Mod04-Lec07 Control System

CONTROL SYSTEMS
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Contents
12.1 Fundamentals .......................................................................................................... 3
12.1.1 Why Control ................................................................................................. 3
12.1.2 Control System Components .................................................................... 5
12.1.3 Input and Output Signals .......................................................................... 6
12.1.4 The Controller .............................................................................................. 7
12.1.4.1 Manual Control ................................................................................... 8
12.1.4.2 Hard Wired Controls .......................................................................... 8
12.1.4.3 Relays .................................................................................................... 9
12.1.4.4 Programmable Logic Controller ...................................................... 9
12.1.5 Process Displays ........................................................................................ 11
12.1.5.1 Gauges ................................................................................................ 11
12.1.5.2 Electronic Displays ........................................................................... 11
12.1.5.3 Graphical Interface ........................................................................... 12
12.1.6 Control System Documentation ............................................................. 13
12.1.6.1 Process Flow Diagram ..................................................................... 13
12.1.6.2 Process and Instrumentation Diagram ......................................... 14
12.1.6.3 Control Philosophy and Functional Description ....................... 15
12.1.6.4 Ladder Diagram ................................................................................ 18
12.2 Process and Operation Overview ................................................................... 19

12.2.1 Inputs ........................................................................................................... 19
12.2.1.1 Gauges and Indicators ..................................................................... 19
12.2.1.2 Switches .............................................................................................. 20
12.2.1.3 Transmitters ....................................................................................... 21
12.2.2 The PLC Program ........................................................................................ 22
12.2.3 Outputs ......................................................................................................... 22
12.2.3.1 Open or Closed Valve ...................................................................... 23
12.2.3.2 Modulating Valve ............................................................................. 24
12.2.3.3 Motor ................................................................................................... 25
12.2.3.4 Heater .................................................................................................. 26
34a_m12_r0 12-1 Control Systems

12.3 Equipment Design and Options ...................................................................... 27
12.3.1 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) ................................................... 27
12.3.1.1 Capability ............................................................................................ 28
12.3.1.2 I/O Cards ............................................................................................. 29
12.3.1.3 Communications Module ................................................................ 30
12.3.1.4 Redundancy and UPS ....................................................................... 31
12.3.2 Enclosures .................................................................................................... 32
12.3.2.1 NEMA 12 ............................................................................................. 33
12.3.2.2 NEMA 4 ............................................................................................... 33
12.3.2.3 NEMA 4X ............................................................................................. 33
12.3.2.4 NEMA 3R ............................................................................................ 33
12.3.2.5 NEMA 1 ............................................................................................... 33
12.3.2.6 Environmental Features.................................................................... 34
12.3.3 Operator Interface ...................................................................................... 35
12.3.3.1 Panel Mounted Devices.................................................................... 35
12.3.3.2 Operator Interface Terminal ............................................................ 36
12.3.4 Skid Mounted Equipment ........................................................................ 37
12.3.5 Motor Control ............................................................................................ 41
12.3.5.1 Motor Control Center ........................................................................ 41
12.3.5.2 Local Motor Starters .......................................................................... 42
12.3.6 Optional Instrumentation ......................................................................... 43
12.3.6.1 Indicators ............................................................................................. 43
12.3.6.2 Analyzers ............................................................................................. 46
12.3.6.3 Switches ............................................................................................... 49
12.3.6.4 Transmitters ........................................................................................ 50
12.4 Application and Design ..................................................................................... 51

12.4.1 Application .................................................................................................. 51
12.4.2 Design Considerations .............................................................................. 51
12.4.3 Expected Results ......................................................................................... 53

Module 12
CONTROL SYSTEMS
12.1 Fundamentals
This section discusses control systems as they are applied to water treatment
systems. The goal of the water treatment system is to process incoming water so
that it meets the desired criteria (flow rate, pressure, resistivity, pH, removal of
undesirable impurities, etc.) when it leaves the system. The goal of the control
system is to monitor the water treatment system, process data from the field sensors,
and adjust control elements and/or alert operators when conditions are outside the
desired limits.
12.1.1 Why Control
As conditions change, the water treatment system must react appropriately to

continue producing water meeting the customer’s needs and to prevent damage to
the equipment. For example, as the media bed in a filter removes impurities from
the service water, the pressure drop across the media bed increases. Eventually the
pressure drop can become greater than the supply pump can overcome, reducing the
water flow rate. The change in pressure drop must be monitored, and the data must
be interpreted to determine if a backwash cycle is needed to clean the media bed.

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Control systems sense changes in process parameters, decide whether the changes
are meaningful and significant, and manipulate the necessary equipment to modify
the system and ensure that treated water is of acceptable quantity and quality. The
operating mode of the system is changed by, perhaps, a reconfiguration of automatic
valves, as shown in Figure 12.1-1 below.
Figure 12.1-1: Automatic Valve Configurations Determine Operating Mode

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12.1.2 Control System Components
A control system consists of a number of pieces that work together:
· Sensors to measure physical and chemical characteristics
· Input modules to translate these signals into something the controller can
understand
· A controller to make decisions based on the data
· Output modules to translate these decisions into signals the controlled

devices can accept
· Control devices that can be modified
· A way to communicate with operators
As the water treatment system operates, conditions change: temperatures drift,

pressures rise or fall, contaminant levels vary. The sensors detect these changes and
transmit the data to the control system via input modules. The control system
analyzes the information and decides what modifications must be made to the
system. These decisions can be implemented either automatically by the control
system via output modules or by operator intervention directly; valves can be opened
and closed or modulated, pumps can be started or stopped, etc. All appropriate
information must be presented to operations staff in an efficient and understandable
format.

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12.1.3 Input and Output Signals
Information from sensors or to control devices can be either a discrete or an analog

signal. A discrete signal reflects a binary choice; the element in question is either
below a given set point, or it has exceeded the set point; a yes or a no; open or
closed; 1 or 0. A pressure switch sends a ‘high’ signal or a ‘low’ signal. A pump is
turned on or turned off. Discrete signals are used when a device can send or receive
only two choices and when questions such as “how much” are not important.
The other type of signal is an analog signal. When the sensor measures a parameter
and converts it to an signal, the magnitude of the measurement is preserved in the
signal and transmitted to the control system. With an analog signal, the precise
value of a parameter is analyzed and displayed by the control system, not just
whether it has exceeded a set point: pressure is 62.4 psi; tank level is 16 feet; the
control valve is set to 32% open . Figure 12.1-2 below shows a flow meter as an
example of an instrument that transmits analog data to the control system for display
and/or further action. Figure 12.1-3 shows a valve that is modulated by the control
system.
Figure 12.1-2: Flow Meter and Flow Figure 12.1-3: Valve Controlled by
Transmitter Sensor Data Processed by the Control
System

