishop went a bit ruirrer,
uv;oiii,.,g atliances
with other sociatist states as cuba and some in the
Far East. Under such
atliances with cuba, the cubans gave technic.t,rpportinih.
uuitaing or
the Point satines Airport in Grenida, and the .*.iong
or scr,-otarsr,ips to
Grenadians to study in Cuba.
 Section 11 Intettectual traditions I
whereas in Jamaica and Guyana, the sociatist experiment proved to be
d.isastrous to the peopte of those countries because of a heavy
debt burden,
the Grenada sociatist experiment was short-tived because of internat
conftict
and ended in the viotent overthrow of Bishop and intervention by
the uSA.
Co-operative Sociatism in Guyana
3 The regime of Linden Forbes Burnham in Guyana chose to adopt a sociatist
type of economic devetopment, after p"otiticat independence from Britain
in 1966 In order to legitimise the new systetn, Burnham amended the
constitution of 1956 to reftect the fundamentaI nature of co-operative
socialism to the Guyanese peopte. This type of governance was opposed to
atl social, economic and potitical systems that permitted exptoitation of man
by man. The principal objective of the new potiticat system was to extend
socialist democracy to provide increasing opportunities for the participation
of citizens in the management and decision-making process of the state.
Burnham started a process of nationalisation in the sugar, bauxite and
communication sectors. with the assets and resources in the hands
of the state and any by extension the masses, the governrnent coutd
now redistribute wealth through sociaI programmes such as heatth and
education. The government also estabtished ctose ties with the Soviet bloc,
Cuba and the Peopte's Repubtic of China, att Marxist countries.
However, the government's lack of adequate financiat resources made it
difficutt to coordinate its activities. The increasing debt burden of Guyana
during this period teft no room for the government to manoeuvre and
unfortunatety it had to turn to the Internationat Monetary Fund (lMF).

il I ndo-Caribbean thought
il The emancipation of the slaves in the Caribbean in 1839 created labour
problems for most West Indian planters, who resorted to contract
labour from India and China. These Asians came in large numbers and
established communities in various Caribbean territories, especidly in

il Guyana, Ti'inidad and Tbbago and Cuba. Influenced by the oppressive

contractual zurangements and the restrictions of colonialism, they produced
several writings that e:rpressed their crrlture and responses within the
Caribbean, creating in the process, a distinctive Indo-Caribbean thought.
In the Caribbean, the East Indian immigrants found many conditions that
3r seemed harsh. Indo-Caribbean thought was largely in response to these
prwailing conditions. The following activity focuses on these responses.
fi
t
Feedback
Activity 11J2
Caribbean sugar planters resorted to [abour from India for severaI reasons. 1 Give TWO reasons why the
I Interritories such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, there was a West Indian ptanters used
chronic shortage of labour after emancipation. These were newty tabour from India after 1838.
acquired British cotonies and the stave trade ended before stave owners 2 ListTWO ways in which the
il r
coutd acquire a sizeabte stave population.
In most territories, the ex-staves teft the ptantations and estabtished
East Indians suffered hardship
in the Caribbean.
il. free vittages in the hintertand areas. 3 How did East lndians under
contract in the Caribbean
,t
!r Hardship in India created favourabte circumstances for outward migration
to the Caribbean.
respond to the oppression they
suffered?
I lndians suffered hardship on the ptantation in many ways.
i
I Planters generatly paid low wages, sometimes withhotding pay for

r severaI weeks.

;t trel
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 11J3
1 ldentifyTWO changes in the
composition of the population
in Guyana and Trinidad and
Tobago in 1900-1920.
2 ListTWO waypjo which people
of Indian descent had improved
their lives by 1970.
3 From the list betow, identify
three Indo-Caribbean authors.
t V.S. Naipaul, A House for
Mr Biswas
I C.L.R.James,The Black
Jacobins
I Ear[ Lovetace, Ihe
Schoolmaster
t Samuel Selvon, The Lonely
Londoners
I David Dabydeen,OurLady
of Demerara
r Asians were placed in overcrowded, dilapidated and unsanitary barracks.
I Contracts restricted the freedom of movement of workers and
prescribed harsh penalties for non-comptiance.
r Inadequate nutrition, overwork and disease combined to increase
mortality rates.
3 Indians responded to their situation in diverse ways.
I East lndians protested their living and working conditions by strike
action and demonstrations.
r Oppression and tyranny of the sugar planters were sometimes met
with labour riots.
r Some East Indians decided to return home on expiration of their contracts.
I Many decided to cultivate ptots of land given them and practised thrift
and industry.
I East Indians comptained to the lmmigration Agent responsibte for their
protection.
r Associations such as the East Indian Nationat Association (EINA) were
created to combat the repressive immigration ordinance of 1g97 in
Trinidad and Tobago.
I East Indians responded to their oppression by staging cuttural activities
such as the Hosay festival in Trinidad and Tobago.
The objectives of lndo-Caribbean thought
In the prwious section, we examined the historical circumstances
which provided the background for an undersranding of Indo-caribbean
thought. Most writers who researched and analysed-the substantial East
Indian communities in Guyana and Ttinidad and Tobago centred their
studies against the baclqground of coloniarism, oppr"rri-on and poverty
in the caribbean. In this section, we wiil erplore the objectives of this
thought.
Feedback
lndians arrived in the caribbean in the nineteenth centurlr. Many
remained in the
caribbean and this led to severat changes in the comporiiio,., of-the poputation.
1 a The East Indian poputation for Guyana increased from 124,93g in 1921
to
377,256 in 1970. In Trinidad and Tobago, there was also
an increase from
195,747 in 1946 to 373,538 in 1970.
b secondty, the East Indian segment of the poputation became
more
numerous than the African poputation of Guyana.
2 a The people of East Indian descent made significant
strides in the
twentieth century. East Indians moved from the confines
of the sugar
ptantations and obtained jobs in the fietd of commerce,
eJucation and
the heatth sector.
b Educational opportunities became avaitabte to reverse
the trends in
ittiteracy, and higher-paying jobs enabted Indians,o
i,nfrou" their overa[
standard of living.
3 From the list of names, samuel setvon, V.s. Naipaut
and David Dabydeen
are three writers who can be considered Indo-caribbean
authors.
r
il
,t
Section 11 lnteltectualtraditions !l

il i
The lmpact of lndo-Caribbean thought
Although the East Indians were brought to the caribbean as labourers and
t

ryo$ed undervery trying cfucumstances, they showed resilience in their

il ability to achieve a measure of economic independence. with this economic
and numerical strength, they were able to infLuence the economies of the
l
countries inwhich they lived through agriculture and commerce.
il Feedback
I Activity 1114
il E
I
1 The estimated breakdown of Trinidad and Tobago is as fottows: 40 per cent
Indians, 40 per cent Afro-Trinidadians, 18 per cent mixed, 2 per cent others.
1 Give an estimate of the current
ethnic composition of the
poputation of Trinidad and
2 Three prime ministers of East Indian descent in the caribbean are Basdeo
Tobago.
Panday of Trinidad and Tobago, Cheddi Jagan (deceased) and Bharnat
!.f Jagdeo of Guyana. 2 ListTHREE Caribbean potiticat
leaders (past and/or present)
3 a Ways in which Indo-caribbean people have contributed to the cultural who are of East Indian descent.
il I
diversity of the region are through retigion and festivats, cutinary ski[[s,
music, dance. The Indians brought lstam and Hinduism ts we[[ as 3 DescribeTWO ways in which
T
Phagwa, Hosay and Ramadan. Indo-Caribbean people have
contributed to the cutturaI
il f
b The creation of an Indo-Caribbean thought, through the writings of
many scholars, has hightighted the contribution of peopte of East Indian
diversity of the region.
I
descent to agricutture, commerce and industry. This has engendered
il I
confidence in their capacity to provide nationaI leadership.

Indo-caribbean thought has focused on the struggles of Indian immigrants,

il f
f,
which were similar to those of the blacks on plantation in British Guiana
and Tfinidad and Tbbago. An identification of these struggles has provided
the impetus for achievement among Indo-Caribbean people.
,il
I ndigenous perspectives
In this section, the focus will be on indigenous perspectives. The section
examines the conuibution of the indigenous peoples, the Amerindians,
{ to the region. But the focus is not solely on this group. Interpreted in a
broader context, indigenous perspectives relate to ideas, thoughts and
actions of Caribbean people in forging their own dwelopment.
{
Feedback
Activity 11J5
4 For centuries, indigenous groups were the targets of European scorn and Outtine THREE circumstances that
to hightight an
I
t
un-informed opinion. The generatview propagated was that the Caribs were have urged schotars
vicious cannibals who shoutd be exterminated. Writings with an indigenous indigenous perspective.
slant have rejected these notions of cannibalism and presented the argument
that the Caribs provided the invading Europeans with the most sustained
resistance.
T
Beginning in the first hatf of the nineteenth century, West Indian schotars
i
sought to reverse the trends of two centuries, when much of the writing
I i
focused on the centrality of Europe at the expense of histories that focused on
the Amerindians and Africans.
One criticaI objective of this indigenous perspective was the negation of the
view that Caribbean peopte did not have a history. Several writings or histories
T have sought to place the indigenous groups on the historicaI canvass. For
exampte, Watter Rodney's, A History of the Guyanese Working People; C.L.R.
fl I
James', The BlackJacobins; Richard Hart,The S/ayes whoAbolished Slavery;

f;
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 1116
List FOUR Caribbean persons who
have excetled in music, sports and
the arts.
Activity 11J7
1 List FOUR colonies that were
exptoited by the British in the
eighteenth century.
2 ldentifyTWOcapitalist
enterprises that generated
profits for Britain in the
eighteenth century.
3 Explain how the profits were
invested.
sidney Mintz', origins of Reconstituted Peasantries and Hitary Beckles' glack
Rebellion in Barbados.
Another objective of the writings on the indigenous perspective was that the
caribbean peoptes' contribution must not be understood only in the capacit!
of [abour, but atso for their cutturaI and intettectual contribution.
Caribbean peopte, whether indigenous, enslaved, contract [abourers or
peasants were active agents in the historicaI process and their actions, as
much as those of the colonisers, shaped the contours of caribbean history.
These writings have had an impact on caribbean thought and culnrre.
The Activity 11.16 is designed to help you ro understand their impact.
Feedback
Indigenous perspectives have had an impact on caribbean devetopment in a
variety of ways. Production of studies on the caribbean has had the effect of
creating a distinct caribbean cutture, of which caribbean peopte can study
and be proud. Because caribbean peopte are now seen as active agents inthe
historicaI process, this has generated confidence to excel in many fietds, such
as the arts, sports and music both in the region and outside of the region.
For exampte, cricketers such as George Headley, Frank worrett and Garfietd
sobers excetted on the world stage. Bob Martey became an internationatty
acclaimed reggae artist and the Mighty sparrow and the Mighty Gabby are
internationatly acclaimed catypso singers.
Indigenous perspectives have provided Caribbean people with an
understanding of their role in caribbean history in the fottowing ways:
I The Kalingo resisted the Europeans and hatted the advance of European
settlement.
I slaves ptayed a central rote in speeding up their own emancipation by
revotting.
r workers in the 1930s launched a series of revolts in the quest for social
justice and democracy, which they eventuatty received, for example, in
most caribbean countries the property franchise was abolished giving
adults the righ,t to participate in the potiticat process.
Caribbean perspectives on British capitalism
when British enrrepreneurs dweloped plantations in the caribbean from
the seventeenth century the main motive was capital gain or profits.
They used slave labour from Africa, imported t *p"r"L commodities
from North America and used capital from EuropJ to produce sugar
and its by-products for markets in Europe and to-a lesier extent, Nont
America. The result was two centuries of British capital gain, ocploiting
Caribbean land and labour to create profits for Brita-in.
Activity I 1.17 focuses on the nature of British capitalism.
Feedback
]
1 From 1624to the 19GOs, Britain occupied several cotonies in
-
the caribbean, j
which it exploited for economic gain. some of these were Barbados, i
Antigua, Jamaica, St Kitts, Trinidad and Cuyana.
r
r
l
 Section 11 Inteltectual traditions I
Britain used two capitatist enterprises to extract the
weatth of the colonies.
The stave trade, for many British merchants,
especiatty
those from the
gity of Liverpool, became one avenue for the generation of wealth. cheap
British goods such as iron bars, guns, gunpowder,
handkerchiefs and
watered-down caribbean rum, were sotd to African
chiefs in exchange for
staves. These slaves were taken to the caribbean,
as welt as North America,
where they were sotd to plantation owners for as much
as E4o per head.
The evidence indicates that on successfuI voyages, merchants
could make
as much as 100 per cent profits on their capitafouttay.
Second, slavery was used in the Caribbean to produce
tropical
commodities such as sugar, rum and motasses, for which there
was a high
demand in Europe. This attowed sugar planters to generate profits
in excess
of 12 per cent in the first hatf of the eighteenth ceitury.
The profits generated by the stave trade and stavery, argues
Eric Wi[iams,
were invested in British enterprises such as banks and iisurance
companies. williams claims that some of these profits were
criticaI for
the provision of funding for the British Industriai Revolution after
1250.
Moreover, for the caribbean, the profits generated from t}e
region were
not re-invested into new enterprises. several other writerr rr.F as
Setraryn
carrington and Richard sh.eridan have argued a case for the centrality
oi
the caribbean to the devetopment of thJtndustrial Revolution
in Britain.

Th.e.impact of €a ribbean perspectives on

British capitalism
caribbean researchets have produced several studies on the relationship
between caribbean slavery and British capitalism. rhis has
fuelled a
recognition that caribbean people, through their labou{, contributed
to
the dwelopment of the British -conomy.
A{ter tlre publication of williams, capitalism and slavery, many other
pub-lications, some of which reviewed william,s work,
#er" proa.rced
such as Seymour Drescher,s Econocide.
A recognition of the role of caribbean people to the dwelopment of
the British economy has given impetus to the increasing dlmarrd by
Pan--African groups for reparations, in light of the horrois of the
slave
trade and slavery. That was one of the dimands made at the Durban
Conference dgainst Racism in 2001.
The writings on British capitalism have led to an understanding
that Britain exploited caribbean resources without
sving the regon
adequate financial rerurns. This has strengthenea ti*
of ca'ribbean
""i"
governments and trade negotiators in the demand for continued
preferences for caribbean products on European markets.
In addition,
i these writings have brought pressure to bear on Britain to provide
$- loans,
*. grants and technical assistance to Caribbean governments.
:l
I

Feminist thought
t* I
Introduction
il
The issues concerning women in the caribbean were seriously brought
'rl!
It to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. This came out of rhe women,s
i
movement in the USA, where issues of racial and social equality were in
.iil
.il
the forefront of political and social concerns.

'"1

,-&.
I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
Sex is a biologicalterm to
differentiate between male and
female. Gender is a sociotogicaI
term used to differentiate the
activities of men and women.
Liberal feminists are of the
opinion that gender distinction
wil[ end once equatopportunity
is created for women to compete
with men within the existing
economic, [egaI and social
sectors which keep women in
disadvantageous positions.
The feminists seek to hightight
some of the issues, such as
unequat pay for same task done
by both groups, so that the
discriminatory practices against
women may be brought to the
fore.
Activity 11J9
1 ln what ways has the
estabtishment of the Women
and Devetopment Studies Unit
hetped women in the region?
2 NameTHREE women in the
Caribbean who have or had
ministeriaI responsibility in
their respective countries.
3 Outline THREE ways in
which women have made
advancements in the last 25
years.
Exptain how the process
of education has helped to
inftuence contemporary
women awayfrom the
traditionaI role of housewives.
ldentify ONE internationaI
organisation that has helped to
promote women's affairs.
Barbara Bush and Lucille Mathurin Mair, as early pioneers, argued for the
centrality of women in the slave experience. For example, women played
a role in the resistance movement, and they comprised a maior part of
the labour force. The other historians such as Rhoela Reddock, Verene
Shepherd and Hilary BecHes contributed to the debate on the role of
gender in Caribbean history.
Objectives
The goal of the feminist agenda is to attempt to address the problems
of both men and women because of fixed social ideas about each otfrer,s
sexual differences. The whole notion of gender is popularly used to
e)q)ress the subordination of female to male, an order which is referred
to as a patriarchal order. The gender system has recurrently relegated
the activities of men and women into two ideological spheres, that of
the male to the public realm, and that of the female to the private or
domestic domain.
Activity 11J8
1 Distinguish between 'sex'and 'gender'.
2 What is the opinion of the feminists on the question of gender relations?
3 Outtine THREE objectives the feminist groups set out to achieve in having
a feminist agenda.
lmpact of feminist thought
Women's issues were dealt with in a tangible way in the Caribbean
when in L992 t}ne University of the West Indies appointed Professor
Elsa Leo Rhynie to the position of regional co-ordinator of Gender and
pwelopment Studies for the three campuses.
The Women and Dwelopment Unit at the University of the West Indies
seeks to improve the lives of women through training prograrnmes,
outreach prograrnmes and technical assistance. The unit also releases
valuable information gathered about the status of women to government
and non-governmental organisations. This information can be used
to guide poligrmakers in future plans for enhancing the well-being of
women. '
Advancement of women
Through the avenue of education and the help of the mass media,
as well as the emergence of the feminist movement throughout the
region, women have made significant strides to enhance their image in
society. Such manifestation can be seen in the participation of women
in elective politics, some entering the traditional domains of men as
in law and medicine as well as in senior positions in widely recognised
private companies.
Education was identified as the central stratery and main vehicle through
which the roles of women could be transformed.
Feedback
1 The estabtishment of the Women and Development Studies has
encouraged attitudes of independence among women, thus enabting them
to empower themsetves economicatly, socially and emotionatty.
 Section 11 Inteltectuattraditions I

t some of the women in the caribbean who have or had

responsibitities are JanetJagan and viota Burnham
Honourabte Portia simpson Mi[er of
ministeriat
of Guyana, The
Jamaica, Dame Eugenia chartes of
Dominica and Antoinette Bittie Mitter and Mia Motttey Jf garbados.
Legislative advancement which have been passed by most
countries in the
region are maternity leave with pay and a minimum wage for equat
work
done by both men and women.
Throughout the caribbean, women's organisdtions have been created to
champion the cause of women. For exampte, the National organization
of Women (NOW) in Barbados; sistren in
Jamaica; the Betize Rurat
women's Association (BWRA). In addition, the caribbean women,s
Association (cARlwA) was formed in the 1970 and in 1977 the Women and
Devetopment unit of the university of the West Indies was created.

il These organisations hightight the role ptayed by women in various endeavours,

provide a forum for the discussion of issues relating to women, and provide

il the inspiration foryoung women to enter etective potitics. ln addition, these

organisations have been urging governments to ptace tegisQtion on the
statute bools to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace.
The protiferation of feminist's writings has effected some reversat in the

t{ attitudes of society towards women. There is now growing acceptance of

women in managerialpositions and potitics.
women are gaining access to tertiary-leveleducational institutions and
ft are studying [aw, medicine and engineering which were fields traditionatty
dominated by men.

il
The United Nations during the International Decade of Women 1925-1995
has hetped to promote women's affairs.

il Key points
Caribbean people in various disciplines have sought to articulate their

ft views as a way of criticising old colonial structures and creating an

agenda for development of Caribbean people.
Caribbean writings have been useful in providing policy makers with
It intellecnral tools for the dwelopment of Caribbean economies. One such
tool was L,ewis' industrialisation by invitation.

il
,l
The work of Caribbean icon, Marcus Gawey, as well as modern scholars
such as Walter Rodney and Tbny Martin on Pan-Africanism, have forged
t critical links with African peoples throughout the world. This Pan-African
unity is considered one critical factor in the development of the Caribbean.
il i
Caribbean intellectud thought that orpresses pride in'blackness' have
given Caribbean people the conffdence to aspire and achieve greatness in
all areas of human endeavou4 particularly in sports, the arts and music.
il Feminist's writers such as Barbara Bush and Lucille Matherin Mair have
i

focused on gender issues, as a way of highlighting particular concerns of

q women. This upsurge in snrdies of this qpe has paved the way for the
redressing of the many societal injustices meted out to women.
,4 Mancist thought is another aspect of the rich intellectual tradition in
the Caribbean. Writings by Walter Rodnery', C.L.R. |ames and Cheddi
|agan have sought to establish a non-capitalist path of dwelopment
for Caribbean states, which have been pursued with some vigour (with
varyrng levels of successf in Cuba, lamaica, Guyana and Grenada.
{

.rfi, td
I Caribbean Studies

The Caribbean intellectud tradition has at its core an indigenous

perspectivg which ltighlights the centrality of the Caribbean on the historical
stage. As such, it has influenced nrany caribbean persons to seek caribbean
solutions to some of the problems and issues the region has orperienced.
Historians such as Eric williams and selwyn carrington have dweloped
perspectives on the role of British capitalism. These writings have
been usefulin highlighting the caribbean's contributiott tolhe British
industrid development. As a result, they have strengthened the case of
caribbean people for western aid, preferential treatment and reparations
for the injustices of the slave trade.

