Mod03-Lec02 Filtracion

FILTRATION
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Contents
4.1 Fundamentals ....................................................................................................................... 4
4.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 4
4.1.2 Impurity Removal Mechanisms .............................................................................. 5
4.1.2.1 Occlusion ....................................................................................................... 5
4.1.2.2 Adsorption .................................................................................................... 7
4.1.2.3 Reduction and the Removal of Chlorine ............................................... 10
4.1.2.4 Oxidation and the Removal of Iron and Manganese .......................... 13
4.1.3 Filtration in Water Treatment Systems ................................................................. 15
4.1.3.1 Media Filtration .......................................................................................... 15
4.1.3.2 Cartridge Filtration .................................................................................... 17
4.1.4 Measuring Suspended Solids ................................................................................ 19
4.2 Gravity Filters ..................................................................................................................... 20

4.2.1 Process and Operations Review ............................................................................ 20
4.2.1.1 Normal Service ........................................................................................... 23
4.2.1.2 Drain Down (optional) ............................................................................. 24
4.2.1.3 Air Scour (optional) ................................................................................... 25
4.2.1.4 Backwash ..................................................................................................... 26
4.2.2 Equipment Design and Options ........................................................................... 27
4.2.2.1 Vessel Configuration ................................................................................. 27
4.2.2.2 Service Inlet ................................................................................................ 28
4.2.2.3 Inlet Distributor ......................................................................................... 29
4.2.2.4 False Bottom ................................................................................................ 30
4.2.2.5 Strainers ....................................................................................................... 30
4.2.2.6 Service Outlet ............................................................................................. 32
4.2.2.8 Valves ........................................................................................................... 34
4.2.2.9 Instrumentation .......................................................................................... 34
4.2.2.10 Materials of Construction ........................................................................ 34
4.2.3 Application and Design .......................................................................................... 34
4.2.3.1 Application .................................................................................................. 34
4.2.3.2 Design Calculations .................................................................................. 35
4.2.3.3 Expected Results ........................................................................................ 41
34a_m4_r0 4-1 Filtration

4.3 Multi-Media Filters ........................................................................................................... 42
4.3.1 Process and Operations Overview ........................................................................ 43
4.3.1.1 Normal Service ........................................................................................... 48
4.3.1.2 Drain Down for Air Scour (optional) .................................................... 49
4.3.1.4 Sub-Surface Wash (optional) ................................................................... 51
4.3.1.5 Backwash ..................................................................................................... 52
4.3.1.6 Rinse ............................................................................................................. 53
4.3.2.2 Service Inlet ................................................................................................ 55
4.3.2.4 Media ............................................................................................................ 57
4.3.2.5 Hub/lateral Underdrain ............................................................................ 58
4.3.2.6 Lining and Paint ......................................................................................... 59
4.3.2.7 Piping and Accessories ............................................................................. 59
4.3.2.8 Valves ........................................................................................................... 59
4.3.2.9 Air Scour ...................................................................................................... 60
4.3.2.10 Sub-Surface Wash ...................................................................................... 60
4.3.3.1 Application .................................................................................................. 61
4.4 Activated Carbon Filters ................................................................................................... 67

4.4.1.1 Normal Service ........................................................................................... 70
4.4.1.2 Backwash ..................................................................................................... 71
4.4.1.3 Rinse ............................................................................................................. 72
4.4.2.3 Media ............................................................................................................ 74
4.4.2.4 Hub/Lateral Underdrain ........................................................................... 76
4.4.2.5 Lining and Paint ......................................................................................... 76
4.4.2.7 Valves ........................................................................................................... 77
4.4.3.1 Application .................................................................................................. 78
4.4.3.3 Expected Results ........................................................................................ 80

4.5 Greensand Filter ................................................................................................................. 83
4.5.1.1 Normal Service ........................................................................................... 89
4.5.1.2 Drain Down for Air Scour (optional) .................................................... 90
4.5.1.4 Sub-Surface Wash (optional) ................................................................... 92
4.5.1.5 Backwash ..................................................................................................... 93
4.5.1.6 Rinse ............................................................................................................. 94
4.5.2.2 Service Inlet ................................................................................................ 96
4.5.2.4 Media Layers ............................................................................................... 97
4.5.2.5 Hub/Lateral Underdrain ........................................................................... 98
4.5.2.6 Lining and Paint ......................................................................................... 99
4.5.2.8 Valves ........................................................................................................... 99
4.5.2.9 Air Scour .................................................................................................... 100
4.5.2.10 Sub-surface Wash ..................................................................................... 100
4.5.2.11 Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 100
4.5.2.12 Addition of Potassium Permanganate ................................................. 101
4.5.3 Application and Design ........................................................................................ 101
4.5.3.1 Application ................................................................................................ 101
4.5.3.2 Design Calculations ................................................................................ 102
4.5.3.3 Expected Results ...................................................................................... 108
4.6 Cartridge Filters ................................................................................................................ 109

4.6.1 Process and Operations Overview ...................................................................... 109
4.6.1.1 Normal Service ..........................................................................................111
4.6.1.2 Replace Filter Elements and Rinse ....................................................... 112
4.6.2 Equipment Design and Options ......................................................................... 114
4.6.2.1 Filter Housing ........................................................................................... 114
4.6.2.2 Housing Redundancy ............................................................................. 115
4.6.2.3 Filter Elements .......................................................................................... 115
4.6.2.4 Filter Opening .......................................................................................... 117
4.6.2.5 Filter Skid .................................................................................................. 117
4.6.2.6 Paint ............................................................................................................ 117
4.6.2.7 Piping ......................................................................................................... 117
4.6.2.8 Valves ......................................................................................................... 118
4.6.2.9 Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 118
4.6.3 Application and Design ........................................................................................ 118
4.6.3.1 Application ................................................................................................ 118
4.6.3.2 Design Calculations ................................................................................ 119
4.6.3.3 Expected Results ...................................................................................... 122

Module 4
FILTRATION
4.1 Fundamentals
4.1.1 Introduction
For thousands of years filtration has been used to reduce the level of dirt, rust,
suspended matter and other impurities from water. This is achieved by passing the
dirty input water (influent) through a filter media. As the water passes through the
media, the impurities are held in the filter media material. Depending on the
impurity and the media, several different physical and chemical mechanisms are
active in removing impurities from the water. Some of the equipment used to
employ these mechanisms has changed dramatically over time. Other systems, such
as depth filters, have undergone very little change.
The fundamental physical and chemical mechanisms that occur during filtration have
become better understood over the years. These advances have allowed water
treatment specialists to optimize the removal of impurities from the water. Filtration
systems remove particulate matter and, because of the large surface area of filter
media, they also can be used to drive chemical reactions that result in the removal of
several contaminants. The following mechanisms for the removal of impurities by a
given media are discussed in the next section.
• Occlusion - removal due to the impurity’s particle size

• Adsorption - removal due to the impurity’s adherence to the media
• Reduction - removal of free residual chlorine through conversion to
chloride ions in the presence of activated carbon media
• Oxidation - removal of iron and manganese using oxidation, precipitation
and filtration in the presence of greensand media
After a review of filtration theory, the operation and design of the following process
units is discussed.
• Gravity filter - removal of suspended solids and turbidity

• Multi-media filter - removal of suspended solids and turbidity
• Activated Carbon filter - removal of free residual chlorine
• Greensand filter - removal of iron and manganese
• Cartridge filter - removal of suspended solids

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4.1.2 Impurity Removal Mechanisms
4.1.2.1 Occlusion
The filtration of suspended solids by occlusion removes particles based on size.

Particles are occluded, or held back, due to their inability to pass through the pores of
a barrier of some sort. The barrier might be a packed bed of sand, a fiber mat, or a
membrane surface. Filtration by occlusion is often called “surface filtration”, since it
occurs on the surface of the filtering media. Figure 4.1-1 below shows the principle
of occlusion.
Impurities
Filter
Media
Figure 4.1-1: Filtration by Occlusion
Surface filtration actually improves the performance of the filter media. A layer of
occluded particles accumulates on the surface, causing surface loading. This dirt
layer (also known as the “cake” or silt layer) actually assists in filtration. Although it
improves the filter’s performance, the cake also increases the resistance to water
flowing through the filter. This results in a reduced flow rate (at a constant pressure
drop through the filter) or an increased pressure drop (at a constant flow rate
through the filter).

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The principal of filtration by occlusion is very straightforward, however the
application is not. Some of the confusion regarding surface filtration stems from the
calculation of “effective pore size”. When a material is made of fibers (i.e., cartridge
filters), the spaces or holes that occur in the element are not regularly spaced due to
the randomness of fiber spacing within the filter. Figure 4.1-2 below shows the
filter material of a cartridge filter. Because of this randomness, it is more reasonable
to discuss effective, rather than actual, pore size. Calculation of the effective pore
size rapidly becomes a complex endeavor due to considerations such as material
depth, material compaction and density (space between fibers), size of fibers and
flow rate. A filter of this nature (fibrous) basically supplies a tortuous path that
retains solids due to their size and inability to negotiate a path through the media.
Complex mathematics can be required to accurately predict the effective pore size of
a fibrous filter.
photo courtesy of Cuno, Inc.
Figure 4.1-2: Spun Fiber Filter Element Detail
One way to avoid these difficult calculations is to field test the filter for percent
rejection of a known particle size. The drawback of this approach is that results can
vary widely depending on particle characteristics and the liquid test conditions (flow,
temperature and purity). This means that the only true test for a filter’s performance
is when it is used in a specific process with specific chemical parameters for a
reasonable period of time.
The performance rating of a filter is based on either the nominal particle size or the
absolute particle size that the filter can remove from the influent. A nominal rated
filter stops most particles larger than the rated size. An absolute rated filter removes
all particles larger than the rated size. One of the difficulties with this rating system
is that the definition of “most” or even “all” varies from manufacturer to manufacturer
and from user to user.

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Some particles are charged; particles with the same charge repel each other. If
particles join together, they become larger and easier to filter out. Various chemicals,
such as coagulants and flocculants, can be added to the influent upstream of the
filter to facilitate the removal of impurities. Coagulants and flocculants make it
possible to filter small charged particles out of influent water. Coagulants (alum, for
example) neutralize the charge on the particles in the influent. Once the charges are
neutralized, the particles no longer repel each other and can be brought together.
Flocculants bring these “coagulated” particles together to form a larger agglomerated
particle that can be removed from the influent by occlusion. Often, these processes
occur in the clarifier (upstream of the filter, see Section 3.1), and the filter only
removes impurities that escape from the clarifier.
4.1.2.2 Adsorption
“Adsorption” is one of the most frequently

used but least understood terms in Filter Media
discussions of filtration. Adsorption refers
to the removal of an impurity from a liquid
to the surface of a solid. A water-born,
suspended particle adheres to a solid Impurities
surface when adsorption occurs.
Adsorption differs from occlusion in that
occluded particles are removed from a
process flow because they are too large to
pass through a physical restriction in the
media. In most cases, adsorbed particles
are affected by weak chemical interactions
that allow them to adhere to the surface of
a solid. Adsorbed particles become
attached to the surface of a given media,
becoming a weakly held part of the solid.
Occluded particles are held in place by the
flow of the water as they are trapped
against a restrictive surface. Figure 4.1-3 Figure 4.1-3: Filtration by Adsorption
on the right illustrates adsorption filtration.
The term “depth filtration” generally refers to filtration that occurs by the adsorption
of suspended particles onto the surface of the media, throughout the media layer.
The entire thickness of the media layer is used, instead of just the media bed surface
(surface filtration or occlusion). During surface filtration, only the influent surface of
the media bed is actually removing particles.

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How does a suspended solid adhere (adsorb on) to a filtration media surface while
not actually bonding with it? Two major causes of adsorption are discussed below.
Electrostatic forces
Relatively weak attractions exist between polar bonds on the surface of the media
and on the surface of the species being adsorbed. Capillary action in a glass tube
(i.e. water running up a glass surface) is a good example of the interaction between
polar water molecules and polar bonds on the silicon dioxide (glass) surface. The
glass has a negative surface charge. The positive (hydrogen) side of the water
molecules is oriented toward the glass surface. The electrostatic force “pulls” water
molecules up the side of the glass. Figure 4.1-4 below shows capillary action. No
actual charges exist; only apparent charges exist, caused by the unequal sharing of
electrons in water molecules and in molecules of the glass. The apparent charges,
which exist due to polar bonds, can cause a weak electrostatic attraction between the
surface of the filter media and the surfaces of suspended particles.
Figure 4.1-4: Capillary Action

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Ionic Forces
Ionic interaction between surfaces can also be responsible for adsorption. Ionic
bonds actually consist of the attraction that exists between oppositely charged ions.
These charged species are formed as a result of electron transfer. Once an atom or
molecule loses one or more electrons, it becomes positively charged due to an
imbalance of protons and electrons. Likewise, the gain of one or more electrons
causes the atom or molecule to become negatively charged. When an atom or
molecule becomes charged, the attraction to an oppositely charged site can be very
strong. The strength of the attraction depends on the number of oppositely charged
sites that are interacting.
When sodium chloride dissolves in water to produce sodium and chloride ions, the
sodium loses an electron from its outer orbit, creating a full outside electron shell.
Having lost one negative charge, the sodium ion becomes positively charged by one
unit. The chloride ion fills its outer electron shell with a free electron. Having
retained the electron, the chloride ion becomes negatively charged by one unit.
These ions will now be attracted to other ions of opposite charge. Figure 4.1-5
below shows sodium and chloride ions with full outer electron shells. Depending on
the conditions, they may bond with an oppositely charged ion. If these negatively
charged sites (on the chlorine ion for example) become associated with positive sites,
a strong interaction (adsorptive force) occurs.
Figure 4.1-5: Ionic Bonding with Sodium and Chloride Ions

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The use of adsorptive forces for filtration can be quite complicated for the following
reasons:
Flow velocity: Particles must slow down enough to be held on the surface of a
substance. High flows can prevent adsorption due to a lack of surface interaction
time. Sufficiently high flow can shear adsorbed particles off the filtering media.
Simultaneous interaction: Both polar and ionic interactions occur simultaneously

in many instances of adsorption. Whether or not these interactions (especially the
stronger ionic interactions) occur depends on the conditions of the system, such as
conductivity and pH.
When the pH changes, the corresponding change in the number of hydrogen or

hydroxide ions causes a corresponding change in the number of ionic sites on both
surfaces that are available for adsorptive interactions.
The conductivity of a solution depends on the quantities of both positive and

negative dissolved ions. As discussed in Section 2.6.3, a higher conductivity of a
given solution reflects a greater number of dissolved ions. Cations and anions can
effectively reduce adsorption when they compete for surface exchange sites that
are involved in adsorption. They can also neutralize or change the surface charge
of a particle.
The following two sections leave particle dynamics behind and focus on some of the
chemical reactions that can occur in filtration media.
4.1.2.3 Reduction and the Removal of Chlorine
Chlorine is added to water for various reasons such as disinfection or the control of
taste and color. This chlorine must be removed in most industrial water treatment
systems, as it causes oxidative damage to downstream equipment and processes.
In pure water, elemental chlorine reacts with water and hydrolyzes to hypochlorous
acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

Chlorine Water Hypochlorous Hydrochloric
Acid Acid
This reaction is essentially instantaneous and practically irreversible when the pH is

above 3 and the concentration of chlorine is less than 1,000 ppm. A second reaction
also occurs, the dissociation of hypochlorous acid to hypchlorite ions and hydrogen.