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Both analog and discrete signals can take several different forms. Signals are
typically electrical today, but pressure signals have been used extensively in the past
and are still used for many modulating valve actuators. Discrete signals are most
commonly (0 or) 24 VDC or line voltage (0 or 120 VAC). Analog signals can be 1 to 5
VDC, but are typically 4-20 mA current signals. Discrete signals are not very
sensitive to electrical interference (a 24 VDC signal would still be recognized if it was
20 VDC). Analog signals, however, must be protected from interference. The 4-20
mA current signal is a good choice for analog measurement transmission because
current is not as sensitive to noise as voltage is. By referencing the lowest
measurement to 4 mA the system can also detect broken wires or connections in the
circuit as they will result in a 0 mA (no current) signal. This can be clearly identified
as a bad signal.
12.1.4 The Controller
The simplest form of control system monitors the status of the water treatment
system through sensors in the field. This is a common feature of all control systems.
The next level of complexity is a control system that also generates alarms if certain
input values are beyond previously determined set point values. A more
sophisticated control system not only generates alarms, but also makes decisions as
to what should be adjusted to relieve the alarm condition.
Generally, every sensor has some critical value or set point that will affect the water
treatment system if it is exceeded. Decisions are made based on the relationship of
the current data to the set point. Decision making by a control system can be as
simple as an operator deciding what to do with a given set of sensor data. It can also
be a complex algorithm that compares data from sensors throughout the system,
interprets the data, and transmits appropriate instructions back to the system to
correct and/or adjust the equipment as required.

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Pressure Switch
Controls Pump
Pump
Figure 12.1-5: Pump and Pressure Switch Hard Wired Together
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12.1.4.1 Manual Control
In a manual system, an operator is the control system. The operator, after gathering
data from various sensors and gauges, uses knowledge and experience to decide
how to interpret and react to the collected data. The operator then makes decisions
about whether any changes or modifications to the system are required and takes
the appropriate action. Figure 12.1-4 below shows a gauge, which displays pressure,
that an operator would monitor.
Figure 12.1-4: Pressure Gauge
12.1.4.2 Hard Wired Controls
The easiest way to automate the decision of a simple control system is to hard wire a
sensor directly to a control device. For example, a pressure switch may be located at
the output of a pump. If the pressure increases too much, the pump may be
damaged. To prevent this, the pressure switch is wired in series with the electrical
power supply to the pump. The sensor is equipped with a latching switch that cuts
off the electrical power to the pump if the pressure exceeds the set point.
Even though this is a simple type of control system, it is very reliable. Sensors are
hard-wired directly to control devices when safety or damage prevention is critical.
There is, however, no flexibility for changes beyond having an electrician disconnect
the switch and there is no record of what took place afterward. Figure 12.1-5 on the
opposite page shows a schematic of a pump and a pressure switch hard-wired
together.

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12.1.4.3 Relays
Relays are simple electrical switching devices. When an input electrical signal is
received, the relay or series of relays determine the output signal to the control
device. As the number of inputs and outputs grows, the array of relays needed to
make decisions can become unwieldy. As the number of relays grows, the likelihood
of a failure also increases. Because of the complexity of relay systems, they are not
generally used today except for very simple control schemes. Figure 12.1-6 below
shows a schematic of a relay-based control.
Relay
Figure 12.1-6: Relay Based Control
12.1.4.4 Programmable Logic Controller
The programmable logic controller (PLC) is essentially a series of electronic relays.

It is much more compact, has no moving parts and typically has much more
flexibility than a set of relays. The quantity of inputs and outputs and the complexity
of the PLC program determine the size of the PLC. The operation of the PLC is
based on the software program loaded into it. The program itself is generally a series
of If/Then statements regarding the status of the system and what should be done if
certain criteria are not met. A programming language and a programming terminal
are needed to supply those instructions to the PLC. Almost all control systems today
use a PLC.

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All field sensors deliver their
data to (and control devices
get their data from) I/O
(input/output) modules.
Signals transmitted to the
PLC are called Inputs and
those transmitted from the
PLC are called Outputs.
Each type of signal, such as
an analog input, requires a
specific type of I/O module.
Depending on the number of
inputs and outputs, a
communications module may
be necessary to allow
multiple banks of I/O
modules to have access to the
PLC. Figure 12.1-7 shows a
PLC with several I/O
modules.
Figure 12.1-7: PLC with I/O Modules
In large systems there may be several PLCs that control different process units.
These PLCs may communicate with each other, sharing information and directing
each other. The PLCs may also provide information to, and get direction from, a
facilities monitoring system (FMS) or distributed control system (DCS) computer.
The DCS computer is normally used for data archiving, trending and analysis. Some
DCS computers can be used as PLCs and some of the larger PLCs have many of the
functions of the DCS computers. Figure 12.1-8 shows a schematic of several PLCs
and a DCS all connected.
Figure 12.1-8: Connection Between Multiple PLCs and DCS

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12.1.5 Process Displays
Once the field sensors gather the data, there are many different ways that it can be
displayed. The display merely presents the data regarding the status of the water
treatment system but makes no judgements nor takes any action.
12.1.5.1 Gauges
The simplest form of data display is a gauge.

For example, the temperature of a liquid moves
an indicator, registering the temperature on a
scale. Another example is using the pressure in a
pipe to move an indicator on a pressure scale.
The gauge is generally located where the
measurement is taken, as distance may degrade
the integrity of the initial signal. Figure 12.1-9
shows a gauge displaying differential pressure
across an orifice as flow rate.
12.1.5.2 Electronic Displays Figure 12.1-9: Gauge for Flow Meter

An electronic display can present the sensor data in numeric form. In order for the
display to function, the primary sensor data must be converted to electrical signals.
The display generally accepts a 4 to
20 mA analog signal. The display
interprets the electrical input signal
and presents it as a numeric value
to be seen by an operator. Because
the primary data is converted to an photo courtesy of Honeywell
electrical signal, the display does

not have to be located where the
measurement is taken. Displays
can also be configured to show
different ranges or different units
of measurement. Figure 12.1-10
shows an electronic display for
conductivity.
Figure 12.1-10: Conductivity Display

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12.1.5.3 Graphical Interface
A more sophisticated method of presenting data is to use a graphic representation.

This device is normally a computer system (often referred to as a Man-Machine
Interface (MMI), Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or Operator Interface Terminal
(OIT)) with software dedicated to displaying process information. For example, the
data from a tank level sensor can be presented as a liquid level moving within a
drawing of a tank. The numeric value of the level also can be displayed in many
different forms such as volume of liquid in the tank, height of liquid in the tank, or
percentage of a full tank. The drawing and any numeric value can be shown on a
sophisticated graphic panel display or on a computer monitor. Figure 12.1-11 below
shows a graphical interface on a computer monitor.
photo courtesy of Moore Products Co.
Figure 12.1-11: Graphical User Interface on a Computer Monitor
By using a graphical interface, data can be more clearly presented and more quickly
interpreted by an operator. Using the tank level example, the operator may need to
know if the tank is full or empty but not the specific level. The graphical interface
can clearly show a tank level near the top or bottom, not merely a number that must
be interpreted and analyzed by an operator.