Conctusion
These intellecnrd traditions, born out of the experiences and conditions
encountered by caribbean people, are aspects of caribbean life of which our
citizens can be proud. They have enabled us to achieve significant human
and economic dwelopment often against great odds. As the caribbean
faces new and greater challenges, the continuation of this rich intellecnral
tradition could provide critical solutions to the problems we face.

Suggested further readings

Alan, C. and Thompson, A. The African-Caribbean Connection:
Historical and cuhwal perspectives, Bridgetown: Department of History
University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, 1990.
Allahar, A. caribbean charisma: Reflections of leadership,legitimaqt and
populist poktics, Kingston: Ian Randle , 2OOI.
A4"r, s. 'Negritude: Agreement and Disagreement,, American society of
African culture in pan-Africanism Reconiidered, Hartford: Greenwood
Press,1976.
Dabydeen, D. and samaroo, B. India in the caibbean, London: Hansel
Publishing, t98Z
P. Pan-Africanism
_E_ge{e!e, - The ldea and Movement 1776-199L,
Washington: Howard University press, Chapter Z, lg9i.
Frag:'nals, M. Africa in Latin Arnerica: Essays on history,
culwte and
socialisation, Nev York Holmes B. Meier ir,rblirh.r, rqga,
nn zso-z7g.
La Guerre, I. calcuna tu caroni: The East Indians of Ttinidad
and port of
Spain, St. Augustine: University of the West Indies, l9gS.
Lewis, G. Main cu*ents of caribbean Thougftt: The histoi,cal
evolution
9f .cax_b!e1n society in i* ideological aspec*, 1402-1900, Baltimore: The
|ohns Hopkins University press, 19g3.
Lewis, R.Waher Rodney's Intellecanl and poktical Thougftt,Barbados:
The University of the West Indies press. pp l6Z_lgl
,
tg-gZ.'
Logan, R. 'The Historical Aspects of pan-Africanism;
rgoo-rg4s, in
Pan Africanism Reconsidered, American society
of eJrican culture,
Connecticut: Greenwood press pp 87_52, L97i.
Mathurin, o. Henry sylvester wriams and the origins
of the pan-African
Movement, 1869-1911, connecticut: Greenwood press, 'ct
a, 1916.
Sunshine, C. The Caribbean: Suruival, Sa:ugsle "pr.,
and Sovereignty,rffashington:
Ecumenical program on central America otlrra
trr. cJu#J, rpp+.
symmonds , p. Longer Lasting than Brcnze,

tr
Bridgetown: Barbados r9gg.
 Section 11 Intettectualtraditions I
Thompson, A. The Haunting past: politics, economics and race in
Caribbean fi/e, Kingston: Ian Randle, pp 150-159 ,lgg7.
Torres, A. and whitten, E. Blackness in Latin America and the caribbean
- social dynarnics and cultwal transformatrbns, Bloomington and
Indianapolis: Indiana University press, pp 9-17,I9g9.
Williams, E. Capitalism and Slavery, Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1941.

End test
1 Assess the success of the Pan-African movement.

2 Briefty describe the work of any teading Caribbean pan-Africanist.

3 ldentify the major criticisms of Ndgritude.

'-l 4 Criticatty assess why N6gritude did not have a greater fottowing in the diaspora.
5 Choose one ProPonent of N6gritude in the Caribbean and assess his or her
contribution to the movement.
5 Describe the imptementation of the poticy of industialisation by invitation in a nanred
il
.li
I 7
Caribbean territory.
State FOUR reasons why some Caribbean politicians tried to imptement changes

il 8
based on Marxist thought.
How successfut were these teaders?
ii 9 Describe the circumstances that led to the evolution of an Indo-Caribbean thought.

il 1o Exptain how the evotution of an indigenous perspective has changed the thinking of
Caribbean peopte.
,i
t 11 Describe the impact of Eric Wiltiams's Capitalism and Slavery on intetlectuaI thought.
- 12 Describe the ways in which conditions have changed for Caribbean women as a result
I

of the proliferation of feminist writings.

i-
,il
.I
ir
;-r
Feedback for end test
f

': 1 This activity requires you to focus on the key word You can see that this activity reguires much anatysis.
'success'. You must make an evatuation of the movement It is not a simpte exercise. We hope it wi[[ challenge
it you to think criticatly about issues in the Caribbean.
_- by first defining'success.' Your evatuation must recognise
,-
1, that the success of any movement should be measured This activity atso gives you scope to focus on the
against the stated aims and objectives. In short, success, Caribbean side of Pan-Africanism. West lndians

I rl
I
like beauty, is in the eye of the behotder.
You should consider the following as you judge the
Pan-African movement:
constituted some of the teading Pan-Africanists in
Europe and North America and had considerabte
impact in shaping the movement.
5
I The tenacity of the activists.
2 You have many Pan-Africanists to choose from. There
is Marcus Garvey, Ceorge Padmore, Henry Sytvester
i
r The response of the people of the diaspora. Was Witliams, Ctaude McKay, Reginald Pierrpoint and many
Pa n -Af rica n ism readi [y embraced ? I dentify targe more. lt witt be usefulto put the Pan-Africanists in the
numbers anywhere in the diaspora who attribute context of the time in which they lived and then assess
- I
their betiefs to the activities of Pan-Africanists. what they were responding to. For exampte, Marcus
.r Garvey tived during the earty twentieth century and

t I
Did Pan-Africanism have any impact on leaders in
Africa? Jomo Kenyatta, Julius Nyerere and other
African Nationatists of the 1950s and 1960s were
was appatted at the social and economic conditions
of peopte of African descent in Africa, the Caribbean,
Latin America and the USA. His work centred around
influenced by the potiticaI aspirations of Pan-
Africanism. organising the Universal Negro lmprovement

fi' Irl
I Caribbean Studies
Association (UNtA), the Black Star Line and the Negro
World newspaper. This essay should make this kind of
assessment of any of the Pan-Africanists.
You must focus on the birth of Ndgritude in the
1940s. This was a time when the world was in
potitical turmoi[. lt had just experienced a world
war and was in the process of adjusting to political
and economic upheavat. India was ctamouring for
independence and Britain was dismantting its empire.
Ndgritude can be seen as another explanation
of how blacks in the diaspora could achieve
independence. However, the movement did not
appear to have a btueprint for progress. lt was also
criticised for its heavy emphasis on literary analysis.
To criticatly analyse N6gritude one would have to look
at atl the angles of the question. Ndgritude did not
have a mass foltowing inJamaica and Barbados in the
same way as in Haiti and Senegal. lt depended on how
the philosophy was marketed. One could specutate
that perhaps Ndgritude was a very comptex ideotory
and did not capture the imagination of the masses.
Generalisations shoutd not be made and the student
witt be required to give the question much thought.
Use the same approach as in question 2 and examine
the proponents of Ndgritude. For example, Aim6
Cdsaire would have been inftuenced by the debate
over decolonisation in the French empire and the
struggle for independence in the French Caribbean.
Your answer should include the reasons for
industrialisation, the agency or person responsible
for imptementation and the advantages or
11
disadvantages of the project.
Some Caribbean politicians would have attended
university in Europe when there was much debate over
Marxism and could have been inftuenced in that way.
In addition, the Maxists in Europe were successful in
exporting their ideotogy to the Caribbean. Moreover,
, pioneered the way for historians, sociologists, potilicat
Caribbean leaders were disittusioned with the
capitalist path of development and its failure to sotve
many of the pressing probtems confronting the region.
Finatty, Caribbean teaders were inftuenced by the
progress of the Cuban Revolution of 1959.
lf 'successful' means putting in place sustained
economic growth, then Marxist thought has faited.
There was no success as well in terms of functioning
potiticat structures. you wilt atso have to take into
consideration the opposition emanating from the
USA. Many argue that the USA agencies destabitised
Caribbean leaders who embraced Maxist ideas.
Indo-Caribbean thought woutd have been stimutated
by the harsh and unfortunate circumstances that
F
people of Asian descent found themsetves in during
the emancipation era.
T
i
In addition, few avenues for expression of Indo-
thought were provided by the ruting classes. Indo: T
Caribbean peopte were forced to use whatever
means to highlight their grievances. Links with
organisations in India woutd have provided some
stimulus to Indo-Caribbean nationalists in the
T
i,i
region. You cannot underestimate the inftuence of
Mahatma Gandhi at the turn of the century. His
activities in South Africa, and later India, were very
inftuential in the Caribbean.
i
I
Indigenous perspectives would have forced
Caribbean peopte to reflect on issues of cuttural r,
erasure and genocide. Archaeotogical findings have
reveated that some indigenous peoptes had very
comptex systems of government and high tevets
of social organisation. They have contributed to t'
the diversity of Caribbean language and cuisine in
ways that we cannot ignore. Moreover, remnants of
these peopte in Dominica, St Vincent and Trinidad
k
il
I
and Tobago ctamour for rights we cannot afford to
ignore. Some scholars argue that indigenous peoples
deserve some consideration for reparations. This
should contribute to a heated debate in the future.
Finatly, a study of indigenous peoples hetps us to
r
reftect on the true meaning of sustainabte use of
resources and the preservation of our eco-systems. r
You must focus on how Williams' argument in
Capitalism and Slavery has influenced the thinking
of Caribbean schotars and writers such as Setwyn
r
Carrington. Williams offers us a different view of
the rote of the Caribbean in the development of
Europe. Consider his emphasis on the exptoitation F
of the Caribbean and its consequences in retarding
its development. In addition, Capitalism and Stavery
It
scientists and economists to view retations between
European nations and their cotonised peoptes. Williams,
penetrating analysis has resulted in a tremendous F
outpouring of scholarly works that attempted,
unsuccessfutty in most cases, to disabuse this theory.
You should recognise that most of the feminist
h
writings focused on the harsh conditions of women
during the slavery era and after. They, therefore,
created much sympathy for the ptight of women.
Many of the rights women now enjoy, such as the
l'
right to vote, to inherit property, equal pay, and to
aspire to the highest potiticat and judiciat offices
have been inftuenced by feminist writings. We shoutd r
atso add that many feminists formed organisations
to campaign for the rights of women. r
h
l
 Section 11 Intetlectualtraditions I
Tutor-marked assign ment
1 Examine the impact of intellectual traditions on:
a Caribbean people
b government organisations.
20 marks

Marking criteria
The question seeks a response on two areas: Caribbean people and
governmental organisations.
Some of the points should include:
a i Women see themselves as persons with dignity and worth as a
result of the feminist perspectives.
Thery see themselves as equal to men, capable of doing similar
iobs and receiving equal pay. Afro-Caribbean people have been
influenced by Pan-Africanism in terms of buildirlg their self-
esteem.
iii Caribbean scholars have produced works that highlight the
conuibution of Caribbean people to the region's development.
bi Governments embraced industrialisation by invitation as
a means of stimulating productivity in manufacturing and
tourism.
ii This strategy has also been used to reduce unemployment.
iii Marxist ideas have been used with varying levels of success
and, except for Cuba, Caribbean governments have virnrally
abandoned Marxism.
iv Governments have drawn on indigenous perspectives to create
institutions such as CARICOM and CXC.
2 'Colonialism, racism, social injustice and under-dwelopment
were the stimulators of intellectud traditions in the Caribbean'.
n
!l
Discuss.
4l 20 marks

ilrl Marking criteria

I
;r
r' I
The question requires that you show how each aspect (colonialism,
racism, social iniustice and under-dwelopmentf stimulated intellectual
traditions. It is necessary to include the following points:
! Colonialism has provided impetus for scholars to study its impact
on colonial dwelopment.
n I It has created the notion that European governments should pay
I
reparations.
|' r The unequal treatment of women has given stimulus to feminist
i
thought.
i
t Deplorable treatment of East Indians has also given rise to an
Indo -Caribbean thought.
I.,
I In terms of racism, widespread discrimination and racial prejudice
have fostered the development of Pan-Africanism and N€gritude.

t I
r Other intellectual traditions such as industrialisation by invitation
were responses to poverty and underdwelopment, which can be
indirectly linked to colonialism.
L
I
I

12 The mass media
At the end of this section, you
should:
be abte to demonstrate an
understanding of the role and
functions of the mass media in
Caribbean life.
You should be able to:
anatyse factors that impact on
the mass media's contribution
to the development of the
region.
tr
T
i
T
I
f
i
Introduction
One inescapable feature of Caribbean life today is the mass media. A
century ago, the newspaper was perhaps the most important information
t
provider to Caribbean people. By the mid-trsentieth century period, the
radio and then the television gained prominence. Tbday, howwer, with
the rapid advances in technology, new and more sophisticated ways
have been found to disseminate information, completely transforming
the mass media. Such changes have had a profound impact on both the
society and economy of Caribbean countries.
Content
r Provision of information about institutions, events and trends in
individual countries, the region and the global community
r Entertainment
r Construction of nationd identity
r Cultural imperialism
Activity 12J
1 Give a definition of the term 'mass media,.
2 Assuming you have used broad categories foryour definition, tist the
various aspects of the mass media that fall under these categories.
Feedback
Mass media may be defined as channets that communicate messages to
large audiences simuttaneously. These channets can be ptaced into two
categories - the print media and the electronic media.
several formp can be identified as aspects of the print media. These are
newspapers, magazines and journats. For the etectronic media, there are
films, radio, television and the internet.
Social commentators describe the last decade as the information age.
Never before in world affairs have individuals had so much inform-ation
at their disposal.
Activity 12.2 focuses on the mass media as information providers.
Activity 12.2
complete the foltowing tabte to give information on events, trends and
information provided by the masi media in the last 20 yeari.
I Section 12 The mass media I

I The operations of the Wortd

Trade Organization (WTO)

t-t

u
Feedback

Events
The mass media have atso taken on the task of covering [otat, regionat and
international events. The media report on crime, general etections, prime
ministeriaI speeches, racism and poltution (the prime issues for reporting in
Caribbean countries).
on the regional scene, events such as the cARlcoM Heads 6f Gouernment
summit, or leading sporting events such as cricket, footbatt and athtetics taftc
centre stage.
Internationalty, events are a]so given full coverage, as [oca[ radio and TV
rii
stations and newspaper follow world events from agencies such as the cabte .!
News Network, the British Broadcasting Corporation, Associated press and ' '7;
,j:'

Reuters. Major international events covered inctude the war in lraq, lsraeti-
Palestinian conflict, the September 11, 2001 attacks on the USA and the SARS
outbreak in China, Hong Kong and Toronto, Canada.
Information on trends
The mass media has atso fottowed major trends tocatty, regionatly and
intemationa[ly. Trends such as rising crime in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago
have been covered and anatysed. Kidnapping in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana
has received much attention. On the international scene, the trends towards
trade liberatisation and its effects on smatl island states have been surveyed. In
the last 15 years, the mass media has produced many documentaries, features
and artictes on HIV/AIDS, focusing on its origins, nature, prevention and the
progress of research to combat the disease. In addition, investigations have
focused on trends in infection rates and areas most affected by the disease.

Information about institutions

One of the primary functions of the mass media is the provision of information
about institutions, whether locatly, regionally or intemationatty. Joumatists see it
il
,l
as their rote to research and investigate tocat institutions such as the church, the
schoot, and the heatth care facitities in order to inform the pubtic on the operations
I
of such. For exampte, investigations into the facitities at primary schoots have

il I
brought glaring deficiencies to light, causing governments to take conective action.
On the regionaI scene, journalists have written extensivety on the Caribbean
I
Community (CARICOM) and the negotiations with respect to the single
t I
market and economy. Artictes have atso concentrated on the Caribbean Court
of Justice in order to educate the public as to its importance.

I,. In this third wave of gtobatisation, international institutions have become

the focus of attention by the mass media. There is considerabte focus on
I
the International Monetary Fund (lMF) and its programmes for devetoping
i
countries. Indeed, the mass media in the Caribbean have been somewhat
critical of IMF 'medicine' for countries like Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica.
{

,x
I

E
I Caribbean Studies Y
l

Moreover, the media have canied severatarticles, features and documentaries on

the operations of the WTO and the World Heatth Organisation (WHO).
Il,
I

The mass media and entertainment l

I
while media practitioners interpret their role in terms of the provision of
information on events and institutions, it is recognised by many that the
mass media has a role to play in the provision of entertainment.
I
Activity 12.3
List FoUR main entertainment activities covered by the media in your
country and ctassify each as [oca[, regional or internationat. The fiist one has
been done for you.