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HOCl H+ + OCl-
Hypochlorous Hydrogen Hypochlorite
Acid Ion Ion
This reaction is reversible and equilibrium depends on pH and temperature. The

hydrochloric acid produced in the first reaction dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+)
and chloride ions (Cl-)
Chlorine is often added to water as a treatment chemical (e.g., for disinfection), and
some residual chlorine may remain in the water after the treatment is complete.
Residual Chlorine is the total amount of free and combined chlorine that remains in
water after a designated contact time. Free available residual chlorine is the chlorine
that exists in the water as hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions. De-chlorination
partially or completely reduces the residual chlorine by chemical or physical means.
Chlorine reacts with ammonia to form chloramine, which is also used for
disinfection. Chloramines are referred to as the combined residual chlorine. When
sufficient chlorine is added to satisfy the chlorine demand and produce free residual
chlorine, the ammonia nitrogen content is destroyed and the remaining residual
chlorine is almost entirely free available chlorine that must be removed.
Free residual chlorine is converted to chloride ions in the presence of activated

carbon by the following reaction:
C + 2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + CO2

Activated Chlorine Water Hydrochloric Carbon
Carbon (free residual) Acid Dioxide
Activated carbon has a nearly unlimited capacity for chlorine removal due to its large
surface area and the above reaction.
Activated carbon is a special form of carbon that is produced by heating organic

material (such as coconut shells, walnut shells or coal) in the absence of oxygen. The
heat removes trapped moisture and gases and pyrolizes most of the organic material;
it also leaves the remaining material with a slightly positive surface charge.

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Figure 4.1-6 below shows a typical activated carbon filter. An activated carbon bed
can remove chlorine, small suspended particles, colloidal particles and dissolved
organics due to its ability to adsorb or electrostatically hold particles. These particles
would pass between the grains of carbon if not for the weak electrostatic attraction
between the positive surface charge of the carbon and the negative surface charge of
the particles. Particles can also be trapped in the porous structure of the activated
carbon where they are then weakly held. Note that an activated carbon filter is not
very efficient at removing most organic compounds from water and is rarely used
in this manner.
Sodium bisulfite injection is also frequently employed for chlorine removal (see
Section 10.3, Chemical Feeders). These systems tend to have a much lower capital
cost than the pressure vessel system that uses activated carbon. However, activated
carbon filtration does have the advantage of being a passive technology during
service with no normal risk of “non-treatment”.
Activated
Carbon
Figure 4.1-6: Typical Activated Carbon Filter

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4.1.2.4 Oxidation and the Removal of Iron and Manganese
Iron and manganese are commonly present in water in their soluble ferrous (Fe2+)
and manganous (Mn2+) forms. They must be removed from the water to prevent
fouling of downstream equipment and processes. Reverse osmosis (RO) can
remove both ions if oxygen is kept out of the system. This can be a risky proposition.
Removal before RO is a safer design. Before they can be removed, the iron and
manganese are oxidized to create insoluble products that precipitate out of the water
with the following reactions:
For iron:
4Fe2+ + 8HCO3- + O2 + 2H2O = 4Fe(OH)3 + 8CO2
Ferrous Bicarbonate Oxygen Water Ferric Carbon
Iron Hydroxide Dioxide
For manganese:
2Mn2+ + 4HCO3- + O2 = 2MnO2 + 4CO2 + 2H2O
Manganous Bicarbonate Oxygen Manganic Carbon Water
Manganese Dioxide Dioxide
As water passes through a bed of greensand (natural zeolite) media, the ferrous and
manganous ions react with the permanganate coating on the greensand and oxidize.
With oxidation, the iron and manganese convert to their insoluble ferric (Fe3+) and
manganic (Mn3+) forms. The oxidation of iron and manganese in the presence of
greensand and their conversion to their insoluble ferric and manganic forms is
shown with the following reaction:
2MnO4- + 3Fe2+ + Mn2+ + 2H2O + 5OH- =

Permanganate Ferrous Manganous Water Hydroxide
Iron Manganese
3MnO2 + 3Fe(OH)3
Manganic Ferric
Dioxide Hydroxide
Eventually the permanganate layer on the greensand is exhausted and must be

regenerated with potassium permanganate. Generally, potassium permanganate is
added to the influent to continuously regenerate the greensand.

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The pH of the influent also affects this process. Although the oxidation potential
decreases as the pH increases, the rate of reaction increases significantly with an
increase in pH. The solubility of the oxidized iron also decreases as the pH increases.
Oxidized iron and manganese precipitate out of the solution. The precipitate is
removed through filtration by occlusion with the greensand itself. Figure 4.1-7
below shows a typical greensand filter.
Greensand
Filter
Figure 4.1-7: Typical Greensand Filter

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4.1.3 Filtration in Water Treatment Systems
4.1.3.1 Media Filtration
Vessels with sand or other loose filtration media are widely used in industrial
filtration applications. These filters are cleaned using a backwash flow. During a
backwash cycle, the filter bed is lifted and fluidized to remove accumulated particles.
After the backwash cycle, the filter bed is allowed to settle. While it settles, the filter
bed media will classify with the heaviest media particles settling first, and the lightest
particles settling on the top.
A single media (sand) filter bed will classify differently than a multi-media filter.
Since all sand particles in a single media bed have the same density, the largest
particles are heaviest, and the smallest are lightest. Larger/heavier particles settle at
the bottom, while the smallest/lightest particles settle on top. This does not provide
efficient filtration capacity, since filtration occurs mostly at the upper surface of the
filter bed where the spaces between media particles are smallest. If a particle makes
it past the top layer of media, nothing in the rest of the bed is likely to stop it because
the spaces get larger farther into the bed. This phenomenon significantly reduces the
amount of time between backwash cycles and is an inefficient use of the filter bed.
Figure 4.1-8 below shows the particle distribution in a single media filter.
Single
Media
Type
Figure 4.1-8: Particle Size Distribution in a Single Media Filter

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Multi-media beds use two or more filtration media. Figure 4.1-9 below shows the
media distribution in a typical multi-media filter. The media have selected densities
to ensure that the bed settles in a more efficient manner.
Antracite
Sand
Garnet
Figure 4.1-9: Particle Distribution in a Multi-Media Filter
Anthracite, the largest particle, is the lightest (least dense) and settles on top. It
provides large pore spaces that trap larger particles while allowing smaller particles
to travel through to the layers below.
Sand is intermediate in size and density. It settles as the middle layer. The sand layer
filters out particles of intermediate size while allowing smaller particles to flow
through to the garnet layer.
Garnet, the smallest particle, is also the heaviest (most dense). It settles out as the
bottom layer in a filter vessel. It filters out the smallest particles of the three media.
A multi-media filter needs fewer backwashes for a given volume of water filtered.
The filtering capacity is significantly increased for the same volume of media as
compared to a single media bed. The whole bed filters, not just the surface.

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4.1.3.2 Cartridge Filtration
Figure 4.1-10 below shows a typical cartridge filter system with the top of one
housing removed to show the filter elements. Influent enters the housing under
pressure and must pass through the filter elements in order to exit the housing.
There must be a sufficient number of filter elements in the housing to be able to
handle the flow rate. The material and method of construction of the filter elements
are selected based on the size and type of particles that must be removed from the
influent.
Figure 4.1-10: Typical Cartridge Filter System

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There are two basic types of cartridge filters:
surface and depth. Surface filters use a mesh
type material (e.g. paper) that has a specified
pore size. Figure 4.1-11 on the right shows a
surface filter element. The impurities are

collected on the surface of the filter material.
The physical measurement of pore size is
only roughly related to the size of the particle
removed. A filter element rated at 10
microns may remove particles of less than
one micron after coarser material has
collected on the element surface, improving
the capture efficiency. Conversely, the same
10-micron rated filter may pass a 20-micron
particle that is rectangular in shape with a
width of less than 10 microns.
The depth filter uses material (for example,

Figure 4.1-11: Surface Filtration
yarn or polypropylene) wound or blown on a
Cartridge Filter Element
tubular support core. Figure 4.1-12 below
shows a wound filter element. Because the solids penetrate into the depth of the
wound material, the depth filter has a much higher capacity to retain solids than the
surface filter. This extra retention capacity
generally creates a pressure drop that is
several times higher than the surface filter
element with the same flow rating.
A filter element may have an absolute or

nominal rating. An absolute rating
theoretically eliminates all particles with a
micron size greater than that of the filter’s
rating. A true absolute filter element
eliminates or rejects particles due to
occlusion. Nominally rated filter elements
typically eliminate particles due to a tortuous
path, but do not have a specific pore size for
the elimination of particles larger than the
filter’s rating. Filters made from blown
material are generally nominally rated due to
their random pore sizes.
Figure 4.1-12: Wound-Type Depth
Cartridge Filter Element

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The most accurate way to rate a filter is by challenging the filter with particles of
known sizes. If there are manufacturing defects, absolute filters can allow particles
to pass that are larger than the filter element’s rating.
4.1.4 Measuring Suspended Solids
The characterization of suspended solids in water is one of the areas where we still
lack a definitive approach. Measuring the total amount of suspended material (Total
Suspended Solids, TSS) provides an indication of how much is there but nothing
about important characteristics such as size, shape or deformability. The Silt Density
Index is a particular measurement of the plugging ability of a water sample but does
not correlate with TSS, must be done in the field and doesn’t always predict the
effects on a system.
Turbidity is one measurement of the amount of suspended solids in a liquid.

Turbidity increases as the transparency of a liquid is reduced due to the scattering of
light by suspended particles. The term “turbidity” and “suspended matter” are closely
allied but are not identical. Suspended matter is the quantity of material in water
that can be removed by filtration. Turbidity is a measurement of the optical
obstruction of light passed through a water sample.
The Silt Density Index (SDI) measures the susceptibility of a filter media to clogging
by impurities in the influent under controlled conditions. The test is performed with
a continuously flowing influent sample at a constant pressure of 30 psi passing
through a 0.45 mm membrane filter. A 500-mL sample of the filtrate is collected and
the time required to collect the sample is recorded as t0. As impurities continue to
collect on the filter, the flow rate decreases. After T minutes (typically T=15 for a
15-minute SDI), another 500-mL sample is collected. The time required to collect
this sample is recorded as tf. From this data, the SDI is calculated as follows:
SDI = (1 - t0/ tf) x 100 / T
If the SDI is above 3 or 4, the water has sufficient impurities to justify filtration prior
to treatment with reverse osmosis. The filtration process should reduce the SDI and
prevent premature clogging of the reverse osmosis membranes.

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Backwash Self-contained
Storage Backwash Water
Supply
Media
Anthracite
Compartment
Sand
Plenum
Service Discharge Flume

Water In
Service
Inlet Water Out
Distributor
Transfer
Pipe
Backwash Water
Out to Drain
Strainer
Splash Plate
Figure 4.2-1: Gravity Filter System
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4.2 Gravity Filters
Gravity filters are so named because water flows through the filter bed by gravity
instead of being pushed through by a pump or a high static head of pressure.
These filters are commonly found in municipal drinking water applications, but in
industrial settings are usually only associated with an upstream clarifier.
4.2.1 Process and Operations Review
Gravity filters have three compartments (see Figure 4.2-1 on the opposite page).
Water flows into the middle compartment and is distributed over a bed of filter
media by an inlet distributor. Gravity pulls the service water through the filter media
bed and into the lower compartment. The upper compartment stores water for the
backwash cycle.
The filter media bed consists of stratified anthracite and sand, with the largest media
particles on top and the smallest on the bottom. See Section 4.1.3.1 for a discussion
of media stratification. After the water flows through the media bed, it passes
through strainers that hold back the filter media particles, as shown below in
Figure 4.2-2, but allow the water to be collected in a plenum. From the plenum, the
water flows through the transfer pipe into the backwash storage chamber (above the
bed). As the water reaches the top of the backwash storage container, it overflows
through the service outlet.
Strainer
Figure 4.2-2: Gravity Filter Strainers

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Figure 4.2-4: Gravity Filter System P&ID

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Periodically, the media bed must be backwashed to remove the particles it collects.
Backwash is initiated when the pressure drop through the media bed exceeds a set
point; it can also be initiated on a timed basis. The water supply for the backwash
cycle is stored in the backwash storage chamber above the filter bed. The backwash
flow rate is much higher than the normal service flow rate. The media bed
compartment has sufficient freeboard to allow expansion of the media bed during
the backwash cycle.
Another method of cleaning the media bed is with an optional air scour system
(see Figure 4.2-3 below). The bed is drained down and air is blown up through the
media bed, causing the filter particles to scrub impurities off of each other. If the air
scour option is selected, a valve is added to the transfer pipe to hold back the water
in the backwash chamber during the draindown and air scour steps. A Process &
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) of a typical gravity filter system is shown on the
opposite page in Figure 4.2-4.
Figure 4.2-3: Air Scour Option for Gravity Filter

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Gravity filters are occasionally provided with external backwash capability. This
feature provides a constant backwash flow (rather than diminishing flow, as with a
self-contained system) and unlimited volume (not restricted by the capacity of the
backwash storage chamber). However, the air scour option provides improved
cleaning capabilities with less capital cost and less waste generation.
The following modes of operation for a gravity filter are described below:
• Normal service
• Draindown (part of air scour option)
• Air scour (optional)
• Backwash
A summary of gravity filter operating modes is shown below in Table 4.2-1.
MODE
VALVES Normal Draindown (Aoipr tSioco ur

Service nal) Backwash
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Outlet Closed Open Open Open
Drain (for Air Scour) Closed Open Closed Closed
Air Inlet (for Air Scour) Closed Closed Open Closed
Transfer (for Air Scour) Open Closed Closed Open
Table 4.2-1: Gravity Filter Valve Configurations

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4.2.1.1 Normal Service
The valve configuration and water flow for normal service is shown below in
Figure 4.2-5. The valve configuration is described in the following list.
• Service inlet valve open (to allow incoming water into the filter)
• Backwash outlet valve closed (to prevent the incoming water from going to
drain)
• Optional drain valve closed (to prevent filtered water going to drain)
• Optional air scour air supply valve closed (to prevent the introduction of air into
the service water)
• Transfer block valve open (to allow flow into the backwash storage
compartment)
Normal service continues until the pressure drop through the bed exceeds the set
point, or for a pre-determined time interval.
Service Water Inlet
Service
Water
Out
Figure 4.2-5: Normal Service Configuration for a Gravity Filter System

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4.2.1.2 Draindown (optional)
The valve configuration for the draindown of the gravity filter system is shown
below in Figure 4.2-6. The draindown step, described below, only occurs prior to an
air scour cycle.
• Service inlet valve closed (to prevent service water entering the filter)
• Backwash outlet valve open (to allow air into the tank as water exits the tank)
• Drain valve open (to lower water level in the media compartment and plenum)
• Air scour air supply valve closed (to prevent the introduction of air until the water
reaches the proper level)
• Transfer block valve closed (to prevent water from backwash storage from
entering the plenum and media compartment)
The drain valve remains open until the water level drops to the top of the media bed.
To reach the proper water level, the drain valve is opened for a fixed time interval, as
there is no way to monitor the level.
Figure 4.2-6: Draindown Configuration for a Gravity Filter System