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12.1.6. Control System Documentation
Special types of documentation are used to describe the various aspects of the
control system, regardless of its complexity. The purpose of the documentation is to
describe the relationships between the process equipment, the sensors that monitor
the status of the system and the water, and the control device that can change the
status of the system.
12.1.6.1 Process Flow Diagram
A process flow diagram (PFD) uses blocks to represent equipment. The primary
purpose of the PFD is to show the relationships between process equipment in the
water treatment system. A sample portion of a PFD is provided in Figure 12.1-12
below.
Raw Anti- Cartridge Acid RO

Water Scalant Feeder Feed
Filters
Inlet Feeder
Pumps
Reverse Mixed Bed Mixed Bed

Degasifier
Feed Pumps Units
Osmosis
Banks
Acid Acid
Tank Regen De-mineralized
Water Tank
Waste
Caustic Caustic
Neutralization
Tank Regen
Figure 12.1-12: Sample Process Flow Diagram

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12.1.6.2 Process and Instrumentation Diagram
The process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) shows all pieces of equipment in
the water treatment system with all significant components and all of their
interconnections. The connection lines can represent a pipe, a wire, an air duct, or
any other means of connection. Various symbols and line conventions are used to
identify the equipment and the methods of connection. A P&ID generally contains a
legend page that defines all of the symbols and line conventions. Each piece of
equipment is also given a unique identification number. The identification number
may be a sequence number or part of an overall system naming convention. Figure
12.1-13 below shows a sample portion of a P&ID. This is typically the most
important document for design, construction, and operation of the system.
PLC
Level
Sensor
Agitator
Dosing Check
Pump Valve
Tank
CHEMICAL FEEDER
Figure 12.1-13: Sample P&ID

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12.1.6.3 Control Philosophy and Functional Description
The control philosophy and functional description is a text document that describes,
in detail, the operation of the water treatment system. The document is generally
structured as follows:
1. Scope of Supply
Describes the major components of the system and the major modules of the control
system.
2. System Operation
Describes the modes of operation for the entire system and its various individual
pieces of equipment, as well as system control functions with specific examples of
operator interaction with the control system.
3. Graphic Displays
Describes the requirements and locations of the operator interface graphic screens.
A list of instruments displayed on the graphic screen is also included. For each
instrument, their allowable ranges and alarm set points are provided.
4. Interlocks and Alarms

Describes the actions required by the system or operator and lists the instrument
numbers, set points, and the reset method for each alarm.
5. Sequence Charts
Shows valve and motor on/off status during every step of each mode of operation in
the system.

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Figure 12.1-14 below shows an example of a system operation description for the
regeneration mode for a mixed bed unit.
Regeneration Controls
To place a Mixed Bed into Regeneration, it must be in the Standby mode. When a
Regeneration request is made, the status box of the Mixed Bed unit will display
“Regeneration Request.” The operator has 20 seconds to cancel this request by pressing
the Standby function key. After the 20 seconds have elapsed, the Mixed Bed unit will
lock into Regeneration and display Regen in its status box provided the limit switches on
the valves indicate that all valves are closed.
The individual Mixed Bed screens also provide highlighting of the current Regeneration
step, the time remaining, and the elapsed time of each step.
The control system may suspend the Regeneration cycle due to an alarm condition.
Depending on the severity of the alarm, the control system will activate a “System Hold”
or “System Interrupt.” An alarm that causes a System Hold will stop the time remaining
timers, display “System Hold” at the operator interface, and may de-energize equipment.
When the alarm condition is no longer present, the Regeneration will continue without
operator intervention.
An alarm that causes System Interrupt will stop the time remaining timers, display
“System Interrupt” at the operator interface, and may de-energize equipment. The alarm
is cleared when the alarm condition is no longer present and the operator resets the alarm
by pressing the Regeneration Auto key at the operator interface. A System Interrupt
alarm requires operator action before the Regeneration can continue.
Figure 12.1-14: Sample System Operation Description

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Table 12.1-1 shows a sample of an Interlocks and Alarms list for a low discharge
pressure alarm for a mixed bed feed pump.
MIXED BED UNIT

Description Mixed Bed Feed Pump Discharge Pressure Low
PAL-060
Set Point 65 psig
> Activates alarm

Action
> Operator must determine the cause
Whenever the Mixed Bed Feed Pump is required to run. The

Low Discharge Pressure condition must be maintained for 20
Active Period
seconds prior to activating the alarm.
> When the pressure rises above the Low Pressure set point
Reset
> The 20 second time delay is reset each time the
pressure rises above the Low Pressure set point.
Table 12.1-1: Sample Interlocks and Alarms
Table 12.1-2 shows a sample of the sequence chart for a waste neutralization system.
NEUTRALIZATION SYSTEM
Flow Time Mix Discharge Mixing Caustic Caustic Acid Acid
Step
(gpm) (min) Pump Valve Valve Pump Valve Pump Valve
Idle/Fill TBA TBA O O
Mixing
600 0-10 O O
Contents
Acid
2.2 0-10 O O O M
Injection
Caustic
9.7 0-10 O O O M
Injection
Dump
TBA TBA O O
Contents
Legend: O = Valve Open/Pump On Blank = Valve Closed/Pump Off

M = Modulating
Table 12.1-2: Sample Sequence Chart

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12.1.6.4 Ladder Diagram
After the relationships between all of the pieces of equipment are defined in the
P&ID, and their status is defined for all modes of operation in the functional
description, the ladder diagram is used to create programming steps for the PLC.
Figure 12.1-15 below shows a segment of a ladder diagram.
Figure 12.1-15: Sample Ladder Diagram
The left vertical leg of the ladder diagram represents electricity that is used to
energize the output device. An output device is located at the far right of each ladder
rung. To the left of the output device on each rung are criteria that must be satisfied
before the output device is energized to change its state. If any item is not satisfied,
the circuit is opened, the output device is not energized, and it remains at its rest
state. The right vertical part of the ladder diagram represents completion of an
electrical circuit if all items on a rung are satisfied. For example, there are three items
on a ladder rung. The first item is a sensor measuring an upstream pressure that is
higher than the set point. The second item is a sensor that measures a liquid level
that is below the set point in a downstream tank. The last item on the rung
represents a valve actuator to be energized to change from its rest state
(opened or closed) when the proper conditions are met by the first two items.