Local Regional International

1 First Division Cricket Carnival The Otympics

Feedback

In the majority of cases, local entertainment activities take centre-stage

in
both the electronic and print media. Local cricket, horse racing, footba'it,
sporting activities as we[[ as concerts, secutar, gospet, and festivats are
give.n. priority. They usuatty attract targe audienies
and the corporate
world has been quick to seize upon these forms of entertainment through
sponsorship.
carnival in Trinidad and Tobago and crop over in Barbados are not only
local forms of entertainment covered by the media, but can
be described as
regionat and internationaI events covered by the international press
to be
viewed by extra-regionaI audiences. The caiibbean song Festival
is another
entertainment activity that has gained much popularity-in recent years.
Thanks to developments in satelite technotogy within
the last 25 years,
internationaI entertainment now reaches most homes in
Caribbean territories.
The otympics and the Wortd Games are now beamed
to television sets around
the wortd;wortd cup Footbattand wortd cup cricket can be
seen and heard
live.every fouryears. The NBA from the usA is atso part
of the entertainment
package. ln addition, Miss wortd and the Grammy
Awards are major forms
of entertainment which caribbean peopte demand coverage
from media
practitioners.

The mass media and national identity

The quest for identity is natural to
Feople werywhere. There is a great
desire for people ro collate and codiiy their pasi coilective
ocperiences
so as ro lay a foundation for the realisation of trr.i,
urort
"rpir"Joirr.
 Section 12 The mass media I
countries
in the English-spe"gog caribbean have been influenced by
various cultures, and even at the point of political independence, many Activity 12.4
countries were still searching for an identity. ror examfle, the
|amaican 1 ldentify the organisations in
identity is ocpressed as'things |amaican'oi th. |amaican'image. Barbados and Jamaica that are
responsible for co-ordinating
How the media constructs national identity cutturaI activities.

Increasingly, people within the region have access to radio, telerdsion and 2 Describe ONE way in which
the print media. Information flow has become easier. In the case of |amaica, the media help to construct
the late Michael Manley appointed a committee of the arts ro assess rhe national identity.
cultural situation and recommend action. The thrust was on enhancing ttre
art forms as a part of nationd identity. Exposwe of the arts was essentid. Feedback
In the 1977 Budget Speech before the |amaican Parliament, Manley
justified the spending on cultural dwelopment. The |amaican Culturd The NationaI CulturaI
Dwelopment Comrnission highlights cultural activities of the country Foundation and the Jamaica
through radio and television. CutturaI Development
Commission in Barbados and
lmpact of national identity on Caribbean development Jamaica respectively, are the
organisations responsibte for co-
Because people in the various islands can identify with vairious aspects of ordinating cultural activities.
their culnrre, then persons are willing to work hard and maintain their
culnrre. For example, the |amaican uses the popular culture, reggae, as The media hetps to construct
a form of national identity. In this way,larnaican reggae and dance hall national identity by giving
artists, such as the late Bob Marley, Eric Donaldson, 'Bounty Killer', considerabte airtime and space
'Beenie Man' and Sean Paul, having marketed this art form locally and in the electronic and print media
overseas bring to the island tremendous gains. to the history and cutture of the
people.

Activity 12.5
1 Briefty describe ONE way in which any art form has contributed to
development in your country.
2 How have Claude McKay of Jamaica and C.L.R. James of Trinidad and
Tobago contributed to Caribbean devetopment?
3 Briefty describe ways in which the arts and popular cutture can help to
strengthen nationaI identity among Caribbean people overseas.

Feedback

Scutpting, painting, drama and dance - these various art forms have
contributed sociatty and economicatty.
Ctaude McKay and C.L.R. James as Caribbean intettectuats in the 1920s
and 1930s spearheaded anti-cotoniatism and nationalism in their writings
about cotoniatism.
The hotding of annuaI festivals in metropotitan cities overseas by
Caribbean peoptes and the occasional launch of pubtications by Caribbean
writers have hetped to strengthen national identity overseas. For exampte,
The Polished Hoe by Austin Tom Ctarke.

CulturaI imperiatism
Cultural imperialism has endured to become a part of the general
intellecnral currency. The process of imperialist control is aided and
abetted by importing supportive forms of cultures. It is the use of political
 I Caribbean Studies
Feedback
1 CNN and ABC are two news
channel widety viewed
throughout the region.
2 Two North American-based
soap operas aired on regional
tetevision are 'Days of Our Lives,
and 'The Botd and the Beautifut,.
3 Television promotes an unreal
picture of US society, which is
often accepted as reat by peopte
living in the Caribbean. This
creates a desire to emigrate
especia[[y among young peopte.
Most Caribbean young persons
are captivated with US-based
artistes such as Michaeljackson
and Stevie Wonder, Whitney
Houston. The type of ctothing
worn is also influenced to a
targe extent by foreign styles.
Activity 12.7
1 ldentifyTWO ways in which
persons in the wider society
can express their views
on topical issues in the
community.
2 radio.
ldentify some of the
technologicat devetopments
that have impacted on
the mass media in the late
twentieth and twenty-first
centuries.
Feedback
Calt-in shows, letters to the
press, discussion boards on the
internet.
The mass media has been
influenced by the various
technologicaI changes such as
sate[[ite, computer, digitat and
laser technotogies.
and economic power to exalt and spread the values and habits of a foreign
culture at the expense of a native culture.
lmpact of mass media on culture
Tblevision is the most powerful vehicle of foreign cultural influence in the
caribbean. some 7s per cent of television prograrnming in the English-
speaking caribbean originates outside the region, primlily in the usA.
The radio roo has senred as a vehicle for foreign i*luence.'country and
western music often competes with reggae and calypso on the airwaves.
caribbean radio also carries large amounts of chrisiian fundamentalist
religious programming originatrng in the USA.
Activity 12.5
1 ldentifyTWO US news channets that are widety viewed throughout
the
region.
2 Give the names of TWo North American-based soap operas
that are aired
on regional television stations.
3 outline TWo ways in which the exposure to North American media
inftuences cultural habits in the Caiibbean.
Key points
This section has focused on the roles and functions
of the mass media.
Several key points were made:
E
r The mass media is a broad term that refers to channels
and
institutions that communicate a message simultaneousty.
include the print media and electronic media.
rn.r.
r The mass media,is an essentiar aspect of modern
society: informing,
educating on various trends, and instit.tio"rlt"iiry, regionally
and internationally. "rr"rtl,
r Entertainment is a critical function of the mass
media through
magazines, journals, cinema, television and
The research and investigations conducted by
the media personnel
assist in the oonstruction of national identity.
The mass media has been inJruenced uy
changes such as satelrite, compurcr, digitalt. various technorogicar
r"s"r r;;hr;'r"gi.r.
""a
Proximity to the usA, as r1'elf as the pervasiveness
of the usA media,
through cable news and televisio";;;;;*ming
has led to some form
of cultural peneffadon in the CariUbeinl
Conctusion
with modest beginnings going back to the eighteenth century,
the mass
media has made enormous
"d-rr"n"er.
and.penrasive tool, which impacts
T.d;t:th;;;rilii", a powertul
on the ri*r or.o.t n;i" in the
caribbean' while some of this impact h"s-u"e'negadve,
erosion of criticd values, the mass media
riading to the
education and the creation of nationar anJ
h"v
"lso'f"." "
p*i,i* tool for
ilil;il;;;r.
the region is_going to continue on a developmentar crearly, if
path, the mass media
must not only entertain the public, but
must educaie
"rra-irrto.rrr.
f;
{r Section 12 The mass media I
#t

F End test
ii 1 Read the passage and fitt in the btanks, using the words betow. You are given more

t
jl
words than you require.

In the days of stavery, the- media dominated the social landscape

I,i of the Caribbean providing news and information from the

In recent times, however, the mass media has expanded enormousty, to inctude

t
.g{
media, which has been inftuenced by developments in

technotogl. Caribbean peopte now have critical information on

intdrnationaijinstitutions such as the and They

il can atso fotlow international trends and events and at the same time obtain some

level of

t
I

Wortd Trade Organization entertainment

.,I metropole ' cuttural penetration
;i etectronic
InternationaI Monetary Fund
il cable television North American
.l satettite nationaI identitY

Irl
{
2 Outtine FOUR ways in which the mass media has contributed to Caribbean devetopment.
(8 marks)

3 Describe the effects of cuttural penetration in the Caribbean via the mass media.

I
.t
(20 marks)

il I
Feedback for end test

1 In the days of stavery, the North American media

I Through the media, governments are informed of
developments on the international scene'
* dominated the social tandscape of the Caribbean
l
providing news and information from the Metropote' I The media has played a role in poputarising sPorts
In recent times, however, the mass media has and sportsPersons.
fi expanded enormousty, to inctude the electronic I The media is a good source for information
t
media, which has been inftuenced by devetopments on matters retating to devetopments in each
t
in sateltite technotogy. Caribbean peopte now have
t I
criticat information on internationaI institutions such
as the Wortd Trade Organization and International
3
territory.
ln this essay, the fottowing points shoutd be
devetoped:
I
Monetary Fund. They can atso fottow international
trends and events and at the same time obtain some r American rap artists have influenced music in
{ level of nationat identitY. the region.
I
2 ln attempting this question, one must note the I Criminotogists argue that some Caribbean
q following points: peopte who commit serious crimes were
inftuenced to some extent by North American
I
r The mass media has contributed to the
tetevision.
devetopment of Caribbean music forms and
A musicians. r The dress Patterns of ouryouth in the region
have been inftuenced by North American
I Businessmen depend on the media for trends
I

' and information retating to markets, prices and

tetevision.

4 shipping.
i

t
i
 13 Social justice

At the end of this section, you
should be able to;
understand the retationship
between sociat justice and
development"
Introduction
social justice refers to the concept that individuals in society, regardless
of race, class or creed, should have minimum guarantees to access
the things that make for a decent living. ThesJguarantees include
basic human rights: the right to a fair trial, the tight to a trial within
a reasonab-letime, the protection from extra-judiclal killings by the
police, and_the right to be treated fairly by the police irrespictive
of social
background. The guarantees also includethe right to eduLtion, the right
to health care, housing and a decent standard oI ur.ittg. If these minimum
guarantees are not meg social justice is breached.

You shoutd be able to:

formutate reasoned responses
to issues of sociat justice within
your communities.
Activity 13J
Explain the meaning of the term
'social justice'.
Content
r Knowledge of competing concepts of social justice, for example,
recognition of natural rights, welfare and mutual advantage
r Discrimination on the grounds of age, gender, ethnicity, race
or class
I Indicators of development affected by breaches of social justice:
r Levels of social and economic equalisation
r Productivity
r Qualiry of life

Feedback Concepts of sociaI justice

Political philosophers_such as |ohn Rawls, Theory
Your answer shoutd include the of sociar lustice, and,
Brian Barry's lustice, have put forward sweral
following points: oisociat justice.
some of the concepts emerge as a resurt of the "orr".pt,
r recognition of the basic rights of organised.
*"til;hi;sociery is
the individual
fua.trty 13.2 requires you to think of some of the aspects that demand
r a decent standard of tiving for social justice.
all, through access to housing,
education and heatth care
Activity 13.2
r fair treatment in the legat
Describe the conditions in your sociegl that
domain. may cause individuats to think of
social justice.

Feedback

You might have been thinking of conditionsthat

might be convenientty ptaced
in the following three categoiies: natural
rights, .au.ni.g" .no welfare.
It has been argued that the.primary aspect '.,'rir"t
of.sociat justice is naturat right. For
socialjustice to take root, the basii rights
ofthe indiviouat, tire, tiuerty and the
Pl?::ttjo..r of property must not be inlringed. There it no ,rirtitrte
for the
withhotding of these rights even if it meais
a greater distribution of the country,s
wealth to the individual Th.Ji:
yt'w many governments have drawn up speciat
rights, also known as a Bittof Righti,
whiciire enshrined in the constitution.
The second concept, mutuaI advantage,
springs from the first. This concept
recognises that in atl societies there
iisome te-vet or in"qr.titv,'and for social
 Section 13 Sociat justice I
justice to prevait, everyone, inctuding
the economicatty oppressed, must
benefit from the opportunities avaiti-bte
in the country. This means that
persons in authority must be accessibte
to att in socieiy, nol lrii,r," potiticat
and economic €tite. Moreover, according
to John Rawts, ,the distribution
of weatth and income must be consisteit
with both the tiberties of equar
citizenship and equatity of opportunity,.
The third concept of socialjustice is wetfare. In
the last four decades of the
twentieth.century, governments have been carted upon
to respond to the
needs ofthe disadvantaged groups in sociegr to ensure that they have
access
to the necessities of tife. peopte in this class inctude the
homele-ss, the etderly,
p_o9l and the physicatty and mentalty
ll chattengea. vori go"anments in
the" caribbean have responded to the needs orthls" groupr"uy
estabtishing
etaborate wetfare poticies and laws for their protection.
In Barbados in recent years, the government has created
the Ministry of
sociatTransformation. This ministr5r has been set up to tackte
the probtems
of poverty in the country. The pooi and the etderty have benefitted
in terms
of having their homes repaired, and in some cases, replaced. Those
over 65
can look forward to pensions and assistance with Medicare .'nd fr"e pubtic
transportation. In addition, a home-hetp service, organised by the government,
provides the etderty person in need with daity meati.

Discrimination on grounds of Eg€, ethnicity and class

Socid iu:-tiT in any society is exemplified by a harmonious relationship
among all classes of society, irrespective of colour, race or creed. Howweg
because of the caribbean's historical past of orploitation and inequality,
there is still some inconsistency in today's coniemporary caribbeln.
some caribbean persons are still facing discrimination on various
grounds such as age, ethnicity and class.
social stratification has been and still is a feature of caribbean societies.
This may manifest itself in unequal access to employment, education
and legal representation. Those persons who are in the lower classes may
also be discriminated against because of the areas in which they live.
Ethnic baclqgound may also be grounds for discrimination.
social justice is the equal social and economic oppornrnities that are
available to all citizens in a society irrespective of class, colour or creed.

Feedback
Activity 13.3
1 Three grouPs of persons who are discriminated against in Caribbean societies 1 ldentifyTHREE groups of
are: Rastafarians, the physicatty or mentally challenged and HIV/AIDS victims. persons who are sometimes
Rastafarians suffer discrimination because of their long ftowing hairstyte,
discriminated against in
Caribbean societies.
which is described as unkempt hair. In addition, their rejection of some
mainstream etements of christianity, their perceived association with 2 What are the implications
crime, and the use of marijuana have created the circumstances for for the Caribbean region if
discrimination. In some caribbean societies, Rastafarians are frequent sections of the population are
il. targets of police investigations. discriminated against?
I

t . HIV/AIDS victims atso feetthe brunt of discrimination because some

peopte erroneously feel that persons who have contracted the virus can
t
.i pass it on through casual contact. Many AIDS victims have been forced
to [eave their homes; some are avoided by work cotleagues; persons
_l suspected of having the virus may not get employment and adults warn
-
!
i
I Caribbean Studies
T
their chitdren not to ptay with those known to have contracted the virus.
The disabled have also suffered in terms of employment oPPortunities and
t
a [ack of facitities for their speciaI needs.
2 lf sections of the Caribbean poputation are discriminated against in areas of T
education and emptoyment, there wi[[ be uneven devetopment. This could
cause social tensions and tow productivity.
T
Indicators of development affected by breaches i

of social justice J
After more than 200 years of slavery colonialism and underdwelopmeng ;

the attainment of independence by Caribbean territories in the middle

of the twentieth century has resulted in a passionate quest for Caribbean
dwelopment. Howerrer, in manyways, this quest for dwelopment has
r
i
i
been retarded considerably by serious breaches of social iustice.
In this section, we will examine the ways in which these breaches have
negatively affected social and economic equalisation, worker productivity
I
1

and the quality of life for Caribbean people.

Feedback J
Activity 13.4
The impact of breaches of social
justice on economic and social
equalisation
Att Caribbean societies experienced some form of stavery, which led
to gtaring inequatities. The slave owners exerted political power and
controlted the wealth, while the enstaved Negro had neither politicat
I
I
t
power nor wealth. Sociat and economic inequalities continued [ong after
1 What is meant by social and
stavery had ended and while politicat leaders sought to narrow the gap
economic equalisation?
between the rich and the poor, gtaring inequalities stitt persists in most
-
2 What the relationship
is Caribbean territories, especiatly in Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican
between sociaI injustice Republic.
and social and economic
equatisation? Most potitical thinkers and sociaI commentators agree that breaches of
sociaI justice affect the [eve[ of social and economic equalisation. We
have atready seen how this was possible during the period of slavery in
the caribbean. Today, racialdiscrimination and prejudice have fostered
inequalities in society. Moreover, when racism is a[owed to go unchecked,
it permeates all social institutions inctuding the educationaI system, the
church, the jud,iciary and the civiI service.
When oppressed races are denied fult access to their social institutions,
glaring sociaI and economic inequalities result.

In addition, the suppression of the middle classes in some caribbean

societies often results in a situation whereby the wealthier classes try to
maintain the stanrs quo. Again, the result is the widening gap betrneen
the two classes, leading to social and economic inequalitiis-.
Breaches of social justice also affect productivity levels.

Activity 13.5
what is the tikety response of individuats in the fortowing situations?
1 Supersession in the civil service.
2 Less pay for women doing the same job as men.
3 Wage level betow the minimum wage in a supermarket.

tr
il Section 13 Sociatjustice I
Feedback

il Responses to the three situations above may range from acceptance to outright
protest. There is a tendency among caribbean peopte to
choose the tatter.
1
il supersession in the civit service refers to a practice whereby workers
with
tesser experience and fewer years' seruice are given positio-ns ahead of
those workers who have given more years and have more experience. lf

il a worker is promoted through the practice of supersession, this worker

might not be able to cope with the task and productivity might be
affected. Moreover, aggrieved workers may choose not io co-operate or

il may embark on strike action. Either way, productivity is affected because

of a breach of sociatjustice.

ilEi Women, aggrieved at not obtaining equal pay, might become

demotivated and productivity might be affected.
supermarket workers receiving less than the minimum wage may indutge
in pitferage, sabotage or may resort to 'go-stows'.

ill
il Breaches of socid justice have implications for the quality of life for
caribbean people. In this modern era, breaches of social iustice will a{Iect
the quality of life in a variety of ways.
Feedback

il Failure to provide the physicatty chattenged with facilities such as ramps,

special schools, buses and job opportunities reduces the quality of tife for
Activity 13.5
Suggest THREE ways in which
the quality of life is affected by
these people. Failure by governments to provide adequate hetp, medicare breaches of sociaI justice.

il and retief for the etderty resutts in increased morbidity and mortatity.

il Quatity of life is also inftuenced by paying workers below the minimum

wage. Workers in low-paying jobs are unable to better their condition.
fi Their wages attow them to survive, but not to improve their housing or
standard of [iving.
Lack of educational opportunities 'for alt' diminishes the quatity of life for
fr many individuals.

tii Key points

I There are competing concepts of social justice which include the
recognition of natural or human rights, welfare and mutual advantage.
n r
t In Caribbean society, breaches of socid justice have been evident on
the part of governments, private sector corporations and individuals.
These breaches occur on the grounds of race, class, age, gender and
wen religion.
q I When breaches of social justice occur, there are implications for
dwelopment. Such breaches cause a chain reaction, affecting levels of
social and economic equality, productivity and the quality of life.

il. Conclusion
;lli
The struggle for social justice is an integral feature of the history
and development of the Caribbean nation states. Prior to the 1960s,
il Caribbean people launched a determined struggle against slavery
colonialism, racism and the deplorable poverty levels. Howeve4 in the
f, post-colonial period, both government and the people must establish a
;".,'
I Caribbean Studies

commitment to minimise or eliminate breaches of social iustice in order

to attain satisfactory levels of human dwelopment in the twenty-first
century.