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4.2.1.3 Air Scour (optional)
The valve configuration for the air scour cycle of the gravity filter system is shown
below in Figure 4.2-7. The valve configuration is described in the following list.
• Service inlet valve closed (to prevent new incoming water into the vessel)
• Backwash outlet valve open (to allow air to escape from the filter media
compartment)
• Drain valve closed (to prevent water from going to drain)
• Air scour inlet valve open (to deliver a supply of air into the plenum and up
through the strainers for the air scour cleaning of the media bed)
• Transfer valve closed (to prevent the water in the backwash storage compartment
from entering the plenum)
After a set amount of time, the air scour cycle is complete, and the air scour inlet
valve is closed.
Figure 4.2-7: Air Scour Cycle Configuration for a Gravity Filter System

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4.2.1.4 Backwash
The valve configuration used during the backwash cycle of the gravity filter system
is shown below in Figure 4.2-8. The valve configuration is described in the following
list:
• Service inlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from entering the filter at
the inlet distributor)
• Backwash outlet valve open (to allow dirty backwash water to exit the filter)
• Drain valve closed (to prevent backwash water going to drain before it enters the
media compartment)
• Optional air scour air supply valve closed (to prevent the introduction of air into
the service water)
• Optional transfer valve open (to allow water from the backwash storage
compartment to flow back through the plenum and media compartment)
When the backwash storage compartment is empty, the backwash cycle is

complete, and the filter is ready to resume normal service.
Figure 4.2-8: Backwash Cycle Configuration for a Gravity Filter System

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4.2.2 Equipment Design and Options
Gravity filters are atmospheric vessels that use gravity to pull water through the
filter media. A gravity filter typically holds its own supply of backwash water and
uses gravity to direct the water flow through the media and flush away impurities.
Figure 4.2-9 below shows a gravity filter system with its components labeled.
Service Inlet
Water In Distributor
Backwash
Storage Service
Compartment Water
Out
Media Transfer
Compartment Pipe
Strainers
False Backwash
Bottom Outlet
Figure 4.2-9: Main Components of a Gravity Filter System
4.2.2.1 Vessel Configuration
The gravity filter is an open-top vessel that is divided into three compartments, as
shown above in Figure 4.2-9. The bottom half of the middle compartment holds the
filter bed (typically 3 inches of sand subfill with 24 inches of filter sand and six inches
of anthracite on top). The top half of the middle compartment is 100% freeboard to
allow expansion of the filter bed during the backwash cycle.
The bottom compartment, or plenum, collects the filtered water. A transfer pipe
delivers the water from the plenum to the backwash storage (top) compartment.
Manways are required in both the plenum (underneath the false bottom) and the
center (filter) compartment for construction and maintenance access.

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The top compartment holds enough filtered water for the backwash cycle. When
the water level is sufficiently high, it overflows into the discharge flume that is
connected to the service outlet of the gravity filter. When a backwash cycle is
needed, the valves are reconfigured and water from the top compartment flows
back through the plenum and into the middle compartment.
4.2.2.2 Service Inlet
Gravity filters are fed by an overflow from above (normally from a clarifier). An
upstream flow-splitting flume equally distributes the water supply to multiple gravity
filters. The flow splitter uses weirs to balance the flow to the filters. Each weir
overflows to the feed pipe of one gravity filter. When the inlet valve is open, water
flows to the filter. When the inlet valve is closed, water backs up to the top of the
weir and stops flowing. Figure 4.2-10 below shows a flow splitter distributing water
to several gravity filters.
Incoming Water Feed Water Level Depends

from Clarifier on Quantity of Open Outlet
Pipes and Weir Shapes
Feed
Flow Box
Splitter Weir
To Gravity
To Gravity Filter #3
To Gravity Filter #2
Filter #1
Figure 4.2-10: Flow Splitter

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4.2.2.3 Inlet Distributor
The two functions of an inlet distribution header are to provide a uniform flow
distribution of service flow to the media bed and to collect the backwash water. An
inlet distributor is shown below in Figure 4.2-11.
The inlet distributor consists of a main header pipe with laterals distributing the flow
from the header. The distributor design prevents the inlet flow from disturbing the
media bed surface.
Figure 4.2-11: Gravity Filter Inlet Distributor

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4.2.2.4 False Bottom
A false bottom holds the filter media bed and separates the middle compartment
from the plenum. The false bottom is a flat plate, with supports that help maintain
its shape, and with holes into which strainers are inserted. To support the media,
the false bottom is reinforced with structural steel. Figure 4.2-12 below shows a
typical false bottom.
Media Compartment
Strainer
False
Bottom
Plenum
Figure 4.2-12: Gravity Filter False Bottom with Plastic Strainer
4.2.2.5 Strainers
The false bottom has a series of plastic strainers, shown above in Figure 4.2-12. The
strainers allow the filtered water to flow through the false bottom into the plenum
but prevent filter media material from leaving the filter chamber.

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An extra long tail pipe with a hole is added to the bottom of the strainer for the air
scour option (see Section 4.2.2.7). The small hole in the strainer tail pipe creates a
pressure drop (typically one inch, water column) for the air flow. If the filter is less
than perfectly level, the air pressure will push the water away from the small holes
and create air flow up through the strainers. The long tail pipes with the small holes
allow the filter to be less than perfectly level and still have proper air distribution
across the filter media bed. Figure 4.2-13 below shows the advantage of the long
tail pipes if the filter false bottom is not level. Without the long tail pipes, some
strainers are covered by water and allow no air flow. Strainers with tail pipes allow
air to flow through all of the strainers for the air scour option.
Vessel and
False Bottom
Not Sufficiently
Level
Water Level
in Plenum
Vessel and
False Bottom
Sufficiently Level
for Strainers Pipes
Air Flows Air Pressure

Through Moves Water
Exposed to Flow
Strainers Through
Water Level
in Plenum
Figure 4.2-13: Plastic Strainer used for Air Scour Option in Gravity Filter

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4.2.2.6 Service Outlet
Filtered water exits the gravity filter unit through the service outlet. As filtered water
rises in the top compartment, it eventually overflows into the discharge flume. The
service outlet allows the filtered water to flow out of the discharge flume. Figure
4.2-14 below shows the service outlet.
Since the filtered water is now at atmospheric pressure, the service outlet typically
directs the water to a sump, where a pump forwards the water to its next destination.
Figure 4.2-14: Service Outlet

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An optional air scour system is available to clean the filter media if the collected
impurities are difficult to break up and remove with a backwash. The air scour
system uses a flow of air to break up the filter media bed. This agitation causes the
media particles to rub against each other and loosen contaminants collected while in
service. An extra valve is required on the transfer pipe to hold back the backwash
water from the top compartment during the air scour process.
A blower of the type shown below in Figure 4.2-15 directs air into the plenum, up
through the strainers, through the bed and out the backwash outlet connection (the
backwash outlet must be directed to a suitable atmospheric vent). Prior to the air
scour step, the gravity filter must be drained until the water level is approximately
four inches from the top of the media. After the air scour, the filter is backwashed to
remove the loose contaminants and to reclassify the media bed.
Figure 4.2-15: Air Scour Blower

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4.2.2.8 Valves
Gravity filters normally have butterfly valves, although diaphragm valves can be used
on smaller units. See Appendix G for a discussion of valve types and options. All
valves except the inlet isolation valve are typically provided with automatic actuators
for control via the system PLC. The drain valve has an automatic actuator only if air
scour is used. The air scour inlet (if selected) and the backwash outlet valves should
also be provided with adjustable travel stops so that the flow rates can be set.
4.2.2.9 Instrumentation
Instrumentation for a gravity filter is normally very minimal. Pumping clarifier

effluent to a pressure filter would destroy the fragile floc that carry over. Clarifier
effluent can be fed directly to a gravity filter without breaking up the floc. This
ensures better particulate removal efficiency in the filter.
4.2.2.10 Materials of Construction
Gravity filters are typically made of carbon steel and are often assembled on site. If
the water is aggressive and dissolved iron is a concern, the carbon steel can be lined
with an epoxy or coal tar spray on lining. The coal tar lining provides a thicker
coating but is not as robust as the epoxy.
4.2.3 Application and Design
4.2.3.1 Application
Gravity filters are used to remove suspended solids from the service water and are
typically downstream of pre-treatment clarifiers. Gravity filters are commonly used
when the turbidity and color of the influent are too high for pressure filters (turbidity
greater than 50 NTU and color greater than 10 APHA). Any floc carryover from
the clarifier is also removed.
With a lack of driving pressure, gravity filters have the advantage of being unable to
drive suspended matter through the filter bed and into the effluent. The
disadvantages are the large space required to house the unit, and that service water
must be pumped to its use point, as all pressure is lost across the gravity filter.

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4.2.3.2 Design Calculations
In the media (middle) compartment, a typical gravity filter has the following top to
bottom layer configuration:
• 6 inches of anthracite (0.6-0.8 mm)

• 24 inches of sand (0.45 mm)
• 3 inches of 8-10 mesh subfill sand to cover the strainers
To accommodate expansion of the media bed during the backwash cycle, 100%
freeboard is also required. Figure 4.2-16 below shows the configuration of the
media in a gravity filter.
Backwash
Storage
Compartment
100%
Freeboard
Media
Compartment
Plenum
Anthracite
Sand
Sub-Fill
Sand
Figure 4.2-16: Gravity Filter Media Compartment Configuration
The allowable flow rate through a gravity filter is 2-3 gpm/ft2. Normal service flow
is 2 gpm/ft2. Flow rates approaching 3 gpm/ft2 should only be used for short peri-
ods of time, when one filter is being cleaned and the other filters must temporarily
process a higher flow rate. The pressure drop through the sand layer is measured
using a standpipe with a level switch. When the pressure drop is approximately 6
inches of water, the filter is ready to be cleaned.

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Figure 4.2-17 below shows the various dimensions of a gravity filter vessel that can
be calculated. Key dimensions of the vessel are calculated as follows:
Vessel Diameter
Backwash
Storage
Compartment
Media
Compartment
Plenum Anthracite
Volume
Sand
Sub-Fill Sand Volume
Volume
Figure 4.2-17: Gravity Filter Vessel Dimensions
Diameter
The diameter of the filter unit is calculated using the normal service requirement and
allowable flow rate.
Vessel Cross Sectional Area = Service water requirement / Allowable flow rate
Vessel Diameter = (Vessel Cross Sectional Area x 4 / π)½
Media Quantities
Based on the layer thickness of each media, its quantity can be calculated:
Media Quantity = Layer Thickness (ft) x (Vessel diameter (ft))2 x π / 4

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Plenum Straight Shell Height
The plenum is a fixed height, usually 24 inches to allow access for lining application.
Media Compartment Straight Shell Height
The media (middle) compartment of a gravity filter requires 100% freeboard to allow
proper bed expansion during the backwash cycle.
HeightMedia Compartment = (DepthAnthracite + DepthSand) x (1 + % Freeboard)
Backwash Storage Compartment Straight Shell Height
An acceptable backwash expands the media bed at least 30% at 70oF. To

accomplish this, a backwash cycle requires a three-minute supply of water at
15 gpm/ft2. To calculate the necessary straight shell height of the backwash storage
compartment, the volume of the backwash storage compartment must first be
determined.
VolumeBackwash = (Backwash flow rate) x (Backwash cycle time) x (Vessel dia)2 x π / 4
In reality, the backwash flow rate starts high and decays as the level drops. The
backwash takes longer than 3 minutes because of this.
Using the vessel diameter and the backwash storage compartment volume, the
straight shell height can be determined.
HeightBW Compartment = Volumebackwash x _______4_______

7.48 gal/ft3 π x (vessel dia)2

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Backwash Flow
The backwash flow rate is equal to the flow rate required to increase the bed depth
by 30%. The flow rate depends on temperature, since the force pushing the
particles up is a function of the viscosity of the water, which decreases with
increasing temperature. Table 4.2-2 below shows the backwash flow rate based on
temperature.
Backwash Flow = Backwash Flow Rate x (Diameter)2 x π / 4
Temper at ur e (°F) Flow (gpm/ ft 2)

32 t o <40 9.5
40 t o <50 11.8
50 t o <60 14.2
60 t o <70 16.0
70 t o <80 18.5
80 t o <90 20.7
90 t o <100 22.9
100 t o <110 25.0
110 t o <120 27.2
Table 4.2-2: Gravity Filter Backwash Flow Rates
Air Scour Flow
For an effective air scour, the air flow rate must be at least 3 SCFM/ft2 at 6 psig.
Air Scour Flow = Air Scour Flow Rate x (Dia)2 x π / 4
Example Calculations:
For a gravity filter that is required to process 200 gpm, the design calculations
provide the following details:
Vessel Cross Sectional Area = Service water requirement / Allowable flow rate
= 200 gpm / 2 gpm/ft2
= 100 ft2
The vessel requires approximately 100 square feet of area.

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Vessel Diameter = (Vessel Cross Sectional Area x 4 / π)½
= (100 ft2 x 4 / π)½
= 11.3 ft (round to 11 feet as the allowable flow rate of 2 gpm/ft2
is not a maximum)
To support the service water requirement, a vessel diameter of 11 feet is needed.
Media Quantity = Layer Thickness (ft) x (Vessel dia (ft))2 x π / 4

QuantityAnthracite = 6 in [anthracite layer thickness] x 1 ft/12 in x (11 ft [vessel dia])2 x π / 4
= 48 ft3 anthracite
QuantitySand = 24 in [sand layer thickness] x 1 ft/12 in x (11 ft [vessel dia])2 x π / 4
= 190 ft3 sand
Quantitysubfill = 3 in [subfill layer thickness] x 1 ft/12 in x (11 ft [vessel dia])2 x π / 4
= 24 ft3 subfill sand
The above volumes of media are needed to fill the media compartment.
With 6 inches of anthracite and 24 inches of sand (the subfill is ignored), the
media compartment height can be calculated:
Height Media Compartment = (DepthAnthracite + DepthSand) x (1 + 100% Freeboard)

= (6 in + 24 in) x (1+1)
= 60 in
The height of the media compartment is 60 inches.
VolumeBackwash = (Backwash flow rate) x (Backwash cycle time) x (Vessel dia)2 x π / 4

= 15 gpm/ft2 x 3 min x (11 ft)2 x π / 4
= 4,276 gal
The backwash compartment must be able to hold a minimum of 4,276 gallons.
HeightBW Compartment =
Volumebackwash x 4______
7.48 gal/ft 3
π x (vessel dia)2
= 4,276 gal x 4 x 12 in
7.48 gal/ft3
π x (11 ft) 2
1ft
= 72 inches
The minimum height of the backwash compartment is 72 inches.