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Pressure
Switch
with
Alarm
Pressure
Gauge
Figure 12.2-1: Sample Inputs
pH Analyzer
with Alarms
Level Flow
Transmitter Indicator
With Alarms

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12.2 Process and Operation Overview
The control system is responsible for the flow of information in a facility. Field
sensors supply data, the data is analyzed, and an appropriate response is executed.
The P&IDs of a system document the type and location of the inputs and outputs.
Information processing and decision-making is generally done by a PLC.
12.2.1 Inputs
Sensors collect information on the status of the water treatment system. Some
sensors directly measure characteristics such as temperature, pressure, differential
pressure, flow rate or fluid level in a tank. Other sensors measure various attributes
that must be analyzed or compared to known substances before the desired
parameter can be quantified. The measurement of pH, turbidity, and silica are
examples of inputs derived from analysis. Figures 12.2-1 through 12.2-4 show
several P&IDs highlighting examples of inputs to the control system that are
discussed below.
12.2.1.1 Gauges and Indicators
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-1 on the opposite page shows a typical gauge. Pressure at
the inlet and outlet of a multi-media filter is measured using a sensor mounted in a
pipe. The data is displayed by a gauge and goes no further. An operator must read
the gauge to acquire the data. A flow element with a flow indicator is shown in
Figure 12.2-2 on the opposite page. As with the pressure gauge, an operator must
read the indicator to gather the data.
The situation would be the same if the data were shown on a digital display. If the
P&ID does not call for the data to be sent to the PLC or another part of the control
system, an operator must read the display to acquire the data.

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12.2.1.2 Switches
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-1 also shows a typical switch. Switches provide a discrete
input to the control system. This switch measures the differential pressure across the
inlet and outlet of the filter media trap. In this example, the differential pressure
switch has a high alarm set point. As long as the differential pressure stays below
the set point, the switch is in its normal condition and a signal is constantly being
sent to the PLC. If the differential pressure goes above the set point, the switch
changes to its alarm condition and stops sending a signal to the PLC. When the
control system does not receive a signal from the switch, it recognizes that there is a
problem. The PLC software determines what action is taken in response to this
alarm.
Another P&ID shows a level switch in Figure 12.2-3 below . In this example, the
P&ID indicates the connection between the switch and the PLC and also the
connection between the PLC and the output device, whose state is determined by
the level switch. If the switch set point is exceeded, the control system changes the
status of the motor driving the pump (motor on or motor off depending on the
situation).
Level Switch

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Conductivity
Transmitter
Level
Transmitter
Flow
Transmitter
Figure 12.2-4: Sample inputs

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12.2.1.3 Transmitters
For sensors requiring the communication of the magnitude of the measurement an

analog transmitter must be used. The P&ID in Figure 12.2-2 shows a typical
transmitter for monitoring pH. A sensor element sends analog data to the
transmitter. The transmitter conditions the analog signal so it can be interpreted by
the PLC. The PLC might use this data to increase or decrease the speed of a chemical
feed pump. The PLC also sends the data to an indicator, to be shown on a display
and on the control system operator interface terminal (OIT).
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-2 also shows a level transmitter that sends an analog signal
to the PLC. Similar to the pH monitor, the level transmitter may have both high and
low tank level set points.
In both transmitter examples, the data is sent to the PLC where it may be just
displayed, or it may be used as an input in an algorithm that sends an output signal
to a control device. Depending on the complexity of the P&ID, it does not always
reveal how the PLC analyzes the data or which outputs are affected. The control
philosophy provides this information.
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-4 on the opposite page shows a conductivity transmitter.
Conductivity data is gathered by the conductivity sensor element and sent in its raw
form to the conductivity transmitter. The transmitter conditions the analog signal so
it can be correctly interpreted by the PLC. In this example, there are high and low
conductivity set points that generate alarms if they are exceeded. The PLC also
sends the data to the OIT for display for the operator.
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-4 also shows a flow transmitter and a level transmitter. The
flow-sensing element is the same as shown in Figure 12.2-2 and discussed in
Section 12.2.1.1. Rather than being sent to an indicator for an operator to read, the
data is sent to a transmitter, where it is converted to an analog signal that can be
monitored by the PLC. The PLC shows the flow rate at the OIT. The PLC also
compares the data to both low flow and low level alarm set points. The
programming of the PLC determines what action is to be taken when these set
points are exceeded.
The level sensing element determines the height of liquid in the tank and sends the
raw data to the transmitter, which conditions the signal before it is sent to the PLC.
The PLC sends the tank level data to be displayed at the OIT. The PLC also
monitors the liquid level and compares it to two different high level alarm set points
and two different low level alarm set points. The response of the control system to
an alarm depends on which set point is exceeded.

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Figure 12.2-5: Ladder Logic Examples
Flow Sensor
with Totalizer
and Alarms
Figure 12.2-6: Sample P&ID with Totalizer Function

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12.2.2 The PLC Program
The PLC processes data according to the instructions programmed into its memory.
The program instructions to be executed are described in the control philosophy and
functional description document. Many instructions can also be represented as
rungs on the PLC ladder logic diagram shown in Figure 12.2-5 on the opposite
page. Each rung is a logical statement. The rightmost item on the rung is the action
to be taken. The action will not be executed unless all of its prerequisite conditions
are met. When the conditions are listed in parallel, only one leg of the multiple,
parallel paths must be fulfilled before the rightmost item is executed. Figure 12.2-5
shows examples of ladder logic rungs that use serial and parallel paths. Ladder logic
was developed to document relay type control systems where all information is
discrete. It does not easily describe analog relationships or complex algorithms.
In addition to simple arithmetic functions, the PLC can contain additional built-in or
specialty functions. These functions range from very simple summing operations to
algorithms involving complex mathematics. Totalization is an example of a simple,
useful built-in function. This function keeps track of the cumulative amount of the
measured parameter. For example, if the totalizing function is used with a flow
meter, the total number of gallons that flowed through the sensor for a given period
of time is tracked. The period of time is usually since the last time the totalizer
function was reset to zero. After a certain volume has flowed through the sensor and
the piece of equipment near the sensor, an alarm may be activated to indicate the
need for a cleaning cycle. Figure 12.2-6 on the opposite page shows a P&ID with
the totalizer function associated with a flow meter.
12.2.3 Outputs
After data is collected and analyzed, the control system determines appropriate
responses. Similar to input data, output data can be either discrete or analog.
Discrete signals generally turn equipment on or off. Analog signals provide guidance
for the precise adjustment of a specific parameter such as speed or position. Figure
12.2-10 through Figure 12.2-14 show several examples of output devices receiving
instructions from the control system.