Suggested further readings

Browne, D. et al. Readings in caribbean studies: Resource Materials for
CAPE syllabus in caribbean studies, caribbean Examinations council
Western Zone Office: 200I.
Martin, T 'The Caribbean and pan-Africanism,, in Cobley and
Thompson, African caribbean connection, Historical anil culurol
Perspectives, Bridgetown: Department of History university of the
West Indies, 1990.
Reid, R. challenges to caribbean Development
Kingston:2001.
- 2000 and Beyond,

Sunshine, C. The Caribbean: Suruival, struggle and sovereignty,

washington: Ecumenical program on central America of aid the
Caribbean, 1994.
Thompson, A. The Haunting past: pohtics, economics and race in
Cartbbean life. Kngston: Ian Randle publishers, pp 219_28,6, lgg7.

Yylr, l- A Theory of social lustice. oxford: o:dord university press,

r972.

End test
choose any incident you know of in which,breaches justice have
of sociat -J-----
occurred.
1 Explain why there was a breach of social justice. 7 marks
2 How were the victims affected? 8 marks
3 What can be done to prevent breaches tike the
one you have described from reoccurring?
8 rnarks

Tutor-marked assignment
Answer the following question in approximately
500 hundred words.
Discuss the view that racism was a major cause
of social injustice
in the region.
20 marks
Marking criteria
essay, you
must formulate a position on the question and
1" ti. then
develop yo'r argumelT ir the body. tt i, i*po*"rrt
to deal with both
sides of the question. If you take the poririo'
that racism has led to
widespread sociar iniustice, shouid a*"rop
vou trrr;;iffi; points:
t Define racism in your introduction and say
why it is a social injustice.
n It has also led to the marginarisation of some races
in the economy.
a In sports, it suppressed the talents of some
aspiring sportsmen.
r It has created levels of discrimination in aspects
of west Indian
society.
x Note that some aspects of social injustice
are stimurated by crass and
political afffliation.
14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean
General objectives
At the end of this section, you
should be able to:
demonstrate research and
anatyticaI skilts
work independently or in
groups to formutate, conduct
and report on inquiries into
issues you have identified as
significant to the region
appreciate the importance of
ethicaI issues in conducting
research.
itic s r Thinking about investigating an issue
You shoutd be abte to:
explain the nature and purpose
of research
identify a research probtem
formutate research questions
and/or hypotheses
evatuate existing information
about the problem
list various methods and
instruments of data cotlection
prepare a plan for conducting
research study
appty appropriate formats in
presenting data
anatyse data appropriatety
draw conctusions and make
recommendations
use the American Psychotogical
Association conventions
correctty
adhere to basic principtes irr
maintaining ethical standards
in conducting research.
Introduction
Tb investigate an issue or problem is to study it formally by engagrng
in the research process. The terms 'issue' or'problem,, tend to be used
interchangeably. They refer to area of social life that we believe is not
^n in that it is causing strain or srress
well understood or is problematic, to
people or the environment. In many instances, these issues are described
as social problems.
In this section, we
ryrll explore the steps in the research process and you
can begin to think about your own research proiect for c:aribbean studies.
Examples of issues or problems are taken from the list in the caribbean
studies syllabus. This list has been compiled as areas of concern rhat
are significant to tlte dwelopment effort in the caribbean region. The
issues deal with many different aspects of social life so that you should
be able to find an area of concern in which you are particularly interested.
Howwe4, the list is not exhaustive and you can add to it.
Content
I What issue or problem to investigate?
t Getting clear about the issue or problem
I Sourcing information on the issue or problem
r Writing a literature review
t Preparing a plan for conducting the research
r The accessible population
r Sampling
t Thinking about data collection
: Conducting the research
c Effective practices
r Ethicd concerns in data collection
a r Data analysis
I Quantitative and qualitative analysis
I Discussion and interpretation of data
I Ethical concerns in data analysis and reporting research
r Referencing the study
I The nature and purpose of research
Thinking about investigating an issue
Introduction
This section is organised in a logical way to assist you in thinking
through the various stages of the research process. You can use it to
fine-tune your own understanding of the research project in Caribbean
Studies. In this section, you will learn that a grcat deal of the preparation
involved in researchinS an issue involves thinking about it. Often, this
takes up much more time than the actual carrying out of the proiect
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 14J
ldentifuing a research problem'
A research problem may not
be a 'probtem' at all. An issue is
researchabte and so is a state
of affairs. However, they may
at[ be catled researchpro blems.
Comptete the activity betow to
help you choose your area of
study.
1 You have to choose a topic for
your research. What criteria do
you think you shoutd keep in
mind in makingyour choice?
2 Using the topic of ,po[ution,,
suggest how this coutd be
fashioned into a problem, an
issue or a state of affairs for
study.
3 Suppose someone identified
an area of concern for research
as:'The incidence of crime in
my country'. How would you
categorise this choice - as a
problem, an issue or a state of
affairs?
4 In your opinion what must
be ctarified for this research
probtem to be considered
'researchabte'?
in the field. ff careful thought is given to the issue and to the possible
ways of.researching it, one ftnds that the research in the fteldproceeds
smoothly and is completed in a timely manner.
What issue to investigate?
As students of caribbean studies embarking on a research projecg you may
be at a loss about what topic to srudy or you may have an iiea'that you
would like to pursue. Remember that your syllabus has a number of topics
and sub-topics on a range of issues that may help you to make your decision.
The starting point of the research process is the identification of a
problem or issug which is in itseu a process. Activity 14.t below helps
you to go through the initial srages of identifying a research problem-.
Feedback
1 In identifying a research probtem one should keep in mind the fottowing:
t ls it important to the development effort and can ljustify it as a
significant piece of research?
r can I obtain information on it easity or with the minimum of
inconvenience? For example, are the persons invotved or documents
and statistics accessibte?
t Witt I be abte to research this issue in an ethicalway? For exampte, wittthe
way lgo about cottecting information and how t use it be harmfutto
anyone?
r can this problem be studied empiricatty
- can I cottect information ,in
the fietd' about it?
r ls the issue or problem written ctearty so that readers
understand what
my focus is? Are altthe terms I use unambiguous?
2 This activity shows us that a problem, an issue, or a state
of affairs can atl
be interchangeabte. For example, 'poltution in the rivers
of Guyana, 1995-
2000', or'The effects of pottution on the vi[agers near
Buxton, Guyana,,
can be categorised as atl three. This shoutd rretp to reduce
the confusion in
identifying a research problem. you can think of you,, ,p.ul"r,
according
to how you wish to designate it.
3a 'The incidence of crime in my country'can
atso be ctassified as a
probtem, an issue or a state of affairs. Thus, you
shoutd not be too
bothered about whether what you have ideitified is a ,probr".,.,
o,,
'issue'- chances are it quatifies as researchabte. "n
b As stated, it is in too summarised a format for someone, a reader
for
instance, to cte-arty grasp what you are interested
in stuiying. trere
must be some further etaboration, for exampte, exactly
rihat about the
incidence of crime is being investigated?
4 The process of identifying a probtem to investigate
invotves thinking discarding
and re-formulating the probtem so that it meets
the criteria necessarlr for a
researchable probtem. when we write it, in research jargon,
this is catted
the
problem statement. Ttrus, the process of identifyin;.;"r;;;
when we write it, usuatty in the form of a short st-ate-ment, ;robtem ends
ror-#mpte,
'The effects of poltutionon the vittagers
near Buxton, Guyana,
'Pottution in the rivers of Guyana, tggS_ZOOO,
However, it could be in the form of a question,
for exampte:
'To what extent has pottution in
the rivers of Guyana incieised
from 1995-ZOOO?,
'What are the effects of pottution on
the vittagers near Buxton, Guyana?,
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
Question 3b above hinted that a probtem statement such as ,The
incidence of crime in my country', needs further etaboration and
explication to meet the criteria for researchabte probtems ctear,
-
unambiguous, feasibte and ethical.

Getting clear about the issue or problem

The problem statement is an extremely'problematic' statement as much
of the intention of the researcher is unclear to the reader. This is why
in most research repofrs the problem is further elaborated and extended
through the statement of the problem. This is a further statement about
the problem that includes the variables, relationships, and speciftc
aspects you wish to study as well as the need for the study. It is an
extended and contextudised statement about the problem.
This problem statement was mentioned above: 'Pollution in the rivers of
Guyana, 1995-2000'. The following is a statement of the problem from
the point of view of one researcher. {Another researcher might have a
different view.l
'Rivers in Guyana exhibited only minimd levels of pollution until the
last 15 years. This research project investigates the increasing pollution
of rivers caused by mining operations, especidly of gold and bauxite. It is
felt that the lack of implementation of environmental standards is at the
root of this problem and the problem will extend to built-up and other
areas in Guyana if these standards continue to be ignored'.

This statement fleshes out the problem statement. The focus is on rivers
near mining operations. Perhaps, it will compare levels of pollution in
those areas with non-mining areas. You will expect to see, in how the
research is carried out and reported, an emphasis on the environmental
standards that exist for controlling water pollution and how mining
operations m.rnage to flout these controls. The need for the snrdy is
put forward as the real possibility that pollution could become more
widespread. It does not say how it is to be done but we expect that
it would be ethical, for example, that it would not involve throwing
chemicals in the water to see if fish will die.
Activity 14.2 gives you some practice in developing a statement of the
problem, given a problem statement. Activity 14.2
The statement of the probtem
Feedback
Onty you reatty know what asPects
of a probtem, issue, or state of

t wittfind two different statements of the probtem. The problem

{ Below you
affairs you wish to focus on in an
statement can be interpreted in different ways - hence it must be clarified. You
investigation. You make this ctear
shoutd compare yours in terms of being ctear about the aspects of the study
when you write the statement of
:i on which you wish to focus. the probtem.
n 'ln this study, statistics for the past 10 years are used to show that in Trinidad and
Tobago violent crimes have been on the rise in urban districts. Other types of crime
lmagine you had formutated the
fottowi ng pro b le m statem e nt
tend to dominate in other districts. The statistica[ data are used to buitd up a crime as evidence of a researchable
profite of offenders for different types of crime and for different districts in the probtem:'The incidence of crime in
il. country. The intent of the study is to raise awareness about the incidence in crime my country'
l
in different areas of the country showing geographical differences or simitarities.'
Write a statementof the Problem
'The impact of the rise in criminal activities on citizens is investigated through according to your ideas of the
il., aspects of the probtem on which
interviews with persons who have been victims of crime and others who
I
have not. lt is expected that the study witl show how citizens (of different you woutd wish to focus.
ages, gender, socioeconomic status and geographical location) cope with
t
t I
I Caribbean Studies
..E
l:
the incidence of crime. There is the perception that the poorer sectors of the
poputation feel the effects of crime more acutety and this study witt attempt
E
to address this issue.' 1,
*
The process oJ 'getting clearer' is important because we, as researchers,
want to be able to discover valid facts, findings, issues, or insights l

about the problem we are investigating. If the research problem is

not D
conceptualised as clgarly as possible, then we are likelyio get flawed
findings or relationships that would make the whole .ttoi^wasre I
of
time. 'Getting clearer'is an attempt to engage in a study that is logically
constructed and coherent and which will, therefore, demonstrate
valid
*
findings or insights about the problem under i.t"eriig"tiorr. - i
re,
Getting clearer' in the beginning stages of research involves identifying n:
a problem that is researchable, that when written
becomes the problei T-
statement, and then clarifying it through statement of the problem. i

t
The
latter gives a good idea of thelocus of the ^study, wt at it beintclaimed,
the
aspects being investigated, and usually how the data
will be glthered. The
statement
9f the problem guides both the researcher and thJreader in their
understandings about what is included in the it.estigatio;"rra
*n", is not.
'Getting clearer' does not stop at formulating the statement of the
problem. From the statemeni of the problem] trr.
,.r."r"t derives one
o{ "i
Tgte research questions, that relate to it logically and coherently, and
yhich-arg the speciffc questions that the investigatioo r..L* .o answer.
Box I below demonstrares the logic and cohere"-""
tnrJ"i"
initial stages when one is thinking about th" r"s""rcll;;;. necessary in
Box 1:'Getting clearer, about the research problem

Problem st"t

ln this study, statistics for the past 10 years

wilt be used to show that in Trinidad and
Tobago violent crimes have been on tlie
rise in urban aistricts. oti"r ar;;, of
tend to dominate in other districts. The statistical crime
data wilt be used ,o'u"ita ,p
crime profite of offenders for different
types of crime and for different districts "in
the
is to .aLe a,"areness about the incidence
:?::,y:T]:::1,":f_t-'jrdy i;;il;;;;,;',''i,lff,I":: in crime in

[Possi b le] t"s"" rdhflestio ns:

What types of crim
What types of crime occur, and how often
do they occur in rural districts?
What are the characteristics of offenders for
different types of crime?

Activity 14.3
Research questions
Research questions fro.ylat.ur.atty and togicatty
from the probrem statement
and the focus taken by the statement
ot irre pioute.. yd ;ilii;vl
to devetop
one or more research questions foryour
particuta*t"av]-ii, .riu,ry t
you to gain practice in devetoping
,6r".r.h questions. "tp,
You are given backoroundinforma.tion.(the problem statement
of the probrem) thit a reseirch:, i: and the statement
,tiii;;;Jnceptuarise tn" ,"r,irrri project.
suggest research questions that seem
the researcher wants to investigat".
ficused on and rerevant to the issues that
Ur" aoi t )bove as a guide.
t Problem statement: 'The incidence of crime in my country,
Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

'il Statement of the probtem:

; The impact of the rise in criminal activities on citizens is investigated
through
interviews with persons who have been victims of crime and otiers who
nT have
not lt is expected that the study wi[ show how citizens (of different ages, gender,
socioeconomic status and geographicat tocation) cope with the incidehce of
cf1ne. Th_ere is the perception that the poorer sectors of the poputation feet the
effects of crime most acutety and this study wi[ attempt to address this issue.
il Write the research questions.

il Feedback

The example given in Box 1 shows ctearty that the same probtem or issue may
be conceptuatised quite differently for investigation because the focus of the
{ investigation differs. Possibte research questions for Activity 14.3 inctude:
r How do persons of different ages, gender, socioeconomic status and
residential areas perceive the impact of crime on their tive's?
I
il
*n
$r
)i
ls there a difference in how victims of crime perceive its impact on their tife
compared to others?
There may be no need for other questions. Attthe issues raised in the statement

il1t of the probtem are targetted in these two research questions. The perception
that the poor feet the effects of crime more acutety than others can be gauged
from apptying the first research question. The second question may atso throw
some light on this issue. For some studies, onty one research question may
n be needed. Research questions hetp the researcher to keep the investigation
focused on particutar issues as outtined in the statement of the probtem.
.1 |

Sometimes you will find that instead of writing research questions,

T the researcher prefers to use a hypothesis (or hlpotheses) at this

il stage. A hlpothesis is a statement that indicates the relationships the

researcher expects to find on investigating the issue. It is a prediction
of the relationships that will be found operating between the variables
in the shrdy. The ffndings of the study will either support or refute the
il hyryothesis (Box 21.
Box 2: Hypotheses

f we had chosen to write hypotheses for Activity 14.3 or Box 1 instead of research
f

questions, we may have created the fotlowing:

Activity 14.3
Pe no ns of low soci o econ o m i c status fee I th e eff e cts of cri m e m o re th a n oth e r
social groups

[The variables are:

numbers of persons of low socioeconomic status (SES) who are affected by crime
numbers of persons of different SES categories who are affected by crime.]

Box 1

Violent crimes are more common in urban than in rural districts

[Tlhe variables are:

number of viotent crimes in urban districts
number of violent crimes in rural districts.l
I Caribbean Studies
F
In concephralising research, the researcher chooses the format with
whi-ch they feel most comfortable. In the past, the hypothesis was the
preferred format especially as most studiei investigaGd variables that
l
could be easily calculated and measured. Those wJre called quantitative
studies. A hypothesis, howwer, may involve variables that are not
easily quantiffable, for example: 'students, perceptions of schooling are
not shared by teachers'. In this section, pr"f"tertce is given to the Jse
of research questions, but you should be abre to ,."ogf,ire and write a
hypothesis if called upon to do so.
w-e n9w go on to another way of 'getting clearer, - thinking about sources
of information for our identified iesearih problem. This, 6o, is part of
the initial stages of the research process. we must be sure that we can
access empirical data on the problem we identify. secondly, it is
often
the case that some aspect of the problem you idlntified has already been
studied and that that information exists somewhere. Accessing this
information and writing a coherent literature review finalises-the process
of becoming clear about your research project.
Activity 14.4 helps you to'get clear'on the range of sources that exist.