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Assuming a water temperature of 75oF, the backwash flow rate can be determined
from Table 4.2-3, shown below, and the following calculations.
Backwash Flow = Backwash Flow Rate x (Dia)2 x π / 4

= 18.5 gpm/ft2 x (11)2 x π / 4
= 1,758 gpm
The vessel requires a backwash flow of 1,758 gpm to expand the media bed 30%.
Using an air scour flow rate of 3 SCFM/ft2 at 6 psig,
Air Scour Flow = Air Scour Flow Rate x (Dia)2 x π / 4

= 3 SCFM/ft2 x (11)2 x π / 4
= 285 SCFM at 6 psig
To adequately air scour the media bed, the vessel requires 285 SCFM at 6 psig.
Temper at ur e (°F) Flow (gpm/ ft 2)

32 t o <40 9.5
40 t o <50 11.8
50 t o <60 14.2
60 t o <70 16.0
70 t o <80 18.5
80 t o <90 20.7
90 t o <100 22.9
100 t o <110 25.0
110 t o <120 27.2
Table 4.2-3: Gravity Filter Backwash Flow Rates

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Elevation Considerations
When positioning the gravity filter, the entire hydraulic profile of the system must be
taken into consideration. Figure 4.2-18 below shows a typical hydraulic profile
around a gravity filter system. For the service water to properly flow through a
gravity filter, the top of the backwash storage compartment must be lower than the
discharge of the clarifier. If a flow splitter box supplies multiple gravity filters, the
top of the backwash storage compartment must be lower than the discharge of the
flow splitter box. The top of the flow splitter box must be lower than the discharge of
the clarifier.
Clarifier Discharge
Flow Splitter
To Next
Use Point
Figure 4.2-18: Hydraulic Profile Needed by a Gravity Filter
4.2.3.3 Expected Results
Effluent from the gravity filter has its turbidity reduced to approximately 1-2 NTU.
The effluent is at atmospheric pressure as it exits the gravity filter and typically must
be pumped to its next use point.

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Figure 4.3-1: Multi-media Filter System

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4.3 Multi-Media Filters
A multi-media filter is a pressure filter with several different layers of filter media.
It is the most common pressure filter used in industrial water treatment systems.
Figure 4.3-1 on the opposite page shows a typical multi-media filter system.
These filters are often used in conjunction with a polymer feed system and/or a
coagulant aid feed system to improve filtration efficiency. Performance of the filters
is strongly influenced by proper coagulation of very small particles.
Auxiliary backwash pumps and air scour blowers (if air scour is used) may be needed
if plant utilities are not capable of supplying an adequate water flow rate and a
sufficient volume of air for the backwash and air scour to function properly.

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4.3.1 Process and Operations Overview
During operation, water enters the vessel under pressure and is distributed over
the top layer of the media bed by an inlet distributor. Figure 4.3-2 below shows the
inlet distributor.
Figure 4.3-2: Inlet Distributor and Hub/Lateral Underdrain Assembly
The filter media bed has several layers, typically consisting of anthracite, sand, and
garnet. See Section 4.1.3.1 for a discussion of stratification of media.
The media layers sit on top of a layer of sand (subfill) that supports the hub/lateral
underdrain assembly. Figure 4.3-2 above shows the hub/lateral underdrain and its
subfill support layer. The sand fills the bottom of the vessel up to the weld seam of
the straight shell with the bottom head, and covers the underdrain assembly. The
subfill is not involved in water filtration. The hub/lateral underdrain assembly
collects the water and directs it out of the vessel through the service outlet.

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When a sufficient quantity of particulate matter collects in the media bed, the filter is
cleaned with a backwash cycle. Valves redirect the flow of water into the vessel
through the underdrain assembly. The water flows up through the media bed and
carries the impurities out of the vessel through the inlet distributor and the
backwash outlet. The backwash flow rate is much higher than the service flow rate.
A multi-media filter requires the addition of sufficient freeboard to allow expansion
of the media bed during the backwash cycle.
An optional air scour system can also be used to clean the media bed. The air scour
system is used if the impurities on the media bed are particularly difficult to break
up with a normal backwash. This is often the case when polymers are added to
enhance performance of the media bed. Figure 4.3-3 below shows the optional air
scour system. To clean the media bed, the vessel is drained and air is blown into
the underdrain and up through the media bed, causing the filter particles to scrub
impurities off of each other. After the air scour cycle, the vessel is refilled and a
backwash cycle is performed to remove loose impurities and to re-classify the media.
The backwash step that follows an air scour is shorter and uses less water than a
normal backwash cycle.
Figure 4.3-3: Air Scour Option for a Multi-Media Filter System

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An alternative to the air scour system is a sub-surface wash system (see Figure 4.3-4
below). A sub-surface wash is similar to a backwash except its distributor is located
approximately 3 inches below the anthracite/sand boundary. Because of the
distributor’s location, a sub-surface wash cycle time is shorter and uses less water
than a full backwash cycle. It also provides a more energetic cleaning action in the
upper layers than a regular backwash. When the media bed below the sub-surface
wash distributor accumulates sufficient particulate matter, a full backwash cycle is
required. Air scour and sub-surface wash are mutually exclusive options.
Figure 4.3-4: Sub-Surface Wash Options for a Multi-Media Filter System

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Figure 4.3-5 below shows the P&ID of a typical multi-media filter system. This
P&ID shows the optional subsurface wash and air scour options which may not be
used and cannot both be used on the same unit.
Figure 4.3-5: P&ID of a Multi-Media Filter System

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The following modes of operation for a multi-media filter are described below:
• Normal service
• Air scour (optional)
• Sub-surface wash (optional)
• Backwash
• Rinse
A summary of the operating modes is shown below in Table 4.3-1 (* denotes

optional valve).
Mode
Valves Normal Draindown Air Scour Sub-surface Backwash Rinse
Service for (optional) Wash
Air Scour (optional)
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open
Service Outlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Closed
Backwash
Closed Closed Closed Open Open Closed
Outlet
Rinse Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Open
*Air Inlet Not

Closed Closed Open Closed Closed
(for Air Scour) Present
*Air Outlet Not
Closed Open Open Closed Closed
*Sub-Surface Not
Wash Inlet Present
Table 4.3-1: Multi-Media Filter Valve Configuration

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The valve configuration and water flow for normal service is shown in Figure 4.3-6.
• Service Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water to be filtered)

• Service Outlet valve open (to provide filtered water to downstream equipment)
• Backwash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from flowing downstream without
being filtered)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from going to drain)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent filtered water from exiting the vessel and
going to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent the introduction of air into the
vessel)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent the introduction of air into the
vessel)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from flowing through the
system when not needed)
Figure 4.3-6: Normal Service Configuration

for a Multi-Media Filter System

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4.3.1.2 Draindown for Air Scour (optional)
Before the air scour system can be used on the media, the water level must be
lowered to a few inches above the top of the media. The valve configuration listed
below is used during the draindown cycle of the multi-media filter system, and is
shown below in Figure 4.3-7.
• Service Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent unfiltered water from going to
downstream equipment)
• Backwash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel)
• Rinse Outlet valve open (to allow water to go to drain and to lower the water level)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent air from entering the vessel at the
wrong location)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour open (to allow air to enter the vessel as water is leaving)
When the water reaches the proper level, the air scour cycle can be initiated. The
level is set by routing the rinse outlet pipe up to the level of the top of the media bed
before turning down. An anti-siphon valve ensures that the level in the vessel is not
drawn down below the top of the media bed.
Figure 4.3-7: Draindown Configuration for a Multi-Media Filter System

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The optional air scour cleans the media more thoroughly than a backwash cycle
alone. Figure 4.3-8 below shows the valve configuration used during the air scour
cycle of the multi-media filter system.
• Service Inlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from entering the vessel
during the air scour cycle)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent dirty water from contaminating down
stream equipment)
• Backwash Inlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from entering the vessel
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (path not needed)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from going to drain)
• Air Scour Inlet valve open (to provide an air supply for the air scour system to
operate for a specified time)
• Air Scour Outlet valve open (to allow air to exit the vessel)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve is not present
Before the air scour

system is used, the vessel
must be drained until the
water level is just above
the top of the media bed.
After the air scour, the
filter must be refilled with
water and backwashed to
remove the loosened
impurities. After the air
scour is complete, the
vessel is refilled with
water via the backwash
inlet valve. This relatively
large valve is only partially
opened to prevent water
hammer from occurring.
Figure 4.3-8: Air Scour Cycle Configuration


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4.3.1.4 Sub-Surface Wash (optional)
The sub-surface wash option cleans only the top portion of the media bed. It uses
less water and takes less time than a full backwash cycle. The valve configuration
listed below is used during the sub-surface wash cycle of the multi-media filter
system, and is shown below in Figure 4.3-9.
during the sub-surface wash cycle)
stream equipment)
• Backwash Outlet valve open (to set the flow and to allow water and impurities to
leave the vessel during the sub-surface wash cycle)
• Air Scour Inlet valve is not present
• Air Scour Outlet valve is not present
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water to the
sub-surface water system)
After the sub-surface

wash cycle is complete, a
rinse step is performed to
remove any remaining
particulates. If the filter
still has a high differential
pressure, a full bed
backwash is performed to
clean all of the media.
Figure 4.3-9: Sub-Surface Wash Cycle Configuration


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Figure 4.3-10: Backwash Cycle Configuration

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4.3.1.5 Backwash
The backwash cycle is used to remove impurities that have collected in the media
bed. During the backwash cycle, the valves are oriented to reverse the flow of water
from normal operation. With sufficient flow, impurities are loosened from the
media bed and carried out of the vessel through the inlet distributor and service
inlet. The media bed must be expanded by 30% for the backwash to be effective.
To prevent filter media particles escaping from the vessel, the inlet distributor must
be sufficiently higher than the top of the expanded bed. The following valve
configuration is used during the backwash cycle of the multi-media filter system and
is shown on the opposite page in Figure 4.3-10.
• Service Inlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from flowing against the
backwash water flow)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent dirty backwash water from contaminating
• Backwash Inlet valve open (to supply water to backwash the media bed).
• Backwash Outlet valve open (to set the flow rate and carry away the dirty back
wash water to drain)
• Air Scour Inlet valve closed (prevent air from entering system)
• Air Scour Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from leaving the vessel in the
wrong location)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve (prevent water from entering the vessel
in the wrong location)
When the backwash cycle is initiated, the backwash inlet valve must not open
instantaneously. The high flow rates used in the backwash cycle can cause water
hammer if the valve is opened quickly. Water hammer disrupts the support layers of
the multi-media filter. The control system must be able to regulate the opening
speed of this valve to avoid water hammer. Backwash continues for a specified time
(typically 15 minutes). After the backwash cycle is complete, the vessel is rinsed and
can then return to normal service.

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4.3.1.6 Rinse
The rinse cycle is used to remove any residual backwash water in the media bed. The
rinse mode is the same as the service mode, except the water is sent to drain instead
of to service. The valve configuration listed below is used during the rinse step of the
multi-media filter system, and is shown below in Figure 4.3-11.
• Service Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water for the rinse step)
stream equipment)
at the wrong location)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from leaving the vessel during
the rinse step)
• Rinse Outlet valve open (to carry away the dirty rinse water to drain)
• Air Scour Inlet valve closed (to prevent air from entering system)
• Air Scour Outlet valve closed (to prevent air from leaving the vessel)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel in
the wrong location)
After the rinse cycle, the vessel can be returned to normal service.
Figure 4.3-11: Rinse Configuration for a Multi-Media Filter System

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With the use of pressure vessels, multi-media filtration units can be smaller than
gravity filters, and additional pumping is not usually needed to deliver the water to
its next use point. Since multi-media filtration units are smaller than gravity filters,
they require less space and less backwash flow for cleaning. However, the use of
pressure can cause suspended impurities to be driven deep into the media bed.
A multi-media filter uses several layers of different materials to remove suspended

solids and turbidity. Figure 4.3-12 below shows a typical multi-media filter system
with its components labeled.
Figure 4.3-12: Multi-Media Filter System

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The multi-media filter is a pressure filter. In a multi-media filter vessel, the height of
the vessel (measured at its straight shell) must accommodate the height of the
filtering media and the required freeboard. Freeboard is the extra straight shell
height required to allow expansion of the media bed during the backwash cycle
without allowing any filter media particles to leave the vessel.
Multi-media filters use simple vessels. A manway is required, and is normally placed
in the top head or upper side shell. Various sizes and styles can be used and are
mostly a matter of preference.
A sight glass is not usually provided on a multi-media filter. In situations where

filtration may be problematic, a sight glass can be provided at the top of the media
bed so that the state of the media can be observed. Sight glasses are also
occasionally requested at the inlet distributor level (top of expanded bed) so that the
backwash flow rate can be confirmed.
The service inlet piping is connected to the inlet distributor. The inlet piping and
inlet isolation valve must be sized to handle the backwash flow, which is higher than
the normal flow rate, unless the backwash water is fed from a separate source. With
a separate source, the inlet piping and inlet isolation valve are sized for the service
flow rate, and a backwash inlet isolation valve is added to the unit. More details on
the valves used in the service inlet can be found in Appendix G.

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The inlet distributor has two basic functions: to provide a uniform distribution of
service flow to the media bed and to collect the backwash water. The inlet
distributor consists of a main header pipe with smaller pipes, or laterals, distributing
water away from the header. At the end of each lateral, the flow is directed up into a
splash plate. A typical inlet distributor is shown below in Figure 4.3-13. Refer to
Appendix H for a further discussion of internals.
Figure 4.3-13: Typical Multi-Media Filter Inlet Distributor

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4.3.2.4 Media
A typical configuration of filter media in a multi-media filter is as follows:
• Anthracite (0.6 to 0.8 mm) 18" deep

• Filter Sand (0.45 mm) 12" deep
• Garnet (0.25 mm) 6" deep
The media support bed is typically 6-10 mesh sand. The support bed helps hold the
underdrain laterals in place and performs no filtration. The other layers are the
filtering media. Figure 4.3-14 below shows the various media in the vessel.
Figure 4.3-14: Multi-Media Filter Layers

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4.3.2.5 Hub/lateral Underdrain
After the water is forced through the filter media, it exits the vessel through the
hub/lateral underdrain assembly. The laterals are a series of pipes radiating from a
central hub. Figure 4.3-15 below shows the hub/lateral underdrain assembly. Each
lateral has a series of holes drilled along its length to accept the water. The laterals
contain wellscreen inserts to prevent filter media from leaving the vessel. Refer to
Figure 4.3-15: Hub/Lateral Underdrain Assembly

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4.3.2.6 Lining and Paint
Multi-media filter vessels are usually lined with a spray-on epoxy polyamide lining.
This lining prevents both corrosion of the vessel and the introduction of dissolved
iron into the water. Harder linings (baked phenolic, for example) are not technically
justified. In cases where dissolved iron is not of concern, the lining can be omitted,
and a corrosion allowance can be added to the thickness of the steel vessel. For
installations where there is concern that a spray-on lining might get scratched or
chipped, a sheet type rubber lining can be used.
Paint is selected based on the installation conditions. For indoor installations, an

epoxy polyamide primer and finish are suitable. For outdoor installations, an epoxy
polyamide primer and a Siloxane finish are used. A Siloxane epoxy primer and finish
coat are used in coastal areas.
4.3.2.7 Piping and Accessories
Several different materials can be used for the filter face piping. Carbon steel should
only be used where dissolved iron in the water is not a concern. For larger pipe
sizes, fittings made of PVC can be fragile, as they are often fabricated rather than
molded. Refer to Appendix I for a general discussion of pipe materials.
A wellscreen type media trap can be added to the vessel service outlet for unusual
situations. With metallic wellscreen internals there is generally no need for a media
trap. A backwash sightglass window (clear section of pipe in the backwash outlet)
can also be added in cases where the backwash temperature varies considerably,
making it necessary for operations staff to watch for media loss due to excessive
backwash flow.
4.3.2.8 Valves
Multi-media filters are normally provided with butterfly valves. Except for the lug
style manual inlet and outlet isolation valves, all valves are provided with a
pneumatic actuator. The backwash and rinse outlet valves also require travel stops so
that backwash and rinse flows can be set.
For butterfly valves , the valve closing speed must be reduced (normally with a
restriction on the actuator air discharge) so that water hammer does not occur. The
backwash valves are very susceptible to this problem because they handle the largest
flows. Appendix G provides general details on valve selection.