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12.2.3.1 Open or Closed Valve
Pneumatic powered actuators require compressed air to open or close a valve. The
air is sent through a solenoid valve in a skid-mounted enclosure. The solenoid valve
receives a discrete signal from the PLC to direct compressed air to the proper
actuator to open or close a valve. The P&ID in Figure 12.2-7 shows several air-
actuated valves. Since the actuator requires air to function, the lines for pneumatic
tubing are assumed.
Air
Actuated
Valves
Figure 12.2-7: Sample Outputs

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Modulating
Valve and
Sensor
Figure: 12.2-8: Sample Outputs

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12.2.3.2 Modulating Valve
When precise adjustment of flow is required, an analog signal is sent to a modulating

actuator to set the position of a valve. The P&ID in Figure 12.2-8 on the opposite
page shows a modulating valve. The position of the valve is set by the data from the
temperature element that has been transmitted and processed by the PLC. As the
temperature changes, the PLC controls the air pressure in the actuator that positions
the valve, which controls the flow of hot water through a heat exchanger.
The P&ID in Figure 12.2-9 below also shows a modulating valve. The position of
the valve is controlled by data from the level transmitter via the PLC. As the level
changes, the PLC modulates the air pressure in the actuator that positions the valve,
which controls the supply of water to the system.
Fan
Motor
Modulating
Valve and
Sensor
Pump
Motor
Figure: 12.2-9: Sample Outputs

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12.2.3.3 Motor
Motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy to operate equipment such as

pumps and fans. The P&IDs in Figures 12.2-9 on the previous page and
Figure 12.2-10 below show motors driving pumps. The motor control center
supplies electricity to the motor only when the PLC program allows the connection
to be closed. Figure 12.2-9 also shows a motor driving a centrifugal fan. Like the
pump motor, the fan motor is also supplied with electricity from the motor control
center only when the PLC allows the connection.
Pump Motor
Motors can also be driven by Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs). A VFD allows the
speed of the motor to be precisely controlled by an analog output signal from the
control system. This is analogous to a modulating valve.

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12.2.3.4 Heater
Heaters convert electrical energy into thermal energy to heat a liquid. By controlling
the availability of electricity, a specific temperature can be maintained. The P&ID in
Figure 12.2-11 below shows a heater getting feedback via the PLC from a
temperature sensor. The PLC determines whether electricity should flow to the
heater based on data from the temperature sensor.
Heater with Temperature

Sensor

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12.3 Equipment Design and Options
The control system components can be described in several major sections which are
defined by location:
· The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), including related I/O, accessories

and enclosure
· The Operator Interface Terminal (OIT), including accessories and enclosure
· Enclosures and components mounted on the process equipment (wiring,
tubing, solenoid valves, etc.)
· Motor Starters
· Instrumentation not included as part of other process equipment
12.3.1 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
The PLC is the main data processor that controls all automatic functions associated
with the operation of the water treatment system. Depending on the size and com-
plexity of the system, there may be one PLC or there may be several PLC’s that
communicate with each other.

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12.3.1.1 Capability
The capability of a PLC is generally measured by the amount of memory and the
number of inputs and outputs it can handle. The memory is used to store the pro-
gram and values for variables that are being updated. A small PLC may have 2K
(2,048 bytes) of memory, while a large system could have 100K or more.
Figure 12.3-1 below shows a typical Allen Bradley PLC mounted in a control panel
next to its power supply.
The number of inputs and outputs (I/O) required by a system is known from the
P&ID. For example, a typical project might require 400 to 1,200 I/O points. A small
PLC would be able to handle 64 I/O points, while a large system could handle over
3000 I/O points.
As the PLC gets larger, the number of available, built-in mathematical functions also
increases. For example, the totalization function is not a standard built-in function
on small PLCs. However, PLCs used in water treatment systems include all func-
tions required.
Figure 12.3-1: Allen Bradley PLC Mounted in Enclosure

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12.3.1.2 I/O Cards
I/O cards are special circuit boards used for the interface between the field devices
and the PLC. A typical module handles four, eight or sixteen connections to the
field, depending on the type. Special I/O modules are available for various types of
inputs and outputs. For example, there is a special card to handle incoming digital
data transmitted from field sensors. This card only has to determine if a signal is
present. An I/O card for analog signals must recognize a signal as well as determine
its magnitude. There are dedicated cards for inputs from special temperature probes,
positioning devices and many others. Each dedicated card has specific circuitry to
handle its particular function. Figure 12.3-2 below shows several I/O cards mounted
in their chassis with wires connecting them to their devices. The empty slots in the
chassis are spares for future use.
Output cards generate specific signals for transmission to the field devices. There are
specific output cards for particular field devices. For example, there are specific
output cards for digital signals and also for analog signals.
Figure 12.3-2: I/O Cards Mounted in Enclosure

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I/O can be classified as local, remote, or distributed. Local I/O has the I/O cards in
the same enclosure as the PLC’s processor and all field device wiring must be
brought to this enclosure. Remote I/O places the PLC’s processor and I/O cards in
different enclosures. Field device wiring is brought to the various enclosures with
the I/O cards and a communications link is made between the I/O cards and the
PLC. With distributed I/O, the I/O components are located with the field devices
and a communications link is needed with the PLC’s processor.
12.3.1.3 Communications Module
If the number of I/O points exceeds the total capacity of all I/O cards in one chassis,
an expansion chassis is required. A communications module is used to transfer
signals from the input cards to the PLC (located in another chassis), and to receive
signals for the output cards. Figure 12.3-3 below shows a communications module
located in a separate chassis. This module is used for communications between a
PLC processor and the I/O cards modules.
Figure 12.3-3: Communications Module with I/O Cards in Expansion Chasis

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12.3.1.4 Redundancy and UPS
If the control system fails due to a processor failure or a loss of power, the process
can be adversely affected. Sensors may provide false readings upon start-up, or a
process may restart at an incorrect step. Most control systems have some type of
backup procedure to recover after a power failure. One method is to have a twin
processor directly connected to the control system. It monitors the status of all
devices, but the primary processor still makes the decisions and sends output signals.
If the primary unit fails, the secondary processor senses the failure and immediately
takes over the control system. It also sends out an alarm to alert the operators that
the primary unit has failed. Another redundancy approach is to have a spare
processor in storage ready to plug into the system if the primary unit fails. Once the
program is loaded, the new processor is ready to control the system. Due to the
quantity of inputs and outputs in the system, there is generally no redundancy in
either the I/O modules or the field equipment.
The PLC power supply must also be considered in a redundancy plan. Typically, a
spare power supply is available in storage if the primary system is damaged. Figure
12.3-4 below shows a front and back view of a typical power supply.
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is connected between the PLC and its sup-
ply of electricity. The UPS may supply power to the PLC only, or it may supply
sufficient power to operate all field devices for a limited time. If the sensors continue
to receive power, the PLC can avoid receiving false readings when the system is re-
started. The UPS also acts as a surge suppressor to protect the control system com-
ponents from current and voltage spikes.
Figure 12.3-4: PLC Power Supply

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12.3.2 Enclosures
Enclosures hold the electrical and electronic components of the control system. The
operators must be protected from the components due to the electricity being used.
The enclosure also protects the components from potentially hazardous environ-
ments. Computer equipment such as the CPU, monitor and keyboard used for an
OIT must also be protected. Figure 12.3-5 below shows a typical enclosure for an
OIT. Figure 12.3-6 below shows a typical enclosure for electrical and electronic
components. The type of environment in which an enclosure can safely operate
determines its classification. The standard classes for enclosures are determined by
the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
Figure 12.3-5: Enclosure for OIT Figure 12.3-6: Enclosure for