Activity 14.4
Sources of information
The-problem you eventuarty choose foryour caribbean studies
research
project may be quite different from the Lxamples given
provides an opportunity foryou to think through y-our "uou".
rt i, activity
prolect, esfeciatty the
sourcing of information.
Indicate the possibte sources of information for each
probtem that is
described below.
1 Problem statement: Attitudes of adotescents to optimum
nutrition
s.tatement of the probrem: This study seeks to explore
the attitudes
rnat teenagers at a.specific secondary schoot have towards ,oDtimum,
nutrition. There is the general perceplion that the ,tuJ"nt,
good nutrition but
knlw about
in many instances to ignore it, and it o*
$o9-se
decided preference for 'fast foodsiand those
witF,e.pty .iLiiur,. "
Research questions:
typgs of foods do students eat most often at schoot?
1 Yll",
what types
t What kinds of foods do students eat most often at home?
3 of food preferences do
4 l'low do students explain their foodstudents have?
preferences?
5 Are students knowtedgeabte about ,good nutrition,?
What are the possible sources of information?
2 Problem statement rhe growth of tourism,
and its effects in Nevis
statement of the probtem: The growth of tourist
arrivals in verlr smart
island countries poses. many problems,
among them environmlntal,
economic and cuttural issues. This investigatiJn
charts,r,"!roritn or
tourism in a small island and attempts to discover
how it affects the istand.
Research questions:
1 what were the number of tourist arrivars in 1970, 19g0, 1990
2 How do tourists arrive? and 2ooo?
3 Where do most of the tourists
4 {}at ar9 the perceptions of theoriginate?
ticai popuration about how tourism
affects their island?
5 What are the possible sources of information?
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
Feedback

sources of information referto materials atready in existence that can hetp

you think about the probtem you have identified in an expanded and general
way. The problem statement and research questions are given above to hetp
you narrow and focus your search for information.
Existing literature is useful in that it can give some good background
information. For exampte, it may give some insights from psychotogicator
sociologicaI perspectives about adotescents' attitudes to optimum nutrition.
This woutd be general information that you may use to hetp you think about
your own research project at the schoot. Sources inctude - book, journals,
newspapers, leaflets/brochures from the Ministry of Heatth or organisations
such as UNESCO, PAHO, CFNI and others.
Intemet sources: There are many usefuI websites with information on
adotescents' attitudes to nutrition. At[ that you need to do is to insert some
key words such as 'adotescents, attitudes, nutrition' and see what the search
yietds.
Remember though that the internet is a medium where much of the
information has not been verified or anatysed by other experts. Anybody who
wants to put information on the internet can do so. The internet is useful for
bringing a ctosety retated set of materiats right before you but you need to
exercise caution and good judgement in choosing the materiats that you think
are retiabte. A search for'evatuating websites' shoutd bring up severaI sites that
give advice on how to evaluate a particular website that you may wish to use.
Television documentaries or videos on topics of this nature, for exampte, a
lecture given by a nutritionist or medical personnel discussing and showing
the effects of unheatthy eating practices or even teenagers discussing their
food preferences. Public libraries today tend to stock some video material
and you can atso contact speciatist libraries such as those of health or youth
organisations.
Existing information generatly can be obtained from books, travel magazines,
journats and newspapers. Specific information on Nevis may be gleaned from
a_ locaI newspapers where local hoteliers or citizens perhaps discuss tourism.
For statistics and other retevant and detaited information, try the tocal
tourism devetopment agency, and in some countries the Ministry forTourism
ti Devetopment. Airtines and shipping companies may atso have usefuldata, but
it may not necessarity be in a form that you can use, nor may the information
il:, be treated as 'pubtic' information.

t'r You may be abte to visit a Caribbean istand simitar to one that you are studying

t and treat the information as general background materiat, which may give you
ideas and insights about your particutar study.
EnvironmentaI agencies in the country usualty conduct research and may
have [ibraries where you may access retevant contextua[ data. Atternativety,
il"
ii
newspapers may report on the findings of such bodies and you may source
these data either from the archives of the newsPaPer comPany itsetf or from

t pubtic [ibraries which atso carry archived newsPaPer materiats.

You may be now thinking of your own research proiect and choosing

t i
your sources of inJormation. There could be many repofts written about
the problem you have identified so that you may well wondet what new
information you are likely to contribute. If this is the case, you must
choose the most relevant to review. Relevance is deduced by looking for
A signs of congruence between your statement of the problem and research
j
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I Caribbean Studies

questions and the objectives of the study you are reviewing. Remember
the topic and the problem statement are not enough - more details of
the study are communicated through the statement of the problem and
the research questions (or hypotheses). On the other hand, you may
have chosen a topic that few have investigated. This poses a problem in
obtaining background information and deciding what aspect of the issue
to study. In this case, you could consider an exploratory study where a
general understanding of the problem is sought.
After sourcrng the information, the final act in,thinking about
investigating an issue' is the writing of a literature review. while the
literature serves other purposes, it also helps us to clarify out thouglt*
about the issue we are investigating and how we should go about
investigating it. Included for consideration in your literature review would
be all the sources of information that in your estimation are relevant,
reliable and accurate. You should not include souroes that may be ,dated,.
IJse current and up-to-date information as far as possible. Howwer,
you make the iudgements about what materials should be considered
as relevant, a@urate, and reliable. In Activity 14.4, you learned how to
assess internet sites for adequacy. If for your review of the literarure, you
had to decide about the relevance and accuracy of information written in
a book on adolescents' attitudes to nutrition in l9g0 and a book written
about tourism in Nevis in 1980, would you consider both dated for use in
the nventy-first century? chances are that you can include the former but
you may have to scrutinise the latter and consider the material carefully.
The literature review is a sumrnary of what you have read that you
consider peftinent to your study. you are in fact sayrng to the reader that
this is the in{ormation that exists about this issue, wiat this inrormation
is about, where the bulk of this information was researched, what were
the main ftndings, and what are the'gaps'in the record. you may also
show'how' these studies were conduitJd and compare this with the
methods of the presenr study (that is, the ones yoJ intend to usel.

4".i"ity 14.5 below gives a sample of a literanrre review. By reading

the literature and critically reflecting on how it is construcied, you-can
discover for yourseu what are the necessary elements in the writing of a
literature rwiew. Note that the literanrre review only makes sense in the
context of the problem statement, the statement of the problem and the
research questions (or hlpothesesf . It shows you that eirpirical research
is a systematic arfd logicd undertaking.

Activity 14.5
The literature review
Read the information given betow in Box 3 and then answer questions about the
literature review.

Problem statement: Attitudes of adotescents to optimum nutritioi

istatementoftheprob[em:Thisstudyseeksto"'Rlo
towards'optimum'nutrition. There is the general perception that the students k-now
I many
about good nutrition but choose in
m:^4, inclrnrac
instances +n
to ia^^.^
ignore i+ --J show
it, and )- -?)^) -,-.
-L-... a- decided preference for'fast rooasl anJ ah*;;lah L?;ity catories,.

Research questions:

1 What types of foods do students eat most often at school?

2 What types of foods do students eat most often at home?
3 What kinds of food preferences do students have?

tr
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

4 How do students explain their food preferences?

5 Are students knowledgeable about'good nutrition'?

Literature review:
Three research articles were reviewed to obtain background knowtedge on this probtem and to exptore what has been done
atready. ln 1996, the Nationat Dairy Council in the USA conducted a survey of the eating Patterns among 500 teenagers.
They found that most teenagers knew about the basic principtes of heatthy nutrition - batance, variety and moderation. They
atso fett that eating heatthity meant that they had to avoid high fat foods and their favourite foods. Many said that they
were tired of hearing about 'good' foods and 'bad' foods. Their food choices seemed to focus on taste. The rePort went on to
show that teenagers were under-consuming several nutrients that were vital for normal growth and development. Based on
this study conducted in the USA, it shoutd be interesting in the present study, to find out how much the average teenager in
school knows about nutrition and what misconcePtions they seem to have.

In 1998, the Catifornia Department of Health Services commissioned a study of 100 adolescents who met in focus grouPs
to discuss their perceptions, values, and attitudes to health and nutrition. Otder teens seemed more knowtedgeabte about
heatthy eating and were tess tikety to snack. Girls were more [ikety to skip lunch because of feeting setf-conscious about
eating in pubtic. Boys were more likety to skip breakfast. This study assisted me by showing that adotescents were not a large
homogeneous group but there were variations according to gender and age and I should use these categories in my study.

Convenience was the major reason offered to explain why the tetnagers consumed between 1 and 10 fast food meats a week.
Breakfast tended to be the packaged convenience foods of sweetened cereats or Pop tarts. Lunch tended to be the fast foods
from the schoot! cafeteria. Lunch brought from home was considered to be 'not coot'. Dinner for many though, consisted
of a home cooked meat. Students btamed a varietlr of factors for their high consumption of foods poor in nutrition - their
upbringing, peer pressure, the 'attraction' of fast foods, and taste.

This study, which used focus groups, seemed to obtain a great deat of data that teenagers woutd perhaps not have yielded on
an imperional questionnaire. lt suggested to me that either an interview or focus grouPs (two or more students discussing
the issue) would be ideal for my study.
problem
Caribbean research is tess accessibte so that this study shoutd provide some insights on what is devetoping as a
in the Caribbean region. Jackson (2001) anatysed several research reports on heatth issues in the Caribbean reveating that
per cent of teens in the 11-12 age group were obese.Jackson said that this was an area that did
approximatety ZO lamaican
not get much attention from researchers because in the past under-nutrition was extensively studied, not over- nutrition.
She

discussed the importance of environmental factors such as cutturat beliefs tikety to contribute to obesity.

For exampte, it was found that Jamaican adotescent girts fett that men preferred fat women, though they did not prefer fat
men. This research suggests thit exptoring betiefs about being attractive to the opposite sex may provide insights about
eating habits and nutrition.

It shoutd be interesting to compare teenagers' attitudes to 'good' nutrition in a Caribbean context

with that of their
to contribute to the debate that our culture is being
counterparts abroad. ihe study shoutd provide some empiriial data
At the same time, we shoutd gtean insights about caribbean
increasingly influenced uy North American values and tifestyte.
ii tiving.
rti youth and their perceptions and practices of heatthy

review.
1 Using information from above, suggest what may be the PurPose of a titerature
ii
'!,
2 lf you had to advise someone on writing a titerature review, what are some of the main
points that you think witt be
:* usefut?

il
.l
Feedback
-
1
I
I
I The purPoses of the literature review are:
knowledge of the context
.I I to demonstrate that you have read widety on the probtem and that you have adequate
and background to the Probtem
I

probtem is atso a significant one

I
,. to hightight studies that are simitar to your own to show that others feet that the
{ r to show that a body of findings exists to comPare with yours
issue with the one that you
i

I
r to compare the methodotogies that various researchers have used to investigate this
itl
intend to use

fl,
I Carrooean Sruores

I to provide an oPPortunity to see your research as part of a larger body of work

r to gtean insights about issues and methods from previous researchers
I to hetp you in fine tuning and focusing, in other words 'getting clear', about the specific issue
- - - or --r-- of the
-- aspect
problem that you intend to investigate.
2 A well-written literature review shoutd have the fottowing:
r summaries of research studies that investigated the same or related issues
to the one that you are investigating.
r A definite sense that the researcher is trying to integrate aspects of his or her study with the summaries being
presented - both content and methods.
r A focus on the asPects of the probtem that are outlined in the statement
of the probtem - otherwise the review
woutd not be a logicaI devetopment from the statement of the probtem
and the research questions.
r A mix of research efforts from both industriatised countries and
the Caribbean.
r ldentification of the 'gaps'that occur in the body of literature that
exists especiatty if it directty pertains to what
you are investigating, for exampte, there may be some information
about tourism in Nevis but a ,gap, certainty
exists in researching its impact on that countU.
r A mode of presenting the information that ctosety resembles a
discussion. The discussion is targety about what
exists in terms of information or findings and the methodotogies
used by researchers compared to what you
intend to do' Keep in mind that there iJatways a definite attempt
on your part to relate wirat exists with your
study' At the end of the literature review, the reader shoutd not
onty undeistand the wider body of work that
exists, but also your study.

The literature rwiew should be written in the past tense

presenting the study for assessment after you - because you are
h"rr. conducteJ and written
up the research repoft. Howweq, when you are conceptualising
the research
1ld "oiting the literature rwiew, you are still in o" ti,,o", oJ,getting
clearer' and it is largely about what you intend to ao.
ri
-afie easier for
you to write the literature review initially as if you
intended to carry our
these procedures and-then when yo,r doing the
"r" Thi-s is
research is completed, to adiust the tense.
ff;J;;:up after the
and researchers find thgmgelvgs not only adjusting
bt;;;;;;s uncorrunon
irr. ,""r. f"t substantial
parts of the discussion in the literature i*i.* beciuse
the problem so much better than in the initial stages
rht;;* understand
of ,es.rcrr.
This demonstrates the iterative nature of research
process of interroSating what you have - there is a cycricar
thought about anJlie-tuning it.
Although the res€arch. pro** may appga*Ju"
ritt."r, ,i;;1, a myth -
"r.r."r"h"r,
$eJe 1s always re-working of previous'id."r. I" f;;;; r;;.
L196*:lslsls in thinking about and writing,# lil;;;e review,
otten results in them going ba-c\ to adiust tt. piout"--rt"L.rrt,
statement of the problem, and the research questions.- -----' ,rr"

Summary
lttimeft"spent
beginning of this section, it was stated that
the bulk of the
in conducting a research study,h;ie b"-;;.;;;
conceprualising properry
the study, thinkir-rg things out, and g.irirri
your focus. AII researchers, wheth"e, about
or not, ffnd that"i""rer
the initiar
"$"r,
stages of research are the most probl"*lti".
'Getting clearer, means that:
r some time should be spent in identifying a problem
rcsearchable
that is
the researcher should be abre to demonstrate
' problem to the development efforrin-the the significance of this
Caribbean
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
t $. initial problem statement should be expanded and clarified
through a statement of the problem
r the focus of the inquiry should be made evident through one or more
research questions (or hypotheses|
r the literature re\dew should be targetted at the issues raised in the
problem statement, the statementof the problem and the research
questions
I researchers should feel empowered to constantly return to what they
have written or conceptudised to refi.ne and fine tune as they gain
greater understanding of the problem.
We now go on to 'thinking' out a plan to conduct the research. Note
that the process of 'thinking things out'does not end with the literature
revievr but the process becomes very focused on what has already been
thought through or conceptudised.

Preparing a plan for conducting the research

The most important aspect of the study is the issue under investigation
(the tarhat'f . Choosing a method of ftnding out about the problemlthe
'how') is subservient to the major goal of ,the what,. Thus, one does not
decide on a method without prolonged immersion in thinking about the
issue or problem. Much of that thinking involves limiting the accessible
population (the t,rrho') to be investigated, from the general target
population. choosing members from the accessible population to inform
the snrdy is done through the process of sampling. Once the tnrhat, and
the tvho' are clear then researchers choose a data collection method {the
'how') that can best fleld such information.

The accessible population

Not weryone can give credible and in-depth information on the issue
you are investigating. Composing and writing the literanrre rwiew helps
you to be aware of groups that other researchers have used in the past
to snrdy this problem. Box 4 below shows the relationships between the
target and accessible populations and the sample. Activity 14.6 describes
how we can determine the accessible population for a specific research
problem.

Box 4: The retationship of the target population to the sample

x
i

t i

I I

J
I Caribbean Studies
Activity 14.5
ldentifying the target and
accessible populations
Being able to recognise the target
and accessibte populations (and
their subgroups) is important in
tapping useful knowledge foryour
study.
The research problem identified in
Activity 14.5 is to be used for this
exercise.
Re-read Activity 14.5. ldentify the
target and accessibte populations.
Suggest sub-groups that may be
the best possible informants for
this study. Give your reasons.
tr
Feedback
clearly, al[ the students at the school comprise the accessible population
- most tikety attare adolescents. Atlstudents in allsecondary schoots in the ,
country woutd comprise the target poputation.
You need to find a way to break down the accessibte population into
categories that witl be meaningfuI in the tight of the probtem being
investlgated.
In Activity 14.5, one of the research studies discussed in the titerature review
defined the term 'adolescents' into age groups and mates and femates.
lf you use this structure for your accessibte poputation, then you are tikety
to obtain information that shows differences (and simitarities) among
adotescents of different ages and genders. This information shoutd be
important to teachers, parents, and workers in the heatth professions, as it witt
tend to show issues and problems that adotescents face, which may change as
they grow otder, and the different issues facing adotescents of the same age
but of different genders.
sometimes other groups can be used to throw tight on the attitudes of
another group. Teachers and parents might have quite a tot to say on the
subject of adolescents' attitudes. However, the most credibte information is
most tikely to come from the subjects themselves. so, your target population
can quite reasonably be limited only to adotescents.
After determining the accessible population, another decision you
will have to make is how many students to include in your study (the
samplel. This depends on many factors, for example, how much time
y-ou
lave atyour disposal to complete the study. Another factor could be
the data collection stratery that you wentuallychoose. some are more
time consuming and interviews, for o<ample, can take a relatively long
time..Administering questionnaires may rake less time but anaysing ;he
q-uestionnaires may dso be time consuming. you will have
to use your
discretion and choose informants from the accessible population who
will con-tributeimportant information but at the r"*" ti*" you need to
be mindful of the limitations under which you may le *orkirrg time,
-
Foney, energy, resources
I - so that the number of informants bicomes-a
key issue.
Box.S.below suggests a plan for conductrng the research shrdy for your
Caribbean Studies project.
Box 5: Planning to conduct empirical research
Term 1 (Sept-Dec)
Conceptualise, and become clearer about the probG;l--
Write the problem statement, the statement of the probrem, and
the
research questions.
Evatuate existing sources of information.
Read widety and write the [iterature review.
Term 2 (Jan- Mar)
I ldentify the accessibte poputation .hoor" th" ,arnpf".
I Gather data. "nd
T Analyse data.
I Write the research report.
-,
- Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
fll
.ilr

t.flr
,|-
In term 2, yort misht only have two or three weeks to collect the data.
How do you determine who will comprise the sample of students to give
you information if your school has about 400 studlnts
populationlT
lthe accessibli

Fi
fl\ Sampte size
Firstly, you need to consider w&o will give valuable information. As

il suggested above, a breakdown of the accessible population into sub-

groups {age and sex) may yield important data. Then you must think
about how you will be collecting the data, some strategies being
ilTI more time consuming than others. For example, interviews may be
unstructured or semi-structured and can take up to at least half an hour.
'r*
Then you have to consider how long it will take to analyse that data.
Thus, if you choose interviews (and you should have good reasons why
x1 you choose one data collection strategy over another), it will be best to
NI keep the sample size small and manageable as shown in Box 6.

il Box 5: Breakdown of interview sampte

t
T'
fl
tl
'ix
Mates

Femates
Form

2
1 Form 3

2
Form 5

2
Sampte = 12

'-.
L.
-[' If you feel that questionnaires will be useful then you may increase
.{t the sample size. Little time will be taken up in administering the

tll
questionnaire. You will spend more time in creating the questiorrnaire
and may incur some expense in reproducing copies. More time though
will need to be invested when you come to analyse the completed
questionnaires, so again do not 80 overboard in the numbers you
ilil eventually choose. On the other hand, you need to choose an adequate
,l size sample tfrat can furnish enough interesting data on the problem
(Box 71.
,fi
l! Box 7: Breakdown of questionnaire sampte