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4.3.2.9 Air Scour
In situations where the backwash flow cannot break up the layer of dirt that
accumulates at the top of the bed, an air scour system is required. This is often
the case when a polymeric filter-aid is injected upstream of the filter.
The air scour lateral is located near the bottom of the filter bed. It is constructed
of drilled stainless steel laterals with wellscreen inserts to prevent media
incursion.
When the air scour option is selected, valves for air inlet and air outlet are
required.
4.3.2.10 Sub-Surface Wash
The performance of the filter can be improved by the addition of a sub-surface

wash (SSW) system. It breaks up the layer of impurities on the top of the media
bed. The SSW cycle lasts 5-10 minutes and is performed once a shift, or when
the differential pressure increases to its alarm setting. The SSW does not replace
the backwash, but is used instead of a backwash until the differential pressure
across the bed can no longer be reduced by the sub-surface wash cycle.
A SSW consists of a distributor located in the sand layer, approximately 3 inches

below the bottom of the anthracite layer. The SSW distributor is a header with
drilled orifices. The orifices are located to aim the water flow up and to one side.
To prevent media from entering the laterals, they are provided with wellscreen
inserts.
Each filter vessel is provided with a pressure gauge on the vessel inlet and outlet
piping. If a separate backwash source is used, a pressure gauge can be added to
this connection as well.
A differential pressure switch can be used to notify the control system when the
pressure drop reaches the point at which a backwash is required. Normally, one
common pressure switch is used for all filters running in parallel. Some operators
prefer the redundancy of having one switch per vessel, with all pressure switches
reading the same differential. A differential pressure switch can also be provided
to indicate plugging of the media trap.

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A flow transmitter is normally provided on the inlet piping to the filter. This
transmitter reads the normal service flow and can be used to balance the flows to
parallel filters. It also measures the backwash flow and is used to set the backwash
flow rate. If a separate backwash source is used, a separate flow transmitter can be
added to this piping, although a common backwash flow transmitter is often more
appropriate.
4.3.3.1 Application
Multi-media filters are used to remove suspended solids from the service water. If
the turbidity of the service water is greater than 1 NTU, a multi-media filter is
needed. The multi-media filter is generally located at or near the beginning of the
water treatment system, to protect downstream equipment from the suspended
solids.
Depending on what impurities are to be removed from the water, polymers may be
injected to encourage agglomeration and enhance filtration.

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A typical multi-media filter has the following top to bottom layer configuration
(media bed depths shown are the minimum allowed):
• 18 inches of anthracite (0.6-0.8 mm)

• 12 inches of sand (0.45 mm)
• 6 inches of garnet (0.25 mm)
A minimum of 50% freeboard is also required for a total straight shell height of at
least 54” (60” is commonly used). Figure 4.3-16 below shows the configuration of
the media in a multi-media filter.
The allowable flow rate through a multi-media filter is 5-9 gpm/ft2. Normal service
flow is 5-6 gpm/ft2. Flow rates of 8-9 gpm/ft2 should only be used for short periods
of time, when one filter is being cleaned and the other filters must temporarily
process the higher flow rate. Flow rates above 9 gpm/ft2 should not be used, as
impurities will be driven through the media bed.
The temperature of the influent must be below 100oF to prevent silica from the sand
from being added to the service water.
Figure 4.3-16: Media Configuration

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Figure 4.3-17 below shows the dimensions that can be calculated for a multi-media
filter vessel. Key dimensions of the vessel are calculated as follows:
Figure 4.3-17: Multi-Media Filter Vessel Dimensions
Diameter
The vessel diameter is based on the normal service flow rate, the service water
requirement and the relationship between area and diameter.
Diameter = Service water requirement x 4

( Normal flow rate x π ) 1/2
Media Quantities
Based on the layer thickness and the previously calculated vessel diameter, the
quantity of each media can be calculated.
Media Quantity = Layer Thickness x (Vessel diameter)2 x π / 4

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Straight Shell Height
A multi-media filter requires 50% minimum freeboard to allow bed expansion

during the backwash cycle.
Straight Shell Height = (DepthAnthracite + DepthSand + DepthGarnet)

x (1 + 50% Freeboard)
Backwash Flow
The backwash flow is required to expand the bed depth by 30%. The flow rate
depends on temperature, since the force pushing the particles up is a function of the
viscosity of the water, which decreases with increasing temperature. The sub-surface
wash uses the same flow rate as the backwash.
Table 4.3-2 shows the backwash flow rate based on temperature.

Temper at ur e (oF) Flow (gpm/ ft 2)

32 t o < 40 9.5
40 t o < 50 11.8
50 t o < 60 14.2
60 t o < 70 16.0
70 t o < 80 18.5
80 t o < 90 20.7
90 t o < 100 22.9
100 t o < 110 25.0
110 t o 120 27.2
Table 4.3-2: Multi-Media Filter Backwash Flow Rates

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Rinse Flow
To adequately rinse the media bed, the flow rate must be at least 6 gpm/ft2 for 1 bed
volume.
Rinse Flow = Rinse Flow Rate x (Diameter)2 x π / 4
Air Scour Flow
For an effective air scour, the air flow rate must be at least 3 SCFM/ft2 at 7.5 psig.
Air Scour Flow = Air Scour Flow Rate x (Diameter)2 x π / 4
Example Calculations:
The following calculations assume a 200 gpm service water flow rate and an
allowable flow rate of 5 gpm/ft2. Assume 50% freeboard is needed to allow a 30%
media bed expansion.

( Normal flow rate x p ) 1/2
= 200 ft3 x 4__ 1/2

(
5 gpm/ft2 x p )
= 7.1 ft. Round to 7 ft
The vessel diameter is 7 feet to support the service water flow rate. Note that
rounding may not always be appropriate.
Media Quantity = Layer Thickness x (Vessel diameter)2 x p / 4

QuantityAnthracite = 18 in x (1 ft/12 in) x (7 ft)2 x p / 4
= 58 ft3 anthracite
QuantitySand = 12 inches x (1 ft/12 in) x (7 ft)2 x p / 4
= 39 ft3 sand
QuantityGarnet = 6 inches x (1 ft/12 in) x (7 ft )2 x p / 4
= 19 ft3 subfill sand
Based on the layer thickness of each media, 58 cubic feet of anthracite, 39 cubic feet
of sand, and 19 cubic feet of garnet are needed for the vessel.
Straight Shell Height = (ThicknessAnthracite + ThicknessSand + ThicknessGarnet)

x (1 + 50% Freeboard)
= (18 inAnthracite + 12 inSand + 6 inGarnet) x (1 + 0.5)
= 54 in Use a 60” standard height.

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The straight shell height is 60 inches to support the media bed and its freeboard
requirement.
from the information in Table 4.3-3, shown below, and the following calculations.

32 t o < 40 9.5
40 t o < 50 11.8
50 t o < 60 14.2
60 t o < 70 16.0
70 t o < 80 18.5
80 t o < 90 20.7
90 t o < 100 22.9
100 t o < 110 25.0
110 t o 120 27.2
Table 4.3-3: Multi-Media Filter Backwash Flow Rates

= 18.5 gpm/ft2 x (7)2 x π / 4
= 712 gpm
The vessel requires a backwash flow of 712 gpm to expand the media bed 30%.
Using a rinse flow rate of 6 gpm/ft2 for 1 bed volume,

= 6 gpm/ft2 x (7)2 x π / 4
= 231 gpm
To adequately rinse the media bed, the vessel requires a rinse water flow of 231 gpm.
Using an air scour flow rate of 3 SCFM/ft2 at 7.5 psig,

= 3 SCFM/ft2 x (7)2 x π / 4
= 115 SCFM at 7.5 psig
To adequately air scour the media bed, the vessel requires 115 SCFM at 7.5 psig.

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Splash
Plate
Service Service
Water In Water In
Inlet
Distributor
Activated Hub/Lateral
Carbon Underdrain
Subfill
Service Service
Water Out Water Out
Figure 4.4-1: Activated Carbon Filter System
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4.4 Activated Carbon Filters
Activated carbon filters are very similar to multi-media filters and other pressure
filters in construction and operation. They do not have the options of air scour or
sub-surface wash. Figure 4.4-1 on the opposite page shows a typical activated
carbon filter system.
The purpose of an activated carbon filter is to remove free chlorine, an oxidizing

agent that will damage most resins and/or membranes in a water treatment system.
A chemical injection system using sodium bisulfite (a reducing agent) can be used in
place of an activated carbon filter to remove chlorine.
Activated carbon may also remove organic material, however the flow rates are much
slower than for removal of chlorine. Generally, the performance is not known until
after the unit has been installed and operated for a while, and the bed must be
replaced frequently. Other organic reduction technologies are usually indicated
where positive reduction is required.

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During operation, water enters the filter under pressure and is distributed by an
inlet distributor over a bed of activated carbon. Figure 4.4-2 below shows the inlet
distributor.
The bed of activated carbon sits on top of a subfill layer of sand that supports the
hub/lateral underdrain assembly. The sand fills the bottom of the vessel to the weld
seam of the straight shell, covering the underdrain assembly. The hub/lateral
underdrain assembly, also shown in Figure 4.4-2, collects the filtered water and
directs it out of the vessel through the service outlet.
If the bed becomes clogged with

particulate matter, or becomes
compacted (as evidenced by a Inlet
high-pressure drop), the filter is Distributor
cleaned with a backwash cycle.
Valves redirect the flow of water into
the vessel through the service outlet.
The water flows up through the
media bed and carries the impurities Hub/Lateral
out of the vessel through the inlet Underdrain
distributor and the backwash outlet.
Freeboard is necessary to allow
expansion of the media bed to aid
the removal of impurities. A rinse
is needed after the backwash to
remove remaining particulate matter.
Activated carbon periodically

becomes contaminated with large
amounts of bacteria. In industries
where bacteria generation in the Figure 4.4-2: Inlet Distributor and
filtration system is a problem, the Hub/Lateral Underdrain System
activated carbon can be sterilized
with steam. This procedure requires
additional components not covered
here.

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Figure 4.4-3 below shows the P&ID of a typical activated carbon filter system.
Figure 4.4-3: P&ID of an Activated Carbon Filter System
The sections that follow describe the normal service, backwash and rinse modes of
the activated carbon filter system.
A summary of the operating modes is shown below in Table 4.4-1
Mode
Valves
Nor mal Ser vice Backwash Rinse
Ser vice Inlet Open Closed Open
Ser vice Out let Open Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Open Closed
Backwash Out let Closed Open Closed
Rinse Out let Closed Closed Open

Table 4.4-1: Activated Carbon Filter Valve Configuration

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Normal service provides filtered water to downstream equipment. The valve

configuration and water flow for normal service is shown below in Figure 4.4-4.

being filtered)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent filtered water from going to drain)
Service Water In
Service
Water Out
Figure 4.4-4: Normal Service Configuration

for an Activated Carbon Filter System

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4.4.1.2 Backwash
The backwash cycle removes impurities that have accumulated in the media bed.
During the backwash cycle, the valves are oriented to reverse the flow of water from
normal operation. With sufficient flow, impurities are loosened from the media bed
and carried out of the vessel through the inlet distributor and service inlet. The
media bed must be expanded for the backwash to be effective. To prevent filter
media particles escaping from the vessel, the inlet distributor must be sufficiently
higher than the top of the expanded bed.
The valve configuration used during the backwash cycle of the activated carbon filter
system is shown below in Figure 4.4-5.
• Backwash Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water to backwash the media
bed)
• Backwash Outlet valve open (to set the backwash flow and carry the dirty back
wash water to drain)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to Backwash In
prevent filtered water from
going to drain)
Backwash continues for the

specified time (usually 15-20
minutes). After the backwash
cycle is complete, the vessel goes
into a rinse cycle.
Backwash
Out
Figure 4.4-5: Backwash Cycle Configuration

for an Activated Carbon Filter System

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4.4.1.3 Rinse
The rinse cycle flushes out backwash water and compacts the bed. The valve
configuration listed below and shown below in Figure 4.4-6, is used during the rinse
cycle of the activated carbon filter system.
• Service Inlet valve open (to provide water to rinse the media bed)
stream equipment)
in the wrong place)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from exiting the vessel at the
wrong place)
• Rinse Outlet valve open (to set the flow and allow the dirty rinse water to exit the
vessel and go to drain)
After the rinse cycle is complete, the vessel can be returned to normal service.
Rinse Water In
Rinse Water
To Drain
Figure 4.4-6: Rinse Configuration for

an Activated Carbon Filter System

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An activated carbon filter is a pressure filter that is primarily used to remove chlorine
from service water. Figure 4.4-7 below shows a typical activated carbon filter system.
Service Water In
Splash
Plate
Inlet
Distributor
Hub/Lateral
Underdrain
Service Water Out
Figure 4.4-7: Activated Carbon Filter System
The height of an activated carbon filter vessel must accommodate the height of the
height required to allow expansion of the media bed during the backwash cycle. The
activated carbon particles should never reach the inlet distributor and leave the
vessel during the backwash cycle.
Activated carbon filters use simple vessels. A manway is required, and is normally
placed in the top head or upper side shell. A variety of sizes and styles of manways
are available and are mostly a matter of personal preference. A sightglass is not
usually provided on an activated carbon filter. For situations in which filtration may
be problematic, a sightglass can be provided at the top of the media bed so that the
state of the media can be observed. Sightglasses are occasionally provided at the
inlet distributor level. Using this sightglass, an operator can observe the level of the
expanded bed to confirm that the backwash flow rate is acceptable.

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The two functions of the inlet distribution header are to provide a uniform
distribution of service flow to the media bed and to collect the backwash water.
The inlet distributor consists of a main header pipe with smaller pipes, or laterals,
distributing water away from the header. At the end of each lateral, the flow is
directed up into a splash plate. A typical inlet distributor is shown below in
Figure 4.4-8. See Appendix H for further details on the design of vessel internals.
Figure 4.4-8: Typical Activated Carbon Filter Inlet Distributor

4.4.2.3 Media
Activated carbon is the only media used in an activated carbon filter. Generally, the
smaller the media particles, the better the surface area contact between the activated
carbon and the water flow. This usually results in improved adsorption. The media
particles should not be too fine, because of the difficulty in preventing the shedding
of fine particles into the service water.
Activated carbon is a special form of carbon that is produced by heating organic

material in the absence of oxygen. The heat removes trapped moisture and gases
and pyrolizes most of the organic material; it also leaves the remaining material with
a slightly positive surface charge. Media are available with a variety of characteristics
based on the type of organic material from which the media is manufactured and the
process used for manufacturing the media. Soft wood or coal-based carbons can
generate fine particles during handling or backwashing. Potentially, these fine
particles can plug membranes in downstream RO systems. Activated carbon made
from coconut shells or walnut shells generate fewer fine particles.