Electrical Components

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12.3.2.1 NEMA 12
The NEMA 12 classification is for indoor, industrial, dust tight, and drip tight condi-
tions. The enclosure protects against fibers, lint, dust, and dirt. It can also withstand
light splashing and water dripping as well as condensation of non-corrosive liquids.
There are no holes, conduit knockouts, or openings unless provisions are made for
oil-tight or dust-tight mechanisms with oil-resistant gaskets.
12.3.2.2 NEMA 4
NEMA 4 classification is for watertight and dust-tight conditions. The enclosure

protects against water splash, water seepage, water from hoses, and severe external
condensation. It is sleet resistant but not sleet proof. This is the minimum classifica-
tion for skid-mounted enclosures.
12.3.2.3 NEMA 4X
This classification is for watertight, dust-tight and corrosion-resistant conditions. All

of the provisions of NEMA 4 apply, in addition to corrosion resistance.
12.3.2.4 NEMA 3R
Enclosures classified as NEMA 3R are described as rain resistant and sleet and ice
resistant. These enclosures are located outdoors and must protect against rain,
prevent the entrance of rain at a level higher than the lowest live part. The enclosure
is not dust, snow, or sleet and ice proof. There are provisions for draining and lock-
ing the enclosure.
12.3.2.5 NEMA 1
NEMA 1 describes a general purpose, indoor enclosure. The enclosure generally is

made of sheet metal and serves as protection against dirt, light, and indirect splash-
ing. The enclosure is not considered dust tight or splash proof. The primary inten-
tion of the enclosure is to prevent accidental contact by personnel with the enclosed
equipment.

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12.3.2.6 Environmental Features
Depending on the components in the enclosure, the enclosure may require environ-
mental options beyond the standard features.
Fans
If the components in the enclosure generate too much heat, an exhaust fan is used.
Another opening with a filter allows cooler outside air into the enclosure.
Heaters
If the enclosure experiences temperature extremes, condensation may form on the

electrical components. A heater can be added to prevent the temperature in the
enclosure from dropping low enough to allow condensation.
Air Conditioning
If the components generate enough heat or the enclosure in mounted in an area

where ambient temperatures are expected to exceed 100°F, an air conditioner is
required to prevent failures due to overheating.
Printers
An optional inkjet printer (color or black & white) can be hooked up to the control
system. The printer is used to print various reports and activity log files.

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12.3.3 Operator Interface
Much of the interface between the operator and the control system takes place at the
OIT; however, some control elements must still be installed in the field, near the
equipment they are associated with.
12.3.3.1 Panel Mounted Devices
The simplest method for controlling individual pieces of equipment is to mount their
control switches on the local enclosure. Figure 12.3-7 below shows an example of
panel-mounted control devices. Generally, the switches set the state of the piece of
equipment. A typical switch has settings for ON, OFF and AUTO. Lights can also be
used to communicate status to an operator. For example, a green light may indicate
that a particular piece of equipment is operating while a red light may indicate the
equipment is not operating.
When the switch mounted on the panel is set to ON, the piece of equipment is
energized. For example, a pump begins to run or a valve opens. If the switch is set
to OFF, the equipment returns to its rest state; for example, a pump stops or a valve
closes. When the switch is set to either ON or OFF, that state is maintained until the
setting is changed, regardless of how other parts of the system are configured. When
the switch is set to AUTO, the equipment operates according to a signal from the
control system.
Figure 12.3-7: Control Switches on Local Enclosure

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12.3.3.2 Operator Interface Terminal
In order to present information to an operator in an understandable form, OIT

software is used to read the status of all PLC inputs and outputs. This information is
then displayed on a computer monitor in an appropriate format. For example,
temperature can be displayed as mercury moving in a thermometer, as a digital
number, as an indicator moving on a circular dial, or any other appropriate method.
Another example would be pipes that change color as different liquids pass through
(blue for water, red for acid, brown for cleaning solutions). Figure 12.3-8 below
shows a typical control screen developed with OIT software and used to operate the
system.
Instead of having numerous gauges and displays, all incoming data can be displayed
on several screens with the OIT software. The status of output devices is generally
displayed on the computer monitor. For example, if a motor and pump are operat-
ing, the icons representing them are green on the screen. When they are not operat-
ing, the icons are red. With information from the PLC, an operator can view and
control any portion of the system from one location. The same information can also
be made available to other locations via a network.
Figure 12.3-8: OIT Control Screen

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12.3.4 Skid Mounted Equipment
There are some components of the control system that are installed on the process
equipment skid. Some items are in an enclosure, while others must withstand the
local environment.
Enclosure
The enclosure on skid mounted equipment is painted carbon steel and rated NEMA
4. In wetter environments, a NEMA 4X rated enclosure made from FRP or 304
stainless steel is also available.
Solenoid Valves
A typical solenoid valve receives a signal from the

control system that determines the position of the
valve. The solenoid must be compatible with the
signal generated by the PLC I/O system, either
120VAC or 24VDC. The valve itself regulates the
flow of compressed air that is used as the motive
force to operate a valve actuator. The solenoid
valves are generally mounted together inside a skid-
mounted enclosure. Figure 12.3-9 on the right
shows a group of manifold-mounted solenoid
valves. Individual solenoid valves are also available.
They use more enclosure space than the manifold-
mounted solenoids but can be individually serviced
without dismantling all of the solenoids. Manifold-
mounted solenoids are the most common. Figure 12.3-9: Solenoid Valves
For most valve control applications, a 3-way or 4-way solenoid valve is used. The
number refers to the number of ports on the solenoid valve. Compressed air is
always supplied through one of the ports. Generally, another port is used as an
exhaust port to relieve the air pressure. With a 3-way solenoid valve, only one valve
position receives air. The valve typically uses a spring to keep the valve in its normal
or rest position (a spring-return valve actuator). When the solenoid valve is ener-
gized, it directs the flow of compressed air to the port connected to the valve actua-
tor, and the valve changes position. When the valve must return to its rest position,
the supply of compressed air is stopped and the air in the line is directed to the
exhaust port. A 4-way valve has the capability to direct air to two locations and is
used for valve actuators that require control to change to both open and closed
positions (a double-acting valve actuator).

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Solenoid valves are also rated by the type of environment they can operate in. The
different classes, i.e. Class A, F, C, and H, refer to the various temperature conditions
that the solenoid can operate within. Class H solenoid valves are for high tempera-
ture applications.
Wire
The standard wire used for AC and DC signals is 16 AWG with TEW insulation. Wire
with THHN insulation uses a nylon jacket and polypropylene insulation and is an
alternative wire preferred by some customers. The wire used exclusively for analog
signals between the transmitters and the PLC is 18 AWG 4-20 mA single shielded
twisted pair.
Conduit
Conduit is used to protect the wires as they run from the field devices to the enclo-
sures. PVC conduit is commonly used. It has the advantages of easy installation and
corrosion resistance, but can break if subjected to mechanical stress. A ground wire
must be added to the wire bundle in PVC conduit.
Rigid galvanized steel pipe is also commonly used as conduit. Although it is more
difficult to install and subject to corrosion, it is sturdier. A ground wire is not needed
in conduit made from steel pipe. In an aggressive corrosion environment, steel pipe
with PVC coating is needed.