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Form 5

& Mates 3 3 3 3 3 Sample =30
ri
Femates 3 3 3 3 3
fr
1i Alternatively, you may prefer (and you should state your reasons) to limit

I I

i
the target population to Form 5 students or anolfier 8foup. In such a
case, your srudy can furnish in-depth understandings of that group. You
will have to show how this knowledge is important for development in
the region.
L We have considered sample size in planning the conduct of the
investigation. Howevel, how do you choose exactly who will be involved,
i

for example, who are the three boys from Form I as shown in Box 7
I

n above who will be taking part?

i
Sampting
t You want a sample that does not pre-iudge the findings. For example, you
do not want to deliberately choose students whom you have habitually
obsenred eating'fast foods'. You want your sample to be, as far as possible,
t

il.' unbiased. ThiJ is because you want the research process to be obiective

Jft
I Caribbean Studies

and systematic. only then will your conclusions be able to be stated as

generalisations that are considered valid for the accessible population.
If you-were studyrng adolescents' attitudes to nutrition in a secondary
school, you will need a technique that allows for equi-probability tirat
all the students in the school will have an equal chanci of being
-
for the sample. This removes bias in the choosing of the samp6 "hos"r,
and is
called a random sample.
You will need numbered lists of the students in the school. Then, a set of
randomly generated numbers can be used to choose the sample, ior examplg
you ruryuse log tables. The last rligit of the numbers in the tables
could
be the basis for choosing the sample from the numbered tist or sardents
attendurg the school. This is the same principle as putting all the names
in
a box and then drawing out some. Each person has-an .qr;a
of beG
chosen. In this way, the researcher is showing how careful he"h*o
or she is beini
about selecting the sample to prevent bias in-the investigation.
Il many instances, researchers have need for a stratified random sample.
The process described above may be unwieldly and cumbersome
because
dl the students (the accessible population) are being a""ir*itr, as one
Iarge group. More practical anilmbre informative *lJJu"
a sampre
that is, chosen randomly, but is chosen from subser, accessible
population. Decisions about these subsets are made "itrr.
based on whether the
researcher feels that they are capable of giving meaningfui
Jata relevant
to the problem. In Boxes 6 and1, we organis-d a strati'fied
accessible population is divided into seviral age groups (unierstood-
sample the
as
different forms in the schoolt and, gender.
This stratified sample can be obtained by using two numbered
lists of
all students, say, in form one _ a list of
boys iiri Then a
randomly generated set of numbers can be used "riA" "i'girfr. boys and
to oorr'iL"e
three girls from the lists. This exercise is then "t ior successive
groups or forms in the school.
r"p""*a age

What you would have done is chosen a representative

samDle from
the accessible population where yo.r rr"* i;;;;;il;d;"
can to
ensure that there wil be a range of attitudes ,o
you find
on investigation, howwe4 thai there is a cluster"*ririoi-.1
adolescents say about nutrition, then as. re^searcher il;;;;ro what the
you are rikery to
conclude that these are valid and credibl. n"ai"lr-Juo"i"ior.r""rrts
nutrition,, generafly, not iust and
sample. This is-one ortn. r."y purposes
-the
ot research - to ffnd generalisations ihat can
ocplain the behaviour of the
accessible population. It is problematic
to try to generalise to the rarger
target population though as your sample
may be"repr.r"ilai". of the
accessible population but not the target population: -_-

helps you ro choose an unbiased sample.

Yl1"-"r
rn lrpti"g
many cases However,
it is not convenient for the researcher to undertake
procedures and sometimes he or such
she feels that ;t;;;;;-oi rt.
accessible population will suffice. Activity
r4.7 b;ro;.r.pror", these other
aspects of sampling.

Activity 14.2
Sampling: probabitity and non-probability
The concept of sampting is based
on using the laws of probabititv to
generalise from a smartiample to
the
"..'"ir.ibt"
be representative of the accessibt"
pd"[il;;Jretre, the
::.pt:.rr:t
generatisations to be considered ioirt"ti* ii'o-ra-",, ro,,
vatid.
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

Read the passage given below and then answer the questions that fotlow.
When you begin to think about sampting, you are catting on the laws of
probability. You are in effect saying that if you choose y6ur sampte in a
repre-sentative way, then what you find out about your sample is probably
true for the accessibte poputation. you can onty mlke such judgements if you
exercised care in choosing a sampte that was similar in chaiacteristics to ihe
larger accessibte population. The best way of ensuring that is to choose the
sampte randomty.
lf you chose a sample randomty, then att members of the accessibte
poputation would have had an equat chance of being chosen. probabitity is
about chance. Chance alone, in random sampting, determines who witt be
inctuded in the sample. You may expect that a random sample would be
representative of the accessible population, untess you chose a very smalt
sample size.
Sometimes for reasons of convenience and economy, the researcher cannot
engage in probabitity sampling. Sometimes, purposive sampting is emptoyed
where the researcher uses his or her judgment to select the next respondent
or subject. Often, the researcher may use past informants as t guide in
choosing who next to inctude in the sample.
The weakest sampte, if the intention is to generatise to the accessibte
population, is calted accidental or convenience sampting. In such a case, the
researcher uses the first persons he encounters as respondents or the people
he knows, such as those in your class. There is no attempt made here to setect
a representative sample. The information then may be insightfut about the
group being investigated but may well be misleading if an attempt is made to
generatise to the accessible poputation.

1 ListTWO examples of non-probabitity sampling methods.

2 Exptain what is meant by non-probabitity sampling methods.

3 lf I were doing a case study of the possible pottution effects caused by a

large manufacturing ptant in my district, what sampting methods witt be
appropriate?
4 Sometimes researchers decide to create a sample by using every fifth
or tenth person on a tist or house on a street and so on. This is catled
systematic sampling. ls this an exampte of probabitity or non-probabitity
sampling? Give reasons.

Feedback

1 Purposive and accidentat or convenience sampling methods.

z Chance is not a factor in who is inctuded in the sample; detiberate
judgement on the part of the researcher or circumstances such as
convenience determines the sampte.
In investigations where a case study is chosen, the case is the target
population, accessibte population and sample attwrapped in one. In this
instance, you witl not be sampting, as you are studying the entire target
poputation. Simitarty, if you wanted to investigate students with physicaI
disabitities in your school to determine whether the school adequately
provided for them in terms of mobitity and facitities, you may study the
entire target population, as they may be few in number.
Systematic sampting has etements of chance in it, especiatty if the
researcher begins with a random number, and not necessarity from the
first name or item. However, once the first number or name is determined,
! Caribbean Studies

then the whole sampte is selected automaticatty by identifying every fifth

or tenth entry, as may be the case. Although, it is ctassified as probabitity
sampling, not everyone or everlrthing in the accessibte population has an
equat chance of being chosen.
For exampte, if you were studying the environment of homes in
your neighbourhood to determine how many seemed to be clean,
without receptacles to sustain mosquitoes, or without any form of
heatth hazard, you may begin with a plan of the streets and number
the houses. Because the target population is the entire area, your
accessible poputation wit[ be streets nearby. of those you may setect
a sampte, for exampte, every tenth house beginning at number g on a
certain street. There is an etement of chance in which house is inctuded
but not all have an equal chance.

Data cottection
At this point your plans for conducting the research project are fairly
sound and you have reasons to justify the steps that you take. Decisions
have now to be made regarding your method Lf data collection. In social
science research, which is what we are doing in caribbean studies,
the
true experimentd form cannot,be attempted because we are using human
subjects to a large e)cent to gather our information and, therefori
we
cannot use rigid controls or maintain exactly the same conditions
while
we gather our data. we do try howwe{, to ensure that the
members of
the sample are subject to the same kind of -
"4peri.rr"er.-
In social science research, there are various methods which tend
to be
used to gather datain the field, that is empirical aata (gii
el.
Box 8: Methods of data collection in the sociat sciences

Methods of data collection

Survey methods

Administering a Conducting Examination of

guestionnaire.
Conducting an interview,
using an interview protocot
or schedule.
observations of newspapers, minutes
people, ptaces, of meetings, of historic
and events using a papers as kept in
checklist. archives, using a set
of questions or a checklist
to guide the coltection
of data.

survey research tends to be

lhe most popular method and tJrere are
various ways in which it is done. In suwey research, q.r"rrior* are asked
of the sample, who are- caled t"rpooduoti. ro,
may be handed out to be answered. A questionnaire"*;p1.,;;uestionnaire
can also be the basis
of an interviewwhere the questiorr,
"rl1"r"d
schedule (a list of questions or topics).
on an iot"*i"*
protocor or
rhe interview;;;; structured
in that the researcher does not d#ate from
the proro*r-i*ay be semi-
structured or unstructured if the research.,
freedom in how he or she,anr*.^ ,rt qestions.
*"ii" ,t":r"rno"a"", to have
The questionnaire itserf

tr
and the interview protocol are called irritr,r*"ots of data colection.
il Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

fi Activity 14.8
Instruments of data collection
t(
care and attention must be given to how you construct the instrument you
il witl be using to gather data in the fie]d. you need to think carefutty about
what questions you will ask, in what order, and in what depth so ih"t you,
investigation can come up with some important findings.
il The fottowing is an exampte of a student-constructed questionnaire.
any errors or mistakes in judgement that you think may jeopardise the
ldentify

I collection of data.

Questionnaire
I am trying to gather data for my caribbean Studies research project, which
concerns gender issues in education. ptease answer the fo[owing questions. A[
information witt be kept confidentiat.
Name: Age: years

i
Form: Address: a

What subjects do you consider

-
your favourite?
-
il Suggest one reason why
'1 you feet this way, for each subject mentioned.

* i 2 Which subjects do you distike? Give one reason for distiking the subject.
- 3 List the sports or extra-curricular activities in which you are involved.
- i

I 4 How many hours of study do you do at home?

One hour
il Two hours
t
Three hours

I-
il More than three hours
i

- Do you study on weekends? lf yes, how many hours? lf not, what do you
do on weekends?
I
i
List what you betieve are errors or probtems made in the construction of this
questionnaire.
I
I

T Feedback
...]
It may not be necessary to take the person's name, age or address. lf two
i

I boxes are provided (mate and femate) respondents can tick either one of the
boxes and that ought to be enough. The form or ctass should provide general
- I information on age. In this way, the respondents woutd not feel that they
are required to give up too much personatdata and may be more inclined to
comptete the questionnaire.
A
I
The intent of questions 2 and 3 is to investigate whether there are gender
I

at differences in the subjects students [ike, dislike, and the reasons they give for
I

A [iking or distiking a subject. This is a good idea but there is no need to Put three
I
subjects in each category. That makes it extremely difficutt for a respondent
I
to think of three reasons why he or she may tike or distike subjects and as
I researchers we do not want to create an instrument that the respondent
4 i
woutd find stressful and not be inctined to comptete. One question in each
category (like and distike) may provide enough information for the researcher.
Itr

,fl
I Caribbean Studies T
i

There are several problems with question 4. The format is 'forced choice',
meaning that the respondent has to choose one of the options given, as
compared with question 5 which is open-ended. euestion 4 does not give
a time frame - is it daity or, weekly? Forced choice can only garner timited
information and may be interpreted wrongty, for exampte, someone who
repties 'none' may spend extra time at schoot (mornings and evenings)
studying and compteting home work. There is no opportunity on the
questionnaire to indicate this. Atso, it is probtematic to interpret what the
respondents who reply 'three hours' or'more than three hours', realty mean.
Different students may have different understandings of what 'study at home,
means.
In this case, the researcher may be obtaining information but this may be
biased according to the researcher's understanding of what is meant by ,to
study at home'. The researcher should replace the forced choice item with one
that asks students how they go about studying at home - how they prefer to
conduct their home study, or if they had to advise someone on how to study
what woutd they say.
on the whote it seems that the researcher shoutd not have chosen a
questionnaire, which is static and calts for timited information on the part
of
the respondent. An interview may be more hetpfut in eticiting information,
especially in how the different genders may regard 'study', ,home study, and
'subjects'.

Generally. speaking the questionnaire should not be too long so that it

burdens the respondent. on the other hand, the questio"rr"ir. shown
in
Activity 14.8 is too short and could have been made more useful if some
open-ended items were used.
conducting interviews effectively requires techniques that can elicit
maximum information- without tiring intimidating or antagonising
the
respondent. For example, there are a-fewways thaiyo.,
to put the
respondent at ease, such as: ""rrlr.
I explaining as briefly as you could the nature of the investrgation
I assuring the person that no names will be used in the
report and their
opinions or the information given, wilr be kept confid"oii"l
r moving awayJrom topics that the respondent seems disinclined
to
answer or which seem to make them uncomfortable
t finding ways to avoid issues that many feel are too personal,
for
example, age, income, family problems and close ,i"iiorrrr.ipr.
Not wery respondent will be willing to talk effortlessly on
the issue. you
may have to employ-several techniques to seek the informatio'that
want. For example, the use of probis is necessary. you
yo'
take something
that the respondent says and th.- to explain it some more or say
"rk the point that they
that you do not quite understand
are making. In this
way, you deepen the information that you receive.
similarly, it may also
become necessary to use prompts. with persons
who are not incrined to
give their views easily,.you *"y g.'" your
views on something and invite
the respondent to do like\^'ise.- -
It isgood practice to think about the interview situation
before
conducting it. Thinking about ig perhaps as if you;;rh;;"spondent,
yill_help you to construct a betteiint.rit.* protocol or schedule.
egu-ally true for the researcher who is
This
\o.ld-s li.rtiorrrraire _
think of the sample and their "o"**"tirrg
as *"iilJrt " r=f,ossibilities
"h"ru"t.rirtics,
q Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean f
you.open for each quejtion that you ask. pilot testing
the questionnaire

I or the interview schedule among yo'r friends *ix

You have
"nE"rth
may have overlooked and areas that you have ignored.
iioul"rr* yo.,

lo]v gone dTo"sh all the stages necessary as preparation for the
conduct of the research proiect. Box 9 demonstrates that ni"r.i"g about
the research can take more time than'doing (gathering data, anJysing
data, writing the report) of the research. Thi research
frocess is logical-,
systematic and rigorous. The more you adhere to priniiples of good
research practices, the more informative yo.rt st rdy will be.
A suggested schedule for organising and completing your research is given
below.

Box 9: suggestion of a schedule for completing research activities

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES SCHEDULING

ldentifying a research
problem

Ctarifyingthe problem
. Writing the problem
statement
. Writing the statement
Note that a
of the problem
. Formulating research
great deal of
questions
time is devoted
to'getting
. The literature review
November ctearer'- from
September to
December
. Writing the titerature
December, by
January which time
review
February
most of the
Setecting the accessibte literature
March
poputation and sample review should
Aprit be
Cathering data in the field completed

Analysing the data

Writing the research report

Summary
In this section, we focused on preparing a plan to conduct the research
activities. Part of that plan was to select a representative sample
from among the accessible population. We learned that sometimes
reseatchers cannot choose a representative sample, perhaps for reasons of
convenience and economy. In such cases, an accidental, convenience or
purposive sample is used. Such a sample can give valuable information
about the sample but great care must be exercised in trying to generalise
the findings to the target population. We also explored data collection
methods and, in particular, the survey methods of the social sciences
such as the questionnaire and the interview. Finally, some hints were
given about constructing an instrument such as a questionnaire, about
carrying out an interview, and about organising your time to conduct
research activities.

4*1
I Caribbean Studies

Conducting research
As researchers, you need to be aware of effective and ethical practices
in collecting empirical data. The range of topics in your syllabus is
sufficiently large to allow you to conceptualise studies that may take you
to local businesses, government agencies, community persons such as
farmers, families, community-based organisations, and youth. Activity
14.9 helps you to visudise the research exercise in terms of how it can be
made more effective and conducted in an ethical manner.

Feedback
Activity 14.9
Conducting research in the field
New researchers often need some
tips to get them started on the
right foot in negotiating fietd
research.
Answer all the fotlowing questions.
1 The first stage in conducting
research in the field is
described as gaining access.
List the procedures thatyou
think are necessary at this
stage.
2 Of the procedures you listed,
identify those that are focused
on ethicaI practices and those
that are focused on making
the research process more
efficient.
3 Whatstepsdoyouthinkyou
may need to take to ensure
both efficiency and ethical
practices in interacting with
your subjects?
Gaining access:
r obtaining a letter of permission from the organisation within which
you may be carrying out the research, for exampte, a school.
t lf your subjects are minors, such as school students, you may atso need
a letter of permission from their parents or guardians.
r sometimes, you may find it useful to be abte to present a short letter
of introduction that summarises the purpose of the research and the
emphasis on ethicaI procedures.
r Remember that the person to whom this research is important is
primarily yourself. You shoutd exercise care, sensitivity and politeness in
observing whatever procedures that may be necessary in gaining access.
I sometimes you may have to 'give back' something to the organisation
where you may be cottecting the data. lt is usuattya copy of itre written
report of your findings that they have in mind. This shouid be acceded
to considering that they are facititating your research.
In every case listed above, the procedures that you may observe in gaining
access are basic ethical procedures of good manners and potiteness.
These
atso contribute to the efficiency of the research process because
earning
the goodwit[ and co-operation of officiats in organisations, parents and
the
subjects themselves, eases the start of the reseirch and ensures that
it has
a good chance of continuing to comptetion.
In.interacting with your subjects, the members of the sampte, you
shoutd
think about the points tisted betow.
r You shoutd'activety consider what they may be saying
to you as their
opinions or wortd view and try to discuss issues *itr,o-ut contradicting
or criticising them. In other words, try not to introduce researcher
bias
into the data collection procedures.
r As far as possible, try to ensure that the respondents do
not discuss the
issues in the research project beforeyou engage them. prior
discussions with
r
others may contribute to them giving an attereo view of what
they norma[y
woutd have said. Here you are trying to avoid contamination
of thedata.
I lf y-ou are audio taping the session, make sure thatyou T
get permission
beforehand. Audio taping is a good idea asyou witinavia
verbatim account
to listen to laterthat contributes to efficienqy and accurary.
However, some
persons are not comfortable with being taped
so thatyou ihoutd try to
T
ensure that they are comfortable with the procedures-you
adopt.
r The comfort of the respondent shoutd be a major
consideration. rf you
are interviewing schoot students, do not condr.rct T
the procedure where
you may be overheard by others. This witt contaminate
the data ir the
respondent becomes setf_conscious about their
views.
T

I
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
I In each instance, you witl reatise that giving time and thought to the
conduct of research in an ethical manner atso ensures efficiency in the
procedures emptoyed.