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The subfill below the activated carbon is typically sand. The subfill helps hold the
underdrain assembly in place and performs no filtration. Figure 4.4-9 below shows
the filter media in the vessel.
Activated
Carbon
Subfill
Support Bed
Figure 4.4-9: Activated Carbon Filters Layers

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4.4.2.4 Hub/Lateral Underdrain
After the water is forced through the activated carbon bed, it exits the vessel through
the hub/lateral underdrain assembly. The laterals are a series of pipes radiating from
a central hub. Figure 4.4-10 below shows the hub/lateral underdrain assembly. Each
lateral has a series of holes drilled along its length to accept the water. To prevent
filter media from leaving the vessel, the laterals contain wellscreen strainers. Refer to
Figure 4.4-10: Hub/Lateral Underdrain
Activated carbon filter vessels are usually lined internally with a spray-on epoxy
polyamide lining. This lining prevents corrosion of the vessel and the introduction of
dissolved iron into the water. Harder linings (such as baked phenolic) are not
technically justified. Due to the small amounts of hydrochloric acid generated in the
bed, unlined vessels are not recommended.
Due to the abrasive nature of the activated carbon, there is some concern that a
spray-on lining might get scratched or chipped if frequent backwash cycles are used.
In this case, a semi-hard rubber lining can be used to protect the vessel.

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Many materials can be used for the filter face piping. Carbon steel should only be
used where dissolved iron in the water is not a concern. See Appendix I for more
information on piping.
A wellscreen media trap can be added to the vessel service outlet for added
protection. With metallic wellscreen strainers in the underdrain laterals, the
opportunity for media leakage is very small. A backwash sightglass (clear section
of pipe in the backwash outlet) can also be added in cases where the backwash
temperature varies considerably and it is necessary for operations staff to watch for
media loss due to excessive backwash flow.
4.4.2.7 Valves
Activated carbon filters are normally provided with butterfly valves. Except for the
lug style manual inlet and outlet isolation valves, all valves are provided with a
that backwash and rinse flows can be set. See Appendix G for general information
on valve selection and options.
piping. A differential pressure switch can be used to notify the control system when
the pressure drop reaches the point where a backwash is required. Normally, one
common pressure switch is used for filters running in parallel. Some operators prefer
the redundancy of having one switch per vessel, with all pressure switches reading
the same differential. A differential pressure switch can also be provided to indicate
plugging of the media trap.
transmitter reads the normal service flow and can be used to balance the flows to parallel
filters. It also measures the backwash flow, and is used to set the backwash flow rate.

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4.4.3.1 Application
Activated carbon filters are designed to remove chlorine or chloramines. Although

the activated carbon filter can also remove organic material, the use of an organic
trap or other suitable technology is recommended if the quantity of organic material
in the service water is a problem.
Activated carbon filters are typically located downstream of multi-media filters,

although they can be used without other filters if the incoming total suspended
solids (TSS) load is not too high.
Service water flow should not exceed 2 gpm/ft3 of carbon media This is equivalent to
1.67 gpm/ft2 for every 10 inches (or 2 gpm/ft2 per foot) of activated carbon depth.
The bed of activated carbon must be at least 30 inches deep, with a maximum depth
of 9 feet. A minimum of 50% freeboard is also required. Figure 4.4-11 below shows
the configuration of the media in an activated carbon filter.
60% Freeboard
Activated
Carbon
Subfill

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Figure 4.4-12 below shows the various dimensions of an activated carbon filter
vessel that can be calculated. Key dimensions of the vessel are calculated in the
following manner.
Vessel
Diameter
Straight
Shell
Height
Activated
Carbon
Volume
Figure 4.4-12: Activated Carbon Filter Vessel Dimensions
Diameter
The bed of activated carbon must be at least 36 inches deep. A bed depth of 80
inches is often selected to create a taller vessel with a smaller diameter. This
configuration is generally less expensive than a short vessel with a large diameter.
The vessel diameter can be calculated from the service water requirement, the
allowable flow rate through the media bed and the formula for area and diameter.
DiameterVessel = Service water requirement x 4___________ 1/2

( (flow rate per bed area per 10 in x Bed Depth / 10) x π)
Media Quantity
Based on the depth of the media bed and the previously calculated vessel diameter,
the quantity of activated carbon media can be calculated:
Media Quantity = Bed depth x (Vessel diameter)2 x π / 4

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An activated carbon filter requires a sufficient freeboard to allow bed expansion

during the backwash cycle. As long as there is adequate freeboard and the bed
depth is thicker than the 36-inch minimum, other bed depths can be used to create a
vessel with reasonable proportions.
Straight Shell Height = Bed Depth x (1 + % Freeboard)
Backwash Flow Rate
by 30%. The flow rate depends on temperature, since the force pushing the particles
up is a function of the viscosity of the water, which decreases with increasing
temperature. Table 4.4-2 below shows the flow rate based on temperature.

32 t o < 40 7.2
40 t o < 50 8.4
50 t o < 60 9.7
60 t o < 70 11.0
70 t o < 80 12.8
80 t o < 90 14.3
90 t o < 100 16.0
100 t o < 110 17.8
110 t o 120 19.6
Table 4.4-2: Activated Carbon Filter Backwash Flow Rates

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Rinse Flow Rate
volume.
Example Calculations
The following calculations assume an activated carbon filter that is required to

process 200 gpm with a flow rate of 1.67 gpm/ft2 per 10 inches of bed depth, and a
bed depth of 80 inches. Assume 50% freeboard is needed to allow a 30% media bed
expansion.
DiameterVessel = Service water requirement x 4___________ 1/2

(
(flow rate per bed area per 10 in x Bed Depth / 10) x p )
=
( (1.67 gpm/ft2200gpm x 4____________ 1/2
per 10 in x 80 in / 10) x p )
= 4.4 feet Round to 4.5 feet (vessel diameters are always in 6”
increments)
A vessel diameter of 4.5 feet is needed to support the service water requirement.
QuantityActivated carbon = Bed Depth x (Vessel diameter)2 x p / 4

= 80 inches x (1 ft/12 in) x (4.5 ft)2 x p / 4
= 106 ft3
The vessel requires 106 cubic feet of activated carbon.
Straight Shell Height = Bed Depth x (1 + 50% Freeboard)

= 80 inches x (1 + 0.5)
= 120 inches = 10 feet
The straight shell height of the activated carbon vessel is 10 feet.

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from the information in Table 4.4-3, shown below, and the following calculations.

= 12.8 gpm/ft2 x (4.5)2 x π / 4
= 203 gpm

= 6 gpm/ft2 x (4.5)2 x π / 4
= 95 gpm

32 t o < 40 7.2
40 t o < 50 8.4
50 t o < 60 9.7
60 t o < 70 11.0
70 t o < 80 12.8
80 t o < 90 14.3
90 t o < 100 16.0
100 t o < 110 17.8
110 t o 120 19.6
Table 4.4-3: Activated Carbon Filter Backwash Flow Rates
The service water will contain no free residual chlorine.

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Splash
Plate
Service Service
Water In Water In
Inlet
Distributor
Hub/Lateral
Greensand Underdrain
Subfill
Service Service
Water Out Water Out
Figure 4.5-1: Greensand Filter System

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4.5 Greensand Filter
A greensand filter is used to remove iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) from the service
water. Figure 4.5-1 on the opposite page shows a typical greensand filter system.
The greensand media oxidizes the iron and manganese into an insoluble form that is
then filtered by the media bed. When the greensand media loses its oxidizing ability,
it is regenerated with potassium permanganate. This can be done as a batch process
(offline regeneration), but is commonly done continuously by feeding the potassium
permanganate to the influent water. The greensand is thus continuously regenerated,
and the bed requires only periodic backwashing.
A potassium permanganate chemical feeder system is a required ancillary. Auxiliary

backwash pumps and air scour blowers (if air scour is used) may be needed if plant
utilities are not capable of supplying an adequate water flow rate and sufficient
volume of air for the backwash and air scour to function properly.

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In service, water enters the vessel under pressure and is distributed by an inlet
distributor over a bed of greensand. Figure 4.5-2 below shows the inlet distributor.
The bed of greensand sits on top of a layer of sand (subfill) that supports the hub/
lateral underdrain assembly. The sand fills the bottom of the vessel to the weld seam
of the straight shell and the bottom head. The subfill is not involved in filtration.
The hub/lateral underdrain assembly, also shown in Figure 4.5-2 collects the water
and directs it out of the vessel through the service outlet.
Inlet
Distributor
Hub/Lateral
Underdrain
Figure 4.5-2: Inlet Distributor and Hub/Lateral Underdrain System
When a sufficient quantity of particulate matter collects in the media bed, the filter is
cleaned with a backwash cycle. Valves redirect the flow of water into the vessel
through the underdrain assembly. The water flows up through the media bed and
carries the impurities out of the vessel through the inlet distributor and the
backwash outlet. A greensand filter requires the addition of sufficient freeboard to
allow expansion of the media bed during the backwash cycle.

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Another method of cleaning the media bed is with an optional air scour system. This
is used if the layer of impurities is particularly difficult to break up with a normal
backwash, as is often the case when polymers are added to enhance performance.
Figure 4.5-3 below shows the optional air scour system. To clean the media bed, the
vessel is drained and air is blown up through the media bed, causing the filter
particles to scrub impurities off of each other. After the air scour cycle, the vessel is
refilled and a backwash cycle is run to remove loose impurities. This backwash step
is shorter and uses less water than a normal backwash step.
Air Scour
Air Distributor
Figure 4.5-3: Air Scour Option for a Greensand Filter System

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An alternative to the air scour system is a sub-surface wash system (see Figure 4.5-4
below). A sub-surface wash is similar to a backwash, except the distributor is located
approximately 6 inches below the top of the greensand. Since the distributor is
located just below the surface, the sub-surface wash cycle time is shorter and uses
less water than a full backwash cycle. It also provides a more energetic cleaning
action in the upper layers than a regular backwash. When the media bed below the
sub-surface wash distributor accumulates sufficient particulate matter, a full
backwash cycle is required. Air scour and sub-surface wash are mutually exclusive
options in vessel design.
Sub-Surface
Wash Lateral
Figure 4.5-4: Sub-Surface Wash Options for a Greensand Filter System

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Figure 4.5-5 below shows the Process and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) of a
typical greensand filter system. This P&ID shows the optional sub-surface wash and
air scour options whick may not be used and can not both be used on the on the
same unit.
Figure 4.5-5: P&ID of a Greensand Filter System
The following modes of operation for a greensand filter are described below:
• Normal Service
• Air Scour (optional)
• Sub-surface Wash (optional)
• Backwash
• Rinse

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A summary of the operating modes is shown below in Table 4.5-1 (* denotes
optional valve).
Mode
Valves Normal Draindown Air Scour Sub-Surface Backwash Rinse
Service for (optional) Wash
Air Scour (optional)
Service Inlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Open
Service Outlet Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed
Backwash Inlet Closed Closed Closed Closed Open Closed
Backwash
Closed Closed Closed Open Open Closed
Outlet
Rinse Closed Open Closed Closed Closed Open
*Air Inlet Not
*Air Outlet Not
Closed Open Open Closed Closed
*Sub-Surface Not Not
Closed Open Closed Closed
Wash Inlet Present Present
Table 4.5-1: Greensand Filter Valve Configuration

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The valve configuration and water flow for normal service is shown below in
Figure 4.5-6. The valve configuration is as follows:

being filtered)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent filtered water from exiting the vessel and
going to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent the introduction of air into the vessel)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent the introduction of air into the
vessel)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from flowing through the
system when not needed)
Service
Water In
Service
Water Out
Figure 4.5-6: Normal Service Configuration for a Greensand Filter System

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4.5.1.2 Draindown for Air Scour (optional)
Before the air scour system can be used on the media, the water level must be
lowered to only a few inches above the top of the media. The valve configuration
listed below is used during the draindown cycle of the greensand filter system. Refer
to Figure 4.3-7 for the multi-media filter to see a graphic of this step. Note that the
rinse outlet header is raised to the proper level for draindown when air scour is
needed. An antisiphon check valve prevents siphon after the water falls to the
correct level.
• Service Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent unfiltered water from going to
• Backwash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed
• Rinse Outlet valve open (to allow water to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent the introduction of air into the
vessel)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour open (to allow air to enter the vessel as water is
leaving)
When the water reaches the proper level, the air scour cycle can be initiated.

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The optional air scour cleans the media more thoroughly than using only a
backwash cycle. The following valve configuration is used during the air scour cycle
of the greensand filter system. Refer to Figure 4.3-8 in the multi-media filter section
for a graphic showing this step.
stream equipment)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (path not needed)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent water going to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour open (to provide an air supply for the air scour
system to operate for a specified time)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour open (to allow air to exit the vessel)
After the air scour is complete, the vessel is refilled with water from the first part of
the backwash cycle.

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4.5.1.4 Sub-Surface Wash (optional)
The sub-surface wash option cleans only the top portion of the media bed. It uses
less water and takes less time than a full backwash cycle. The following valve
configuration is used during the sub-surface wash cycle of the greensand filter
system, and is shown in Figure 4.5-7.
stream equipment)
• Backwash Outlet valve open (to set the flow and to allow water and impurities to
leave the vessel during the sub-surface wash cycle)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from the wrong part of the vessel
going to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour is not present
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour is not present
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water to the
sub-surface water system).
After the sub-surface

wash cycle is complete, Sub-Surface
a rinse step is Wash Water In
performed to remove
any remaining
particulates. If the filter
still has a high
differential pressure, a
full bed backwash is
performed to clean all
of the media.
Sub-Surface
Wash Water Out
Figure 4.5-7: Sub-Surface Wash Cycle Configuration

for a Greensand Filter System

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Backwash
Water In
Backwash
Water Out
Figure 4.5-8: Backwash Cycle Configuration for a Greensand Filter System

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4.5.1.5 Backwash
The backwash cycle is used to remove impurities that have collected in the media
bed. When the backwash cycle is initiated, the backwash inlet valve must not open
instantaneously. With the high flow rates used in the backwash cycle, water hammer
will occur if the valve is opened quickly. Water hammer can disrupt the support layer
of the greensand filter. The control system must be able to control the opening
speed of this valve to eliminate water hammer.
During the backwash cycle, the valves are oriented to reverse the flow of water from
normal operation. With sufficient flow, impurities are loosened from the media bed
and carried out of the vessel through the inlet distributor and service inlet. The
media bed must be expanded by 30% for the backwash to be effective. To prevent
filter media particles escaping from the vessel, the inlet distributor must be
sufficiently higher than the top of the expanded bed. The valve configuration used
during the backwash cycle of the greensand filter system is shown on the opposite
page in Figure 4.5-8.
• Backwash Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water from the hub/lateral
underdrain to backwash the media bed)
• Backwash Outlet valve open (to set the flow rate and carry away the dirty
backwash water from the inlet distributor to drain)
• Rinse Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from the wrong part of the vessel
going to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent air from entering system)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent air from entering system)
• Sub-surface Wash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel in
the wrong location)
Backwash continues for a specified time (usually 15 minutes). After the backwash
cycle is complete, the vessel is rinsed and can then return to normal service.