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Pneumatic Tube & Fittings
Plastic tubing and fittings are commonly used to carry compressed air. Plastic is easy
to run and modify in the field. Stainless steel tubing and fittings, can be used but
carry a substantial cost penalty. Copper with brass fittings is also an option but
offers few advantages over plastic with a cost approaching stainless steel.
Figure 12.3-10 below shows plastic pneumatic tubing and fittings.
Figure 12.3-10: Plastic Pneumatic Tubing with Brass Fittings

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Impulse and Sample Valves, Tubes, and Fittings
Due to the nature of the liquids with which they come in contact, the valves, tubes
and fittings that carry samples to analyzers or pressure indicators and transmitters
are almost always stainless steel. If hydrochloric acid is to be transported, PFA
tubing and fittings with PVDF body valves are used instead of stainless steel. Figure
12.3-11 below shows stainless steel sample tubing and valves.
Figure 12.3-11: Stainless Steel Sample Tubing and Fittings

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12.3.5 Motor Control
Electricity must be supplied to motors that drive pumps and other components. The
electricity can be delivered directly to local motor starters located near the motor, or
it can be distributed from a central motor control center.
The type of enclosure for the motor starters depends on the environment. Motor
starters in a motor control center generally require less protection than local motor
starters. NEMA 1, 12 or 4 enclosures are available.
When the control system determines that a motor should be started, a coil in the
motor starter is energized that causes a contact to be closed and completes a circuit
between the electrical supply and the motor. When the motor is to be stopped, the
coil is de-energized and the contact is open, interrupting the flow of electricity to the
motor.
12.3.5.1 Motor Control Center
Generally, the preferred method of delivering electricity to a motor is through a

motor control center (MCC). The
MCC holds all of the circuitry neces-
sary to start and operate a motor.
Only a local disconnect switch is
required to be near the motor. A
single enclosure can contain the photo courtesy of ABB Power Distribution
components to start several motors.
Figure 12.3-12 below shows a typical
MCC panel. Because of the MCC’s
central location, the wiring installation
is much simpler. Typically a number of
MCC panels are located together in a
designated room or area.
Figure 12.3-12: Motor Control Center

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12.3.5.2 Local Motor Starters
If there is no space for new motors in the MCC, or if there is no MCC, the motor
starter circuitry must be located near the motor. Figure 12.3-13 below shows a
typical local motor starter panel. Power to the local motor starter panel comes from
a distribution panel. Control wiring must come from the PLC enclosure. These
conditions make the installation wiring of a local motor starter panel more complex
than wiring from an MCC.
Figure 12.3-13: Local Motor Starters

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12.3.6 Optional Instrumentation
12.3.6.1 Indicators
These instruments are used to measure primary characteristics of the water as vari-
ous portions of the water treatment system process it.
Flow Indicator
One type of flow indicator uses an orifice plate with a specifically sized orifice to
restrict the flow. By taking measurements of the pressure on both sides of the plate,
the flow rate of the liquid is determined with no moving parts. Figure 12.3-14 below
shows this type of flow indicator. Figure 11.3-15 shows a rotometer, a different type
of flow indicator, often used for smaller flows.
Level Indicator
A level indicator measures the level in a tank.
Figure 12.3-14: Flow Indicator Figure 12.3-15: Flow Indicator

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Pressure Indicator
A pressure indicator measures the water pressure (the force pushing against a given
area). A pressure indicator is shown below in Figure 12.3-16.
Figure 12.3-16: Pressure Gauge
Differential Pressure Indicating Switch
A differential pressure indicating switch measures pressure in two locations and

compares the values. A differential pressure indicating switch is shown below in
Figure 12.3-17.
Figure 12.3-17: Differential Pressure Indicating switch

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Temperature Indicator
A temperature indicator measures temperature. A typical temperature indicator is

shown below in Figure 12.3-18.
Figure 12.3-18: Temperature Indicator

and Sensor

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12.3.6.2 Analyzers
Analyzers measure various characteristics of a liquid. The measurements are not

necessarily done continuously. When a reading is needed, a sample is diverted to a
test chamber containing various sensors. When the test is complete, the contents of
the test chamber are sent to drain.
pH/ORP Monitor
The pH monitor measures the pH of a liquid. One application of a pH monitor is to

confirm that the pH of a wastewater batch is acceptable for discharge. Another
application would be to help maintain the proper pH for the operation of a clarifier.
The ORP monitor measures the oxygen reduction potential of the liquid in millivolts.
One application is to indirectly measure the amount of chlorine in the influent to a
reverse osmosis system. Figure 12.3-19 below shows a pH/ORP monitor.
photo courtesy of Hach Company
Figure 12.3-19: pH/ORP Monitor

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Silica Analyzer
A silica analyzer is used to determine the

reactive silica content of a liquid. A sample

of the liquid is sent to a test chamber and its
color is measured as a reference. Chemicals
that cause a color change according to the
quantity of reactive silica are added to the
sample. The amount of silica in the sample
is determined based on the difference in
color of the sample before and after the
chemicals were added. The analyzer is used
to confirm that the silica level in the effluent
is acceptable before the water is sent to the
boiler. Figure 12.3-20 on the right shows a
silica analyzer.
Sodium Analyzer Figure 12.3-20: Silica Analyzer
A sodium analyzer is used to determine the sodium content of the liquid. An appli-
cation for this analyzer is to measure the quality of the effluent from a condensate
polisher. Figure 12.3-21 below shows a sodium analyzer.
TOC Analyzer
A TOC analyzer measures the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content of a liquid .
Figure 12.3-22 below shows a TOC analyzer.
photo courtesy of Sievers
photo courtesy of Honeywell
Figure 12.3-21: Sodium Analyzer Figure 12.3-22: TOC Analyzer

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Turbidity Monitor
A turbidity monitor is used to measure the quantity of suspended matter in the

water of the liquid, by measuring the transmission and reflection of light as it passes
through the water sample. Figure 12.3-23 below shows a turbidity monitor.