When you are conducting research in the fteld and you are in the midst
of collecting data, there are certain procedures you may adopt that will
ensure that the subsequent process of data analysis goes smoothly. It is
helpful to think of research as iterative and cyclical and not linear as it
may appear to be. You do not have to complete the data collection process
completely before you begin to think of data analysis. In fact, thinking
about data andysis as you begin to collect data helps you to frame better
and more insightful questions if interviewing is your main technique.
Although, the questionnaire is a static instrumeng having early ideas
and thoughts about analysing the data can be captured in a iournal or
field notebook. It is a good idea to keep a journal throughout the research
proc€ss to jot down key ideas and themes for analysis before you forget
them. You should dso keep fteld notes as you obtain dataJrom the subiect.
If you are taping the interview then field notes will consist of anything
you deem important about what is happening - the level of comfort of
the subiect, facid orpressions, body language, intonations. If you are
not taping the interview, then you have to try as best you can to record
what the respondent is saying and this will constitute your data. This is
* rather difficult as you have to ask questions, think about what the subject
is saying, compose your subsequent questions and write your notes.
For this reason, a questionnaire may be a better option, if you are not
* taplng. Howwer, as we have seen earlier, forced choice items yield limited
information and although you may include some of those, you are well

t advised to also construct some open-ended items.

If you have the resources, avery good practice is to transcribe taped
interviews. You will have a verbatim record of what each respondent said

t before you that will considerably ease the process of data analysis. You
may use the margins to record your field notes or ideas relevant to what
the speaker may be sayrng at that point for later analysis.
il
E Summary
In this section, you were provided with some practicd hints about the
, conduct of research that should make the exercise efficient and at the
I
same time a humane e:rperience for participants. The discussion focused
on gaining access and interacting with subjects. Howwer, ideas about

t data analysis arise during the data collection stage and some hints were
given about capturing those at this point. Keeping accurate notes and how
you record your data are important, in that your findings and conclusions
depend on the quality and accurary of the data that you collect. Finally, as
I researcher you should remember that the process is iterative, perhaps you
may reach as far as collecting data to redise that you may have to 'tvveak'
your research questions a little and collect additional data.
i
I

Data anatysis

I Ahy form of manipulation of the data you collect to show trends,

patterns or characteristics, is known as data analysis. This manipulation
could involve simple forms of organising the data or summarising and
I interpreting it. You were advised in the prwious section to begin thinking
1
about data analysis during data collection as that may help you to collect

L1A
I Caribbean Studies

more meaningful data- especially if you are using an unstructured or

semi-structured interview. However, if you are using a questionnaire, you
can still jot down ideas in a journal as they occur ro you, to consider later
in your analysis.
Research studies tend to be informally classified as quantitative or
qualitative according to whether the data are primarily numbers
or words, respectively. The processes and products in ihe analysis
of numbers arevery different from an analysis of words. you will
be introduced to quantitative and qualitative data analysis, which
necessarily involves different formats, in the presentation of data.

Activity 1410
Quantitative data analysis
You witl find that many of the ways that are used to anatyse quantitative data
are quite.famitiar to you. In this exercise, you will be shown how numbers (or
statistics) can be used to describe a situation.
Betow, data have been cotlected by a questionnaire that investigates the
ideathat ethnicity and-gender can- in part explain access to post-secondary
education. The data refer to sixth form students at one school.

I etnnicity Gender
Mates Females
Africans 2Oo/o 25o/o

East Indians 15o/o 20o/o

Amerindians 1Oo/o 5o,4

Mixed 2o/o 1To

(Jfner 1Vo i'
1o/o
i
*"
3
1 What form of organisation has been imposed on the data above? 'ffi
2 ldentify the ways in which the data shown above can be represented $

graphicatty.
#
re.
;x,
suggest oNE.other category of data that could have been
cottected and
now it coutd be used graphicalty to describe the population. i
Sl
j-
Feedback
i
1 The data have been tabutated. This is a form of data
anatysis where the *
information cottected from the questionnaires (the raw iata *l

haue been
extracted and organised into a tabular format. The researcher i
had first to go
through the questionnaires and convert raw totals into percentages
and then *.
summarise in the form shown above. rt is a pretiminary
iorm of inatysis,
which often suggests to the researcher other ways
or irying to organise the
data graphically in order to discern trends or patterns
more ctearly.
2 Famitiar graphs and diagrams can be used to organise
data that hetp
,

in analysis, for exampte, pie charts and bar graphs

as shown betow
in Boxes 10 and 11. These can be computer generated
and take but a
few minutes. $
3 Age, socioeconomic status, achievement scores,
and others.

*
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

Box 10: Pie chart showing ethnic composition

Amerindians
15%
Africans
45o/o

East Indians
35%

Pie charts can be used to show complex data. ,o, the various
"o-n*,
ethnic subdivisions above can be further divided into male and female
sectors by using different colours. Howwe4, you should keep in mind
that tables can show data just as well so that if you are organising your
data and presenting in di{ferent formats such as tables, pie charts and bar
graphs, you should make a conscious effort to show dillerent inJormation
or different aspects of that information on each format.

Box 11: Bar graph showing how variabtes can be superimposed

!tJv rn

40

30

10

-t'-.
*r."t* .""'"t*

Note that such a manipulation of the data on your part (drawing numbers
over or below a certain age limit in the different ethnic groups) helps you
to see interesting trends that you may want to address in your ftndings
and discussion section of the research report. These are statistical
diagrams and are popular in quantitative studies where the data collected
are mainly in the form of numbers or quantities.
For example, if you collected mean achievement scores for the students,
then there are other ways open to you for organising and analysing the
data. You might, for example, list all the scores for each person in an
artay, either from highest to lowest or vice versa. Then you may correlate
that with variables such as ethnicity and age. These are tables that you
are creating in an attempt to seek patterns and relationships. Box 12

E
I Caribbean Studies

felgw gives you an idea of what such an organisation of the oata may
look like.
Box 12: Table showing academic achievement and other variables

Mean scores : Gender Age (years) Ethnicity sEs

85o/o F 16 African High income
83o/o ]F 16 East Indian High income
71o/o F 17 East Indian Middte income
69o/" M 17 African High income

what you are attempting to do here is to deliberately manipulate the data

to seek meaningful relationships. Howwer, you cannot deffiitely claim
that one variable causes anothe4 for example, that children in high-income
families achieve at a higher level than others. what you czrn establish
is a correlation and then seek oplanations that mrght support that
correlation. For example, yo-u may deduce thatfor yow saiple that high-
achiwing students seem to be the high- or middle-inco-" rt^rd.rrts. dris
may lead you to focus on their home environment or background, which
may be well resourced in terms of educational materials an]d activities, or
these students may iust have more time than others and fewer chores.
Researchers are frequently cautioned about conducting a correlational
study and then claiming causation. In social science rlsearch, it is ill
advised to claim that you have conducted a study where yor,
say for
""r,
sure that one variable_ causes change in another. bnly truly experimental
studies can make such claims that where the variable, olled by
the researcher, especially in a laboratory setting. "r" "orrt

Summary
There are-simple wlrs
9f organising and analysing your data if you have
conducted- a study that has focused on the
coil""tio., of numeric al data,
for example:
I calculation of means, (you may also identify the mode and median
from an array of scores)
I converting raw data into percentages
I displaying in a table or matrix
r pie charts - simple and complex
r bar graphs - horizontal or vertical, with the superimposition of other
variables to show complex relationships
n frequency polygons, such as histograms may also be helpful
r Taps may be relevant depending on your research problem and in
this case you may use your numerical data to *"r*"inow [nes (for
example, traffic studies) or superimpose pie charts and bar graphs
at
speciffc points on a map to show aiitriuution and ,"l"tio"Jt ipr.
we now turn to data analysis procedures you should folow if your
data
is mainly in the form of words, perhaps collected from
interviews of
different qDes or open-ended items in a questionnaire. observational i
data may also be in the form of words but can include phoiograprrs ilil..
and tn
video recordlngs. It is possible to design a research investi-g-aton
that
is based on the collection of both quaititative and qualitaiive r
data. ror
example, you might conducr a sunrey of youth to
ilv;s;G;;e development
w
E

M
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

issues in the country using a short questionnaire. Then you can select a
few persons to interview in order to get more in-depth information.

Activity 14J1
Quatitative data analysis
You may not have much of an idea about how to analyse data that are mainty
in the form of words. This exercise hetps you to work out in a togicat way what
you must do to anatyse qualitative data.
A scenario is given betow about a research problem and how the investigation
was conducted. Read the scenario and then answer the questions that foltow.
The development challenges of Anguilla
(Note the problem statement. tt could have atso been a tittte bit longer, for
exampte, 'Perceptions of the development challenges of Anguitta as seen by
the youth of the nation').
The statement of the problem, the research questions, and the [iterature
review point to how the researcher is tackling the research prebtem. He
investigates the issue mainly through the eyes of fifth-form students. He
coltects data through semi-structured interviews with students. His sampte
consisted of six males and eight females in his class. The school has 50 fifth-
form students. He taped the interviews and then had them typed as verbatim
reports. So, now he has 14 separate documents to analyse.
1 Suggest THREE steps that the researcher may take to start his analysis.
2 What data presentation formats are possible for quatitative studies?
3 List the difficutties that the researcher is likely to encounter in the analysis
of qualitative data.

Feedback

1a Read attthe transcripts to get a sense of the main issues. This does not
mean that you do not read the transcript of each interview as it is being
typed or written during the process of data coltection. Remember that
it was said that you could atso start the process of data anatysis at that
stage by noting any ideas you have that emerged from conducting the
interview and producing the verbatim account.
b Write the main themes, patterns, ideas and/or issues that seern to
characterise the interviews. Devise a coding system, for exampte, you
may have a general code and sub-codes. Suppose in this study the
researcher found that many of the interviewees spoke of fears about
their life after school (referring generatty to the devetopment prospects
of the istand as hinging on the choices they make), but they spoke of it
in different ways. You may choose to code along these lines:
Fears (F)
I Fear of unemployment (F - unemp)
r Fear of a menial job (F - menj)
r Fear of having to migrate to seek better opportunities of study
orwork (F - mig)
' There may be other categories of responses besides fear, which witt
give rise to other patterns that you can code and possibty sub-code. For
exampte, suppose other students chose to speak of the tourism drive
and underscore the vutnerabitity of such a venture, citing the

E
I Caribbean Studies

11 september 2001 terrorist attack on the USA and how that affected
tourism in the island. You coutd note the fotlowing:
Tourism (T)
r The istand becoming awash with tourists threatening the cuttural
traditions of the peopte (this can also be categorised as a ,fear,, if
you so desire as researcher); under the generaI code of tourism, you
could sub-code as T - cult.
I Inflation, being a natural resutt of the high inftux of tourists, on the
prices of goods and services (T - inft)
c Go through the transcripts again, writing in the codes you devised in
the appropriate places in the interviews. you wittdefinitely need two
copies of the transcripts - one wi[[ remain as an untouched originat
record. The other you wi[[ code. You can then cut and paste - att the
codes that are similar from atl 14 interviews. you coutd put them
together on a tabte, on the wa[[, or in a fite. you wittthen have an
opportunity to study what atl the interviewees have had to say on a
particular issue or how they express certain views. This is the process
described as becoming immersed in the data. Many ideas wit[ come
to you at this stage about how to discuss the data and interpret your
findings.
Quatitative studies may have some numericatdata. For exampte,
the 14 students comprising the sampte in this study witt have certain
characteristics that can easily be presented in the form of a tabte or using
percentages, for example, age, gender, SES, achievement record. On the
whote though, any tabutar or graphic format wi[[ tend to be simple.
The typicat format for presenting qualitative data is in the form of words
or text. Other than the researcher's words in presenting the findings, it
is sometimes usefuI to present an extract of an interviewee's verbatim
response (or to provide contrast or stightty different views). These words or
text presented as the research findings are reatly analyticat discussions of
what the researcher found, supported by verbatim quotes from the sampte.
The difficutties that the researcher is tikety to encounter in the anatysis of
quatitative data may be some of the fottowing:
I a lack of famitiarity in reading a script (e.g. an interview record) and at
the same tlrne being abte to categorise what is being said in terms of
one or two key words; sometimes the substance of what is being said
by the participant distracts the researcher, sometimes the view of the
participant is difficutt to categorise
r a lack of experience in deating with many views on one topic or issue
and being able to clearty outline the main arguments of the participants
r the feeling on the part of the researcher that it is retativety easy to fatt
prey to bias and to unwittingly promote their own view at the expense
of that of the participants
I a feeling of being overwhelmed by the data and of not being abte to
manage the data analysis process. This is why quatitative studies use
retatively smatlsamptes. one interview alone, which may be semi-
structured or unstructured, coutd yietd five or more pages of data. ln
the study being discussed, if each interview produced frue typed pages
of responses, then the researcher witt have 70 pages of dati to code T
and analyse.

l
&,
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
In Box 13 below a section of a transcript is shown with the researcher,s
notes about possibilities for coding. Note that the process is iterative
the researcher can return to this transcript and change or alter codes
-
based on his or her increasing knowledge of the pheriomenon under
study. The'I'refers to the interviewer and ,F( to the respondent.
Box 13: Excerpt of an interview transcript with researcher,s notes

t: How is Anguitta meeting the chatlenge of 'smallness,?

R: We[[, for one we are limiting the numbers of
Note the wide
Caribbean people who can come here and work.
margin left for
We can't do much about the tourists, because we
codes or field
need them. But other Caribbean peopte took on
notes
Anguitta as a place where there is no income tax
and they can come and work and make money
and then go home.
t: Wouldn't you say that that is being resourceful?
R: Yes, but using up our resources! They,re not really
contributing to the development goals of the The theme here
country - if they do, it is by accident. They are
'seems to be
more interested in setf-gain. insecurity about
t: Tetl me, what exactty is your distike of this situation? mlgration into
R: Okay. Sometimes we don't have the expertise in a the country.
particular thing, so foreigners come in. Thatt alt right. The person does
But we don't want then to stay once an Anguillan not speak of
can do the job. They should go back to their country, Anguillans
which is bigger and has more resources than Anguilta. leaving because
Right now the authorities are trying their best to of smatl size.
limit two Caribbean groups here, which are just
growing and growing.

Summary
Qualitative research is primarily concerned with the collection of data
in the form of words - usually statements of intenriewees. Analysis
procedures involve tle conversion of tapes or field notes into transcripts
or qrtended narratives describing the situation and views expressed.
These terctual materials are then scrutinised for recurring themes and
patterns. The latter are coded and all like codes are placed in close
proximity so that it will be easier for the researcher to discover parrerns
a-nd relationships. These patterns and relationships constitute the
'findings'of the study. It is difficult in qualitativeiesearch to present the
findings of the research in certain formats and keep those separate from
'discussion and interpretation-'of the data. This, howwer, can easily be
done in a study where much of the data are quantitative.

t
Discussion and interpretation of data
L
:J

one can better understand how data are discussed and intemreted for
$ qualitative research studies if an example is used. Note thatln Box
t 13, the respondent is making conflicting statements. It is up to the
l&

i- researcher to grve a good representation of what he thinks the person

intended to be the point. For example, the respondent says thal other
i
caribbean people come into Anguilla to work, make money and leave,
t and he is critical of that. Yeg he goes on to say that their expertise is
{"- often needed, but Anguillans want them to go back.
{
J
,{
The act of being interviewed is also difficult for the respondent who has
to be able to marshall his thoughts at a moment,s notice and give clear
t
A
I Caribbean Studies
T
and coherent statements about something about which he may have
strong feelings. In such situations, it is a matter of course thar a person il
t
may give confused and conflicting statements. F

It is the task of tfre researcher to read all that the respondent has to say .

on a matter and summarise or focus the view ocpressed. eualitative j

research then calls on the researcher to be vigilant about what they :.

construe as the point intended by the respondent. This is one of the

difficulties referred to in Activity l4.ll - the burden placed on the x
researcher to be careful in avoiding bias such as promoting their own :

views in interpreting what has been said.

Thinking about the sentiments expressed in Box lB, one becomes aware *
i
of the strengths of qualitative research. semi-structured and unstructured I

interviews give the pafticipants freedom to express their understandings

as they see fit. The data are rich in participants'views, which in many *
cases can be interpreted as their ways of seeing the world (their culture). :

If other Caribbean people think of the problems of 'smallness'as

experienced by Anguilla, chances are they might focus on out-migration as x
a key issue, because of a scarcity of resources and opportunities to support
a growing population. Howwe4 in the exoerpt we get a picture ftom the
ground, an insider's view of the situation, where the focus is on people
coming into Anguilla and overmnning it because of its small size. This is
T t,

the strength of the methodolory - it enables one to see through the eyes
of the people berng studied. While the problem of smallness and out-
migration may not be an insignificant issue in Anguila, they also bring to E t
bear a dimension that other Caribbean states may neglect to consider. The
notion of 'smaltress'has to do with many issues other then resources.
SmaII countries are extremely vigilant in monitorrng the immigration
and employment of non-nationals because there is a persistent fear
I
that these persons, if they manage to grow in number, can threaten the
culture and values of those who are native to the place. There are even
strict regulations governing the marriage of citizens to non-nationals - T
citizenship and resident status are often not conferred easily.
The researcher has to acknowledge the contextual realities as seen by
the respondents. Howerrer, discussion and analysis entails far more
T
work on the part of the researcher. They have to give their own views
and analyses, given that the researcher alone is aware of all the data
amassed in the study. They can give some analytical comments of the
perceptions of youth in Anguilla on dwelopment issues based on what
I
the participants have said.
The report of the discussion and interpretarion of findings in a quditative $
study is a matter of representing the views of the respondents and posing
analytical comments from the researcher. Both voices are heard. Box 14
below attempts to give the gist of what such a discussion might look like. I
Box 14: Discussion and interpretation of findings

It is interesting that the sample seemed to focus on the disadvantages accruing T

to Anguilta and its development prospects, if other Caribbean people were
atlowed to come and work. The respondents felt strongty that 'sma[[ness' played
a part in making these disadvantages felt - not only that they witt usurp work
from Anguiltans and that they will need schoot, hospita[ and other faci]ities and
T
therefore put pressure on these facitities, but also they wilt form significant
cuttural sub-groups. One member put it this way:
T
They should go back to their country which is bigger and has more resources than
Anguilla. Right now the authorities are trying their best to limit two caribbean groups
here, which are just growing and growing. =f
t
g
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

onewonderswhytheemphasisisonin-migration.ee*."l@
so wetl established and Anguitlans abroad send back remittances, that it is
conceived
of as inevitabte and something that they have leamed to deal with. However, the
influx of others into their tenitory seems to them to pose a greater chattenge.