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4.5.1.6 Rinse
The rinse cycle is used to remove any residual backwash water in the media bed. The
valve configuration used during the rinse step of the greensand filter system is
outlined below and shown below in Figure 4.5-9.
• Service Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of water for the rinse step)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent dirty water from contaminating
at the wrong location)
• Backwash Outlet valve closed (to prevent water from leaving the vessel during
the rinse step)
• Rinse Outlet valve open (to carry away dirty rinse water to drain)
• Air Inlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent air from entering system)
• Air Outlet valve for Air Scour closed (to prevent air from entering system)
• Sub-Surface Wash Inlet valve closed (to prevent water from entering the vessel in
the wrong location)
After the rinse cycle, the vessel can be returned to normal service.
Rinse
Water In
Rinse Water
To Drain
Figure 4.5-9: Rinse Configuration for a Greensand Filter System

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The greensand filter is a pressure filter. In a greensand filter vessel, the height of
the vessel (measured at its straight shell) must accommodate the height of the
height required to allow expansion of the media bed during the backwash cycle
without allowing any filter media particles to leave the vessel. Figure 4.5-10 below
shows a typical greensand filter system.
Service Water In
Inlet Distributor
Optional
Sub-Surface
Wash
Optional Service
Air Scour Water Out
Hub/Lateral
Underdrain
4.5-10: Greesand Filter System
A greensand filter is a pressure vessel. The freeboard necessary in a greensand filter

is 50% of the filter media depth. During backwash, the media bed should only
expand by 30%. Greensand should never reach the inlet distributor and leave the
vessel during the backwash cycle.
Greensand filters use simple vessels. A manway is required and is normally placed
in the top head or upper side shell. The size and style of manway used is mostly a
matter of preference.

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A sightglass not usually provided on a greensand filter. In situations where filtration
may be problematic, a sightglass can be provided at the top of the media bed so that
the state of the greensand can be observed. Sightglasses are occasionally provided at
the inlet distributor level. Using this sightglass, an operator can observe the level of
the expanded bed to confirm that the backwash flow rate is acceptable.
The primary purpose of the service inlet is to isolate the incoming flow of service
water into the greensand filter. It also isolates the flow of backwash water out of the
greensand filter. The service inlet is connected to the inlet distributor.
The two functions of the inlet distribution header are to provide a uniform
distribution of service flow to the media bed and to collect the backwash water. The
inlet distributor consists of a main header pipe with smaller pipes, or laterals,
distributing water away from the header. At the end of each lateral, the flow is
directed up into a splash plate. A typical inlet distributor is shown below in Figure
4.5-11. Additional details on the vessel internals can be found in Appendix H.
Figure 4.5-11: Typical Greensand Filter Inlet Distributor

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4.5.2.4 Media Layers
The service life of the greensand can be prolonged by the addition of six inches of
anthracite. The anthracite performs a portion of the filtering, so the greensand does
not wear out as quickly as when used alone. Figure 4.5-12 below shows the various
media in the vessel. The media support bed is conventionally made of sand. The
support bed helps hold the drain laterals in place but performs no filtration. The
greensand layer is the filtering media.
Greensand
Sub-fill
Support Bed
Figure 4.5-12: Greensand Filter Layers

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4.5.2.5 Hub/Lateral Underdrain
After the water is forced through the filter media, it exits the vessel through the hub/
lateral underdrain assembly. The laterals are a series of pipes radiating from a central
hub. Figure 4.5-13 below shows the hub/lateral underdrain assembly. Each lateral
has a series of holes drilled along its length to accept the water. To prevent the filter
material from leaving the vessel, Glegg uses a jacketed wellscreen. Additional details
on the vessel internals can be found in Appendix H.
Wellscreen
Inside Pipe
Lateral Pipe
with
Wellscreen
Underdrain Hub
Figure 4.5-13: Hub/Lateral Underdrain Assembly

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Greensand filter vessels are usually lined internally with a spray-on epoxy polyamide
lining. This lining prevents corrosion of the vessel and the introduction of additional
dissolved iron into the water.
For installations where there is concern that a spray-on lining might get scratched or
chipped a rubber lining can be used.

Face piping for a filter can be made of PVC, polypropylene, or 316L stainless steel.
Carbon steel should only be used where dissolved iron is not a concern. For large
pipes, fittings made of PVC can be fragile, as they are often assembled from several
pieces rather than being single molded units. Refer to Appendix I for a general
discussion of pipe materials and sizing.
A wellscreen media trap can be added to the vessel service outlet for added
protection. A backwash sightglass (clear section of pipe in the backwash outlet) can
also be added in cases where the backwash temperature varies considerably and it is
necessary for operations staff to watch for media loss due to excessive backwash flow.
4.5.2.8 Valves
Greensand filters are normally provided with butterfly valves. Except for the lug
style manual inlet and outlet isolation valves, all valves are provided with a
that backwash and rinse flows can be set.
For butterfly valves, the valve closing speed must be reduced (normally with a
restriction on the actuator air discharge) so that water hammer does not occur.
Backwash valves are the most susceptible to this problem because they handle the
largest flows. Appendix G provides general details on valve selection.

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4.5.2.9 Air Scour
In situations where the backwash flow cannot break up the layer of dirt that
accumulates at the top of the bed, an air scour system is required. This is often the
case when a polymeric filter-aid is injected upstream of the filter.
The air scour lateral is located near the bottom of the filter bed. It is constructed of
drilled stainless steel laterals with wellscreen strainers inserted to prevent media
incursion.
If the air scour option is selected, the valves for air inlet, air outlet and draindown are
required.
4.5.2.10 Sub-surface Wash
The performance of the filter can be improved with the addition of a sub-surface
wash (SSW) system. It breaks up the layer of impurities on the top of the media bed.
The SSW cycle lasts 5-10 minutes and is performed once a shift or when the
differential pressure increases to its alarm setting (typically 10 ft. hd.). The SSW does
not replace the backwash. It is used instead of a backwash until the differential
pressure across the bed can no longer be reduced by the sub-surface wash cycle.
A SSW consists of a distributor located in the sand layer, approximately 3 inches

below the bottom of the anthracite layer. The SSW distributor is a header with
drilled holes. The holes are positioned to aim the water flow up and to one side. To
prevent media from entering the laterals, the pipe is lined with wellscreen strainers.
piping. If a separate backwash source is used a pressure gauge can be added to this
connection as well.
A differential pressure switch can be used to notify the control system when the
pressure drop reaches the point where a backwash is required. Normally, one
common pressure switch is used for all filters running in parallel. Some operators
prefer the redundancy of having one switch per vessel, with all pressure switches
reading the same differential. A differential pressure switch can also be provided to
indicate plugging of the media trap.

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transmitter reads the normal service flow and can be used to balance the flows to
parallel filters. It also measures the backwash flow and is used to set the backwash
flow rate. Where a separate backwash source is used, a separate flow transmitter can
be added to this piping, although a common flow transmitter is often more sensible.
4.5.2.12 Addition of Potassium Permanganate
To rejuvenate the greensand, a solution of potassium permanganate is injected into

the service water before it enters the filter vessel. Section 9.3 discusses chemical
feed systems in more detail.
4.5.3.1 Application
Greensand filters are used for the removal of iron and manganese from the service
water to protect downstream equipment. It should first be determined what level of
iron and manganese the downstream equipment can tolerate. A greensand filter
system can reduce the combined iron and manganese level to below 0.3 ppm.
The function of the greensand filter is a specific chemical process to remove iron and
manganese, not general filtration. Therefore the greensand filter should be located
downstream of other filter units if the suspended solids load is significant.

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Vessel
Diameter
Straight
Shell
Height
Greensand
Volume
Figure 4.5-15: Greensand Filter Vessel Dimensions

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The required vessel size is calculated based on the service water flow rate and the
amount of iron and manganese contained in the influent. Assume a minimum of
50% freeboard is also required for optimal media bed expansion during the
backwash cycle. Figure 4.5-14 below shows the configuration of the media in a
greensand filter. Figure 4.5-15 on the opposite page shows the various dimensions
of a greensand filter vessel that can be calculated.
Freeboard
Greensand

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Diameter and Bed Depth
Based on the combined iron and manganese content, the flow rate per area of
greensand can be determined from Table 4.5-2, shown below. The vessel diameter is
based on the service flow rate from Table 4.5-2, the service water requirement, and
the relationship between area and diameter.

( Normal flow rate x π ) 1/2
Media Quantity
Based on the depth of the media bed from Table 4.5-2 and the vessel diameter, the
quantity of each media can be calculated:
Media Quantity = Bed depth x (Vessel diameter)2 x π / 4
Minimum
Influent Flow Rat e
Bed Dept h
(Fe+Mn) (gpm/ ft 2)
(inches)
< = 2 ppm 5 30
>2 to 5 ppm 4 30
>5 to 8 ppm 3 36
>8 to 15 ppm 2 42
Table 4.5-2: Greensand Filter Flow Rates and Bed Depths
A greensand filter requires 50% freeboard to handle the bed expansion during the
backwash cycle. As long as there is 50% freeboard and the bed depth is thicker than
the minimum shown in the above table, other bed depths can be used to create a
vessel with reasonable proportions.
Straight Shell Height = Bed Depth x (1 + % Freeboard)

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Backwash Flow
by 30%. The flow rate depends on temperature, since the force pushing the particles
up is a function of the viscosity of the water, which decreases with increasing
temperature. The sub-surface wash uses the same flow rate as the backwash.
Table 4.5-3 below shows the flow rate based on temperature.

32 t o < 40 7.2
40 t o < 50 8.4
50 t o < 60 9.7
60 t o < 70 11.0
70 t o < 80 12.8
80 t o < 90 14.3
90 t o < 100 16.0
100 t o < 110 17.8
110 t o 120 19.6
Table 4.5-3: Greensand Filter Backwash Flow Rates
Rinse Flow
volume.
Air Scour Flow
For an effective air scour, the air flow rate must be at least 3 SCFM/ft2 at 7.5 psig.

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Feeder Size
A chemical feeder is needed for the addition of potassium permanganate (KMnO4)

to the influent for continuous regeneration of the greensand. A 1% solution of
potassium permanganate is continuously fed upstream of the greensand filter at a
rate based on Table 4.5-4, shown below.
Subst ance t o be
KMnO4 Feed Rat e
Reduced
Iron 1 m g /l p e r m g /l F e
Manganese 2 mg/l per mg/l Mn
Hydrogen Sulphide 6mg/l per mg/l H2S

Table 4.5-4: Potassium Permanganate Feed Rates
KMnO4(gal/day) = (conc. of Fe(mg/l) + 2 x conc. of Mn(mg/l))

( )
x Service Flow(gpm) x 1440(min/day) x 100___
1,000,000 %KMnO4
Note that this equation assumes that the volume and weight percentages of solution
are the same (true only for dilute solutions).
For this example, assume the influent water has 6 ppm combined iron and
manganese content. Table 4.5-5, shown below, is used to determine the flow rate
through the greensand and depth of the greensand layer in the filter vessel. Assume
50% freeboard is needed to allow a 30% media bed expansion.
Minimum
Influent Flow Rat e
Bed Dept h
(Fe+Mn) (gpm/ ft 2)
(inches)
< = 2 ppm 5 30
>2 to 5 ppm 4 30
>5 to 8 ppm 3 36
>8 to 15 ppm 2 42
Table 4.5-5: Greensand Filter Flow Rates and Bed Depths

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Using an example service water flow rate of 200 gpm and a 50% freeboard
requirement, the key dimensions of the vessel are calculated as follows.
Diameter = Service water requirement x 4 1/2

( Normal flow rate x π )
= 200 gpm x 4 1/2
( 3gpm/ft2 x π )
= 9.2 feet. Round to 9 ft as the 3 gpm/ft2 is not an absolute limit in this
case.
To support the service water requirement, the diameter of the greensand filter vessel
must be 9 feet.
QuantityGreensand = Layer Thickness x (Vessel diameter)2 x π / 4

= 36 inches x 1 ft/12 in. x (9 ft)2 x π / 4
= 191 ft3
To support the service water requirement, 191 cubic feet of greensand is required.
Straight Shell Height = Bed depth x (1 + % freeboard)

= 36 inches x (1 + 0.50)
= 54 inches
To support adequate media bed expansion during backwash, the straight shell height
must be at least 54 inches.
from Table 4.5-6, shown below.

32 t o < 40 7.2
40 t o < 50 8.4
50 t o < 60 9.7
60 t o < 70 11.0
70 t o < 80 12.8
80 t o < 90 14.3
90 t o < 100 16.0
100 t o < 110 17.8
110 t o 120 19.6
Table 4.5-6: Greensand Filter Backwash Flow Rates

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= 12.8 gpm/ft2 x (9ft)2 x π / 4
= 814 gpm

= 5 gpm/ft2 x (9ft)2 x π / 4
= 318 gpm
Using an air scour flow rate of 3 SCFM/ft2 at 7.5 psig,

= 3 SCFM/ft2 x (9ft)2 x π / 4
= 191 SCFM at 7.5 psig
To adequately air scour the media bed, the vessel requires 191 SCFM at 7.5 psig
Assume 5 mg Fe/l and 1 mg Mn/l in the raw water and Table 4.5-7, shown below,
provides the KMnO4 feed rate.
Subst ance t o be
KMnO4 Feed Rat e
Reduced
Iron 1 m g /l p e r m g /l F e
Manganese 2 mg/l per mg/l Mn
Hydrogen Sulphide 6mg/l per mg/l H2S

Table 4.5-7: Potassium Permanganate

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KMnO4(gal/day) = (conc. of Fe(mg/l) + 2 x conc. of Mn(mg/l))
x Service Flow(gpm) x 1440(min/day) x 100___
( 1,000,000 )
%KMnO4
= (5mg/lFe + 2 x 1mg/lMn) x 200 gpm x 1440 x 100

( 1,000,000 1)
= 201.6 gallons/day
The feeder must be able to deliver 202 gallons per day of a 1% solution of potassium
permanganate to support the service water requirement with a content of 5 mgFe per
liter and 1 mgMn per liter. To reduce the feeder size, a 2 or 3% solution might be used.
The service water will have a combined iron and manganese level of less than 0.3 ppm.