Figure 12.3-23: Turbidity Monitor

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12.3.6.3 Switches
Switches have two states based on a set point. They are in the normal state if the
element they monitor has not exceeded the set point. While in the normal state, the
switch continuously sends a signal to the control system to confirm its status.
Switches shift to their alarm state when the set point has been exceeded, and simul-
taneously stop sending a signal to the control system. Figure 12.3-24 below shows a
typical pressure switch. The following are the various types of switches used in water
treatment systems:
· Flow Switch
· Level Switch
· Pressure Switch
· Differential Pressure Switch
· Temperature Switch
Figure 12.3-24: Pressure Switch

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12.3.6.4 Transmitters
The purpose of a transmitter is to condition the original signal from a sensor element
to a standard signal that can be transmitted to, and interpreted by, the PLC. The
standard signal is 4-20 mA at 24V DC. For an analog transmitter, the signal can be
anywhere between 4 mA and 20 mA, to represent the precise analog value from the
sensor. Figure 12.3-25 below shows a typical transmitter. The following transmitters
are some of those commonly used to send information to the PLC:
· Conductivity Transmitter
· Flow Transmitter
· Level Transmitter
· Pressure Transmitter
· Differential Pressure Transmitter
· Temperature Transmitter
photo courtesy of Rosemount
Figure 12.3-25: Pressure Transmitter and Temperature Transmitter

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12.4 Application and Design
12.4.1 Application
Some type of control system is needed whenever there is a possibility that conditions
might change. If these changing conditions affect the quality of the water, sensors
are needed to detect the changes. The sensor normally delivers information but
cannot act on it. Some type of processor (for example, operator or PLC) must ana-
lyze the data. The processor also decides what action is to be taken to correct the
undesirable condition so water with the proper characteristics can be delivered.
Output devices execute the decisions of the processor. The actions may include
sounding an alarm to alert an operator, automatically adjusting a valve, or turning a
motor driving a pump on or off.
12.4.2 Design Considerations
The design of the control system begins by determining the philosophy of the sys-
tem. Should it be a highly automated system with one or more PLCs, a network,
sensors, and automated output devices? Should it be a manual system with many
gauges that must be read by an operator who makes decisions on what actions to
take? Should it be a hybrid system that is partially manual and partially automatic?
Regardless of the choice, the location and function of sensors (inputs) and output
devices such as valves and pumps must be determined.
Typically, water treatment control systems operate in a semi-automatic mode. All

functions are automatic except the initiation of regeneration and cleaning cycles on
equipment. These procedures are manually initiated by the operator but proceed on
an automatic basis under full PLC control.

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2 Digital Inputs
2 Digital Outputs
1 Digital Output
2 Digital Inputs
1 Analog Input 2 Digital Outputs
1 Digital Input
2 Digital Inputs
2 Digital Inputs 1 Digital Output
1 Digital Output
1 Digital Input
2 Digital Inputs
1 Analog Input 2 Digital Outputs
2 Digital Inputs
1 Digital Output
1 Digital Output 2 Digital Inputs

2 Digital Outputs
Figure 12.4-1: Quantity of I/O

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I/O count
Using the P&ID in Figure 12.4-1 on the left as an example, the number of I/O of
each type can be counted. Items such as automatic valves might have two inputs
(optional limit switches to prove the fully open and fully closed valve positions) and
one output (solenoid valve to provide air to force the valve open and closed). A tank
level control system might have an analog input (from the level transmitter) and an
analog outlet (to a modulating level control valve). Table 12.4-1 below summarizes
the number and type of I/O items.
After performing the same count on the other sub-systems, the total quantity of I/O
can be determined. After adding (typically) 20% to the quantity of each I/O type for
future use and spare points, the number of I/O cards required can be determined.
Input Output
ITEM Digital Analog Digital Analog
Recycle Outlet Valve 2 2
Service Outlet Valve 2 2
Sample Valve 1
pH Analyser 1
Diff. Pres. Switch (resin trap) 1
Diff. Pres. Switch (tank) 1
Acid Inlet Valve 2 1
Rinse Outlet Valve 2 1
Flow Transmitter 1
Service Inlet Valve 2 2
Acid Outlet Valve 2 2
Recycle Inlet Valve 2 1
Recycle Pump Motor 1
TOTALS 16 2 13 0
Table 12.4-1: Summary of I/O

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12.4.3 Expected Results
With a properly designed control system, any changing conditions in the water
treatment system, are registered and a programmed action is executed. The ultimate
result of the action is a treatment system that consistently produces water with
acceptable characteristics.

table of contents

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CONTROL SYSTEMS

12.2 Process and Operation Overview ................................................................... 19

34a_m12_r0 12-1 Control Systems

12.4 Application and Design ..................................................................................... 51

34a_m12_r0 12-2 Control Systems

12.1.1 Why Control

As conditions change, the water treatment system must react appropriately to

34a_m12_r0 12-3 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-1: Automatic Valve Configurations Determine Operating Mode

34a_m12_r0 12-4 Control Systems

A control system consists of a number of pieces that work together:

· Sensors to measure physical and chemical characteristics

· A controller to make decisions based on the data

· Output modules to translate these decisions into signals the controlled

· Control devices that can be modified

· A way to communicate with operators

As the water treatment system operates, conditions change: temperatures drift,

34a_m12_r0 12-5 Control Systems

Information from sensors or to control devices can be either a discrete or an analog

34a_m12_r0 12-6 Control Systems

12.1.4 The Controller

34a_m12_r0 12-7 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-5: Pump and Pressure Switch Hard Wired Together

34a_m12_r0 12-8a Control Systems

Figure 12.1-4: Pressure Gauge

12.1.4.2 Hard Wired Controls

34a_m12_r0 12-8 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-6: Relay Based Control

12.1.4.4 Programmable Logic Controller

The programmable logic controller (PLC) is essentially a series of electronic relays.

34a_m12_r0 12-9 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-8: Connection Between Multiple PLCs and DCS

34a_m12_r0 12-10 Control Systems

The simplest form of data display is a gauge.

12.1.5.2 Electronic Displays Figure 12.1-9: Gauge for Flow Meter

electrical signal, the display does

Figure 12.1-10: Conductivity Display

34a_m12_r0 12-11 Control Systems

A more sophisticated method of presenting data is to use a graphic representation.

photo courtesy of Moore Products Co.

Figure 12.1-11: Graphical User Interface on a Computer Monitor

34a_m12_r0 12-12 Control Systems

12.1.6.1 Process Flow Diagram

Raw Anti- Cartridge Acid RO

Reverse Mixed Bed Mixed Bed

Figure 12.1-12: Sample Process Flow Diagram

34a_m12_r0 12-13 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-13: Sample P&ID

34a_m12_r0 12-14 Control Systems

4. Interlocks and Alarms

34a_m12_r0 12-15 Control Systems

Figure 12.1-14: Sample System Operation Description

34a_m12_r0 12-16 Control Systems

MIXED BED UNIT

> Activates alarm

Whenever the Mixed Bed Feed Pump is required to run. The

Table 12.1-1: Sample Interlocks and Alarms

Idle/Fill TBA TBA O O

Legend: O = Valve Open/Pump On Blank = Valve Closed/Pump Off

Table 12.1-2: Sample Sequence Chart

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Figure 12.1-15: Sample Ladder Diagram

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Figure 12.2-1: Sample Inputs