As mentioned earlie4 it is relatively easy to keep some of these elements

separate in a quantitative study. A breakdown is given below of the
various sections of a research report. You will see how the quantitative
and qualitative study may vary.
Introduction and purpose of the study 'l These stages are the
Litetature re\dew same for both
Data collection
I
Presentation of findings JI euantitative and
qualitative studies
A quantitative study at tlds point can show data in dilferent formats such
as tables and graphs with some descriptions as te:ft.

Once a qualitative snrdy begins to present its ffndings, however,

discussion and interpretation are involved (Box l4|. In fatt, there is very
little to separate drscussion and interpretntion - they virtudly mean the
same thing. Discussion and interpretation usually involve focusing on
the findings in relation to the issue being studied and in relation to the
prwious findings you mentioned in the literature review.

Discussion and interpretation of findings

A quantitative study at this point will proceed to structure a discussion
based on the tables and graphs, which will show relationships, trends
and patterns that can be interpreted in certain ways.
It is possible that for a qualitative study this and the previous section
should be collapsed to provide one entitled: 'Presentation, discussion
and interpretation of findings'.
You should be guided by the format set out in your syllabus.

i Conclusion
I
I This can be regarded as similar in nature for both the quantitative and
. quditative study.
r It should summarise the main findings in relation to the foous of the
: research questions.
g r It should point out any areas of contention or contradiction in relation
to the focus of the research questions.
I
I Any new and interesting findings should be highlighted.
i r If there were any limitations to the research process, you should
I acknowledge.
I You may dso identify areas for further research coming out of this study.
,i

t
I Any meaningful recommendations you wish to mention.

Ethical concerns in data analysis

:
: and reporting research
.l In this section, the research process has been presented in some detail
to help you get prepared for your own research proiect for Caribbean

r
: Studies. The notion of ethics was broached earlier in relation to data
il collection. Flowever, it must be considered again if you are to be properly
,l_ prepared for your own efforts at research. Once data have been collected,
i
A
I Caribbean Studies

ethical concerns continue to be important in the subsequent phases of

data analysis and reporting.
Some of the significant issues about data analysis are detailed below.
I Contamination - the data should not be tampered with as this
compromises your findings. Even if the data are not panning out how
you hoped, that in itseu is interesting as it may suggest posiibilities
to pursue.
I Researcher bias - particularly in qualitative data anarysis, one has
to be very self aware - meaning that one should have a good grasp of
one's own views - and therefore not be tempted to impute such views
to the respondents.
r Audit traiL - you should always have documentation to show how you
arrived at your conclusions. For quantitative sflrdies, the raw data
you used to rranslare into diagrams should be readily available for
others to check. For qualitative snrdies, keeping your tapes, field notes
and journals, as well as annotated copies of the interview transcripts
showing codes and sub-codes, will be necessary. For both quantitative
and qualitative qpe studies such documents provide a map or trail
between the original data you collected and your eventual anaryses
and findings.
Some of the significant issues about reporting research:
I Confidentialiry - this should be observed in almost all cases of
research, not only sensitive issues, because almost errery issue is a
sensitive one to some person. Thus, in reporting research the subjects
can be described in general terms so that the reader understands the
nature of the target population. If names are used, they are made up
to protect the informant or organisation.
I uses of the research - the research report should be used in ways that
the subjects expect and not in ways that will harm them or cause
them to be victimised; the wishes of the subjects should be observed
in how the research is reported and used.
r Giving back - if the research report can be used to help the subjects,
efforts should be made in this regard. For example, thi report can be
sent to an agency or depaftment that may be in a position to offer
help^to
lris group. Alternati-vely, by just glving the group a copy of
the final report recognises their participaiion and importance. it helps
them also to fiew the issue as it pertains to them ro-th"t they may be
:
able to help themselves. x
!
;
Referencing the study r
Introduction
we conclude the work_on preparing to conduct a research project by
grving you some guidelines on referencing your study and bbserving $

accepted conventions in presenting yourbibhography. These are il

scholarly activities that all post-secondary studJnti s'hould take seriously. i

I Plagiarism - is an example of an unethical practice. Any educational G

institution such as an examinations board, for exampli wilt have ?

:eve-r_e
laws ,gainst using somebody else's words or iieas (their ;

intellectual property) without acknowledging the source completely. i

In
your literature review,.for orample, yor, rrtoua be scrupJous
in saying C

which thoughts and ideas belong to'whom, as it will u! .rrra"rrtood

arr""t
the rest belongs to you. Thus, this rules out, as you will rearise,
information from a te)c or the internet into your own body
*pn"s i

,r

tr
of work.
:rGl

f,
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
Referencing - the only way you can copy a limited amount of
information into your work is if you use a quote. In quoting you must
acknowledge, after tJre quote, in brackets, the author's name, year of
publication, and page number on which the quote can be found - for
example, (|ohnson, 1988, p. 6). This is based on the understanding
that you will include this publication at the end of the study in the
bibliography where the complete reference will be glven.
You may also summarise the author's view and not quote him or her
verbatim - in which case, as close as possible to the statement in your
text, you should acknowledge the source (e.g. fohnson, 1988).
Bibkogaphy - the end of the research, report you should have
^t of all works cited in the study, arranged in
a complete listing
alphabeticd order, by author. The purpose of a bibliogaphy is to aid
the reader to find information, if thery so desire, on the topic you have
researched.
There are prescribed formats for including works in a bibliography.
One such convention that is widely recognised is that dwised by
the American Psychological Association (APA). The fqllowing are
examples of the APA format:

a A book with one author

Johnson, R. 0998). Educational Achievement. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Trinity

Press. / \
/\r \
/\
Note the full stop that endsthe Notethatthetitle of the Note, place of publication'
author's name, the date of book is underlined beforethe publisher
publication, in brackets, ending
with a full stop

A book with two or more authors

NewYork:
Johnson, R., and Merritt,J. (1989). Socio-EconomicStatusandEducationalAchievement.
sasicBooks\
,/
Note the punctuation that seParate5 N ote the colon separating place
the first and second authorc of publication from the publisher

An edited book

Taytor, S. (ed.). (1999). Sociology - tssues and Debates' London ; Macmittan'

d An article in a journat

++
Truth Coodman, R., and Sattman, K. (2001)' 'Dancing with bigotry'. Educational
30(6), pp.27-30,
ll
Researcher'

f
I
L 1>
trlot'e the volume of
Note thatthe
number ofthe
journal is put in
Note the title of
article
the I

Note that the title of the

iournal is italicised

t
theiournal is bolded
.
brackets

e From internet sources

t
I Caribbean Studies

usually the APA style allows foryou to cite articles from online databases
or other web sources, as you would a print source and add a retrieval
statement at the end, including date and source as shown below. The
citation below is taken from 'citation style Guides for Internet and
Electronic sources' retrieved from http:/A,vww.library.ualberta.calguidev
citation/index.cfm. You can check this source for more complete guidelines.
An example of how works retrieved from the internet may be cited:
Sqhrader, A. (I999).Internet censorship: issues for teacher-librarian.
Tlzacher
Librarian,26(5), 8+. Reuieved Novernber 24, lggg from the university of
AJberta Library Data bases (Academic search Fulltqct Elite, Irem l934tj3ll
on the world wide web: http:/Annnnv.library.ualberta.ca,/databases.

The nature and purpose of research

Introduction
After going throush each of the stages of the research process and
participating in the activities provided, you would have dweloped
a
considerablg grasp of and purpose of research, altho-ugh
$e Tagrg we did
not deal with that explicitly before. Activity r4.lzbelow shows you how
much you have understood about the research process or, ,h"
whore.

Activity 1412
The nature and purpose of research
urlg.this secf ion, you.have thought mlinly about your research
f
for caribbean studies. Now, at thelnd of th'is sectio"n,
project
consider research generatty.
i iriir*rvi"r us to
Read over the section with the questions betow in mind.
1 Peopte often conduct 'research' as an everyday
activity in their daity tives.
List some exampres of.'research'that peoite
rler trrey'murt'uno"rt"r" in
order to make better decisions.
2 Before you learned of the formal research process
as outtined in this
section, what was your understanding about
'.onar.tinf rellarch,?
3 ldentify ways in which the formal research process
differs from the ideas
about research you mentioned in question 2 above.
4 ldentify somdkey words or short phrases to characterise:
a the nature of research b the purpose of research.
Feedback

lny l"y undertaking is rikety to rend itsetf to some sorr of investigation or

fact finding on the part of persons who are involved, for. .*..it",
when we have to decide on a university
by sending for brochures and
to attend, especia[y if it is abroad
! prospectus by mail

by using the internet to search

) for information
'a
when we thinking of buying. .ornpl,lr- --t by asking around
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I

In these cases and many others like them, for exampte, if we want to invest
some money, if we want to find a reputabte gym to join, or buy insurance,
we know that we need to obtain retiabte and accurate information. on
this basis, we are tikety to make our decisions.
In atl these instances, we have ONE focus or major issue or probtem
that we woutd like resotved by obtaining information about it. Our
research questions for the first probtem coutd be: 'Which university is
the most cost-effective?' and 'Which has the better ranking?' Based on
the information obtained, a decision is made - many times a compromise
between atternatives.
Note that the methods of finding out information, often referred to as
data cotlection methods, may be the same, even for different probtems or
issues. For exampte, tatking to peopte (key informants) is usefut. However,
retiance on one method atone is not encouraged as you might get biased
information (such as interviewing onty computer sates representatives).
Students often say they have to carry out 'research' and so wi[[ go to
the library or internet to search for information. This is a poputar idea of
research and can atso inctude newspapers and other materiats to help in
what are catted 'research projects'. However, to those who carry out formal
research such as professional researche rs, the obtaining of information and
organisation into a coherent paper represents an initiaI idea about what
research is, but it means much more than that.
Sometimes students carry out smatl-scate research projects in the field where
they observe or interview people and report on their findings. This is closer
to the notion of research carried out by exPerts. However, being careful
to maintain rigour (being thorough), using systematic procedures (being
methodicat, togicat and efficient), and minimising bias (being aware of one's
prejudices, partiatity, or preconceived notions), are not major concerns.
Formal approaches to research invotve fottowing the steps of the research
Process.
1 Begin with a question or Probtem.
2 Read widety around the question or problem and determine how
these have been investigated in the past.
Using this information, design a study that ca[[s for the most retiable
data-cottecting strategies that you coutd think of that are appropriate
to the peopte and contexts you wish to study.
L Be mindfut and careful of how you concePtuatise and carry out the

t
{ research that you are not encouraging bias or being unethicat'
Go out 'into the fietd' and gather empirical data (that coltected
i through observations, speaking to PeoPle or viewing documents, in
other words through direct invotvement or experiences with Persons
1

or artifacts).
L Anatyse your resutts rigorousty and systematicatty again being careful
j
to tei tht data speak for itsetf and not impose your views on the
i findings.
1-
7 Data presentation in different formats often hetps in anatysis'

{ I Interpret the findings in relation to your original research question or

L
t,
probtem.
9 Draw conctusions.
Write a research rePort.
L 10

J
I Caribbean Studies

FormaI approaches to research then differ from other forms of information

gathering by having welt-thought out and focused research questions, by
supporting decisions about research based on what has been done befoie,
by the cottection of empiricaldata and systematicatty anatysing that data,
according to rigorous standards that minimise bias and unithical practices.

The nature of research The purpose of research

Rigorous I
r To gain a deeper understanding of an issue

@
Systematic r To inform decision-making

EmpiricaI r To appty findings to other situation,

groups, contexts.

Logical

Key points
r The first step in the research process is the identification of a
problem.
r A great deal of the process of engaging in research is thinking
or
conceprualising the dimensions of thJ problem that you
wish to
investigate.
r The act of formulatlns the problem statement and
then the statement
of the problem clarifies the dimensions of the problem
that wilr be
investigated.
r The research proce.s-s is systematic, requiring the investigation
focys on the problem further through ,"r."r"h -q".r,io",
1o
nypotneses.
o,
r Information is sourced on the identified aspects of
the problem.
t A major source of information is texnrar material (books,
on-rine
sources, iournals, newspapers, minutes of meetings,
archived data).
r The literature review is a discussion of the main
sources of
inrormation on aspecrs of the problem that are
touJrr*rtigated.
r Data are colle8ted with the nature of the problem
in mind as well as
characteristics of the accessibre populatioi, a"-
drawn.
*hi;l1" sampre is
r The conduct of research in the field is governed
by concerns of
efficiency, objectivity and ethical practices in
data collection.
I Your study may be characterised as either ,quantitative,
or ,qualitative,
depending on the type of data you collect.
I Data- analysis describes any form of organisation
of data that elicits
trends or patterns or demonstrates a riationstrip
in the study. ,h. variables
"r"."s
r Quantitative and quaritative analysis of data largely invorve
formats in data presentation. different
I Ethics is also a major concern in how
one goes about anarysing the
data and reporting the research
r Referencing the study is a.major requirement f.
t
of scholarly work and
again an ethical issue in the acknowl.dg.;;;;;i-o"-.llJorrr"",
information. or l
I
-?
t{
t
-t&
 Section 14 Investigating issues in the Caribbean I
Conctusion
The purpose of undertaking research is usually to find out more about
some identified problem or issue. The problem or issue may pose some
sort of threat or adverse consequences to society, so that reiearching
the problem is a logical step towards solving the problem or reducing
its negative effects on society. The nature of research, as you have
discovered, is exemplified in the steps of the research process. The latter
is systematic and rigorous, emphasising logic and minimising procedures
that may involve bias. underlyrng the research process is the notion that
we can come to better understand the world through the collection of
empirical data and that our findings may be applicable to a wider group
than those studied.

Suggested further readings

Best, [. and Kahn, l. Research in Education Englewood Cliffs, New |ersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1986.
Mohammed,l. Readings in Cartbbean Studies, Kingstonj |amaica: CXC,
200r.
Mustapha, N. and Brunton, R. (eds| .lssues in Education in Tlinidad and
Tbbago. (tWI, St. Augustine: School of Continuing Studies, ZOOZ.
Silverman, D. Doing Qualiutive Research: A ptactical Handbook.
London: Sage Publications, 2000.
west Indian commissionA Tlme for Action: Report of thewest Indian
Commission Mona: The Press, LIWI, I9gZ.

End test
L Ptease answer a[ questions.
1 A research problem must demonstrate a retationship between at leastTWO variabtes
in a study.
f
h
a Explain what is meant bv a'variabte'.
b ldentify the variabtes in the foltowing research probtem:
l- 'The nature of the impact of fast foods on the health of urban school children'.
2 ldentify a research probtem that you woutd like to investigate.
Exptain why you think this problem is researchable.
L g What considerations do you think shoutd guide you in identifying a research problem
to investigate?
L 4 Exptain the difference between a research question and a hypothesis.

5 Suggest an instance where the accessible population and the sample will comprise the
same individuals.
L 6 Explain, using examples, what is meant when research is described as 'iterative'.
7 Suppose you had conceptualised a study along the foltowing [ines:
!

J- 'How the mass media affect devetopment'. What wi[[ you have to do to focus the inquiry?
8 ListTWO disadvantages of using semi-structured interviews as a method of data
i
' cottection.
9 ldentifyTWO approaches to data analysis.
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10 What ethical considerations are invotved in referencing your research?
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I Caribbean Studies
Feedback for end test
a A variable is a concept, condition or characteristic
(which can cover many things, for example, a vast areas or variabtes that witttake a long time to
process, an attitude, a score, a schoot, students,
teachers,'fast foods'),
b The variabtes are i the impact of fast foods and ii
heatth of urban school chitdren.
You must be able to investigate empiricatly the
research probtem you identified. In the exampte
above, you could obtain information from doctors
and from the chitdren themselves and compare with
information gathered on ruraI school children. This
problem can thus be investigated empiricatty.
A research problem such as 'Schools are democratic
organisations' is difficult to pin down as a 'democratic
organisation' is a variabte that lends itself to
muttiple interpretations. You shoutd avoid this type
of phitosophical problem in conceptualising your
research probtem. 'The consequences of potlution' is
atso not a good research problem. There is one clear
variable (poltution), but this needs to be examined
for interrelationships with, say the landscape, the
atmosphere, or'at risk'groups, such as squatters.
In identifying a research probtem attention should be
paid to:
r having two or more variabtes to investigate
I whether there is an interretationship between the
variabtes stated
r conceptuatising the study so that it could be
empirically investigated. For example, the faulty
problem statement above could be re-stated thus
- 'The process of schooling and 'at risk' students'.
In addition, for this programme you shoutd focus your
research on issues that are considered important and
significant to development in the Caribbean. Thus, for
any topic or research probtem you identify for study
you must be able to justify it as an important and
significant issue.
On a more practica[ note, a problem or issue is only
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researchable if the researcher can access the site or
the peopte involved. Thus, in identifying a research
problem the investigation should be convenient
for the researcher, or at least pose only minimal
inconvenience. lt goes without saying, too, that in
choosing a probtem to study, you need to be mindful
of time constraints - that results or findings must be
obtained over a period of a few months. You should
not decide to study large numbers of persons over ,
bear fruit. For exampte, studying students over their
entire fifth form year is probabty not practical for
your PurPose.
Spend time in focusing the inquiry and structuring
the literature review and data coltection methods.
However, research questions are given in the
interrogative and a hypothesis is a statement or
prediction about the outcome of the research that
the researcher expects to find.
This happens when the accessible poputation is so
smatl that it makes more sense to study everyone
rather than draw a sample. For exampte, suppose you
wanted to study extremely high achievers in the sixth
form to see whether their aspirations and expectations
would resutt in benefits to the Caribbean region.
There may be five or 10 for the most, according to the
cut-off criteria you use. In this case, your accessible
population is smatl enough to become your sampte.
'lterative' describes a process where the researcher
constantly goes back and forth to examine and re-
examine their thoughts and the procedures employed
in conceptuatising research, cotlecting and analysing
data. lt dispets the notion that research can be
conceived as a linear process, where one proceeds
from a to b and never looks back.
The focus of the research needs to be clarified through
the processes of expanding the problem statement into
astatement of the problem, through devising research
questions, and the writing of a literature review.
Semi-structured interviews generate voluminous data
that may give the researcher probtems to manage
and anatyse. In addition, much of the data may be off
the focus ofthe investigation as the respondent has
the freedom to speak about their experiences and
understanding of what is being asked.
9 Quantitative and quatitative approaches to data analysis.
In the body of the text, you must ensure that you
cite your sources, whether they are direct quotes or
summaries of other peopte's ideas. This wi[[ ensure
that you avoid ptagiarism. In the bibliography,
attentions to referencing all your sources, with
comptete references, following a conventionat styte
such as the APA. This shows that we understand
that the bibtiography is to help readers and other
researchers to find your sources if they wish.