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Vent Valve Vent Valve
Service
Service Water
Water In In
Filter Elements Service

Water Out
Service
Water Out
Filter Element
Mounting Plate
Rinse
Outlet
Figure 4.6-1: Typical Cartridge Filter System

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4.6 Cartridge Filters
Cartridge filters use tubular filter elements to remove suspended solids from
service water. Figure 4.6-1 on the opposite page shows a typical cartridge filter
system. Depending on the attributes of the service water and the impurities to be
removed, the filter elements can be made of spun polymers, wound string or other
material. The filter elements have a standard diameter of 2.5 inches and are
available in standard lengths (30 and 40-inch cartridges are used in industrial
systems). The flow rate of the service water determines the length and number of
filter elements necessary.
Filter elements are held between two plates inside a pressure vessel. Water enters
the vessel, flows through the filter elements into the hollow core and is collected by
the lower filter element plate before leaving the cartridge filter vessel.
When the filter elements become clogged with impurities, the pressure drop across
the cartridge filter system exceeds the desired limit. The cartridge filter is taken out
of service and the vessel is opened. The dirty filter elements are removed and new
elements are added. After the vessel is closed, service water is used to rinse the
new filter elements and remove any external dirt. The water used to rinse the
cartridges enters the vessel through the service inlet. Instead of exiting the service
outlet, the water drains out of the cartridge filter housing through a drain/rinse
valve at the bottom of the vessel, or through an optional rinse valve in the piping.
After a specified amount of time, the rinse valve is closed, the service outlet is
opened and the cartridge filter is returned to service.

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Figure 4.6-2 below shows the P&ID of a typical cartridge filter system.
The modes of operation for a cartridge filter are described below.
Figure 4.6-2: P&ID of a Typical Cartridge Filter System

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Normal service provides a supply of filtered water for downstream equipment. The
valve configuration and water flow for normal service is shown below in
Figure 4.6-3.
Service Service
Water Out Water In
Figure 4.6-3: Normal Service Configuration for a Cartridge Filter System

• Service Outlet valve open (to provide a supply of filtered water to downstream
equipment)
• Rinse/drain and vent valves closed (to prevent water from going to drain)

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4.6.1.2 Replace Filter Elements and Rinse
New filter elements must be rinsed to remove loose particles and manufacturing
detergents before they can be put into service. The valve configuration used to
drain the cartridge filter system and prepare it for filter element replacement is
shown below in Figure 4.6-4.
Figure 4.6-4: Preparation for Rinse Step for a Cartridge Filter System
• Service Inlet valve closed (to prevent incoming water from entering the filter
housing while changing the filter elements)
• Service Outlet valve closed (to prevent dirty water from contaminating
Water drains from the vessel until it is empty.

• Vessel top is removed (to provide access to the dirty filter elements)
Dirty filter elements are removed and new filter elements are installed.
• Vessel top closed (to prepare for the introduction of water into the filter
housing)

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The valve configuration used to rinse the new filter elements is shown below in
Figure 4.6-5.
Rinse
Water In
Figure 4.6-5: Rinse Cycle Configuration for a Cartridge Filter System
• Service Inlet valve open (to provide a supply of rinse water)

• Vent valve open (until vessel is full of water) and then closed
• Rinse/drain valve open (to allow water to drain out of the vessel)
After a specified amount of time the rinse cycle is complete, and the valves are
returned to the configuration for normal service.

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A cartridge filter system consists of a housing holding a number of standard filter

cartridges. Water is pushed through the filter cartridges and out to service. Figure
4.6-6 below shows a typical cartridge filter system.
Filter
Service Housing
Water In
Filter
Elements
Figure 4.6-6: Cartridge Filter System
4.6.2.1 Filter Housing
Filter housings can be designed for a wide range of operating temperatures and
pressures. A typical RO pre-filter might be designed to operate at 100 to 150 psig
and 100°F, whereas a condensate filter might be required to operate at 700 psig and
250°F. An ASME ‘U’ stamp can be provided if required by local codes.
Housings can be manufactured in a variety of materials also. Carbon steel is

appropriate for many condensate applications and occasionally in other situations
where dissolved iron in the water is not a problem. Rubber lined carbon steel
(seawater feed) or stainless steel is used for most applications. 316L stainless is a
higher grade than 304L stainless, but the selection can be made based on
preference and price in most situations.

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4.6.2.2 Housing Redundancy
Filter housings must be removed from service occasionally to change cartridges. It

is necessary to have the ability to handle this situation. In many cases, feed water
is normally clean enough and the housing can be bypassed with an optional
bypass valve assembly. In other cases, downstream equipment can be shut down
for the short period of time required to change and rinse the housing.
When full-filtered flow must be maintained at all times, it is necessary to have

redundant filter housings. To achieve full redundancy for smaller systems, two
housings, each with 100% capacity, are necessary. For larger systems, the system
capacity is divided among the housings and an extra housing is provided (for
example, 3 housings with 50% capacity each).
4.6.2.3 Filter Elements
Filter cartridges can be made of any material appropriate to the

application. When they are full of impurities they are
discarded and replaced with new cartridges.
The filter cartridges come in standard lengths that are

multiples of 10 inches. Generally 30-inch, or 40-inch lengths
are used on all but the smallest of systems. Typical nominal
ratings for the cartridges are 10, 5, and 1 micron, although
cartridges are available in almost any rating. The filter element
will block the majority of particles larger than its size rating.
Nominally rated filter elements are often made from either
nylon or polypropylene and can be wound string or spun fiber
(or occasionally other configurations). Figure 4.6-7 on the
right shows the standard cartridge filter elements.
Cartridges are available with an array of different connections

and sealing arrangements. For critical applications in high
technology industries it is often necessary to have very tightly
controlled filtration. However, in the pre-filter applications
considered here, a high level of security is not justified. A
double-open-end (DOE) cartridge design is typical. In this
system both ends of the cartridge are open and have a flat
rubber gasket that seals against a spring loaded flat plate or a
Fig. 4.6-7:
knife-edge. This method provides sufficient security at an
Cartridge Filter
economical cost.

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Cartridge filter housings use multiple filter elements arranged at an equal distance
from each other inside the housing. Figure 4.6-8 below shows a potential
arrangement of filter elements. The filter elements are attached to a fitting on the
filter element plate at the bottom of the vessel. The flows from all of the filter
elements go through the filter element plate and are directed to the outlet of the
vessel.
Filter
Elements
Fig. 4.6-8: An Array of Cartridge Filter Elements

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4.6.2.4 Filter Opening
The entire top of the vessel can usually be removed for access to the filter elements.
The vessel top may be a simple plate bolted to the vessel. For larger and heavier
tops, the vessel may have a davit opening. Figure 4.6-9 below shows a davit
opening. The vessel top swings to one side after the hold-down bolts are loosened.
To close the vessel, the top swings back into place and the hold-down bolts are
tightened.
Fig. 4.6-9: Davit Opening for Cartridge Filter Vessel
4.6.2.5 Filter Skid
Filter housings can be mounted on a structural steel skid for convenient

installation. When no skid is used, the housing feet are secured directly to the
floor.
4.6.2.6 Paint
The paint for the exterior of the housing (if a carbon steel housing is selected) and
the skid is selected based on the installation conditions. For indoor installations,
an epoxy polyamide primer and finish are suitable.
4.6.2.7 Piping
Face piping for a filter can be of almost any material. Carbon steel should only be
used where dissolved iron in the water is not a concern. Fittings made of PVC can
be fragile, especially for larger pipe sizes, as they are often fabricated rather than
molded.

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4.6.2.8 Valves
All valves on a cartridge filter system are manually actuated. Butterfly valves are
normally used but diaphragm valves could be substituted in the smaller size range.
Refer to Appendix G for more information on valves.
A differential pressure switch to indicate plugged filters can be installed across the
common filter inlet and outlet headers.
A flow transmitter can also be installed in the common inlet header to monitor
total system flow.
4.6.3.1 Application
Cartridge filters are typically located upstream from reverse osmosis systems.
Cartridge filters protect the reverse osmosis membranes by removing particles from
the service water that might scratch the RO membranes or get stuck in the
membrane brine channels. Filters are also used in condensate polishing and other
process applications.

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The filter elements of a cartridge filter are selected based on two measures: the
nominal micron rating and the service water flow rate. The standard diameter of
the filter elements is 2.5 inches. The standard length of the filter elements can be
either 30 or 40 inches. Figure 4.6-10 below shows typical filter elements.
Filter
Elements
Fig. 4.6-10: An Array of Cartridge Filter Elements
Micron Rating
Filter elements are rated by the particle size (in microns) that they can remove.
The rating is either nominal or absolute. For example, a filter element with a
“nominal” 5 micron rating will remove the majority of particles that are 5 microns
or larger. For other applications the filter element may have an “absolute” rating of
5 microns, and will remove all particles larger than 5 microns. For RO pre-filter
applications, a 5-micron nominal filter is typical. For an RO cleaning skid filter, a 5
or 10-micron nominal filter is used.

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Cartridge filters are designed to handle a certain pressure drop while clean. The
pressure drop normally includes the filter cartridges and housing as well as the
pipes and valves in the system. Housings, piping and valves vary from application
to application, so a precise design is difficult. However, precision is not normally
required in pre-filter applications.
A 5-psi clean differential pressure drop is the usual design specification for a pre-
filter skid, although higher or lower pressure drops could be used depending on
available pressure. If a 3-psi pressure drop is allowed for the housing, pipes, and
valves, it leaves 2-psi for the cartridges. Each cartridge has a pressure/flow
characteristic that is normally expressed as gpm per psid per 10-inch length. These
characteristics vary from vendor to vendor. Detailed information on specific filter
types is available from the filter element manufacturer.
Filter Element Quantity and Height
The number of 10” lengths of cartridge required for a system can be calculated as
follows.
Quantity = Service water requirement / Flow per 10-inch length

(10-inch lengths) (at available pressure drop)
The choice of 30-inch or 40-inch cartridges often depends on the availability of

‘standard’ filter housings. In general, there is not much cost difference between
housings for 30-inch or 40-inch cartridges, so if there are no other constraints a 40-
inch cartridge system generally is the most economical. Using a filter element that
can support 3 gpm per psid per 10-inch length, the quantity of filter elements for
the entire system can be calculated as follows.
Quantity = Quantity / Quantity

(10-inch lengths) (10-inch elements per element)

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Redundancy
For applications in which full filtered flow must be maintained at all times, it is
necessary to have redundant filter housings. For full redundancy in smaller
systems, two housings, each with 100% capacity, would be needed. For larger
systems, many housings with extra capacity would be needed. For example, in a
system with five housings, four would support the service water requirement, while
the fifth is out of service getting its elements changed. Figure 4.6-11 below shows
a cartridge filter system with its filter elements and 100% redundancy.
Second Cartridge Filter

for 100% Redundancy
Figure 4.6-11: Cartridge Filter System

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Assume a cartridge filter system that is required to process 200 gpm, and uses a
filter element that can support 3 gpm per psid per 10-inch length. Also, assume
the use of 40-inch elements with 4 ea. 10-inch lengths per filter element. The
following calculations provide the necessary details regarding the design of the
cartridge filter system.
Quantity = Service water requirement / Flow per 10-inch length

(10-inch lengths) (at available pressure drop)
= 200 gpm / 3 gpm per psid per 10-inch length
= 66.7 ea. 10-inch lengths (round to 67)
The cartridge filter system requires 67 ea. 10-inch lengths to support the service
water requirement.
Quantity = Quantity / Quantity

(elements) (10-inch lengths) (10-inch elements per element)
= 67 ea. 10-inch lengths / 4 ea. 10-inch lengths per element
= 16.75 elements (round up to 17 elements)
The cartridge filter system requires at least 17 elements to support the service water
requirement.
For 100% redundancy, the system in this example would require two housings,
each capable of holding a minimum of 17 ea. 40-inch cartridges (34 total
cartridges).
If two housings were desired to support the service water requirement, the
cartridge filter system would require a total of 3 housings, each with 9 elements.
For redundancy, an additional housing with 9 cartridges would be needed, for a
total of 3 housings in the system. When the elements in one housing need to be
replaced, the housing goes out of service and the third housing is used to support
the service flow rate. The cost of this type of system (3 housings and 27 cartridges)
must be compared to the system in the above example (2 housings and 34
cartridges) to determine which is economically desirable.
The service water being discharged from the cartridge filter should not contain
many particles larger than the micron rating of the filter elements.

table of contents

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FILTRATION

4.2 Gravity Filters ..................................................................................................................... 20

34a_m4_r0 4-1 Filtration

4.4 Activated Carbon Filters ................................................................................................... 67

34a_m4_r0 4-2 Filtration

4.6 Cartridge Filters ................................................................................................................ 109

34a_m4_r0 4-3 Filtration

• Occlusion - removal due to the impurity’s particle size

• Gravity filter - removal of suspended solids and turbidity

34a_m4_r0 4-4 Filtration

The filtration of suspended solids by occlusion removes particles based on size.

Figure 4.1-1: Filtration by Occlusion

34a_m4_r0 4-5 Filtration

photo courtesy of Cuno, Inc.

Figure 4.1-2: Spun Fiber Filter Element Detail

34a_m4_r0 4-6 Filtration

“Adsorption” is one of the most frequently

34a_m4_r0 4-7 Filtration

Figure 4.1-4: Capillary Action

34a_m4_r0 4-8 Filtration

Figure 4.1-5: Ionic Bonding with Sodium and Chloride Ions

34a_m4_r0 4-9 Filtration

Simultaneous interaction: Both polar and ionic interactions occur simultaneously

When the pH changes, the corresponding change in the number of hydrogen or

The conductivity of a solution depends on the quantities of both positive and

4.1.2.3 Reduction and the Removal of Chlorine

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

This reaction is essentially instantaneous and practically irreversible when the pH is

34a_m4_r0 4-10 Filtration

This reaction is reversible and equilibrium depends on pH and temperature. The

Free residual chlorine is converted to chloride ions in the presence of activated

C + 2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + CO2

Activated carbon is a special form of carbon that is produced by heating organic

34a_m4_r0 4-11 Filtration

Figure 4.1-6: Typical Activated Carbon Filter

34a_m4_r0 4-12 Filtration

2MnO4- + 3Fe2+ + Mn2+ + 2H2O + 5OH- =

Eventually the permanganate layer on the greensand is exhausted and must be

34a_m4_r0 4-13 Filtration

Figure 4.1-7: Typical Greensand Filter

34a_m4_r0 4-14 Filtration

4.1.3.1 Media Filtration

34a_m4_r0 4-15 Filtration

34a_m4_r0 4-16 Filtration

Figure 4.1-10: Typical Cartridge Filter System

34a_m4_r0 4-17 Filtration

photo courtesy of Cuno, Inc.

The depth filter uses material (for example,

A filter element may have an absolute or

photo courtesy of Cuno, Inc.

34a_m4_r0 4-18 Filtration

4.1.4 Measuring Suspended Solids

Turbidity is one measurement of the amount of suspended solids in a liquid.

SDI = (1 - t0/ tf) x 100 / T

34a_m4_r0 4-19 Filtration

Service Discharge Flume

Figure 4.2-1: Gravity Filter System

34a_m4_r0 4-20a Filtration

4.2.1 Process and Operations Review

Figure 4.2-2: Gravity Filter Strainers

34a_m4_r0 4-20 Filtration

34a_m4_r0 4-21a Filtration

Figure 4.2-3: Air Scour Option for Gravity Filter

HeightBW Compartment = Volumebackwash x _4_